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Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Lack of financial assets or possessions}} {{redirect|Poor|other uses|Poor (disambiguation)|and|Poverty (disambiguation)}} <!-- This SD is < 40 characters & mirrors the SD for Wealth --> {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Homeless man in Toronto across from old City Hall.jpg | width2 = 1750 | height2 = 1000 | image2 = Bettler peking1.jpg | width3 = 1532 | height3 = 1024 | image3 = Oxfam East Africa - Luli looks after her severely malnourished child Aden.jpg | width1 = 2048 | height1 = 1365 | image4 = LucknowTrashPickers.jpg | width4 = 300 | height4 = 400 | footer = Clockwise from top left: a homeless man in [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]; a [[disabled]] man begging in the streets of [[Beijing]], China; [[waste picker]]s in [[Lucknow]], India; A mother with her [[malnourished]] child in a clinic near [[Dadaab]], Kenya; }} '''Poverty''' is a state or condition in which one lacks the financial resources and essentials for a certain standard of living. Poverty can have diverse [[Biophysical environment|environmental]], [[legal]], [[social]], [[economic]], and [[political]] causes and effects.<ref>{{cite web |website = United Nations |title = Ending Poverty |url = https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/poverty/ |access-date = 22 September 2020 |archive-date = 9 September 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200909130506/https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/poverty/ }}</ref> When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures: ''[[absolute poverty]]'' compares income against the amount needed to meet [[basic needs|basic personal needs]], such as [[food]], [[clothing]], and [[Shelter (building)|shelter]];<ref name="unesco.org">{{cite web |title = Poverty {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |url = http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/poverty/ |website = www.unesco.org |access-date = 4 November 2015 |archive-date = 9 December 2019 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191209025852/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/poverty/ |url-status = live }}</ref> ''[[relative poverty]]'' measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of [[living standards]], compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of ''relative poverty'' varies from one country to another, or from one [[society]] to another.<ref name="unesco.org" /> Statistically, {{as of|2019|lc=y}}, most of the world's population live in poverty: in [[Purchasing Power Parity|PPP]] dollars, 85% of people live on less than $30 per day, two-thirds live on less than $10 per day, and 10% live on less than $1.90 per day.<ref name=OWiD_EP >{{cite journal | url=https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty | title=Global Extreme Poverty | last1=Roser | first1=Max | last2=Ortiz-Ospina | first2=Esteban | journal=[[Our World in Data]] | date=1 January 2019 | access-date=30 March 2021 | archive-date=30 March 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330142651/https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty | url-status=live }}</ref> According to the World Bank Group in 2020, more than 40% of the poor live in conflict-affected countries.<ref>{{Citation|title=Fragile and Conflict-Affected Countries and Situations|date=2015-10-07|work=The World Bank Group A to Z 2016|pages=60a–62|publisher=The World Bank|doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-0484-7_fragile_and_conflict_affected |isbn=978-1-4648-0484-7}}</ref> Even when countries experience [[economic development]], the poorest citizens of middle-income countries frequently do not gain an adequate share of their countries' increased wealth to leave poverty.<ref>B. Milanovic, Global Inequality: A New Approach for the Age of Globalization (Harvard Univ. Press, 2016).</ref> Governments and non-governmental organizations have experimented with a number of different policies and programs for [[poverty alleviation]], such as [[Rural electrification|electrification in rural areas]] or [[Housing First|housing first policies]] in urban areas. The international policy frameworks for poverty alleviation, established by the [[United Nations]] in 2015, are summarized in [[Sustainable Development Goal 1|Sustainable Development Goal 1: "No Poverty"]]. Social forces, such as [[Feminization of poverty|gender]], [[Disability and poverty|disability]], [[Racial inequality|race and ethnicity]], can exacerbate issues of poverty—with women, [[Child poverty|children]] and minorities frequently bearing unequal burdens of poverty. Moreover, impoverished individuals are more vulnerable to the effects of other social issues, such as the [[Environmental justice|environmental effects of industry]] or the [[Climate change and poverty|impacts of climate change]] or other [[natural disaster]]s or [[Extreme weather|extreme weather events]]. Poverty can also make other [[social problems]] worse; economic pressures on impoverished communities frequently play a part in [[deforestation]], [[Causes of biodiversity loss|biodiversity loss]] and [[ethnic conflict]]. For this reason, the UN's [[Sustainable Development Goals]] and other international policy programs, such as the international recovery from COVID-19, emphasize the connection of poverty alleviation with other societal goals.<ref>{{Cite web|last=dpicampaigns|title=Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/poverty/|access-date=2021-10-09|website=United Nations Sustainable Development|language=en-US}}</ref> {{TOC limit}} == Definitions and etymology == The word ''poverty'' comes from the old (Norman) French word ''poverté'' (Modern French: ''pauvreté),'' from Latin ''paupertās'' from ''pauper'' (poor).<ref>{{cite book|title=An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language|first=Walter|last=Skeat|year=2005|isbn=978-0-486-44052-1|publisher=Dover Publications}}</ref> There are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in. It usually references a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources and essentials for a certain standard of living. [[United Nations]]: Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one's food or a job to earn one's living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/ydiDavidGordon_poverty.pdf|title=Indicators of Poverty & Hunger|publisher=United Nations|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=28 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628230622/http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/ydiDavidGordon_poverty.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[World Bank]]: Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many [[dimension]]s. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for [[survival skills|survival]] with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one's life.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:22569747~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |title = Poverty and Inequality Analysis |website = worldbank.org |access-date = 27 May 2011 |archive-date = 3 June 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110603165721/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:22569747~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |url-status = live }}</ref> [[European Union]] (EU): The European Union's definition of poverty is significantly different from definitions in other parts of the world, and consequently policy measures introduced to combat poverty in EU countries also differ from measures in other nations. Poverty is measured in relation to the distribution of income in each member country using relative income poverty lines.<ref name="researchgate.net">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328718886|chapter= European Union Definition of Poverty|via=ResearchGate|date=November 2015|doi=10.4135/9781483345727.n270|isbn= 978-1-4833-4570-3|title= The SAGE Encyclopedia of World Poverty|last1= Dvorak|first1= Jaroslav}}</ref> Relative-income poverty rates in the EU are compiled by the [[Eurostat]], in charge of coordinating, gathering, and disseminating member country [[statistics]] using [[European Union]] Survey of Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) surveys.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> == Measuring poverty == [[File:The number of people below different poverty lines.svg|thumb|The number of people below different poverty lines]] {{Main|Measuring poverty}} {{See also|Poverty threshold|Individual Deprivation Measure}} === Absolute poverty === [[File:Poverty headcount ratio at 1.90 a day.png|alt=|thumb|300px|[[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty|Poverty headcount ratio]] at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population). Based on [[World Bank]] data ranging from 1998 to 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?view=map|access-date=23 July 2020|website=data.worldbank.org|archive-date=19 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119063653/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY?view=map|url-status=live}}</ref>]] {{Main|Extreme poverty}} {{See also|Purchasing power|Asset poverty}} Absolute poverty, often synonymous with 'extreme poverty' or 'abject poverty', refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. This set standard usually refers to "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services."<ref name=UN1995>UN declaration at World Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/mission/up2.htm |title=Poverty |publisher=World Bank |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=30 August 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040830075349/http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/mission/up2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=SachsEndofPoverty2005>{{cite book |last=Sachs |first=Jeffrey D. |title = The End of Poverty |publisher=Penguin Press |year= 2005 |page =[https://archive.org/details/endofpovertyecon00sach/page/416 416] |isbn=978-1-59420-045-8 |title-link=The End of Poverty }}</ref> Having an income below the [[poverty line]], which is defined as an income needed to purchase basic needs, is also referred to as ''primary poverty''. The "dollar a day" poverty line was first introduced in 1990 as a measure to meet such standards of living. For nations that do not use the US dollar as currency, "dollar a day" does not translate to living a day on the equivalent amount of local currency as determined by the [[exchange rate]].<ref name=dollar>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7122356.stm|title=When a dollar a day means 25 cents|publisher=bbcnews.com|access-date=28 May 2011|first=Mukul|last=Devichand|date=2 December 2007|archive-date=13 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813032040/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7122356.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Rather, it is determined by the [[purchasing power parity]] rate, which would look at how much local currency is needed to buy the same things that a dollar could buy in the United States.<ref name=dollar/> Usually, this would translate to having less local currency than if the exchange rate were used.<ref name=dollar/> From 1993 through 2005, the [[World Bank]] defined absolute poverty as $1.08 a day on such a [[purchasing power parity]] basis, after adjusting for inflation to the 1993 US dollar<ref>{{cite web |title=Dollar a Day Revisited |publisher=The World Bank |year=2008 |first1=Martin |last1=Ravallion |first2=Shaohua |last2=Chen |first3=Prem |last3=Sangraula |name-list-style=amp |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2008/09/02/000158349_20080902095754/Rendered/PDF/wps4620.pdf |access-date=8 August 2012 |archive-date=5 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805165034/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2008/09/02/000158349_20080902095754/Rendered/PDF/wps4620.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2009, it was updated as $1.25 a day (equivalent to $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices)<ref name=dollarrevisited2008>{{cite report|first1=Martin|last1=Ravallion|first2=Shaohua|last2=Chen|first3=Prem|last3=Sangraula|date=May 2008|title=Dollar a Day Revisited|publisher=The World Bank|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/02/000158349_20080902095754/Rendered/PDF/wps4620.pdf|location=Washington, DC|access-date=10 June 2013|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222220/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/09/02/000158349_20080902095754/Rendered/PDF/wps4620.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=RavaillionWB26Jun2009>{{cite journal|first1=Martin|last1=Ravallion|first2=Shaohua|last2=Chen|first3=Prem|last3=Sangraula|journal=The World Bank Economic Review|volume=23|pages=163–184|doi=10.1093/wber/lhp007|title=Dollar a day|access-date=11 June 2013|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4499/wber_23_2_163.pdf?sequence=1|format=PDF|issue=2|year=2009|s2cid=26832525|archive-date=29 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029183657/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4499/wber_23_2_163.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live}}</ref> and in 2015, it was updated as living on less than US$1.90 per day,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/10/04/world-bank-forecasts-global-poverty-to-fall-below-10-for-first-time-major-hurdles-remain-in-goal-to-end-poverty-by-2030 |title="The Bank uses an updated international poverty line of US $1.90 a day, which incorporates new information on differences in the cost of living across countries (the PPP exchange rates)." |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=3 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103202525/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/10/04/world-bank-forecasts-global-poverty-to-fall-below-10-for-first-time-major-hurdles-remain-in-goal-to-end-poverty-by-2030 |url-status=live }}</ref> and ''moderate poverty'' as less than $2 or $5 a day.<ref>{{cite web|author=WDI|title=Societal poverty a global measure of relative poverty|url=http://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/stories/societal-poverty-a-global-measure-of-relative-poverty.html|access-date=2 February 2021|archive-date=3 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303151843/https://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/stories/societal-poverty-a-global-measure-of-relative-poverty.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, 'ultra-poverty' is defined by a 2007 report issued by International Food Policy Research Institute as living on less than 54 cents per day.<ref>International Food Policy Research Institute, [http://www.ifpri.org/publication/worlds-most-deprived The World's Most Deprived. Characteristics and Causes of Extreme Poverty and Hunger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323220931/http://www.ifpri.org/publication/worlds-most-deprived |date=23 March 2010 }}, Washington: IFPRI Oct 2007</ref> The poverty line threshold of $1.90 per day, as set by the World Bank, is controversial. Each nation has its own threshold for absolute poverty line; in the United States, for example, the absolute poverty line was US$15.15 per day in 2010 (US$22,000 per year for a family of four),<ref>{{cite web|title=Poverty Definitions|publisher=US Census Bureau|year=2011|url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/methods/definitions.html|access-date=20 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206003015/http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/methods/definitions.html|archive-date=6 February 2016}}</ref> while in India it was US$1.0 per day<ref name="wb2010a" /> and in China the absolute poverty line was US$0.55 per day, each on PPP basis in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Progress in Development-oriented Poverty Reduction Program for Rural China (1,274 yuan per year <nowiki>=</nowiki> US$ 0.55 per day)|publisher=The Government of China|year=2011|url=http://www.gov.cn/english/official/2011-11/16/content_1994729_3.htm|access-date=8 August 2012|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714022605/http://www.gov.cn/english/official/2011-11/16/content_1994729_3.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> These different poverty lines make data comparison between each nation's official reports qualitatively difficult. Some scholars argue that the World Bank method sets the bar too high,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Subramanian |first=S. |date=March 2009 |title=Poverty Measurement in the Presence of a 'Group-Affiliation' Externality |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14649880802675168 |journal=Journal of Human Development and Capabilities |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=63–76 |doi=10.1080/14649880802675168 |s2cid=154177441 |issn=1945-2829}}</ref> others argue it is too low. [[File:Children of migrant cotton field workers from Sweetwater, Oklahoma, 8b15324.jpg|thumb|left|Children of the [[Great Depression|Depression]]-era migrant workers, Arizona, United States, 1937]] There is disagreement among experts as to what would be considered a realistic poverty rate with one considering it "an inaccurately measured and arbitrary cut off".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.politifact.com/global-news/statements/2016/mar/23/gayle-smith/did-we-really-reduce-extreme-poverty-half-30-years/|title=Did we really reduce extreme poverty by half in 30 years?|website=@politifact|language=en|access-date=25 April 2019|archive-date=26 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526130914/https://www.politifact.com/global-news/statements/2016/mar/23/gayle-smith/did-we-really-reduce-extreme-poverty-half-30-years/|url-status=live}}</ref> Some contend that a higher poverty line is needed, such as a minimum of $7.40 or even $10 to $15 a day. They argue that these levels are a minimum for basic needs and to achieve normal [[life expectancy]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Hickel |first=Jason |date=29 January 2019 |title=Bill Gates says poverty is decreasing. He couldn't be more wrong |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/jan/29/bill-gates-davos-global-poverty-infographic-neoliberal |work=The Guardian |access-date=23 February 2023 |archive-date=29 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129191021/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/jan/29/bill-gates-davos-global-poverty-infographic-neoliberal |url-status=live }}</ref> One estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people (59% of the world's population) living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.commondreams.org/views/2015/03/16/four-reasons-question-official-poverty-eradication-story-2015 | title=Four Reasons to Question the Official 'Poverty Eradication' Story of 2015 | access-date=11 August 2016 | archive-date=13 September 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913215402/http://www.commondreams.org/views/2015/03/16/four-reasons-question-official-poverty-eradication-story-2015 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Philip Alston]], a [[United Nations special rapporteur|UN special rapporteur]] on extreme poverty and human rights, stated the World Bank's international poverty line of $1.90 a day is fundamentally flawed, and has allowed for "self congratulatory" triumphalism in the fight against extreme global poverty, which he asserts is "completely off track" and that nearly half of the global population, or 3.4 billion, lives on less than $5.50 a day, and this number has barely moved since 1990.<ref>{{cite news |last=Beaumont |first=Peter |date=7 July 2020 |title='We squandered a decade': world losing fight against poverty, says UN academic |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/jul/07/we-squandered-a-decade-world-losing-fight-against-poverty-says-un-academic |work=The Guardian |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=10 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710213428/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/jul/07/we-squandered-a-decade-world-losing-fight-against-poverty-says-un-academic |url-status=live }}</ref> Still others suggest that poverty line misleads because many live on far less than that line.<ref name="wb2010a">{{cite web|title=World Bank's $1.25/day poverty measure – countering the latest criticisms|publisher=The World Bank|year=2010|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:22510787~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html|access-date=4 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210022841/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:22510787~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html|archive-date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Poverty Measures|publisher=The World Bank|year=2009|url=http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/93518/Hung_0603/Hu_0603/Module4MeasuringPovertyMeasures.pdf|access-date=8 August 2012|archive-date=10 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120710075625/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/93518/Hung_0603/Hu_0603/Module4MeasuringPovertyMeasures.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Poverty: An Ordinal Approach to Measurement|first=Amartya|last=Sen|journal=Econometrica|volume= 44|date= March 1976|pages= 219–231|jstor=1912718|issue= 2|doi=10.2307/1912718}}</ref> Other measures of absolute poverty without using a certain dollar amount include the standard defined as receiving less than 80% of minimum caloric intake whilst spending more than 80% of income on food, sometimes called ultra-poverty.<ref>Lipton, Michael (1986), 'Seasonality and ultra-poverty', Sussex, IDS Bulletin 17.3</ref> === Relative poverty === {{See also|Relative deprivation|Economic inequality|Wealth concentration}} [[File:Economics Gini coefficient2.svg|thumb|Graphical representation of the [[Gini coefficient]], a common measure of inequality. The Gini coefficient is equal to the area marked ''A'' divided by the sum of the areas marked ''A'' and ''B'', that is, {{nowrap|Gini {{=}} ''A''/(''A'' + ''B'')}}.]] Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on [[social context]]. It is argued that the needs considered fundamental is not an objective measure<ref name="Innocenti2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.ca/sites/default/files/imce_uploads/DISCOVER/OUR%20WORK/ADVOCACY/DOMESTIC/POLICY%20ADVOCACY/DOCS/unicefreportcard10-eng.pdf|title=Measuring child poverty: New league tables of child poverty in the world's rich countries – UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre Report Card – number 10|first=Peter|last=Adamson|publisher=UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre|year=2012|location=Florence|access-date=19 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130612021633/http://www.unicef.ca/sites/default/files/imce_uploads/DISCOVER/OUR%20WORK/ADVOCACY/DOMESTIC/POLICY%20ADVOCACY/DOCS/unicefreportcard10-eng.pdf|archive-date=12 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="rep1964">{{cite report|title=Minority [Republican] views, p. 46 in U.S. Congress, Report of the Joint Economic Committee on the January 1964 Economic Report of the President with Minority and Additional Views|publisher=US Government Printing Office|location=Washington, DC|date=January 1964}}</ref> and could change with the custom of society.<ref name="AdamSmith1776">{{cite book|first=Adam|last=Smith|title=An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations|volume=5|year=1776|issue=22|author-link=Adam Smith }}</ref><ref name="Innocenti2012" /> For example, a person who cannot afford housing better than a small tent in an open field would be said to live in relative poverty if almost everyone else in that area lives in modern brick homes, but not if everyone else also lives in small tents in open fields (for example, in a [[nomadic tribe]]). Since richer nations would have lower levels of absolute poverty,<ref name="relativeBradshawInnocenti2012">{{cite report|first1=Jonathan|last1=Bradshaw|author-link=Jonathan Bradshaw|first2=Yekaterina|last2=Chzhen|first3=Gill|last3=Main|first4=Bruno|last4=Martorano|first5=Leonardo|last5=Menchini|author6=Chris de Neubourg|date=January 2012|title=Relative Income Poverty among Children in Rich Countries|series=Innocenti Working Paper|number=2012–01|publisher=UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre|location=Florence|url=http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/iwp_2012_01.pdf|issn=1014-7837|access-date=26 July 2013|archive-date=18 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218081719/http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/iwp_2012_01.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="UNICEF2000">{{cite report |title = A League Table of Child Poverty in Rich Nations – Innocenti Report Card No.1 |publisher = UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre |location = Florence }}</ref> relative poverty is considered the "most useful measure for ascertaining poverty rates in wealthy developed nations"<ref name="Raphael2009">{{cite journal|journal=Canadian Journal of Nursing Research|title=Poverty, Human Development, and Health in Canada: Research, Practice, and Advocacy Dilemmas|url=http://ingentaconnect.com/content/mcgill/cjnr/2009/00000041/00000002/art00002;jsessionid=3qnp6afbwou10.alexandra|volume=41|date=June 2009|pages=7–18|first=Dennis|last=Raphael|issue=2|pmid=19650510|access-date=7 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314094520/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/mcgill/cjnr/2009/00000041/00000002/art00002|archive-date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="Innocenti2005">{{cite report|publisher=[[UNICEF#Innocenti Research Centre|Innocenti Research Centre]]|year=2005|title=Child poverty in rich nations: Report card no. 6}}</ref><ref name="OECD2008">{{cite web|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)|year=2008|title=Growing unequal? Income distribution and poverty in OECD countries|url=http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/41527936.pdf|location=Paris|access-date=19 February 2016|archive-date=12 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312195836/http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/41527936.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="UNDP2008">{{cite report|publisher=United Nations Development Program|year=2008|title=Human development report: Capacity development: Empowering people and institutions|location=Geneva}}</ref><ref name="ConferenceBoard2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/details/society/child-poverty.aspx|title=Child Poverty|publisher=Conference Board of Canada|location=Ottawa|year=2013|access-date=19 June 2013|archive-date=4 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604202933/http://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/details/society/child-poverty.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> and is the "most prominent and most-quoted of the EU social inclusion indicators".<ref name="povinequalityCSP">{{cite web|title=How Poverty Differs From Inequality, On Poverty Management in an Enlarged EU Context: Conventional and Alternative Approaches|first1=Ive|last1=Marx|first2=Karel|last2=van den Bosch|website=ec.europa.eu|publisher=Centre for Social Policy|location=Antwerp|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/1001617/4577263/1-1-I-MARX.pdf|url-status=live|archive-date=3 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003141347/https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/1001617/4577263/1-1-I-MARX.pdf}}</ref> Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of the population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income. This is a calculation of the percentage of people whose family household income falls below the [[Poverty threshold|Poverty Line]]. The main poverty line used in the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU) is based on "economic distance", a level of income set at 60% of the median household income.<ref>{{cite news|url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8177864.stm|title = Just what is poor?|access-date = 25 September 2008|author=Blastland, Michael|work=BBC News |date = 31 July 2009}}</ref> The United States federal government typically regulates this line to three times the cost of an adequate meal.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Principles of Economics|last=Mankiw|first=Gregory|publisher=Cengage|year=2016|isbn=978-1-305-58512-6|location=Boston|page=406}}</ref> There are several other different [[income inequality metrics]], for example, the [[Gini coefficient]] or the [[Theil Index]]. [[File:Global Wealth Distribution 2020 (Property).svg|thumb|Global share of wealth by wealth group —Credit Suisse, 2021]] [[File:GINI index World Bank up to 2018.png|alt=|thumb|300px|The [[Gini coefficient]], a measure of [[economic inequality|income inequality]]. Based on [[World Bank]] data ranging from 1992 to 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?view=map|access-date=23 July 2020|website=data.worldbank.org|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729153431/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?view=map|url-status=live}}</ref>]] === Other aspects === [[File:Countries by Human Development Index (2020).png|alt=|thumb|300px|World map of countries by [[Human Development Index]] categories in increments of 0.050 (based on 2019 data, published in 2020) {| cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" border="0" style="width:100%; background:none;" | valign="top" |{{Legend|#003C00|≥ 0.900}}{{Legend|#007F00|0.850–0.899}}{{Legend|#00C400|0.800–0.849}}{{Legend|#00F900|0.750–0.799}}{{Legend|#D3FF00|0.700–0.749}} | valign="top" |{{Legend|#FFFF00|0.650–0.699}}{{Legend|#FFD215|0.600–0.649}}{{Legend|#FFA83C|0.550–0.599}}{{Legend|#FF852F|0.500–0.549}}{{Legend|#FF5B00|0.450–0.499}} | valign="top" |{{Legend|#FF0000|0.400–0.449}}{{Legend|#A70000|≤ 0.399}}{{Legend|#D9D9D9|Data unavailable}} |} ]] Rather than income, poverty is also measured through individual basic needs at a time. [[Life expectancy]] has greatly increased in the developing world since World War II and is starting to close the gap to the developed world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hardy|first1=Melissa A.|last2=Reyes|first2=Adriana M.|date=1 February 2016|title=The Longevity Legacy of World War II: The Intersection of GI Status and Mortality|url=https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article/56/1/104/2605202|journal=The Gerontologist|language=en|volume=56|issue=1|pages=104–114|doi=10.1093/geront/gnv041|pmid=26220413|issn=0016-9013|doi-access=free|access-date=5 October 2020|archive-date=13 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013182949/https://academic.oup.com/gerontologist/article/56/1/104/2605202|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Child mortality]] has decreased in every developing region of the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Levels and Trends in Child Mortality|publisher=UNICEF, World Health Organization, The World Bank and UN Population Division|year=2011|url=http://www.childinfo.org/files/Child_Mortality_Report_2011.pdf|access-date=9 August 2012|archive-date=22 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822173244/http://www.childinfo.org/files/Child_Mortality_Report_2011.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The proportion of the world's population living in countries where the daily per-capita supply of [[food energy]] is less than {{convert|9200|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s. Similar trends can be observed for literacy, access to clean water and electricity and basic consumer items.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Why Are We Worried About Income? Nearly Everything that Matters is Converging |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.06.016 |volume=33 |journal=World Development |pages=1–19 |year=2005 |last1=Kenny |first1=Charles }}</ref> [[File:Tiggare vid Operakällaren.jpg|thumb|An early morning outside the Opera Tavern in Stockholm, with beggars waiting for scraps from the previous day. [[Sweden]], 1868.]] Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal [[social status]] and inequitable social relationships, experienced as social exclusion, dependency, and diminished capacity to participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society.<ref>H Silver, 1994, social exclusion and [[Solidarity (sociology)|social solidarity]], in International Labour Review, 133 5–6</ref><ref>G Simmel, The poor, Social Problems 1965 13</ref><ref name="Townsend1979">{{cite book|author=Townsend, P.|year=1979|title=Poverty in the United Kingdom|location=London|publisher=Penguin}}</ref> Such social exclusion can be minimized through strengthened connections with the mainstream, such as through the provision of [[relational care]] to those who are experiencing poverty. The World Bank's "Voices of the Poor", based on research with over 20,000 poor people in 23 countries, identifies a range of factors which poor people identify as part of poverty. These include abuse by those in power, dis-empowering institutions, excluded locations, gender relationships, lack of security, limited capabilities, physical limitations, precarious livelihoods, problems in social relationships, weak community organizations and discrimination. Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of scarcity to aspects of the distribution of resources and power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a function of the diminished "capability" of people to live the kinds of lives they value. The social aspects of poverty may include lack of [[information access|access to information]], [[education]], [[health care]], [[social capital]] or [[political power]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paho.org/english/sha/be_v23n1-glossary.htm |title=A Glossary for Social Epidemiology |publisher=World Health Organization |date=March 2002 |access-date=21 June 2011 |archive-date=29 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629174304/http://www.paho.org/english/sha/be_v23n1-glossary.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.journalofpoverty.org/JOPPURP/JOPPURP.HTM |title=Journal of Poverty |publisher=Journal of Poverty |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512074344/http://www.journalofpoverty.org/JOPPURP/JOPPURP.HTM |archive-date=12 May 2012 }}</ref> [[Relational poverty]] is the idea that societal poverty exists if there is a lack of human relationships. Relational poverty can be the result of a lost contact number, lack of phone ownership, isolation, or deliberate severing of ties with an individual or community. Relational poverty is also understood "by the social institutions that organize those relationships...poverty is importantly the result of the different terms and conditions on which people are included in social life".<ref>{{Cite book |date=2018 |title=Relational Poverty Politics: Forms, Struggles, and Possibilities |editor-last1=Lawson |editor-first1=Victoria |editor-last2=Elwood |editor-first2=Sarah |url=https://search.library.berkeley.edu/permalink/01UCS_BER/1thfj9n/alma991085855291906532 |publisher=The University of Georgia Press |isbn=978-0-8203-5312-8 }}</ref> In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[second Cameron ministry]] came under attack for its redefinition of poverty; poverty is no longer classified by a family's income, but as to whether a family is in work or not.<ref name=Guardian1 /> Considering that two-thirds of people who found work were accepting wages that are below the [[living wage]] (according to the [[Joseph Rowntree Foundation]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Record numbers of working families in poverty due to low-paid jobs|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/nov/24/record-numbers-working-families-poverty-joseph-rowntree-foundation|access-date=29 July 2015|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=24 November 2014|archive-date=14 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150814184047/http://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/nov/24/record-numbers-working-families-poverty-joseph-rowntree-foundation|url-status=live}}</ref>) this has been criticised by anti-poverty campaigners as an unrealistic view of poverty in the United Kingdom.<ref name=Guardian1>{{cite news|title=The welfare reform and work bill will make poor children poorer|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/jul/19/the-welfare-reform-and-work-bill-will-make-poor-children-poorer|access-date=29 July 2015|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=19 July 2015|first=Javed|last=Khan|archive-date=28 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150728160722/http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/jul/19/the-welfare-reform-and-work-bill-will-make-poor-children-poorer|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Secondary poverty ==== {{Main|Secondary poverty}} Secondary poverty refers to those that earn enough income to not be impoverished, but who spend their income on unnecessary pleasures, such as [[alcoholic beverage]]s, thus placing them below it in practice.<ref>{{cite book|title=Poverty in the United Kingdom: A Survey of Household Resources and Standards of Living|last=Townsend|first=Peter|publisher=University of California Press|year=1979|isbn=978-0-520-03976-6|page=565|language=en}}</ref> In 18th- and 19th-century [[Great Britain]], the practice of [[temperance movement|temperance]] among [[Methodist]]s, as well as their rejection of [[Gambling#Religious|gambling]], allowed them to eliminate secondary poverty and accumulate capital.<ref name="Swatos1998">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Society|last=Swatos|first=William H.|publisher=Rowman Altamira|year=1998|isbn=978-0-7619-8956-1|page=385|language=en}}</ref> Factors that contribute to secondary poverty includes but are not limited to: alcohol, gambling, tobacco and drugs. [[Substance abuse]] means that the poor typically spend about 2% of their income educating their children but larger percentages of alcohol and tobacco (for example, 6% in Indonesia and 8% in Mexico).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://economics.mit.edu/files/530|title=The economic lives of the poor|publisher=MIT|date=October 2006|access-date=1 March 2013|archive-date=23 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523002625/http://economics.mit.edu/files/530|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Variability=== Poverty levels are snapshot pictures in time that omits the transitional dynamics between levels. Mobility statistics supply additional information about the fraction who leave the poverty level. For example, one study finds that in a sixteen-year period (1975 to 1991 in the US) only 5% of those in the lower fifth of the income level were still at that level, while 95% transitioned to a higher income category.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.dallasfed.org/assets/documents/fed/annual/1999/ar95.pdf|page=6|title=By Our Own Bootstraps|author=W. Michael Cox|first2=Richard|last2=Alm|year=1995|publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas|access-date=28 May 2012|archive-date=11 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511155143/http://dallasfed.org/assets/documents/fed/annual/1999/ar95.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Poverty levels can remain the same while those who rise out of poverty are replaced by others. The transient poor and chronic poor differ in each society. In a nine-year period ending in 2005 for the US, 50% of the poorest quintile transitioned to a higher quintile.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/tax-policy/Documents/incomemobilitystudy03-08revise.pdf |title=Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005 |publisher=Department of the Treasury |date=13 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505172648/http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/tax-policy/Documents/incomemobilitystudy03-08revise.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2012 }}</ref> === Global prevalence === {{See also|List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty}}[[File:Worlds regions by total wealth(in trillions USD), 2018.jpg|thumb|250px|Worlds regions by total wealth (in trillions USD), 2018]] According to Chen and Ravallion, about 1.76 billion people in developing world lived ''above'' $1.25 per day and 1.9 billion people lived ''below'' $1.25 per day in 1981. In 2005, about 4.09 billion people in developing world lived above $1.25 per day and 1.4 billion people lived below $1.25 per day (both 1981 and 2005 data are on inflation adjusted basis).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Developing World Is Poorer Than We Thought, But No Less Successful in the Fight against Poverty|first1=Shaohua|last1=Chen|first2=Martin|last2=Ravallioniz|name-list-style=amp|date=August 2008|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2010/01/21/000158349_20100121133109/Rendered/PDF/WPS4703.pdf|access-date=9 August 2012|archive-date=17 April 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417182722/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2010/01/21/000158349_20100121133109/Rendered/PDF/WPS4703.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Fighting poverty in emerging markets – the gloves go on; Lessons from Brazil, China and India|newspaper=The Economist|date=26 November 2009|url=http://www.economist.com/node/14979330|access-date=9 August 2012|archive-date=8 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908144911/http://www.economist.com/node/14979330|url-status=live}}</ref> The share of the world's population living in absolute poverty fell from 43% in 1981 to 14% in 2011.<ref name="worldbank-Poverty">{{cite web |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20153855~menuPK:373757~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |title=The World Bank, 2007, Understanding Poverty |website=Web.worldbank.org |date=19 April 2005 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107161906/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20153855~menuPK:373757~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The absolute number of people in poverty fell from 1.95 billion in 1981 to 1.01 billion in 2011.<ref name="PovertyRoser">{{cite journal|first=Max|last=Roser|title=World Poverty|url=http://ourworldindata.org/data/growth-and-distribution-of-prosperity/world-poverty/|journal=Our World in Data|date=2015|access-date=26 September 2015|archive-date=27 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927201601/http://ourworldindata.org/data/growth-and-distribution-of-prosperity/world-poverty/|url-status=live}}</ref> The economist [[Max Roser]] estimates that the number of people in poverty is therefore roughly the same as 200 years ago.<ref name="PovertyRoser" /> This is the case since the world population was just little more than 1 billion in 1820 and the majority (84% to 94%)<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=François |last1=Bourguignon |first2=Christian |last2=Morrisson |year=2002 |title=Inequality Among World Citizens: 1820–1992 |url=http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/BourguignonMorrisson2002.pdf |journal=American Economic Review |volume=92 |issue=4 |pages=727–744 |doi=10.1257/00028280260344443 |citeseerx=10.1.1.5.7307 |access-date=19 February 2016 |archive-date=18 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218184001/http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/BourguignonMorrisson2002.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> of the world population was living in poverty. According to one study, the percentage of the world population in hunger and poverty fell in absolute percentage terms from 50% in 1950 to 30% in 1970.<ref>Origins of the Organic Agriculture Debate By Thomas R. DeGregori, 2008, P.128</ref> According to another study the number of people worldwide living in absolute poverty fell from 1.18 billion in 1950 to 1.04 billion in 1977.<ref>Economic Inequality and Poverty International Perspectives Edited by Lars Osberg, 2017, P.71</ref> According to another study, the number of people worldwide estimated to be starving fell from almost 920 million in 1971 to below 797 million in 1997.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Group – International Development, Poverty, & Sustainability |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/home |access-date=2023-10-19 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> The proportion of the [[developing world]]'s population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28% in 1990 to 21% in 2001.<ref name="worldbank-Poverty" /> Most of this improvement has occurred in [[East Asia|East]] and [[South Asia]].<ref name="1980s">{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?ImgPagePK=64202990&entityID=000112742_20040722172047&menuPK=64168175&pagePK=64210502&theSitePK=477894&piPK=64210520|title=How Have the World's Poorest Fared Since the Early 1980s?" Table 3, p. 28|publisher=worldbank.org|access-date=28 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310150255/http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?ImgPagePK=64202990&entityID=000112742_20040722172047&menuPK=64168175&pagePK=64210502&theSitePK=477894&piPK=64210520|archive-date=10 March 2007}}</ref> In 2012 it was estimated that, using a poverty line of $1.25 a day, 1.2 billion people lived in poverty.<ref>Ravallion, Martin. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170123164200/https://academic.oup.com/wbro/article-abstract/28/2/139/1675043/How-Long-Will-It-Take-to-Lift-One-Billion-People#cited-by "How long will it take to lift one billion people out of poverty?."] ''The World Bank Research Observer'' 28.2 (2013): 139.</ref> Given the current economic model, built on [[gross domestic product|GDP]], it would take 100 years to bring the world's poorest up to the poverty line of $1.25 a day.<ref>[[Jason Hickel]] (30 March 2015). [https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/mar/30/it-will-take-100-years-for-the-worlds-poorest-people-to-earn-125-a-day It will take 100 years for the world's poorest people to earn $1.25 a day] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424014546/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals-network/2015/mar/30/it-will-take-100-years-for-the-worlds-poorest-people-to-earn-125-a-day |date=24 April 2021 }}. ''[[The Guardian]].'' Retrieved 31 March 2015.</ref> [[UNICEF]] estimates half the world's children (or 1.1 billion) live in poverty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/rightsite/364_617.htm|first=Ernest C.|last=Madu|title=Investment and Development Will Secure the Rights of the Child|access-date=12 April 2014|archive-date=13 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413144118/http://www.unicef.org/rightsite/364_617.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The World Bank forecasted in 2015 that [[Global Monitoring Report (World Bank)|702.1 million people]] were living in extreme poverty, down from 1.75 billion in 1990.<ref>{{Cite report|url=http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/pubdocs/publicdoc/2015/10/503001444058224597/Global-Monitoring-Report-2015.pdf|title=Global Monitoring Report 2015/2016: Development Goals in an Era of Demographic Change|pages=1–9|publisher=World Bank|location=Washington, DC|author=The World Bank|date=2016|access-date=4 November 2015|archive-date=7 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607170318/http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/pubdocs/publicdoc/2015/10/503001444058224597/Global-Monitoring-Report-2015.pdf|url-status=live|doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-0669-8|isbn=978-1-4648-0669-8}}</ref> Extreme poverty is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Bank Sees Progress Against Extreme Poverty, But Flags Vulnerabilities|publisher=The World bank|date=29 February 2012|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/2012/02/29/world-bank-sees-progress-against-extreme-poverty-but-flags-vulnerabilities|access-date=8 August 2012|archive-date=23 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121123050607/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/2012/02/29/world-bank-sees-progress-against-extreme-poverty-but-flags-vulnerabilities|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/country/IND |title=Poverty and Equity – India, 2010 World Bank Country Profile |publisher=Povertydata.worldbank.org |date=30 March 2012 |access-date=26 July 2013 |archive-date=25 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171125073110/http://povertydata.worldbank.org/poverty/country/IND |url-status=live }}</ref> Of the 2015 population, about 347.1 million people (35.2%) lived in [[Global Monitoring Report (World Bank)|Sub-Saharan Africa]] and 231.3 million (13.5%) lived in [[Global Monitoring Report (World Bank)|South Asia]]. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the world's population living in extreme poverty fell from 37.1% to 9.6%, falling below 10% for the first time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/10/04/world-bank-forecasts-global-poverty-to-fall-below-10-for-first-time-major-hurdles-remain-in-goal-to-end-poverty-by-2030 |title=World Bank Forecasts Global Poverty to Fall Below 10% for First Time; Major Hurdles Remain in Goal to End Poverty by 2030 |publisher=Worldbank.org |date=4 October 2015 |access-date=6 January 2016 |archive-date=3 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103202525/http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2015/10/04/world-bank-forecasts-global-poverty-to-fall-below-10-for-first-time-major-hurdles-remain-in-goal-to-end-poverty-by-2030 |url-status=live }}</ref> During the 2013 to 2015 period, the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]] reported that extreme poverty fell from 11% to 10%, however they also noted that the rate of decline had slowed by nearly half from the 25 year average with parts of sub-saharan Africa returning to early 2000 levels.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ending Extreme Poverty: Progress, but Uneven and Slowing |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/30418/9781464813306_Ch01.pdf |work=The world Bank |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-date=1 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013412/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/30418/9781464813306_Ch01.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Elliott|first=Larry|date=20 January 2019|title=World's 26 richest people own as much as poorest 50%, says Oxfam|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/jan/21/world-26-richest-people-own-as-much-as-poorest-50-per-cent-oxfam-report|work=The Guardian|access-date=31 January 2019|archive-date=15 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215040535/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/jan/21/world-26-richest-people-own-as-much-as-poorest-50-per-cent-oxfam-report|url-status=live}}</ref> The World Bank attributed this to increasing violence following the [[Arab Spring]], [[Population growth|population increases]] in Sub-Saharan Africa, and general African inflationary pressures and economic malaise were the primary drivers for this slow down.<ref>{{cite news |last=Inman |first=Phillip |date=19 September 2018 |title=World Bank reports slower progress on extreme poverty |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/sep/19/world-bank-reports-slower-progress-on-extreme-poverty |work=The Guardian |access-date=31 January 2019 |archive-date=1 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013708/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2018/sep/19/world-bank-reports-slower-progress-on-extreme-poverty |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Müller-Jung|first=Friederike|date=17 October 2018|title=World Bank report: Poverty rates remain high in Africa|url=https://www.dw.com/en/world-bank-report-poverty-rates-remain-high-in-africa/a-45926382|work=[[Deutsche Welle]]|access-date=31 January 2019|archive-date=1 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013201/https://www.dw.com/en/world-bank-report-poverty-rates-remain-high-in-africa/a-45926382|url-status=live}}</ref> Many wealthy nations have seen an increase in relative poverty rates ever since the [[Great Recession]], in particular among children from impoverished families who often reside in substandard housing and find educational opportunities out of reach.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/11/why-rich-countries-are-seeing-more-poverty|title=Why rich countries are seeing more poverty|last=Charlton|first=Emma|date=20 November 2018|website=[[World Economic Forum]]|access-date=17 February 2019|archive-date=18 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218021433/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/11/why-rich-countries-are-seeing-more-poverty|url-status=live}}</ref> It has been argued by some academics that the [[neoliberal]] policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and the World Bank are actually exacerbating both inequality and poverty.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last= Haymes|editor1-first= Stephen|editor2-last= Vidal de Haymes|editor2-first= Maria|editor3-last= Miller|editor3-first= Reuben|title= The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qnHfBQAAQBAJ&q=microcredit&pg=PA1|location= London|publisher= [[Routledge]]|date= 2015|isbn= 978-0-415-67344-0|pages= 1–2|access-date= 18 December 2020|archive-date= 24 July 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210724225952/https://books.google.com/books?id=qnHfBQAAQBAJ&q=microcredit&pg=PA1|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones|first1=Campbell|last2=Parker|first2=Martin |last3= Ten Bos |first3=Rene|date=2005 |title=For Business Ethics |publisher=Routledge|page=101|isbn=978-0-415-31135-9|quote=Critics of neoliberalism have therefore looked at the evidence that documents the results of this great experiment of the past 30 years, in which many markets have been set free. Looking at the evidence, we can see that the total amount of global trade has increased significantly, but that global poverty has increased, with more today living in abject poverty than before neoliberalism.}}</ref> In East Asia the World Bank reported that "The poverty headcount rate at the $2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27 percent [in 2007], down from 29.5 percent in 2006 and 69 percent in 1990."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/0,,contentMDK:21550665~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:226301,00.html|title=East Asia Remains Robust Despite US Slow Down|publisher=worldbank.org|access-date=27 May 2011|archive-date=22 March 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322182301/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/0,,contentMDK:21550665~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:226301,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[People's Republic of China]] accounts for over three quarters of global poverty reduction from 1990 to 2005, which according to the World Bank is "historically unprecedented".<ref>{{cite book |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2022 |title=Four Decades of Poverty Reduction in China: Drivers, Insights for the World, and the Way Ahead|url= |location= |publisher=World Bank Publications|page=ix |isbn=978-1-4648-1878-3|quote=By any measure, the speed and scale of China's poverty reduction is historically unprecedented.}}</ref> China accounted for nearly half of all [[extreme poverty]] in 1990.<ref>{{cite news|last=Stuart|first=Elizabeth|date=19 August 2015|title=China has almost wiped out urban poverty. Now it must tackle inequality|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/economics-blog/2015/aug/19/china-poverty-inequality-development-goals|work=The Guardian|access-date=22 January 2019|archive-date=10 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910040855/https://www.theguardian.com/business/economics-blog/2015/aug/19/china-poverty-inequality-development-goals|url-status=live}}</ref> In Sub-Saharan Africa extreme poverty went up from 41% in 1981 to 46% in 2001,<ref>{{cite book|author=Perry|title=Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science, 12/e|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8sa8RCA8VYQC&pg=PA548|publisher=Pearson Education|isbn=978-81-317-3066-9|page=548|year=1972|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-date=5 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505092949/https://books.google.com/books?id=8sa8RCA8VYQC&pg=PA548|url-status=live}}</ref> which combined with growing population increased the number of people living in extreme poverty from 231 million to 318 million.<ref name="birthrates">{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/birth-rates-must-be-curbed-to-win-war-on-global-poverty-434387.html|title=Birth rates must be curbed to win war on global poverty|work=The Independent|location=London|access-date=11 June 2012|date=31 January 2007|archive-date=15 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215163037/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/birth-rates-must-be-curbed-to-win-war-on-global-poverty-434387.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Statistics of 2018 shows population living in extreme conditions has declined by more than 1 billion in the last 25 years. As per the report published by the world bank on 19 September 2018 world poverty falls below 750 million.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/world-poverty-falls-below-750-million-report-says-1537366273|title=World Poverty Falls Below 750 Million, Report Says|last=Zumbrun|first=Josh|date=19 September 2018|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|access-date=20 September 2018|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660|archive-date=19 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919230436/https://www.wsj.com/articles/world-poverty-falls-below-750-million-report-says-1537366273|url-status=live}}</ref> In the early 1990s some of the transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia experienced a sharp drop in income.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20153855~menuPK:373757~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |title=Worldbank.org reference |publisher=Web.worldbank.org |date=19 April 2005 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107161906/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:20153855~menuPK:373757~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:336992,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] resulted in large declines in GDP per capita, of about 30 to 35% between 1990 and the through year of 1998 (when it was at its minimum). As a result, poverty rates tripled,<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheidel |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Scheidel |title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-691-16502-8 |page=222 }}</ref> excess mortality increased,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Rosefielde|first1=Steven|date=2001 |title=Premature Deaths: Russia's Radical Economic Transition in Soviet Perspective|journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]]|volume=53 |issue=8 |pages=1159–1176|doi= 10.1080/09668130120093174|s2cid=145733112|author-link=Steven Rosefielde}}</ref> and life expectancy declined.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ghodsee|first=Kristen|date=2017|title=Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism|url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/red-hangover|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|pages=63–64|isbn=978-0-8223-6949-3|author-link=Kristen Ghodsee|access-date=14 February 2019|archive-date=7 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207032254/https://www.dukeupress.edu/red-hangover|url-status=live}}</ref> Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]]'s [[IMF]]-backed rapid [[privatization]] and [[austerity]] policies resulted in unemployment rising to double digits and half the Russian population falling into destitution by the early to mid 1990s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mattei|first=Clara E.|date=2022 |title=The Capital Order: How Economists Invented Austerity and Paved the Way to Fascism|pages=301–303|url=https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/C/bo181707138.html|location= |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=978-0-226-81839-9|quote="If, in 1987–1988, 2 percent of the Russian people lived in poverty (i.e., survived on less than $4 a day), by 1993–1995 the number reached 50 percent: in just seven years half the Russian population became destitute.}}</ref> By 1999, during the peak of the poverty crisis, 191 million people were living on less than $5.50 a day.<ref name=GhodseeOrenstein>{{cite book |last1=Ghodsee|first1=Kristen|last2=Orenstein|first2=Mitchell A.|date=2021|title=Taking Stock of Shock: Social Consequences of the 1989 Revolutions|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=43|doi=10.1093/oso/9780197549230.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-754924-7}}</ref> In subsequent years as per capita incomes recovered the poverty rate dropped from 31.4% of the population to 19.6%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20398986~menuPK:64133163~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html |title=World Bank, Data and Statistics, WDI, GDF, & ADI Online Databases |publisher=World Bank |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416035127/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A20398986~menuPK%3A64133163~pagePK%3A64133150~piPK%3A64133175~theSitePK%3A239419%2C00.html |archive-date=16 April 2010 }}</ref><ref name="Soviet">{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07E0D8163FF931A25753C1A9669C8B63|title=Study Finds Poverty Deepening in Former Communist Countries|work=The New York Times|access-date=28 May 2011|date=12 October 2000|archive-date=28 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228105849/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07E0D8163FF931A25753C1A9669C8B63|url-status=live}}</ref> The average post-communist country had returned to 1989 levels of per-capita GDP by 2005,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Appel|first1=Hilary|last2=Orenstein|first2=Mitchell A.|date=2018|title=From Triumph to Crisis: Neoliberal Economic Reform in Postcommunist Countries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PHhTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=36|isbn=978-1-108-43505-5|access-date=18 December 2020|archive-date=24 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724225952/https://books.google.com/books?id=PHhTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36|url-status=live}}</ref> although as of 2015 some are still far behind that.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402| title =After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism| journal =[[Challenge (economics magazine)|Challenge]]| volume = 58| issue = 2| pages =135–138| year = 2015| last1 = Milanović | first1 = Branko| s2cid =153398717|author-link=Branko Milanović|quote= So, what is the balance sheet of transition? Only three or at most five or six countries could be said to be on the road to becoming a part of the rich and (relatively) stable capitalist world. Many of the other countries are falling behind, and some are so far behind that they cannot aspire to go back to the point where they were when the Wall fell for several decades.}}</ref> According to the World Bank in 2014, around 80 million people were still living on less than $5.00 a day.<ref name=GhodseeOrenstein/> World Bank data shows that the percentage of the population living in households with consumption or income per person below the poverty line has decreased in each region of the world except Middle East and North Africa since 1990:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/jsp/index.jsp |title=World Bank, 2007, Povcalnet Poverty Data |publisher=World Bank |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204081829/http://iresearch.worldbank.org/PovcalNet/jsp/index.jsp |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>The data can be replicated using World Bank 2007 Human Development Indicator regional tables, and using the default poverty line of $32.74 per month at 1993 PPP.</ref> In July 2023, a group of over 200 economists from 67 countries, including [[Jayati Ghosh]], [[Joseph Stiglitz]] and [[Thomas Piketty]], sent a letter to the United Nations secretary general [[António Guterres]] and World Bank president [[Ajay Banga]] warning that "extreme poverty and extreme wealth have risen sharply and simultaneously for the first time in 25 years."<ref>{{cite news |last= Elliott|first=Larry|date= |title=Top economists call for action on runaway global inequality|url=https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/2023/jul/17/top-economists-call-for-action-global-inequality-rich-poor-poverty-climate-breakdown-un-world-bank|work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=August 22, 2023}}</ref> In 2024, Oxfam reported that roughly five billion people have become poorer since 2020 and warned that current trends could postpone global poverty eradication for 229 years.<ref>{{cite news |last=Neate|first=Rupert |date=January 14, 2024 |title=World's five richest men double their money as poorest get poorer|url=https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/2024/jan/15/worlds-five-richest-men-double-their-money-as-poorest-get-poorer|work=[[The Guardian]] |location= |access-date=January 16, 2024}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! rowspan="2" |'''Region''' ! colspan="6" |$2.15 per day<ref>{{Cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at $2.15 a day (2017 PPP) (% of population) – East Asia & Pacific, Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe & Central Asia, Middle East & North Africa, South Asia, Latin America & Caribbean, World |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=2023-06-01 |website=World Bank Open Data}}</ref> |- !1981 !1990 !2000 !2010 !2018 !2019 |- | East Asia and Pacific |83.5% |65.8% |39.5% |13.3% |1.6% |1.2% |- | Europe and Central Asia |— |— |9.1% |4.1% |2.3% |2.3% |- | Latin America and the Caribbean |15.1% |16.8% |13.5% |6.4% |4.3% |4.3% |- | Middle East and North Africa |— |6.5% |3.5% |1.9% |9.6% |— |- | South Asia |58% |49.8% |— |26% |10.1% |8.6% |- | Sub-Saharan Africa |— |53.8% |56.5% |42.2% |35.4% |34.9% |- ! World !43.6% !37.9% !29.3% !16.3% !9% !8.5% |} == Characteristics == [[File:Life expectancy 1950-2005.png|thumb|right|Life expectancy has been increasing and converging for most of the world. Sub-Saharan Africa has recently seen a decline, partly related to the [[AIDS epidemic]]. Graph shows the years 1950–2005.]] The effects of poverty may also be causes as listed above, thus creating a "poverty cycle" operating across multiple levels, individual, local, national and global.[[File:VOA Heinlein - Somali refugees September 2011 - 09.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Diplomatic and humanitarian efforts in the Somali Civil War|Somali]] boy receiving treatment for malnourishment at a health facility]] ===Health=== {{Main|Diseases of poverty|Disability and poverty}} [[File:Expectancy of life CIA2016.svg|thumb|[[Life expectancy]], 2016|alt=|300px]] One-third of deaths around the world—some 18 million people a year or 50,000 per day—are due to poverty-related causes. People living in developing nations, among them women and children, are over represented among the global poor and these effects of severe poverty.<ref>{{cite web|title=Human Development Report|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/264/hdr_2003_en_complete.pdf|website=United Nations Development Programme|access-date=15 April 2015|archive-date=15 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150415073824/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/264/hdr_2003_en_complete.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Pogge|first=Thomas|title=Politics as Usual: What Lies Behind the Pro-Poor Rhetoric|year=2010|publisher=Polity Press|isbn=978-0-7456-3892-8|page=12|edition=1st |url=http://thomaspogge.com/books/ |access-date=17 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131154332/http://thomaspogge.com/books/ |archive-date=31 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/whr/1999 |title=The World Health Report, World Health Organization (See annex table 2) |website=Who.int |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=26 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126211347/http://www.who.int/whr/1999/ }}</ref> Those living in poverty suffer disproportionately from hunger or even [[starvation]] and disease, as well as lower [[life expectancy]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0724/p01s01-wogi.html |title=Rising food prices curb aid to global poor |journal=Christian Science Monitor |date=24 July 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=23 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023091853/https://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0724/p01s01-wogi.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cano P.E. |first=Librado|title=Transformation of an individual family community nation and the world|year=2010|publisher=Trafford|isbn=978-1-4269-4766-7|page=100}}</ref> According to the [[World Health Organization]], [[hunger]] and [[malnutrition]] are the single gravest threats to the world's public health and malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to [[child mortality]], present in half of all cases.<ref name=economist>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10566634|title=The Starvelings|newspaper=The Economist|date=24 January 2008|access-date=28 May 2011|archive-date=31 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231194031/http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10566634|url-status=live}}</ref> Almost 90% of [[maternal death]]s during childbirth occur in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than 1% in the developed world.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/220376.stm|title=The causes of maternal death|work=BBC News|date=23 November 1998|access-date=27 August 2012|archive-date=3 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103210749/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/220376.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Those who live in poverty have also been shown to have a far greater likelihood of having or incurring a [[Disability and Poverty|disability]] within their lifetime.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://go.worldbank.org/JGF4Y3E5B0 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120516090917/http://go.worldbank.org/JGF4Y3E5B0 |archive-date=16 May 2012 |title=Disability – Disability: Overview |website=Go.worldbank.org |date=28 March 2013 |access-date=26 July 2013 }}</ref> [[Infectious diseases]] such as [[malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]] can perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from investment and productivity; malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some [[Developing country|developing nations]] and AIDS decreases African growth by 0.3–1.5% annually.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/211/44385.html |title=Economic costs of AIDS |website=Globalpolicy.org |date=23 July 2003 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=23 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323063859/http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/211/44385.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The economic and social burden of malaria |journal=Nature |volume=415 |issue=6872 |pages=680–685 |date=3 September 2010 |doi=10.1038/415680a |pmid=11832956 |last1=Sachs |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Malaney |first2=Pia |s2cid=618837 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/press_releases/pr_20020916.htm |title=Poverty Issues Dominate WHO Regional Meeting |publisher=Wpro.who.int |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110403044412/http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/press_releases/pr_20020916.htm |archive-date=3 April 2011 }}</ref> Studies have shown that poverty impedes cognitive function although some of these findings could not be replicated in follow-up studies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Donnell |first1=Michael |title=Empirical audit and review and an assessment of evidentiary value in research on the psychological consequences of scarcity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |date=November 2, 2021 |volume=118 |issue=44 |pages=e2103313118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2103313118 |pmid=34711679 |pmc=8612349 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11803313O |doi-access=free }}</ref> One hypothesised mechanism is that financial worries put a severe burden on one's mental resources so that they are no longer fully available for solving complicated problems. The reduced capability for problem solving can lead to suboptimal decisions and further perpetuate poverty.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mani |first1=Anandi |last2=Mullainathan |first2=Sendhil |last3=Shafir |first3=Eldar |last4=Zhao |first4=Jiaying |title=Poverty Impedes Cognitive Function |doi=10.1126/science.1238041 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=341 |issue=6149 |pages=976–980 |year=2013 |pmid=23990553 |url = http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/academic/mani/mani_science_976.full.pdf |access-date=1 November 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131028200906/http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/academic/mani/mani_science_976.full.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2013 |citeseerx=10.1.1.398.6303 |bibcode=2013Sci...341..976M |s2cid=1684186 }}</ref> Many other pathways from poverty to compromised cognitive capacities have been noted, from poor nutrition and environmental toxins to the effects of stress on parenting behavior, all of which lead to suboptimal psychological development.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Black |first1=Maureen M |last2=Walker |first2=Susan P |last3=Fernald |first3=Lia C |last4=Andersen |first4=Christopher T |last5=DiGirolamo |first5=Ann M |last6=Lu |first6=Chunling |last7=Grantham-McGregor |first7=Sally |title=Early childhood development coming of age: science through the life course |journal=The Lancet |date=7 January 2017 |volume=389 |issue=10064 |pages=77–90 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31389-7 |pmid=27717614 |pmc=5884058 |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Britto |first1=Pia R |last2=Lye |first2=Stephen J |last3=Proulx |first3=Kerrie |last4=Yousafzai |first4=Aisha K |last5=Matthews |first5=Stephen G |last6=Vaivada |first6=Tyler |last7=Bhutta |first7=Zulfiqar A |title=Nurturing care: promoting early child development |journal=The Lancet |date=7 January 2017 |volume=389 |issue=10064 |pages=91–102 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31390-3 |pmid=27717615 |s2cid=39094476 |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)31390-3/abstract?code=lancet-site |access-date=7 June 2018 |archive-date=24 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724225957/https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)31390-3/fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref> Neuroscientists have documented the impact of poverty on brain structure and function throughout the lifespan.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Farah |first=Martha J. |title=The neuroscience of socioeconomic status: Correlates, causes and consequences |journal=Neuron |date=27 September 2017 |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=56–71 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2017.08.034 |pmid=28957676 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Infectious diseases continue to blight the lives of the poor across the world. 36.8 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, with 954,492 deaths in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/deaths-and-new-cases-of-hiv |title = Prevalence, new cases and deaths from HIV/AIDS |website = Our World in Data |access-date = 27 April 2020 |archive-date = 20 April 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200420210657/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/deaths-and-new-cases-of-hiv |url-status = live }}</ref> Poor people often are more prone to severe diseases due to the lack of health care, and due to living in non-optimal conditions. Among the poor, girls tend to suffer even more due to gender discrimination. Economic stability is paramount in a poor household; otherwise they go in an endless loop of negative income trying to treat diseases. Often when a person in a poor household falls ill it is up to the family members to take care of them due to limited access to health care and lack of health insurance. The household members often have to give up their income or stop seeking further education to tend to the sick member. There is a greater [[opportunity cost]] imposed on the poor to tend to someone compared to someone with better financial stability.<ref>{{cite book |author=OECD/WHO |title=Poverty and Health (DAC Guidelines and Reference Series) |year=2003 |publisher=OECD |isbn=978-92-64-10020-6 |location=Paris |oclc=55519605 |issn=1990-0988 |doi=10.1787/9789264100206-en}}</ref> Increased access to healthcare and improved health outcomes help prevent individuals from falling into poverty due to medical expenses.<ref name=Blumenthal/><ref name=Dastidar/> ==== Hunger ==== [[File:Hunger Map 2020 World Food Programme.svg|thumb|Percentage of population suffering from hunger, [[World Food Programme]], 2020|alt=|300px]] {{Main|Hunger}} {{See also|Malnutrition}} It is estimated that 1.02 billion people go to bed hungry every night.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/20568/icode/|title=1.02 billion people hungry|website=fao.org|date=19 June 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=17 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117211313/http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/20568/icode/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the [[Global Hunger Index]], Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest child malnutrition rate of the world's regions over the 2001–2006 period.<ref name="ghi2008">{{cite web |url = http://www.ifpri.org/publication/challenge-hunger-2008-global-hunger-index |title = 2008 Global Hunger Index Key Findings & Facts |year = 2008 |access-date = 20 September 2010 |archive-date = 19 October 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171019143346/http://www.ifpri.org/publication/challenge-hunger-2008-global-hunger-index |url-status = live }}</ref> Poor people spend a [[Engel's law|greater portion of their budgets]] on food than wealthy people and, as a result, they can be particularly vulnerable to increases in [[food prices]]. For example, in late 2007, increases in the price of grains<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm |title=The cost of food: Facts and figures |work=BBC News |date=16 October 2008 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=20 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120025945/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> led to [[2007–2008 world food price crisis|food riots]] in some countries.<ref>{{cite news |first=Jonathan |last=Watts |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/04/china.business |title=Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring |work=The Guardian |location=Beijing |date=4 December 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=1 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901074034/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/04/china.business |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece |title=Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come? |work=The Times |location=London |date=7 March 2008 |access-date=21 June 2011 |first=Carl |last=Mortished |archive-date=14 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814134028/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Julian |last=Borger |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations |title=Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=26 February 2008 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=25 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225150554/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations |url-status=live }}</ref> Threats to the supply of food may also be caused by drought and the [[Water security|water crisis]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/42387/story.htm |title=Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion |website=Planetark.com |date=5 June 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429073719/http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/42387/story.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Intensive farming]] often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of [[erosion|soil fertility]] and decline of [[agricultural yields]].<ref>''Exploitation and Over-exploitation in Societies Past and Present'', Brigitta Benzing, Bernd Herrmann</ref> Approximately 40% of the world's [[agricultural land]] is seriously degraded.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update61.htm |title=The Earth Is Shrinking: Advancing Deserts and Rising Seas Squeezing Civilization |publisher=Earth-policy.org |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810034949/http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update61.htm |archive-date=10 August 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Ian |last=Sample |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food |title=Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=31 August 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429094959/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food |url-status=live }}</ref> Goal 2 of the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] is the elimination of hunger and undernutrition by 2030.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/hunger/ |title=Goal 2: Zero Hunger |last=Martin |website=United Nations Sustainable Development |language=en-US |access-date=25 April 2019 |archive-date=10 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210035826/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/hunger/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Mental health ==== [[File:Venezuelan eating from garbage.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|right|A Venezuelan eating from garbage during the [[crisis in Bolivarian Venezuela]]]] A psychological study has been conducted by four scientists during inaugural Convention of Psychological Science. The results find that people who thrive with financial stability or fall under low socioeconomic status (SES) tend to perform worse cognitively due to external pressure imposed upon them. The research found that stressors such as low income, inadequate health care, discrimination, and exposure to criminal activities all [[Causes of mental disorders#Poverty|contribute to mental disorders]]. This study also found that children exposed to poverty-stricken environments have slower cognitive thinking.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sleek|first=Scott|date=31 August 2015|title=How Poverty Affects the Brain and Behavior|url=https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/how-poverty-affects-the-brain-and-behavior|journal=APS Observer|language=en-US|volume=28|issue=7|access-date=4 December 2019|archive-date=4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204034250/https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/how-poverty-affects-the-brain-and-behavior|url-status=live}}</ref> It is seen that children perform better under the care of their parents and that children tend to adopt speaking language at a younger age. Since being in poverty from childhood is more harmful than it is for an adult, it is seen that children in poor households tend to fall behind in certain cognitive abilities compared to other average families.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Farah|first1=Martha J.|last2=Betancourt|first2=Laura|last3=Shera|first3=David M.|last4=Savage|first4=Jessica H.|last5=Giannetta|first5=Joan M.|last6=Brodsky|first6=Nancy L.|last7=Malmud|first7=Elsa K.|last8=Hurt|first8=Hallam|date=September 2008|title=Environmental stimulation, parental nurturance and cognitive development in humans|journal=Developmental Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=5|pages=793–801|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00688.x|pmid=18810850}}</ref> For a child to grow up emotionally healthy, the children under three need "A strong, reliable primary caregiver who provides consistent and unconditional love, guidance, and support. Safe, predictable, stable environments. Ten to 20 hours each week of harmonious, reciprocal interactions. This process, known as attunement, is most crucial during the first 6–24 months of infants' lives and helps them develop a wider range of healthy emotions, including gratitude, forgiveness, and empathy. Enrichment through personalized, increasingly complex activities".{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} In one survey, 67% of children from disadvantaged [[inner city|inner cities]] said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33% reported witnessing a homicide.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Atkins | first1 = M.S. | last2 = McKay | first2 = M. | last3 = Talbott | first3 = E. | last4 = Arvantis | first4 = P. | year = 1996 | title = DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams | journal = School Psychology Review | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 274–283 | doi = 10.1080/02796015.1996.12085817 }} Citing: {{cite journal | last1 = Bell | first1 = C.C. | last2 = Jenkins | first2 = E.J. | year = 1991 | title = Traumatic stress and children | journal = Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved | volume = 2 | issue = 1| pages = 175–185 | doi=10.1353/hpu.2010.0089| pmid = 1685908 | s2cid = 28660040 }}</ref> 51% of fifth graders from [[New Orleans]] (median income for a household: $27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in Washington, DC (mean income for a household: $40,127).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Atkins | first1 = M.S. | last2 = McKay | first2 = M. | last3 = Talbott | first3 = E. | last4 = Arvantis | first4 = P. | year = 1996 | title = DSM-IV diagnosis of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Implications and guidelines for school mental health teams | journal = School Psychology Review | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 274–283 | doi = 10.1080/02796015.1996.12085817 }} Citing: {{cite journal|author1-link=Joy Osofsky | last1 = Osofsky | first1 = J.D. | last2 = Wewers | first2 = S. | last3 = Harm | first3 = D.M. | last4 = Fick | first4 = A.C. | year = 1993 | title = Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children? | journal = Psychiatry | volume = 56 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–45 | pmid = 8488211 | doi = 10.1080/00332747.1993.11024619 }}; and, Richters, J.E., & Martinez, P. (1993).</ref> Studies have shown that poverty changes the personalities of children who live in it. The [[Great Smoky Mountains Study]] was a ten-year study that was able to demonstrate this. During the study, about one-quarter of the families saw a dramatic and unexpected increase in income. The study showed that among these children, instances of behavioral and emotional disorders decreased, and conscientiousness and agreeableness increased.<ref name="MyUser_The_Washington_Post_October_8_2015c">{{cite web|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonkblog/wp/2015/10/08/the-remarkable-ways-a-little-money-can-change-a-childs-personality-for-life/|title = The remarkable thing that happens to poor kids when you give their parents a little money|newspaper = The Washington Post|access-date = 8 October 2015|archive-date = 9 October 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151009173154/http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonkblog/wp/2015/10/08/the-remarkable-ways-a-little-money-can-change-a-childs-personality-for-life/|url-status = live}}</ref> === Education === {{See also|Social determinants of health in poverty#Education|Disability and poverty#Education}} Research has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who are from low-income housing circumstances. This is often a process that begins in primary school. Instruction in the US educational system, as well as in most other countries, tends to be geared towards those students who come from more advantaged backgrounds. As a result, children in poverty are at a higher risk than advantaged children for retention in their grade, special deleterious placements during the school's hours and not completing their high school education.<ref name="SYF"/> Advantage breeds advantage.<ref>Raghuram G. Rajan (2012). [https://www.amazon.com/Fault-Lines-Fractures-Threaten-Paperback/dp/B00OX8KPE6 Fault Lines: How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920172903/https://www.amazon.com/Fault-Lines-Fractures-Threaten-Paperback/dp/B00OX8KPE6 |date=20 September 2016 }} Published by: Collins Business</ref> There are many explanations for why students tend to drop out of school. One is the conditions in which they attend school. Schools in poverty-stricken areas have conditions that hinder children from learning in a safe environment. Researchers have developed a name for areas like this: an ''urban war zone'' is a poor, crime-laden district in which deteriorated, violent, even warlike conditions and underfunded, largely ineffective schools promote inferior academic performance, including irregular attendance and disruptive or non-compliant classroom behavior.<ref>Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., & Pardo, C. (1992). ''Children in Danger: Coping with the Consequences''. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Print.</ref> Because of poverty, "Students from low-income families are 2.4 times more likely to drop out than middle-income kids, and over 10 times more likely than high-income peers to drop out."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/matthew-lynch-edd/cause-and-effect-the-high_b_6245304.html|title=Cause and Effect: The High Cost of High School Dropouts|date=30 November 2014|website=The Huffington Post|access-date=21 April 2016|archive-date=30 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530230632/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/matthew-lynch-edd/cause-and-effect-the-high_b_6245304.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For children with low resources, the risk factors are similar to others such as [[juvenile delinquency]] rates, higher levels of [[teenage pregnancy]], and economic dependency upon their low-income parent or parents.<ref name="SYF">Huston, A. C. (1991). Children in Poverty: Child Development and Public Policy. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> Families and society who submit low levels of investment in the education and development of less fortunate children end up with less favorable results for the children who see a life of parental employment reduction and low wages. Higher rates of early childbearing with all the connected risks to family, health and well-being are major issues to address since education from preschool to high school is identifiably meaningful in a life.<ref name="SYF" /> [[File:Situation Analysis of Out-of-School Children in Nine Southeast Asian Countries.pdf|thumb|Out of school child]] Poverty often drastically affects children's success in school. A child's "home activities, preferences, mannerisms" must align with the world and in the cases that they do not do these, students are at a disadvantage in the school and, most importantly, the classroom.<ref name="ANF">Solley, Bobbie A. (2005). When Poverty's Children Write: Celebrating Strengths, Transforming Lives. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, Inc.</ref> Therefore, it is safe to state that children who live at or below the poverty level will have far less success educationally than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from school. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, flu, and colds.<ref name="ANF" /> These illnesses could potentially restrict a student's focus and concentration.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jensen|first=Eric|title=Teaching with Poverty in Mind|url=http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109074/chapters/How-Poverty-Affects-Behavior-and-Academic-Performance.aspx|publisher=ASCD|access-date=11 November 2013|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141531/http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/109074/chapters/How-Poverty-Affects-Behavior-and-Academic-Performance.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> In general, the interaction of [[gender]] with poverty or location tends to work to the disadvantage of [[girl]]s in poorer countries with low completion rates and social expectations that they marry early, and to the disadvantage of [[boy]]s in richer countries with high completion rates but social expectations that they enter the [[labour force]] early.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=UNESCO|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000368753|title=Global education monitoring report 2019: gender report: Building bridges for gender equality|publisher=UNESCO|year=2019|isbn=978-92-3-100329-5|access-date=5 March 2020|archive-date=6 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206085339/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000368753|url-status=live}}</ref> At the [[primary education]] level, most countries with a completion rate below 60% exhibit [[gender disparity]] at girls' expense, particularly poor and rural girls. In Mauritania, the adjusted gender parity index is 0.86 on average, but only 0.63 for the poorest 20%, while there is parity among the richest 20%. In countries with completion rates between 60% and 80%, gender disparity is generally smaller, but disparity at the expense of poor girls is especially marked in [[Cameroon]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Yemen]]. Exceptions in the opposite direction are observed in countries with pastoralist economies that rely on boys' labour, such as the [[Eswatini|Kingdom of Eswatini]], [[Lesotho]] and [[Namibia]].<ref name=":0" /> === Shelter === {{See also|Slums|Street children|Orphanages|Gentrification}} [[File:Kolkata (4131122903).jpg|thumb|Homeless family in Kolkata, India|alt=]] [[File:Street Child, Srimangal Railway Station.jpg|thumb|left|Street child in [[Bangladesh]]. Aiding relatives financially unable to but willing to take in orphans is found to be more effective by cost and welfare than orphanages.<ref name=orphanages/>]] The [[right to housing]] is argued to be a [[Human rights|human right]].<ref>Desmond, Matthew (2016). ''Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City''. Crown Books. {{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=October 2022}}</ref><ref>Bratt, Rachel G. (Editor), Stone, Michael E. (Editor), Hartman, Chester (Editor). 2006. ''A Right to Housing: Foundation for a New Social Agenda''. Temple University Press.{{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=October 2022}}</ref> [[High density housing|Higher density]] and [[Affordable housing|lower cost housing]] affords low-income families and first-time homebuyers with more and less expensive shelter opportunities, reducing economic inequality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=Thomas J. |last2=Denton |first2=Curtis |title=The suburbanization of poverty? An alternative perspective |journal=Urban Geography |date=17 February 2015 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=300–313 |doi=10.1080/02723638.2014.973224 |s2cid=145716858 |url=https://thomas-cooke.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2963/2019/12/Cooke-and-Denton-2015.pdf |access-date=24 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Desmond |first1=Matthew |editor1-last=Mueller |editor1-first=Elizabeth J. |editor2-last=Tighe |editor2-first=J. Rosie |title=The affordable housing reader |date=2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=Abingdon, Oxon |isbn=978-1-000-59482-9 |pages=389–395 |edition=Second |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emdxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA389 |access-date=24 February 2023 |chapter=Unaffordable America: Poverty, housing, and eviction}}</ref> The geographic concentration of poverty is argued to be a factor in entrenching poverty. William J. Wilson's "concentration and isolation" hypothesis states that the economic difficulties of the very poorest African Americans are compounded by the fact that as the better-off African Americans move out, the poorest are more and more concentrated, having only other very poor people as neighbors. This concentration causes social isolation, Wilson suggests, because the very poor are now isolated from access to the job networks, role models, institutions, and other connections that might help them escape poverty.<ref>Wilson, William J. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref> [[Gentrification]] means converting an aging neighborhood into a more affluent one, as by remodeling homes. Landlords then increase rent on newly renovated real estate; the poor people cannot afford to pay high rent, and may need to leave their neighborhood to find affordable housing.<ref>Moss, Jeremiah. 24 July 2018. Vanishing New York: How a Great City Lost Its Soul. HarperCollins Publishers.</ref> The poor also get more access to income and services, while studies suggest poor residents living in gentrifying neighbourhoods are actually less likely to move than poor residents of non-gentrifying areas.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/united-states/2018/06/21/in-praise-of-gentrification|title=In praise of gentrification|newspaper=The Economist|date=23 June 2018|access-date=24 April 2021|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424015937/https://www.economist.com/united-states/2018/06/21/in-praise-of-gentrification|url-status=live}}</ref> Poverty increases the risk of [[homelessness]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-01-10-homeless_x.htm |title=Study: 744,000 homeless in United States |work=USA Today |date=10 January 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=25 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525150236/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-01-10-homeless_x.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Slum-dwellers, who make up a third of the world's urban population, live in a poverty no better, if not worse, than rural people, who are the traditional focus of the poverty in the [[developing world]], according to a report by the United Nations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5078654.stm |title=Report reveals global slum crisis |work=BBC News |date=16 June 2006 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=30 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101030050014/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/5078654.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> There are over 100 million [[street children]] worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=32968&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080521024344/http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D32968%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |archive-date=21 May 2008 |title=Street Children |publisher=Portal.unesco.org |access-date=24 October 2010 }}</ref> Most of the children living in institutions around the world have a surviving parent or close relative, and they most commonly entered orphanages because of poverty.<ref name=orphanages>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/06/world/africa/06orphans.html |title=Aid gives alternatives to African orphanages |newspaper=The New York Times |date=5 December 2009 |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=26 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526205418/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/06/world/africa/06orphans.html |url-status=live |last1=Dugger |first1=Celia W. }}</ref> It is speculated that, flush with money, for-profit orphanages are increasing and push for children to join even though demographic data show that even the poorest extended families usually take in children whose parents have died.<ref name=orphanages/> Many child advocates maintain that this can harm children's [[child development|development]] by separating them from their families and that it would be more effective and cheaper to aid close relatives who want to take in the orphans.<ref name=orphanages/> === Utilities === [[File:Toilet at a Village near Jaipur installed by Pronto Panels.JPG|upright=0.7|thumb|Affordable household toilets near [[Jaipur, Rajasthan]]]] The poor tend to pay more for access to utilities and ensuring the availability of water, sanitation, energy, and telecommunication services such as broadband internet service<ref>{{Cite book |title=California LifeLine program assessment & evaluation |date=May 20, 2022 |publisher=[[California Public Utilities Commission]] |location=Sacramento, California}}</ref> help in reducing poverty in general.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Giné Garriga |first1=Ricard |last2=Pérez Foguet |first2=Agustí |date=2013-03-01 |title=Unravelling the Linkages Between Water, Sanitation, Hygiene and Rural Poverty: The WASH Poverty Index |journal=Water Resources Management |language=en |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=1501–1515 |doi=10.1007/s11269-012-0251-6 |bibcode=2013WatRM..27.1501G |hdl=2117/18648 |s2cid=189950003 |issn=1573-1650|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Assessing the impact of transport and energy infrastructure on poverty reduction |date=2005 |publisher=Asian Development Bank |author=Cynthia C. Cook |display-authors=etal |isbn=978-971-561-580-8 |location=Mandaluyong City, Metro Manila, Philippines |oclc=61391598}}</ref> ====Water and sanitation==== As of 2012, 2.5 billion people lack access to sanitation services and 15% practice [[open defecation]].<ref>WHO and UNICEF [https://web.archive.org/web/20120328173008/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-report-2012-en.pdf ''Progress on Drinking-water and Sanitation: 2012 Update''], WHO, Geneva and UNICEF, New York, p. 2</ref> Even while providing latrines is a challenge, people still do not use them even when available. Bangladesh had half the GDP per capita of India but has a lower mortality from diarrhea than India or the world average, with diarrhea deaths declining by 90% since the 1990s. By strategically providing pit latrines to the poorest, charities in Bangladesh sparked a cultural change as those better off perceived it as an issue of status to not use one. The vast majority of the latrines built were then not from charities but by villagers themselves.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2018/03/22/how-bangladesh-vanquished-diarrhoea|title=How Bangladesh vanquished diarrhoea|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=18 August 2018|date=22 March 2018|archive-date=19 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819083112/https://www.economist.com/asia/2018/03/22/how-bangladesh-vanquished-diarrhoea|url-status=live}}</ref> Water utility subsidies tend to subsidize water consumption by those connected to the supply grid, which is typically skewed towards the richer and urban segment of the population and those outside informal housing. As a result of heavy consumption subsidies, the price of water decreases to the extent that only 30%, on average, of the supplying costs in developing countries is covered.<ref name=Kenny/><ref name=utilitysubsidy>{{cite book | year=2005 | first1=Kristin | last1=Komives | first2=Vivien | last2=Foster | first3=Jonathan | last3=Halpern | first4=Quentin | last4=Wodon | title=Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who benefits from utility subsidies? | url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWSS/Resources/Figures.pdf | publisher=The World Bank | location=Washington, DC | isbn=978-0-8213-6342-3 | access-date=26 July 2012 | archive-date=16 December 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111216141018/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWSS/Resources/Figures.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref> This results in a lack of incentive to maintain delivery systems, leading to losses from leaks annually that are enough for 200 million people.<ref name=Kenny/><ref>{{cite book | year=2006 | first1=Bill | last1=Kingdom | first2=Roland | last2=Liemberger | first3=Philippe | last3=Marin | title=The challenge of reducing non-revenue water (NRW) in developing countries. How the private sector can help: A look at performance-based service contracting | series=Water supply and sanitation board discussion paper series | url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWSS/Resources/WSS8fin4.pdf | publisher=The World Bank | location=Washington, DC | access-date=26 July 2012 | archive-date=23 May 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523132225/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWSS/Resources/WSS8fin4.pdf | url-status=live }}</ref> This also leads to a lack of incentive to invest in expanding the network, resulting in much of the poor population being unconnected to the network. Instead, the poor buy water from water vendors for, on average, about 5 to 16 times the metered price.<ref name=Kenny/><ref>{{cite book |year = 2006 |first1 = Marianne |last1 = Kjellen |first2 = Gordon |last2 = McGranahan |name-list-style = amp |title = Informal Water Vendors and the Urban Poor |series = Human settlements discussion paper series |url = http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10529IIED.pdf |publisher = [[International Institute for Environment and Development|IIED]] |location = London |isbn = 978-1-84369-586-8 |access-date = 26 July 2012 |archive-date = 4 September 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120904224113/http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10529IIED.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref> However, subsidies for laying new connections to the network rather than for consumption have shown more promise for the poor.<ref name=utilitysubsidy/> ====Energy==== {{Excerpt|energy poverty}} === Financial services === {{Seealso|Predatory lending|Loan shark}} For low-income individuals and families, access to [[credit]] can be limited, [[Predatory lending|predatory]], or both, making it difficult to find the financial resources they need to invest in their futures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hartfree |first1=Yvette |last2=Collard |first2=Sharon |date=2015-10-01 |title=Locating credit and debt within an anti-poverty strategy for the UK |url=https://bristoluniversitypressdigital.com/view/journals/jpsj/23/3/article-p203.xml |journal=Journal of Poverty and Social Justice |language=en |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=203–214 |doi=10.1332/175982715X14443317211950 |s2cid=167507335 |issn=1759-8273|hdl=1983/9dc0d10f-b10d-4e4a-82e9-0957a4226608 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Chaniwa |first1=Marjorie |title=Ending Poverty Through Affordable Credit to Small-Scale Cotton Farmers: The Case of the Cotton Company of Zimbabwe |date=2020 |work=Scaling up SDGs Implementation: Emerging Cases from State, Development and Private Sectors |pages=115–127 |editor-last=Nhamo |editor-first=Godwell |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-33216-7_8 |isbn=978-3-030-33216-7 |last2=Nyawenze |first2=Collen |last3=Mandumbu |first3=Ronald |last4=Mutsiveri |first4=Godfrey |last5=Gadzirayi |first5=Christopher T. |last6=Munyati |first6=Vincent T. |last7=Rugare |first7=Joyful Tatenda |series=Sustainable Development Goals Series |s2cid=214161949 |editor2-last=Odularu |editor2-first=Gbadebo O. A. |editor3-last=Mjimba |editor3-first=Vuyo}}</ref> === Prejudice and exploitation === {{see also|criminalization of poverty}} [[File:Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought022.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|The urban poor buy water from water vendors for, on average, about 5 to 16 times the metered price.<ref name=Kenny>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2011/12/05/trickle-down-economics/|title=Trickle-Down Economics|publisher=foreignpolicy.com|date=5 December 2011|access-date=18 December 2014|archive-date=2 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502084305/http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/12/05/trickle-down-economics/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]Cultural factors, such as discrimination of various kinds, can negatively affect productivity such as [[ageism|age discrimination]], [[stereotype|stereotyping]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usccb.org/cchd/epic/www/causesofpovertya.html |title=Ending Poverty in Community (EPIC) |publisher=Usccb.org |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=9 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110309014134/http://www.usccb.org/cchd/epic/www/causesofpovertya.html |url-status=live }}</ref> discrimination against people with physical disability,<ref name=disabpov>Filmer, D. (2008), "Disability, poverty, and schooling in developing countries: results from 14 household surveys", ''The World Bank Economic Review'', 22(1), pp. 141–163 * Yeo, R. (2005), [http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/Disability/RedPov_agenda.pdf Disability, poverty and the new development agenda] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213072542/http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/Disability/RedPov_agenda.pdf |date=13 February 2015 }}, Disability Knowledge and Research, UK Government, pp. 1–33</ref> [[sexism|gender discrimination]], [[racism|racial discrimination]], and [[caste|caste discrimination]]. [[Child poverty|Children]] are more than twice as likely to live in poverty as adults.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Child poverty|url=https://www.unicef.org/social-policy/child-poverty|access-date=2021-10-21|website=www.unicef.org|language=en}}</ref> Women are the group suffering from the highest rate of poverty after children, in what is referred to as the [[feminization of poverty]]. In addition, the fact that women are more likely to be caregivers, regardless of income level, to either the generations before or after them, exacerbates the burdens of their poverty.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://origin.library.constantcontact.com/download/get/file/1100634217286-881/ReGenderPovertyPrimerFront.pdf|title=Gender Lens on Poverty|access-date=3 December 2019|archive-date=15 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615045556/http://origin.library.constantcontact.com/download/get/file/1100634217286-881/ReGenderPovertyPrimerFront.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Those in poverty have increased chances of incurring a disability which leads to a cycle where [[disability and poverty]] are mutually reinforcing. [[Max Weber]] and some schools of [[modernization theory]] suggest that cultural [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]] could affect economic success.<ref>Moore, Wilbert. 1974. ''Social Change.'' Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</ref><ref>Parsons, Talcott. 1966. ''Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives.'' Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</ref> However, researchers{{Who|date=November 2009}} have gathered evidence that suggest that values are not as deeply ingrained and that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values.<ref name="kerbo2006a">Kerbo, Harold. 2006. ''Social Stratification and Inequality: Class Conflict in Historical, Comparative, and Global Perspective'', 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref> A 2018 report on [[poverty in the United States]] by UN special rapporteur [[Philip Alston]] asserts that caricatured narratives about the rich and the poor (that "the rich are industrious, entrepreneurial, patriotic and the drivers of economic success" while "the poor are wasters, losers and scammers") are largely inaccurate, as "the poor are overwhelmingly those born into poverty, or those thrust there by circumstances largely beyond their control, such as physical or mental disabilities, divorce, family breakdown, illness, old age, unlivable wages or discrimination in the job market."<ref>{{cite news |date=4 June 2018 |title="Contempt for the poor in US drives cruel policies," says UN expert |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2018/06/contempt-poor-us-drives-cruel-policies-says-un-expert |publisher=OHCHR |access-date=10 August 2019 |archive-date=17 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917141810/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23172&LangID=E |url-status=live }}</ref> Societal perception of people experiencing economic difficulty has historically appeared as a conceptual dichotomy: the "good" poor (people who are physically impaired, disabled, the "ill and incurable," the elderly, pregnant women, children) vs. the "bad" poor (able-bodied, "valid" adults, most often male).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Brodiez-Dolino|first=Axelle|date=2021-06-07|title=Perceptions of People in Poverty Throughout History|url=https://www.atd-fourthworld.org/perceptions-poorest-people-throughout-history/|access-date=2021-06-08|website=ATD Fourth World|language=en-US|type=Online written interview.|archive-date=8 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608192811/https://www.atd-fourthworld.org/perceptions-poorest-people-throughout-history/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to experts, many women become victims of trafficking, the most common form of which is [[survival sex|prostitution]], as a means of survival and economic desperation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2009-05-15-voa30-68815957.html?rss=human+rights+and+law |title=Experts encourage action against sex trafficking |publisher=.voanews.com |date=15 May 2009 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501101647/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2009-05-15-voa30-68815957.html?rss=human+rights+and+law |archive-date=1 May 2011 }}</ref> Deterioration of living conditions can often compel children to abandon school to contribute to the family income, putting them at risk of being exploited.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/thailand/091027/economic-crisis-the-sex-trade-and-children |title=Child sex boom fueled by poverty |publisher=Globalpost.com |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=1 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101101005703/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/thailand/091027/economic-crisis-the-sex-trade-and-children |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, in [[Zimbabwe]], a number of girls are turning to sex in return for food to survive because of the increasing poverty.<ref>{{cite news |last=Thomson |first=Mike |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8096874.stm |title=Zimbabwean girls trade sex for food |work=BBC News |date=12 June 2009 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=26 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726123910/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8096874.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to studies, as poverty decreases there will be fewer and fewer instances of violence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Steven|title=Poverty and Violence|issue=1|date=1996|page=67|issn=0037-802X|journal=Social Theory and Practice|volume=22|doi=10.5840/soctheorpract199622119}}</ref> ==Poverty reduction {{anchor|Reduction}}== {{main|Poverty reduction}} {{see also|Aid|Development aid}} {{duplication|section=yes|dupe=Poverty reduction|date=January 2023|discuss=Talk:Poverty reduction#Duplication}} [[File:Sustainable Development Goal 01NoPoverty.svg|thumb|Logo of the [[Sustainable Development Goal 1]] of the United Nations, to "end poverty in all its forms, everywhere" by 2030<ref name=":172">United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, [[:File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf|Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development]] ([https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 A/RES/71/313] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023121826/https://undocs.org/A/RES/71/313 |date=23 October 2020 }})</ref>]] Various poverty reduction strategies are broadly categorized based on whether they make more of the basic human needs available or whether they increase the [[disposable income]] needed to purchase those needs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dalglish C. and M. Tonelli |title=Entrepreneurship at the Bottom of the Pyramid |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-1-138-84655-5}}</ref> Some strategies such as building roads can both bring access to various basic needs, such as fertilizer or healthcare from urban areas, as well as increase incomes, by bringing better access to urban markets.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sanchez |first1=Thomas W. |title=Poverty, policy, and public transportation |journal=Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice |date=1 June 2008 |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=833–841 |doi=10.1016/j.tra.2008.01.011 |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=fac7e9f6807c4c29319647a2ed79cf0395b3e5c9 |access-date=24 February 2023 |language=en |issn=0965-8564}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last1=Hernández |first1=Diego |url=https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/publication/files/42665/RVI122_Hernandez.pdf |title=Public transport, well-being and inequality: coverage and affordability in the city of Montevideo |date=2017-08-01 |publisher=CEPAL Review |issue=122}}</ref> Reducing relative poverty would also involve reducing [[Wealth inequality|inequality]]. [[Oxfam]], among others,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inequality and Poverty – OECD |url=https://www.oecd.org/social/inequality-and-poverty.htm |access-date=2023-02-23 |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]}}</ref> has called for an international movement to end extreme wealth concentration arguing that the concentration of resources in the hands of the top 1% depresses economic activity and makes life harder for everyone else—particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder.<ref name="WP-20130120">{{cite news |last=Khazan |first=Olga |title=Can we fight poverty by ending extreme wealth? |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/01/20/oxfam-poverty-income-inequality/ |date=20 January 2013 |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |access-date=18 September 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924041632/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/01/20/oxfam-poverty-income-inequality/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BBC-20130118">{{cite news |title=Oxfam seeks 'new deal' on inequality from world leaders |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21094962 |date=18 January 2013 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=18 September 2014 |archive-date=18 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818014118/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21094962 |url-status=live }}</ref> And they say that the gains of the world's [[billionaires]] in 2017, which amounted to $762 billion, were enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hagan |first=Shelly |date=22 January 2018 |title=Billionaires Made So Much Money Last Year They Could End Extreme Poverty Seven Times |url=https://money.com/billionaires-made-so-much-money-last-year-they-could-end-extreme-poverty-seven-times/ |work=[[Money (magazine)|Money]] |access-date=2 December 2018 |archive-date=18 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218060745/https://money.com/billionaires-made-so-much-money-last-year-they-could-end-extreme-poverty-seven-times/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Methods to reduce inequality and relative poverty include [[progressive taxation]], which involves increasing tax rates on high-income earners,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gatzia |first1=Dimitria E. |last2=Woods |first2=Douglas |title=Progressive taxation as a means to equality of condition and poverty alleviation |journal=Economics, Management, and Financial Markets |date=September 2014 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=29–43 |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=googlescholar&id=GALE%7CA399572236&v=2.1&it=r&sid=AONE&asid=30038109 |access-date=24 February 2023 |language=English |issn=1842-3191}}</ref><ref name="amaglobeli">{{Citation |last1=Amaglobeli |first1=David |last2=Thevenot |first2=Celine |title=Tackling Inequality on All Fronts |date=March 2022 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2022/03/Tackling-inequality-on-all-fronts-Amaglobeli-Thevenot |access-date=2023-02-22 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |language=en}}</ref> [[wealth tax]]es, which involve taxing a portion of an individual's net worth above a certain threshold,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Terreblanche |first1=Sampie |title=A Wealth Tax for South Africa |website=University of Witwatersrand |date=January 2018 |issue=1 |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/faculties-and-schools/commerce-law-and-management/research-entities/scis/documents/SCIS%20Working%20paper%20no%201%20Wealth%20Tax.pdf |access-date=24 February 2023 |series=SCIS Working Paper |quote=wealth tax ... income could be used to set up a restitution fund to help alleviate the worst poverty.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Mattauch |first1=Linus |date=31 January 2019 |title=Reducing wealth inequality through wealth taxes without compromising economic growth |url=https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/blog/reducing-wealth-inequality-through-wealth-taxes-without-compromising-economic-growth/ |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=Oxford Martin School |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michalos |first1=Alex C. |title=A Case for a Progressive Annual Net Wealth Tax |journal=Public Affairs Quarterly |date=1988 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=105–140 |jstor=40435679 |issn=0887-0373}}</ref> reducing [[payroll tax]]es, which are taxes on employees and employers and reducing this provides workers greater take-home pay and allows employers to spend more on wages and salaries,<ref name="Scholz">{{cite journal |last1=Scholz |first1=John Karl |title=Taxation and poverty: 1960–2006 |journal=Focus |date=2007 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=52–57 |url=https://www.irp.wisc.edu/publications/focus/pdfs/foc251h.pdf |access-date=24 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Jean-Paul |first=Fitoussi |title=Payroll tax reductions for the low paid |url=https://hal-sciencespo.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/972903/filename/ocdefitou.pdf |date=2000 |work=OECD Economic Studies |volume=2000/II |issue=31 |pages=115–131 |oclc=882887538}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brittain |first1=John A. |title=The Incidence of Social Security Payroll Taxes |journal=The American Economic Review |date=1971 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=110–125 |jstor=1910545 |issn=0002-8282}}</ref> and increasing the [[labor share]], which is the proportion of business income paid as wages and salaries instead of allocated to shareholders as profit.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Giovannoni |first1=Olivier |title=Functional Distribution of Income, Inequality and the Incidence of Poverty: Stylized Facts and the Role of Macroeconomic Policy |date=January 30, 2010 |url=https://utip.lbj.utexas.edu/papers/utip_58.pdf |publisher=University of Texas Inequality Project |access-date=2023-02-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jayadev |first=A. |date=2007-01-20 |title=Capital account openness and the labour share of income |url=https://academic.oup.com/cje/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/cje/bel037 |journal=Cambridge Journal of Economics |language=en |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=423–443 |doi=10.1093/cje/bel037 |issn=0309-166X}}</ref> === Increasing the supply of basic needs === ==== Improving technology ==== [[File:Spraying Oilseed Rape near Barton Grange - geograph.org.uk - 1842382.jpg|thumb|Spreading [[fertilizer]] on a field of [[rapeseed]] near [[Barton-upon-Humber]], England]] Agricultural technologies such as [[nitrogen fertilizer]]s, pesticides, new seed varieties and new irrigation methods have dramatically reduced food shortages in modern times by boosting yields past previous constraints.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/issues/97jan/borlaug/borlaug.htm |title=Forgotten benefactor of humanity |publisher=Theatlantic.com |access-date=24 October 2010 |date=January 1997 |archive-date=4 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104005841/http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/97jan/borlaug/borlaug.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Before the [[Industrial Revolution]], poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as economies produced little, making wealth scarce.<ref name=britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/473136/poverty|title=Poverty (sociology)|publisher=britannica.com|access-date=24 October 2010|archive-date=15 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315150947/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/473136/poverty|url-status=live}}</ref> Geoffrey Parker wrote that "In [[Antwerp]] and [[Lyon]], two of the largest cities in [[western Europe]], by 1600 three-quarters of the total population were too poor to pay taxes, and therefore likely to need relief in times of crisis."<ref>[[Geoffrey Parker (historian)|Geoffrey Parker]] (2001). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qy8y8rHgucoC&pg=PA11 Europe in crisis, 1598–1648] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519014755/https://books.google.com/books?id=qy8y8rHgucoC&pg=PA11&dq&hl=en |date=19 May 2016 }}''". Wiley–Blackwell. p. 11. {{ISBN|978-0-631-22028-2}}</ref> The initial industrial revolution led to high economic growth and eliminated mass absolute poverty in what is now considered the developed world.<ref name=Britannica>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/243118/Great-Depression Great Depression] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509121741/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/243118/Great-Depression |date=9 May 2015 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> [[Mass production]] of goods in places such as rapidly industrializing China has made what were once considered luxuries, such as vehicles and computers, inexpensive and thus accessible to many who were otherwise too poor to afford them.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/world/asia/27laos.html|title=In Laos, Chinese motorcycles change lives|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first=Thomas|last=Fuller|date=27 December 2007|archive-date=9 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409105223/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/27/world/asia/27laos.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0625/p12s01-woaf.html?page=2 |title=China boosts African economies, offering a second opportunity |journal=Christian Science Monitor |date=25 June 2007 |access-date=24 October 2010 |archive-date=12 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512071516/http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0625/p12s01-woaf.html?page=2 |url-status=live }}</ref> Other than technology, advancements in sciences such as medicine help provide basic needs better. For example, [[Sri Lanka]] had a [[maternal mortality rate]] of 2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today, but reduced it to 0.5–0.6% in the 1950s and to 0.6% in 2006 while spending less each year on [[maternal health]] because it learned what worked and what did not.<ref name="Disease Control Priorities Project">{{cite web|url=http://www.dcp2.org/main/Home.html|title=Disease Control Priorities Project|publisher=dcp2.org|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623001000/http://www.dcp2.org/main/Home.html|archive-date=23 June 2011}}</ref><ref name=post>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/02/AR2006040200813.html|title=Saving millions for just a few dollars|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=3 April 2006|access-date=21 June 2011|first=David|last=Brown|archive-date=20 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110620195857/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/02/AR2006040200813.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Knowledge on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive and educational measures have been made to disseminate what works, such as the [[Copenhagen Consensus]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Prabhat|first=Jha|title=Benefits and costs of the health targets for the post-2015 development agenda|url=http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/publication/post-2015-consensus-health-assessment-jha-et-al|website=copenhageconsensus.com|publisher=Copenhagen Consensus Center|access-date=10 November 2016|archive-date=11 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111000019/http://www.copenhagenconsensus.com/publication/post-2015-consensus-health-assessment-jha-et-al|url-status=live}}</ref> Cheap [[water filter]]s and promoting hand washing are some of the most cost effective health interventions and can cut [[child mortality|deaths]] from [[diarrhea]] and [[pneumonia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8399692.stm|title=India's Tata launches water filter for rural poor|work=BBC News|date=7 December 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718134728/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8399692.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7670855.stm|title=Millions mark UN hand-washing day|work=BBC News|date=15 October 2008|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=9 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009215006/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7670855.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Food fortification|Fortification]] with [[micronutrient]]s was ranked the most cost effective aid strategy by the Copenhagen Consensus.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/04/opinion/04kristof.html?_r=0|title=Raising the World's I.Q.|newspaper=New York Times|date=4 December 2008|access-date=5 January 2016|archive-date=17 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160717055221/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/04/opinion/04kristof.html?_r=0|url-status=live}}</ref> For example, [[iodised salt]] costs 2 to 3 cents per person a year while even moderate [[iodine deficiency]] in pregnancy shaves off 10 to 15 [[Intelligence quotient|IQ]] points.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/16/health/16iodine.html?ref=todayspaper|title=In Raising the World's I.Q., the Secret's in the Salt|work=The New York Times|date=16 December 2006|access-date=5 January 2016|archive-date=17 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160717055236/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/16/health/16iodine.html?ref=todayspaper|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== State funding ==== {{See also|Political corruption|Tax havens|Transfer mispricing|Developing countries' debt|Conditionality}} [[File:Nigerian Surgery Table.jpg|thumb|right|Hardwood surgical tables are commonplace in rural [[Nigeria]]n clinics.]] Certain basic needs are argued to be better provided by the state. [[Universal healthcare]] can reduce the overall cost of providing healthcare by having a single payer negotiating with healthcare providers and minimizing administrative costs.<ref name=Blumenthal>{{Citation |last1=Blumenthal |first1=David |date=2014-09-09 |title=Do Health Care Costs Fuel Economic Inequality in the United States? |url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/blog/2014/do-health-care-costs-fuel-economic-inequality-united-states |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=www.commonwealthfund.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=Dastidar>{{cite journal |last1=Dastidar |first1=Biswanath Ghosh |last2=Suri |first2=Shailesh |last3=Nagaraja |first3=Vikranth H. |last4=Jani |first4=Anant |title=A virtual bridge to Universal Healthcare in India |journal=Communications Medicine |date=16 November 2022 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=145 |doi=10.1038/s43856-022-00211-7 |pmid=36385160 |pmc=9667848 |s2cid=253525261 |language=en |issn=2730-664X |quote=any strategy by India to haul its massive population out of poverty must necessarily include measures to provide UHC nationwide.}}</ref> It is also argued that subsidizing essential goods such as fuel is less efficient in helping the poor than providing that same money as income grants to the poor.<ref name=Jha/> Government revenue can be diverted away from basic services by corruption.<ref name=unodc>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/about-unodc/speeches/2007-11-13.html|title=Anti-Corruption Climate Change: it started in Nigeria|publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|date=13 November 2007|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=22 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422134508/http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/about-unodc/speeches/2007-11-13.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bribe/2009/04/nigeria-the-hidden-cost-of-corruption.html|title=Nigeria: the Hidden Cost of Corruption|publisher=Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)|date=14 April 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=23 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023234604/http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bribe/2009/04/nigeria-the-hidden-cost-of-corruption.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Funds from aid and natural resources are often sent by government individuals for [[money laundering]] to overseas banks which insist on [[bank secrecy]], instead of spending on the poor.<ref name=graft>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13278728|title=Banks, graft and development|newspaper=The Economist|date=12 March 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=18 March 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318081420/http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13278728|url-status=live}}</ref> A [[Global Witness]] report asked for more action from Western banks as they have proved capable of stanching the flow of funds linked to terrorism.<ref name=graft/> [[Illicit financial flows|Illicit capital flight]], such as corporate [[tax avoidance]],<ref>José Antonio Ocampo and Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona (30 September 2015). [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/30/tax-avoidance-corporations-impacts-the-poor-united-nations-step-in Tax avoidance by corporations is out of control. The United Nations must step in] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510153325/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/30/tax-avoidance-corporations-impacts-the-poor-united-nations-step-in |date=10 May 2017 }}. ''The Guardian.'' Retrieved 30 September 2015.</ref> from the developing world is estimated at ten times the size of aid it receives and twice the debt service it pays,<ref> {{Cite book |date = January 2011 |first1 = Kristina |last1 = Fröberg |first2 = Attiya |last2 = Waris |page = 7 |title = Bringing The Billions Back – How Africa And Europe Can End Illicit Capital Flight |url = https://www.academia.edu/5072598 |publisher = Forum Syd <!--Forlag means publisher--> |location = Stockholm |isbn = 978-91-89542-59-4 |access-date = 13 April 2022 |via = Academia.edu }} </ref> with one estimate that most of Africa would be developed if the taxes owed were paid.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/video/africa/2012/01/201211684512130367.html|title=Africa losing billions in tax evasion|work=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al-Jazeera]]|date=16 January 2012|access-date=5 January 2016|archive-date=6 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106135130/http://www.aljazeera.com/video/africa/2012/01/201211684512130367.html|url-status=live}}</ref> About 60 per cent of illicit capital flight from Africa is from [[transfer mispricing]], where a [[subsidiary]] in a developing nation sells to another subsidiary or [[shell company]] in a [[tax haven]] at an artificially low price to pay less tax.<ref name=transparency>{{cite news|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/06/20116188244589715.html|title='Transparency' hides Zambia's lost billions|work=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al-Jazeera]]|date=18 June 2011|access-date=26 July 2011|first=Khadija|last=Sharife|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612162746/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/06/20116188244589715.html|url-status=live}}</ref> An [[African Union]] report estimates that about 30% of sub-Saharan Africa's GDP has been moved to tax havens.<ref name=guardian>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2007/jan/21/business.theobserver2|title=Western bankers and lawyers 'rob Africa of $150bn every year'|work=The Guardian|location=London|date=21 January 2007|access-date=5 July 2011|first=Nick|last=Mathiason|archive-date=9 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130909233820/http://www.theguardian.com/money/2007/jan/21/business.theobserver2|url-status=live}}</ref> Solutions include corporate "country-by-country reporting" where corporations disclose activities in each country and thereby prohibit the use of tax havens where no effective economic activity occurs.<ref name=transparency/> [[Developing countries' debt|Developing countries' debt service]] to banks and governments from richer countries can constrain government spending on the poor.<ref>The World Bank and International Monetary Fund. 2001. ''Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, Progress Report.'' Retrieved from [http://worldbank.org Worldbank.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313170039/http://www.worldbank.org/ |date=13 March 2018 }}.</ref> For example, [[Zambia]] spent 40% of its total budget to repay foreign debt, and only 7% for basic state services in 1997.<ref name="worldcentric.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldcentric.org/conscious-living/third-world-debt|title=Third World Debt|publisher=worldcentric.org|access-date=27 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527054809/http://www.worldcentric.org/conscious-living/third-world-debt|archive-date=27 May 2011}}</ref> One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been [[debt relief]]. Zambia began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from a 2005 round of debt relief.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4883062.stm|title=Zambia overwhelmed by free health care|work=BBC News|access-date=27 May 2011|date=7 April 2006|archive-date=20 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720055045/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4883062.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Since that round of debt relief, private creditors accounted for an increasing share of poor countries' debt service obligations. This complicated efforts to renegotiate easier terms for borrowers during crises such as the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] because the multiple private creditors involved say they have a fiduciary obligation to their clients such as the pension funds.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/nov/15/world-poverty-rising-rich-nations-debt-covid-gordon-brown-child-mortality|title=World poverty rising as rich nations call in debt amid Covid, warns Gordon Brown|work=The Guardian|access-date=26 April 2021|date=15 November 2020|archive-date=1 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501235245/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/nov/15/world-poverty-rising-rich-nations-debt-covid-gordon-brown-child-mortality|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/21/uk-urged-take-lead-easing-debt-crisis-developing-countries-g7|title=UK urged to take lead in easing debt crisis in developing countries|work=The Guardian|access-date=26 April 2021|date=21 February 2021|archive-date=26 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426033410/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/feb/21/uk-urged-take-lead-easing-debt-crisis-developing-countries-g7|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]], as primary holders of developing countries' debt, attach [[structural adjustment]] [[Conditionality|conditionalities]] in return for loans which are generally geared toward loan repayment with [[austerity]] measures such as the elimination of state subsidies and the privatization of state services. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer even while many farmers cannot afford them at market prices.<ref name=Malawi>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/02/world/africa/02malawi.html|title=Ending famine simply by ignoring the experts|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first=Celia W.|last=Dugger|date=2 December 2007|archive-date=15 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615032049/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/02/world/africa/02malawi.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Malawi]], almost 5 million of its 13 million people used to need emergency food aid but after the government changed policy and subsidies for fertilizer and seed were introduced, farmers produced record-breaking corn harvests in 2006 and 2007 as Malawi became a major food exporter.<ref name=Malawi/> A major proportion of aid from donor nations is [[tied aid|tied]], mandating that a receiving nation spend on products and expertise originating only from the donor country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=24509|title=Tied aid strangling nations, says UN|publisher=ispnews.net|access-date=27 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223203509/http://www.ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=24509|archive-date=23 December 2010}}</ref> US law requires [[food aid]] be spent on buying food at home, instead of where the hungry live, and, as a result, half of what is spent is used on transport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/160075|title=Let them eat micronutrients|work=Newsweek|access-date=27 May 2011|date=20 September 2008|archive-date=17 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090717002543/http://www.newsweek.com/id/160075|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Distressed securities fund]]s, also known as ''vulture funds'', buy up the debt of poor nations cheaply and then sue countries for the full value of the debt plus interest which can be ten or 100 times what they paid.<ref name=vulture>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-jersey-21627406|title=Jersey law to stop 'vulture funds' comes into force|work=BBC News|access-date=1 October 2014|date=1 March 2013|archive-date=17 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017234751/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-jersey-21627406|url-status=live}}</ref> They may pursue any companies which do business with their target country to force them to pay to the fund instead.<ref name=vulture/> Considerable resources are diverted on costly court cases. For example, a court in [[Jersey]] ordered the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to pay an American speculator $100 million in 2010.<ref name=vulture/> Now, the UK, [[Isle of Man]] and Jersey have banned such payments.<ref name=vulture/> [[File:Familiy Planning Ethiopia (bad effects).jpg|thumb|A [[family planning]] placard in [[Ethiopia]]. It shows some negative effects of having too many children.]] ====Improving access to available basic needs==== {{main|Reverse brain drain|Human capital flight}} Even with new products, such as better seeds, or greater volumes of them, such as industrial production, the poor still require access to these products. Improving road and transportation infrastructure helps solve this major bottleneck. In Africa, it costs more to move fertilizer from an African seaport {{convert|60|mi|km|-1|order=flip}} inland than to ship it from the United States to Africa because of sparse, low-quality roads, leading to fertilizer costs two to six times the world average.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/world/africa/31soil.html?_r=0|title=Overfarming African land is worsening Hunger Crisis|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 February 2013|first=Celia|last=Dugger|date=31 March 2006|archive-date=15 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515181849/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/31/world/africa/31soil.html?_r=0|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Microfranchising]] models such as door-to-door distributors who earn commission-based income or [[Coca-Cola]]'s successful distribution system<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/reenitadas/2014/06/30/if-coca-cola-can-be-delivered-all-over-the-developing-world-why-cant-essential-medications/#17d0b7415559|title=If Coca-Cola can be Delivered All Over the Developing World, Why Can't Essential Medicine?|work=Forbes|access-date=22 June 2016|first=Reenita|last=Das|date=30 June 2014|archive-date=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822000311/http://www.forbes.com/sites/reenitadas/2014/06/30/if-coca-cola-can-be-delivered-all-over-the-developing-world-why-cant-essential-medications/#17d0b7415559|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/2013/03/colalife-piggybacks-on-coke/|title=Clever Packaging: Essential Medicine Rides Coke's Distribution Into Remote Villages|work=wired.com|access-date=22 June 2016|first=Tim|last=Maly|date=27 March 2013|archive-date=20 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160620072712/http://www.wired.com/2013/03/colalife-piggybacks-on-coke|url-status=live}}</ref> are used to disseminate basic needs to remote areas for below market prices.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130531-saving-lives-the-avon-way|title=Africa's 'Avon Ladies' saving lives door-to-door|work=BBC News|access-date=31 May 2014|first=Jonathan|last=Kalan|date=3 June 2013|archive-date=21 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140121094526/http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130531-saving-lives-the-avon-way|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=microfranchising>{{cite news|url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/10/the-avon-ladies-of-africa/|title=The 'Avon Ladies' of Africa|newspaper=nytimes.com|access-date=9 February 2013|first=Tina|last=Rosenberg|date=10 October 2012|archive-date=25 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125114430/http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/10/the-avon-ladies-of-africa/|url-status=live}}</ref> The loss of basic needs providers emigrating from impoverished countries has a damaging effect.<ref name=Philippines>{{cite web|url=http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2006-05-03-voa38.html|title=Philippine Medical Brain Drain Leaves Public Health System in Crisis|publisher=voanews.com|date=3 May 2006|access-date=27 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130222516/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2006-05-03-voa38.html|archive-date=30 January 2012}}</ref> As of 2004, there were more Ethiopia-trained doctors living in Chicago than in Ethiopia<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/1475620/Out-of-Africa---health-workers-leave-in-droves.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525013213/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ethiopia/1475620/Out-of-Africa---health-workers-leave-in-droves.html|archive-date=25 May 2010|title=Out of Africa – health workers leave in droves|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=2 November 2004|access-date=27 May 2011|location=London|first=Adrian|last=Blomfield}}</ref> and this often leaves inadequately less skilled doctors to remain in their home countries.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/open-future/2018/08/27/what-educated-people-from-poor-countries-make-of-the-brain-drain-argument|title=What educated people from poor countries make of the "brain drain" argument|date=27 August 2018|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=5 December 2019|issn=0013-0613|archive-date=4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204140616/https://www.economist.com/open-future/2018/08/27/what-educated-people-from-poor-countries-make-of-the-brain-drain-argument|url-status=live}}</ref> Proposals to mitigate the problem include compulsory government service for graduates of public medical and nursing schools<ref name=Philippines/> and promoting [[medical tourism]] so that health care personnel have more incentive to practice in their home countries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2011/05/30/inpatients-abroad/|title=Inpatients abroad|publisher=foreignpolicy.com|access-date=9 January 2016|date=30 May 2011|archive-date=18 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160118005150/http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/05/30/inpatients-abroad/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Telehealth]] is the use of [[Telecommunications|telecommunication technologies]] to deliver health services. For remotes communities in [[Alaska]], telehealth has been found to reduce travel costs alone for the state by $13 million in 2021<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alaskajournal.com/2016-10-12/medicaid-reform-improves-access-healthcare-alaska-natives|title=Medicaid reform improves access to healthcare for Alaska Natives|website=www.alaskajournal.com|language=en|access-date=15 June 2023}}</ref> and, according to one study, reduced the life expectancy gap between whites and American Indian population in Alaska from eight to five years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sequist|first1=T|last2=Cullen|first2=T|last3= Acton|first3=K|date=2011 |title=Indian health service innovations have helped reduce health disparities affecting american Indian and alaska native people.|journal=Health Aff (Millwood)|volume=30 |issue=10|pages=1965–1973|doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0630|pmid= 21976341|s2cid=31770979|doi-access=free}}</ref> ==== Preventing overpopulation ==== {{main|Demographic transition|family planning}} [[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|270px|Map of countries and territories by [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] as of 2020]] Poverty and lack of access to birth control can lead to population increases that put pressure on local economies and access to resources, amplifying other economic inequality and creating increase poverty.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty|title=Population and poverty|website=www.unfpa.org|language=en|access-date=11 February 2019|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521093951/https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=birthrates/><ref>"[https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gevGOq7Vctd1FmJkzO3gapTqX4ZA Population growth driving climate change, poverty: experts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523114015/https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gevGOq7Vctd1FmJkzO3gapTqX4ZA |date=23 May 2012 }}". [[Agence France-Presse]]. 21 September 2009.</ref> Better [[Female education|education for both men and women]], and more control of their lives, reduces population growth due to [[family planning]].<ref name=empower>World Bank. 2001. ''Engendering Development – Through Gender Equality in Right, Resources and Voice.'' New York: [[Oxford University Press]].</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crist|first1=Eileen|last2=Ripple|first2=William J.|author-link2=William J. Ripple|last3= Ehrlich|first3=Paul R.|author-link3=Paul R. Ehrlich|last4=Rees|first4=William E. |last5=Wolf|first5=Christopher |date=2022 |title=Scientists' warning on population|url=https://scientistswarning.forestry.oregonstate.edu/sites/default/files/Crist2022.pdf|journal=[[Science of the Total Environment]]|volume=845 |issue=|page=157166 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157166|pmid= 35803428|bibcode=2022ScTEn.845o7166C |s2cid=250387801|quote=Alongside ambitious investment in schooling girls (and more broadly, of course, all children), priority should be given to making high-quality family-planning services available to every woman on the planet, while economic, geographic, and cultural barriers to access should be removed. The combination of institutional support to plan one's child-bearing choices and educational attainment, including enhanced opportunity for higher education for women, yields immediate fertility declines.}}</ref> According to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), those who receive better education can earn money for their lives, thereby strengthening economic security.<ref>{{cite web |title=Population and Poverty |url=http://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty |year=2014 |access-date=5 January 2015 |archive-date=21 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221013524/http://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty |url-status=live }}</ref> === Increasing personal income === The following are strategies used or proposed to increase personal incomes among the poor. Raising farm incomes is described as the core of the antipoverty effort as three-quarters of the poor today are farmers.<ref name=agriculture>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/20/world/africa/20worldbank.html|title=World Bank report puts agriculture at core of antipoverty effort|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first=Celia W.|last=Dugger|date=20 October 2007|archive-date=26 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126135129/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/20/world/africa/20worldbank.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Estimates show that growth in the agricultural productivity of small farmers is, on average, at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest half of a country's population as growth generated in nonagricultural sectors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:21893554~menuPK:2643747~pagePK:64020865~piPK:149114~theSitePK:336992,00.html|title=Climate Change: Bangladesh facing the challenge|publisher=The [[World Bank]]|date=8 September 2008|access-date=5 July 2011|archive-date=18 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118191406/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/0,,contentMDK:21893554~menuPK:2643747~pagePK:64020865~piPK:149114~theSitePK:336992,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Income grants ==== {{Main|Guaranteed minimum income|Social security|Welfare}} [[File:Afghan girl begging.jpg|thumb|Afghan girl begging in [[Kabul]]]] A [[guaranteed minimum income]] ensures that every citizen will be able to purchase a desired level of basic needs. One method is through a [[basic income]] (or [[negative income tax]]), which is a system of [[social security]], that periodically provides each citizen, rich or poor, with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Wright |first1=Erik Olin |date=14 February 2017 |title=Can the universal basic income solve global inequalities? |url=https://en.unesco.org/inclusivepolicylab/news/can-universal-basic-income-solve-global-inequalities |access-date=2023-02-22 |website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> Studies of large cash-transfer programs in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Malawi show that the programs can be effective in increasing consumption, schooling, and nutrition, whether they are tied to such conditions or not.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Special Section on Social Cash Transfers in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal= Journal of Development Effectiveness |year= 2012 |url= http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rjde20/4/1 |access-date= 23 January 2013 |volume= 4 |issue= 1 |pages= 1–187 |doi= 10.1080/19439342.2012.659024 |last1= Davis |first1= Benjamin |last2= Gaarder |first2= Marie |last3= Handa |first3= Sudhanshu |last4= Yablonski |first4= Jenn |s2cid= 129406705 |archive-date= 8 August 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200808043539/https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rjde20/4/1 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref name=Spiegel>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,642310,00.html|title=A new approach to aid: How a basic income program saved a Namibian village|work=Der Spiegel|access-date=28 May 2011|date=10 August 2009|last1=Krahe|first1=Dialika|archive-date=16 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516110247/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,642310,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Namibians line up">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7415814.stm|title=Namibians line up for free cash|work=BBC News|access-date=28 May 2011|date=23 May 2008|archive-date=20 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620055405/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7415814.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Wage subsidy|Employment subsidies]] are conditional subsidies that go to those already employed and this has shown to have little effect on those at the lowest income levels.<ref name="Scholz" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoynes |first1=Hilary |last2=Patel |first2=Ankur |date=July 2015 |title=Effective Policy for Reducing Inequality? The Earned Income Tax Credit and the Distribution of Income |journal=Journal of Human Resources |volume=53 |issue=4 |url=https://www.gc.cuny.edu/sites/default/files/2021-07/Hoynes-Patel-0616.pdf |doi=10.3386/w21340 |location=Cambridge, MA|s2cid=153263015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Orszag |first1=J. Michael |last2=Snower |first2=Dennis J. |date=2003-10-01 |title=Designing employment subsidies |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927537103000356 |journal=Labour Economics |language=en |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=557–572 |doi=10.1016/S0927-5371(03)00035-6 |issn=0927-5371}}</ref> Proponents argue that a basic income is more economically efficient than a [[minimum wage]] and [[unemployment benefit]]s, as the minimum wage effectively imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing [[deadweight loss|losses in efficiency]]. In 1968, [[Paul Samuelson]], [[John Kenneth Galbraith]] and another 1,200 economists signed a document calling for the US Congress to introduce a system of income guarantees.<ref>''Economists' Statement on Guaranteed Annual Income'', 1/15/1968 – April 18, 1969 folder, General Correspondence Series, Papers of John Kenneth Galbraith, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Cited in: Jyotsna Sreenivasan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=yk5NI69ZO9sC "Poverty and the Government in America: A Historical Encyclopedia."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629172441/https://books.google.com/books?id=yk5NI69ZO9sC |date=29 June 2016 }} (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009), p. 269</ref> Winners of the [[Nobel Prize in Economics]], with often diverse political convictions, who support a basic income include [[Herbert A. Simon]],<ref name=Standing/> [[Friedrich Hayek]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Hayek |first=Friedrich |author-link=Friedrich Hayek |title= Law, Legislation and Liberty: A New Statement of the Liberal Principles of Justice and Political Economy |volume=2 |year=1973 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7100-8403-3 |page=87 }}</ref> [[Robert Solow]],<ref name=Standing/> [[Milton Friedman]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Friedman |first1=Milton |author-link=Milton Friedman |first2=Rose |last2=Friedman |title=Free to Choose: A Personal Statement |year=1990 |publisher=Harcourt |isbn=978-0-15-633460-0 |pages=120–123 }}</ref> [[Jan Tinbergen]],<ref name=Standing/> [[James Tobin]]<ref name="Steensland ">{{cite book|last=Steensland |first=Brian |title=The failed welfare revolution |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2007 |pages=70–78 |isbn= 978-0-691-12714-9}}</ref><ref>''"Is a Negative Income Tax Practical?"'', James Tobin, Joseph A. Pechman, and Peter M. Mieszkowski, Yale Law Journal 77 (1967): 1–27.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.minneapolisfed.org/publications_papers/pub_display.cfm?id=3649 |title=Interview with James Tobin – The Region – Publications & Papers | The Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis |first=David |last=Fettig |work=minneapolisfed.org |year=2011 |quote=I would pursue my recommendations of years ago for a negative income tax. |access-date=25 October 2011 |archive-date=15 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015124538/http://www.minneapolisfed.org/publications_papers/pub_display.cfm?id=3649 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[James Meade]].<ref name=Standing >{{cite book|year=2005 |publisher=Anthem Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-84331-174-4 |title=Promoting Income Security as a Right: Europe and North America |chapter=1. About Time: Basic Income Security As A Right |page=18 |first=Guy |last=Standing |edition=2nd |editor-first=Guy |editor-last=Standing |quote=Among those who have become convinced of the virtues of the basic income approach are several Nobel Prize-winning economists of surprisingly diverse political convictions: Milton Friedman, Herbert Simon, Robert Solow, Jan Tinbergen and James Tobin (besides, of course, James Meade who was an advocate from his younger days).}}</ref> Income grants are argued to be vastly more efficient in extending basic needs to the poor than [[subsidies|subsidizing]] supplies whose effectiveness in poverty alleviation is diluted by the non-poor who enjoy the same subsidized prices.<ref name=Jha> {{cite journal |year = 2010 |first1 = Shikha |last1 = Jha |first2 = Bharat |last2 = Ramaswami |title = How Can Food Subsidies Work Better? Answers from India and the Philippines |journal = Erd Working Paper |url = http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2010/economics-wp221.pdf |publisher = Asian Development Bank |location = Manila |issn = 1655-5252 |access-date = 23 January 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150506130749/http://adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2010/economics-wp221.pdf |archive-date = 6 May 2015 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> With cars and other appliances, the wealthiest 20% of Egypt uses about 93% of the country's fuel subsidies.<ref name=fossilfuel/> In some countries, fuel subsidies are a larger part of the budget than health and education.<ref name=fossilfuel>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/12/20121210104516139607.html|title=How to end fossil fuel subsidies without hurting the poor|publisher=Aljazeera|access-date=23 January 2013|date=11 December 2012|archive-date=14 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121214104328/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/12/20121210104516139607.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/06/world/asia/india-takes-aim-at-poverty-with-cash-transfer-program.html?_r=0 |title= India Aims to Keep Money for Poor Out of Others' Pockets |work= The New York Times |access-date= 23 January 2013 |date= 5 January 2013 |archive-date= 15 May 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130515192059/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/06/world/asia/india-takes-aim-at-poverty-with-cash-transfer-program.html?_r=0 |url-status= live }}</ref> A 2008 study concluded that the money spent on in-kind transfers in India in a year could lift all India's poor out of poverty for that year if transferred directly.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kapur |first=Devesh |author2=Mukhopadhyay, Subramanian |title=More for the Poor and Less for and by the State: The Case for Direct Cash Transfers |date=12 April 2008 |url=http://www.petersoninstitute.org/publications/papers/subramanian0408b.pdf |access-date=23 January 2013 |archive-date=14 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514165229/http://www.petersoninstitute.org/publications/papers/subramanian0408b.pdf }}</ref> The primary obstacle argued against direct cash transfers is the impractically for poor countries of such large and direct transfers. In practice, payments determined by complex iris scanning are used by war-torn [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] and Afghanistan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cgdev.org/blog/biometrics-identity-and-development|title=Biometrics, Identity and Development|publisher=Center for Global Development|date=14 October 2010|access-date=6 April 2013|archive-date=26 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926053529/http://www.cgdev.org/blog/biometrics-identity-and-development|url-status=live}}</ref> while India is phasing out its fuel subsidies in favor of direct transfers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/28/AR2011022805299.html|title=India announces changes in subsidies, will hand out cash to its poor|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=28 February 2011|access-date=6 April 2013|archive-date=10 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131010022657/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/28/AR2011022805299.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, in aid models, the [[famine relief]] model increasingly used by aid groups calls for giving cash or cash vouchers to the hungry to pay local farmers instead of buying food from donor countries, often required by law, as it wastes money on transport costs.<ref name=csmonitor>{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0604/p01s02-woaf.html|title=UN aid debate: give cash not food?|journal=Christian Science Monitor|date=4 June 2008|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=3 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703113649/http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0604/p01s02-woaf.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=wfp>{{cite web|url=http://www.wfp.org/english/?ModuleID=137&Key=2899 |title=Cash roll-out to help hunger hot spots |publisher=[[World Food Program]] |date=8 December 2008 |access-date=21 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212124012/http://www.wfp.org/english/?ModuleID=137&Key=2899 |archive-date=12 February 2009 }}</ref> ==== Economic freedoms ==== {{see also|Economic freedom|Red tape}} Corruption often leads to many [[civil service]]s being treated by governments as employment agencies to loyal supporters<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21678243-regions-countries-desperately-need-reform-their-public-sectors-aiwa-yes|title=Arab bureaucracies|publisher=economist.com|access-date=5 January 2016|date=14 November 2014|archive-date=16 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116150858/http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21678243-regions-countries-desperately-need-reform-their-public-sectors-aiwa-yes|url-status=live}}</ref> and so it could mean going through 20 procedures, paying $2,696 in fees, and waiting 82 business days to start a business in [[Bolivia]], while in [[Canada]] it takes two days, two registration procedures, and $280 to do the same.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dipak Das Gupta|author2=Mustapha K. Nabli|author3=World Bank|title=Trade, Investment, and Development in the Middle East and North Africa: Engaging With the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCZcHibu5OIC&pg=PA122|year=2003|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-5574-9|page=122|access-date=14 October 2015|archive-date=17 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517073339/https://books.google.com/books?id=hCZcHibu5OIC&pg=PA122|url-status=live}}</ref> Such costly barriers favor big firms at the expense of small enterprises, where most jobs are created.<ref name=cato>{{cite web|url=http://www.cato.org/research/articles/vas-0109.html |title=Ending mass poverty |publisher=cato.org |access-date=27 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524064149/http://www.cato.org/research/articles/vas-0109.html |archive-date=24 May 2011 }}</ref> Often, businesses have to bribe government officials even for routine activities, which is, in effect, a tax on business.<ref name="macroeconomics1">Krugman, Paul, and Robin Wells. ''Macroeconomics''. 2. New York City: Worth Publishers, 2009. Print.</ref> Noted reductions in poverty in recent decades has occurred in China and India mostly as a result of the abandonment of [[collective farming]] in China and the ending of the [[central planning]] model known as the [[License Raj]] in India.<ref name=bbc1>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5407770.stm|title=Can aid bring an end to poverty|work=BBC News|access-date=28 May 2011|first=Mark|last=Doyle|date=4 October 2006|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402201358/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5407770.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/55427.stm|title=India:the economy|work=BBC News|date=3 December 1998|access-date=5 July 2011|archive-date=3 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803020137/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/55427.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/06/24/poor_little_rich_country?page=0,1|title=Poor Little Rich Country|publisher=foreignpolicy.com|date=24 June 2011|access-date=5 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628204700/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/06/24/poor_little_rich_country?page=0,1|archive-date=28 June 2011}}</ref> The [[World Bank]] concludes that governments and feudal elites extending to the poor the right to the land that they live and use are 'the key to reducing poverty' citing that land rights greatly increase poor people's wealth, in some cases doubling it.<ref name=landrights>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3006562.stm|title=Land rights help fight poverty|publisher=bbcnews.com|access-date=23 January 2013|date=20 June 2003|archive-date=16 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416033026/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3006562.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Providing secure tenure to land ownership creates incentives to improve the land and thus improves the welfare of the poor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deininger |first=Klaus |date=2003 |title=Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/15125 |publisher=[[World Bank]] |series=World Bank Policy Research Report |language=en-US |location=Washington, DC|doi=10.1596/0-8213-5071-4 |isbn=978-0-8213-5071-3 }}</ref> It is argued that those in power have an incentive to not secure property rights as they are able to then more easily take land or any small business that does well to their supporters.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.economist.com/leaders/2020/09/12/who-owns-what?partnerize_clickref=1011lwUDLckW|title= Who owns what? Enforceable property rights are still far too rare in poor countries|publisher=economist.com|access-date=24 June 2023|date=12 September 2020 }}</ref> Greater access to markets brings more income to the poor. Road infrastructure has a direct impact on poverty.<ref name="GCR">{{cite web|url=http://www.weforum.org/en/initiatives/gcp/Global%20Competitiveness%20Report/index.htm |title=Global Competitiveness Report 2006, World Economic Forum |publisher=weforum.org |access-date=28 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619083349/http://www.weforum.org/en/initiatives/gcp/Global%2BCompetitiveness%2BReport/index.htm |archive-date=19 June 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adbi.org/conf-seminar-papers/2004/11/26/830.infrastructure.poverty.reduction/|title=Infrastructure and Poverty Reduction: Cross-country Evidence|publisher=abdi.org|access-date=28 May 2011|archive-date=26 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926192919/http://www.adbi.org/conf-seminar-papers/2004/11/26/830.infrastructure.poverty.reduction/|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, migration from poorer countries resulted in $328 billion sent from richer to poorer countries in 2010, more than double the $120 billion in official aid flows from [[OECD]] members. In 2011, India got $52 billion from its [[diaspora]], more than it took in [[foreign direct investment]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displaystory.cfm?subjectid=894664&story_id=14586906|title=Migration and development: The aid workers who really help|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=27 May 2011|date=8 October 2009|archive-date=10 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100310212904/http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displaystory.cfm?subjectid=894664&story_id=14586906|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Financial services ==== {{See also|Microfinance|Microcredit}} [[File:Kiwanja uganda charging 1.jpg|thumb|Information and communication technologies for development help to fight poverty.]] [[Microloan]]s, made famous by the [[Grameen Bank]], is where small amounts of money are loaned to farmers or villages, mostly women, who can then obtain physical capital to increase their economic rewards. However, microlending has been criticized for making hyperprofits off the poor even from its founder, [[Muhammad Yunus]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/15/opinion/15yunus.html|title=Sacrificing microcredit for megaprofits|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first=Muhammad|last=Yunus|date=14 January 2011|archive-date=29 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229061555/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/15/opinion/15yunus.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and in India, [[Arundhati Roy]] asserts that some 250,000 debt-ridden farmers have been driven to suicide.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/06/business/global/06micro.html|title=Microlenders, honored with Nobel, are struggling|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first=Vikas|last=Bajaj|date=5 January 2011|archive-date=17 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617105040/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/06/business/global/06micro.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/18/world/asia/18micro.html|title=India microcredit faces collapse from defaults|work=The New York Times|access-date=27 May 2011|first1=Lydia|last1=Polgreen|first2=Vikas|last2=Bajaj|date=17 November 2010|archive-date=27 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127014631/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/18/world/asia/18micro.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://www.democracynow.org/blog/2014/4/8/wednesday_arundhati_roy_on_elections_in Excerpt From "Capitalism: A Ghost Story" By Arundhati Roy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529045003/http://www.democracynow.org/blog/2014/4/8/wednesday_arundhati_roy_on_elections_in |date=29 May 2014 }}. ''[[Democracy Now!]]'' Retrieved 27 May 2014.</ref> Those in poverty place overwhelming importance on having a safe place to save money, much more so than receiving loans.<ref name=time.com>{{cite news|last=Kiviat |first=Barbara |url=http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1918733,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831064814/http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1918733,00.html |archive-date=31 August 2009 |title=Microfinance's next step: deposits|magazine=Time|access-date=23 October 2010 |date=30 August 2009}}</ref> Additionally, a large part of [[microfinance]] loans are spent not on investments but on products that would usually be paid by a [[checking account|checking]] or [[savings account]].<ref name=time.com/> Microsavings are designs to make savings products available for the poor, who make small deposits. [[Mobile banking]] uses the wide availability of mobile phones to address the problem of the heavy regulation and costly maintenance of saving accounts.<ref name=time.com/> This usually involves a network of agents of mostly shopkeepers, instead of bank branches, would take deposits in cash and translate these onto a virtual account on customers' phones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and issued back in cash with a small commission, making [[remittance]]s safer.<ref name=safaricom>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8194241.stm|title=Africa's mobile banking revolution|work=BBC News |access-date=28 May 2011|first=Louise|last=Greenwood|date=12 August 2009|archive-date=28 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828014936/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8194241.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Education and vocational training ==== [[File:Early Childhood Education USAID Africa.jpg|thumb|Early childhood education through [[USAID]] in [[Ziway]], Ethiopia]] [[Free education]] through [[public education]] or charitable organizations rather than through tuition, from [[early childhood education]] through the [[tertiary level]] provides children from low-income families who may not otherwise have the financial resources with better job prospects and higher earnings and promotes social mobility.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Steven Barnett |first=W. |date=1998-03-01 |title=Long-Term Cognitive and Academic Effects of Early Childhood Education on Children in Poverty |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743598902754 |journal=Preventive Medicine |language=en |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=204–207 |doi=10.1006/pmed.1998.0275 |pmid=9578996 |issn=0091-7435}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=King |first1=Mary |date=December 8, 2021 |title=A Strong Economic Case for Federal Investment in Universal Preschool |url=https://inequality.org/research/build-back-better-universal-preschool/ |access-date=2023-02-24 |publisher=Institute for Policy Studies}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=García |first1=Rosa M. |title=Debt-Free College: Principles for Prioritizing Low-Income Students |website=Center for Law and Social Policy |date=February 2019 |url=https://www.clasp.org/sites/default/files/publications/2019/02/2019_DebtFreeCollegePrinciples.pdf |access-date=24 February 2023 |publisher=Center for Law and Social Policy |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |author=Jon Marcus |author2=Holly K. Hacker |date=2015-12-17 |title=The rich-poor divide on America's college campuses is getting wider, fast |url=http://hechingerreport.org/the-socioeconomic-divide-on-americas-college-campuses-is-getting-wider-fast/ |access-date=2023-02-22 |work=The Hechinger Report |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Job training]] and [[vocational education]] programs that target training in technical skills in specific industries or occupations that are in high demand can reduce poverty and wealth concentration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oh |first1=Sehun |last2=DiNitto |first2=Diana M. |last3=Kim |first3=Yeonwoo |date=2021-01-01 |title=Exiting poverty: a systematic review of U.S. postsecondary education and job skills training programs in the post-welfare reform era |journal=International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy |volume=41 |issue=11/12 |pages=1210–1226 |doi=10.1108/IJSSP-09-2020-0429 |s2cid=234253474 |issn=0144-333X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Chunqiu |last2=Sun |first2=Yang |date=2021-03-25 |title=Mechanism of vocational education promoting precision poverty alleviation |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0020720920983505 |journal=The International Journal of Electrical Engineering & Education |volume=60 |language=en |pages=4006–4022 |doi=10.1177/0020720920983505 |s2cid=233691683 |issn=0020-7209}}</ref> Strategies to provide education cost effectively include [[deworming]] children, which costs about 50 cents per child per year and reduces non-attendance from [[anemia]], illness and malnutrition, while being only a twenty-fifth as expensive as increasing school attendance by constructing schools.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/22/books/review/Kristof-t.html?_r=1&ref=global-|title=How can we help the world's poor|publisher=NYTimes|date=20 November 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|first=Nicholas D.|last=Kristof|archive-date=15 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515194939/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/22/books/review/Kristof-t.html?_r=1&ref=global-|url-status=live}}</ref> Schoolgirl absenteeism could be cut in half by simply providing free [[sanitary towel]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8488375.stm|title=Sanitary pads help Ghana girls go to school|work=BBC News|date=29 January 2010|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=2 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902124432/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8488375.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Paying for school meals is argued to be an efficient strategy in increasing school enrollment, reducing absenteeism and increasing student attention.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/oct/27/free-school-meals-young-learners-liberia-marys-meals|title=Free school meals a recipe for success for young learners in Liberia|work=The Guardian|date=27 October 2016|access-date=30 October 2016|archive-date=31 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031030422/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/oct/27/free-school-meals-young-learners-liberia-marys-meals|url-status=live}}</ref> Desirable actions such as enrolling children in school or receiving vaccinations can be encouraged by a form of aid known as [[conditional cash transfer]]s.<ref name=Brazil>{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/1113/p01s03-woam.html?page=1|title=Brazil becomes antipoverty showcase|journal=Christian Science Monitor|date=13 November 2008|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=24 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724225956/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2008/1113/p01s03-woam.html?page=1|url-status=live}}</ref> In Mexico, for example, dropout rates of 16- to 19-year-olds in rural area dropped by 20% and children gained half an inch in height.<ref name=csm>{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2009/0921/p06s10-woam.html|title=Latin America makes dent in poverty with 'conditional cash' programs|journal=Christian Science Monitor|date=21 September 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=26 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926054924/http://www.csmonitor.com/2009/0921/p06s10-woam.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Initial fears that the program would encourage families to stay at home rather than work to collect benefits have proven to be unfounded. Instead, there is less excuse for neglectful behavior as, for example, children stopped begging on the streets instead of going to school because it could result in suspension from the program.<ref name=csm/> ==Antipoverty institutions== ===United Nations=== {{See also|Sustainable Development Goals}} In 2015 all UN Member States adopted the 17 [[Sustainable Development Goals]] as part of the [[Post-2015 Development Agenda]], which sought to create a future global development framework to succeed the [[Millennium Development Goals]], which were goals set in 2000 and were meant to be achieved by 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Biermann |first1=Frank |last2=Kanie |first2=Norichika |last3=Kim |first3=Rakhyun E |date=2017-06-01 |title=Global governance by goal-setting: the novel approach of the UN Sustainable Development Goals |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877343517300209 |journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability |series=Open issue, part II |language=en |volume=26–27 |pages=26–31 |doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2017.01.010 |bibcode=2017COES...26...26B |issn=1877-3435}}</ref> Most targets are to be achieved by 2030, although some have no end date.<ref name="UN Stats-2017">{{Cite web |title=SDG Indicators - Global indicator framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development |url=https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/ |access-date=6 August 2020 |website=United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD)}}</ref> [[Sustainable Development Goal 1|Goal 1]] is to "end poverty in all its forms everywhere".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/poverty/|title = Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere}}</ref> It aims to eliminate extreme poverty for all people measured by daily wages less than $1.25 and at least half the total number of men, women, and children living in poverty. In addition, social protection systems must be established at the national level and equal access to economic resources must be ensured.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/sdg-2030/targets/lang--en/index.htm|title=2030 Development agenda: ILO Focus targets (The 2030 development agenda)|website=www.ilo.org}}</ref> Strategies have to be developed at the national, regional and international levels to support the eradication of poverty.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal1|title = Goal 1 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs}}</ref> ===Development banks=== {{Main|Development bank}} A ''development financial institution'', also known as a ''development bank'', is a [[financial institution]] that provides [[risk capital]] for [[Economic development|economic development projects]] on a non-commercial basis. They are often established and owned by governments to finance projects that would otherwise not be able to get financing from commercial lenders. These include [[international financial institutions]] such as the [[World Bank]], which is the largest development bank. ===Private sector=== {{See also|Nongovernmental organization}} The [[private sector]] includes [[nonprofit organization|nonprofit]] [[nongovernmental organization]]s as well as for-profit institutions involved in combating poverty. In recent decades, the number of nongovernmental organizations has increased dramatically. The [[High level forums on aid effectiveness]] that was coordinated by the [[OECD]] found that this leads to fragmentation where too many agencies were financing too many small projects using too many different procedures and that the civil service of the donor countries were overstretched producing reports for each.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/international/2008/09/04/a-scramble-in-africa|title=A scramble in Africa|publisher=Economist magazine|access-date=2 June 2023|date=4 September 2008}}</ref> The ''[[Poverty industrial complex]]'' refers to for-profit companies taking over roles previously held by government agencies. The incentive for profit in such companies has been argued to interfere with efficiently providing the needed services. == Perspectives == ===Economic theories=== {{See also|Causes of poverty}} [[File:20220801 Economic stratification - cross-class friendships - bar chart.svg|thumb|upright=1.5| Data shows substantial social segregation correlating with economic income groups.<ref name=EconomicStratification/> However, social connectedness to people of higher income levels is a strong predictor of upward income mobility.<ref name=EconomicStratification>Data from {{cite journal |last1=Chetty |first1=Raj |last2=Jackson |first2=Matthew O. |last3=Kuchler |first3=Theresa |last4=Stroebel |first4=Johannes |last5=Hendren |first5=Nathaniel |last6=Fluegge |first6=Robert B. |last7=Gong |first7=Sara |last8=Gonzalez |first8=Frederico |last9=Grondin |first9=Armelle |last10=Jacob |first10=Matthew |display-authors=4 |title=Social capital I: measurement and associations with economic mobility |journal=Nature |date=August 1, 2022 |volume=608 |issue=7921 |pages=108–121 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04996-4 |pmid=35915342 |pmc=9352590 |bibcode=2022Natur.608..108C }} Charted in {{cite news |last1=Leonhardt |first1=David |title='Friending Bias' / A large new study offers clues about how lower-income children can rise up the economic ladder. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/01/briefing/economic-ladder-rich-poor-americans.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=August 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220801104004/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/01/briefing/economic-ladder-rich-poor-americans.html |archive-date=August 1, 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref>]] The cause of poverty is a highly ideologically charged subject, as different causes point to different remedies. Very broadly speaking, the [[socialism|socialist]] tradition locates the roots of poverty in problems of distribution and the use of the [[means of production]] as capital benefiting individuals, and calls for [[redistribution of wealth]] as the solution, whereas the [[neoliberal]] school of thought holds that creating conditions for profitable private investment is the solution. Neoliberal [[think tank]]s have received extensive funding,<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://harpers.org/archive/2004/09/tentacles-of-rage/|title=Tentacles of rage|first=Lewis|last=Lapham|date=October 2004|journal=Harper's Magazine|volume=September 2004|access-date=28 September 2019|archive-date=19 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019043338/https://harpers.org/archive/2004/09/tentacles-of-rage/|url-status=live}}</ref> and the ability to apply many of their ideas in highly indebted countries in the [[global South]] as a condition for receiving emergency loans from the [[International Monetary Fund]]. The existence of inequality is in part due to a set of self-reinforcing behaviors that all together constitute one aspect of the [[cycle of poverty]]. These behaviors, in addition to unfavorable, external circumstances, also explain the existence of the [[Matthew effect]], which not only exacerbates existing inequality, but is more likely to make it multigenerational. Widespread, multigenerational poverty is an important contributor to civil unrest and political instability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eda.admin.ch/deza/en/home/themes-sdc/fragile-contexts-and-prevention/fragile-states.html|title=Fragile states – poverty, instability and violence|website=www.eda.admin.ch|language=en|access-date=15 June 2018|archive-date=15 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615110941/https://www.eda.admin.ch/deza/en/home/themes-sdc/fragile-contexts-and-prevention/fragile-states.html|url-status=live}}</ref> For example, [[Raghuram Rajan|Raghuram G. Rajan]], former governor of the [[Reserve Bank of India]] and former chief economist at the International Monetary Fund, has blamed the ever-widening gulf between the rich and the poor, especially [[income inequality in the United States|in the US]], to be one of the main fault lines which caused the financial institutions to pump money into [[subprime mortgages]]—on political behest, as a palliative and not a remedy, for poverty—causing the [[Subprime mortgage crisis|financial crisis of 2007–2009]]. In Rajan's view the main cause of the increasing gap between high income and low income earners was lack of equal access to higher education for the latter.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.amazon.com/Fault-Lines-Fractures-Threaten-Paperback/dp/B00OX8KPE6/ref=sr_1_12?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1466701032&sr=1-12&keywords=fault+lines+how+hidden+fractures+still+threaten+the+world+economy|title=Fault Lines: How Hidden Fractures Still Threaten the World Economy by Raghuram G. Rajan (2012) Paperback|date=1 January 2012|publisher=HarperCollins India|access-date=24 June 2016|archive-date=26 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126113725/https://www.amazon.com/Fault-Lines-Fractures-Threaten-Paperback/dp/B00OX8KPE6/ref=sr_1_12?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1466701032&sr=1-12&keywords=fault+lines+how+hidden+fractures+still+threaten+the+world+economy|url-status=live}}</ref> A [[Empirical evidence|data based]] scientific [[empirical research]], which studied the impact of [[Political family|dynastic politics]] on the level of poverty of the provinces, found a [[Correlation and dependence|positive correlation]] between dynastic politics and poverty; i.e. the higher proportion of dynastic politicians in power in a province leads to higher poverty rate.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Inequality in democracy: Insights from an empirical analysis of political dynasties in the 15th Philippine Congress|journal = Philippine Political Science Journal|date = 1 December 2012|issn = 0115-4451|pages = 132–145|volume = 33|issue = 2|doi = 10.1080/01154451.2012.734094|first1 = Ronald U.|last1 = Mendoza|first2 = Edsel L. Jr.|last2 = Beja|first3 = Victor S.|last3 = Venida|first4 = David B.|last4 = Yap|s2cid = 154856834|url = https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/40104/1/MPRA_paper_40104.pdf|access-date = 22 September 2019|archive-date = 1 August 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200801200741/https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/40104/1/MPRA_paper_40104.pdf|url-status = live}}</ref> There is significant evidence that these political dynasties use their political dominance over their respective regions to enrich themselves, using methods such as graft or outright bribery of legislators.<ref name=enough8>{{Cite web|title = What is wrong with political dynasties?|url = http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/276345/opinion/what-is-wrong-with-political-dynasties|website = GMA News Online| date=October 2012 |access-date = 8 November 2015|archive-date = 26 November 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151126001056/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/276345/opinion/what-is-wrong-with-political-dynasties|url-status = live}}</ref> Most economic historians believe that throughout most of human history, extreme poverty was the norm for roughly 90% of the population, and only with the emergence of [[industrialization]] in the 19th century were the masses of people lifted out of it.<ref name=SullivanHickel2023>{{cite journal |last1=Sullivan |first1=Dylan |last2=Hickel|first2=Jason |date=2023 |title=Capitalism and extreme poverty: A global analysis of real wages, human height, and mortality since the long 16th century|url= |journal=[[World Development (journal)|World Development]]|volume=161 |issue= |page=106026 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106026|s2cid=252315733 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{ r | Vox_2019-02-12 | p=1 | q=But in some ways, Hickel's response reflects the crux of the dispute between him and Roser. Roser — like most economic historians — does not view poverty as created but as the original state of humankind from its inception until the Industrial Revolution. }} This narrative is advanced by, among others, [[Martin Ravallion]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Ravallion|first=Martin|date=2016 |title=The Economics of Poverty: History, Measurement, and Policy|url= |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press|page= |isbn=978-0-19-021277-3}}</ref> [[Nicholas Kristof]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Kristof|first=Nicholas|date=December 28, 2019 |title=This Has Been the Best Year Ever|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/28/opinion/sunday/2019-best-year-poverty.html|work=The New York Times |location= |access-date=December 13, 2022}}</ref> and [[Steven Pinker]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinker|first=Steven|date=2018 |title=Enlightenment now: The case for reason, science, humanism, and progress|url= |location= |publisher=Viking|page= |isbn=978-0-525-42757-5}}</ref> Some academics, including Dylan Sullivan and [[Jason Hickel]] have challenged this contemporary mainstream narrative on poverty, arguing that extreme poverty was not the norm throughout human history, but emerged during "periods of severe social and economic dislocation", including high European feudalism and the apex of the Roman Empire, and that it expanded significantly after 1500 with the emergence of colonialism and the beginnings of capitalism, stating that "the expansion of the capitalist world-system caused a dramatic and prolonged process of impoverishment on a scale unparalleled in recorded history." Sullivan and Hickel assert that only with the rise of [[anti-colonial]] and socialist political movements in the 20th century did human welfare begin to see significant improvement.<ref name="SullivanHickel2023" /> However, all scholars and intellectuals, including Hickel, agree that the incomes of the poorest people in the world have increased since 1981.<ref name="Vox_2019-02-12">{{Cite web |last=Matthews |first=Dylan |date=2019-02-12 |title=Bill Gates tweeted out a chart and sparked a huge debate about global poverty |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2019/2/12/18215534/bill-gates-global-poverty-chart |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=Vox |language=en}}</ref> Nevertheless, Sullivan and Hickel argue that poverty persists under contemporary global capitalism (in spite of it being highly productive) because masses of working people are cut off from common land and resources, have no ownership or control over the [[means of production]], and have their labor power "appropriated by a ruling class or an external imperial power," thereby maintaining extreme inequality.<ref name="SullivanHickel2023" /> Marian L. Tupy, a senior fellow of the [[Cato Institute]], a [[right-libertarian]] think tank, criticized Hickel's claim that people before industrialization lived well without a lot of monetary income, stating that "The evidence from contemporary accounts and academic research" shows that "Compared to today, Western European living standards prior to industrialization were miserably low.", that "poverty was widespread and it was precisely the onset of industrialization and global trade … which led to poverty alleviation first in the West and then in the Rest."<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2019-02-14 |title=The Romantic Idea of a Plentiful Past Is Pure Fantasy |url=https://www.humanprogress.org/the-romantic-idea-of-a-plentiful-past-is-pure-fantasy/ |access-date=2023-07-22 |website=HumanProgress |language=en-US}}</ref> and that both [[Karl Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels]], while advocating for socialism, recognized that the capitalist system developing around them had improved people's material conditions.<ref name=":1" /> ===Environmentalism=== {{Main|Environmentalism of the poor}} {{See also|Climate change and poverty}} [[File:Depuradora de Lluc.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.15|A [[sewage treatment]] plant that uses [[solar energy]], located at [[Santuari de Lluc]] monastery, Majorca]] Important studies such as the [[Our Common Future|Brundtland Report]] concluded that poverty causes [[environmental degradation]], while other theories like [[environmentalism of the poor]] conclude that the global poor may be the most important force for sustainability.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martínez Alier |first=Juan |title=The environmentalism of the poor: a study of ecological conflicts and valuation |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-567328-9 |location=New Delhi |oclc=61669200}}</ref> Either way, the poor suffer most from environmental degradation caused by reckless [[exploitation of natural resources]] by the rich.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Anantha Duraiappah (1996). ''Poverty and Environmental Degradation: a Literature Review and Analysis'' CREED Working Paper Series No 8 International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Retrieved on June 27, 2016 |url=http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/8127IIED.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113164806/http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/8127IIED.pdf |archive-date=13 January 2016 |access-date=27 June 2016}}</ref> This unfair distribution of environmental burdens and benefits has generated the global [[environmental justice]] movement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martinez-Alier |first1=Joan |last2=Temper |first2=Leah |last3=Del Bene |first3=Daniela |last4=Scheidel |first4=Arnim |date=2016-05-03 |title=Is there a global environmental justice movement? |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03066150.2016.1141198 |journal=The Journal of Peasant Studies |language=en |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=731–755 |doi=10.1080/03066150.2016.1141198 |s2cid=156535916 |issn=0306-6150}}</ref> A report published in 2013 by the [[World Bank]], with support from the [[Climate & Development Knowledge Network]], found that climate change was likely to hinder future attempts to reduce poverty. The report presented the likely impacts of present day, 2 °C and 4 °C warming on agricultural production, water resources, coastal ecosystems and cities across Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and South East Asia. The impacts of a temperature rise of 2 °C included: regular food shortages in Sub-Saharan Africa; shifting rain patterns in South Asia leaving some parts under water and others without enough water for power generation, irrigation or drinking; degradation and loss of reefs in South East Asia, resulting in reduced fish stocks; and coastal communities and cities more vulnerable to increasingly violent storms.<ref>[http://cdkn.org/2013/06/report-warmer-world-will-keep-millions-of-people-trapped-in-poverty/?loclang=en_gb REPORT: Warmer world will keep millions of people trapped in poverty.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194528/http://cdkn.org/2013/06/report-warmer-world-will-keep-millions-of-people-trapped-in-poverty/?loclang=en_gb |date=29 October 2013 }} [[Climate & Development Knowledge Network]]. Retrieved 31 July 2013.</ref> In 2016, a UN report claimed that by 2030, an additional 122 million more people could be driven to extreme poverty because of climate change.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/oct/17/climate-change-could-drive-122m-more-people-into-extreme-poverty-by-2030-un-united-nations-report|title=Climate change could drive 122m more people into extreme poverty by 2030|work=The Guardian|access-date=18 October 2016|date=17 October 2016|archive-date=18 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018003039/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/oct/17/climate-change-could-drive-122m-more-people-into-extreme-poverty-by-2030-un-united-nations-report|url-status=live}}</ref> Global warming can also lead to a deficiency in water availability; with higher temperatures and CO<sub>2</sub> levels, plants consume more water leaving less for people. By consequence, water in rivers and streams will decline in the mid-altitude regions like Central Asia, Europe and North America. And if CO<sub>2</sub> levels continue to rise, or even remain the same, droughts will be happening much faster and will be lasting longer. According to a 2016 study led by Professor of Water Management, Arjen Hoekstra, four billion people are affected by [[water scarcity]] at least one month per year.<ref>{{Cite web|date=4 November 2019|title=Thirsty future ahead as climate change explodes plant growth|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/10/plants-consume-more-water-climate-change-thirsty-future/|access-date=30 November 2020|website=Science|language=en|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101043113/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/10/plants-consume-more-water-climate-change-thirsty-future/}}</ref> ===Spirituality=== {{See also|Simple living|Evangelical counsels}} [[File:Giotto - Legend of St Francis - -05- - Renunciation of Wordly Goods.jpg|thumb|St. [[Francis of Assisi]] renounces his worldly goods in a painting attributed to [[Giotto di Bondone]].]] Among some individuals, poverty is considered a necessary or desirable condition, which must be embraced to reach certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states. Poverty is often understood to be an essential element of [[nekkhamma|renunciation]] in religions such as [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]] (only for monks, not for lay persons) and [[Jainism]], whilst in [[Christian views on poverty and wealth|Christianity]], in particular Roman Catholicism, it is one of the [[evangelical counsels]]. The main aim of giving up things of the materialistic world is to withdraw oneself from sensual pleasures (as they are considered illusionary and only temporary in some religions—such as the concept of [[dunya]] in [[Islam]]). This self-invited poverty (or giving up pleasures) is different from the one caused by economic imbalance. Some Christian communities, such as the [[The Simple Way|Simple Way]], the [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]], and the [[Amish]] value voluntary poverty;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premierchristianity.com/Past-Issues/2019/August-2019/Meet-the-Bruderhof-Our-exclusive-peek-inside-a-modern-Christian-utopia|title=Meet the Bruderhof: Our exclusive peek inside a modern Christian utopia|last=Premier|date=18 July 2019|website=Premier Christianity|language=en-GB|access-date=26 October 2019|archive-date=27 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927121322/https://www.premierchristianity.com/Past-Issues/2019/August-2019/Meet-the-Bruderhof-Our-exclusive-peek-inside-a-modern-Christian-utopia}}</ref> some even take a vow of poverty, similar to that of the traditional Catholic orders, in order to live a more complete life of discipleship.<ref name="Oved 2017 ">{{cite book | last=Oved | first=Iaácov | title=The witness of the brothers: a history of the Bruderhof | publisher=Routledge | publication-place=London | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-351-47253-1 | oclc=994005958 }}</ref> [[Benedict XVI]] distinguished "poverty ''chosen''" (the poverty of spirit proposed by Jesus), and "poverty ''to be fought''" (unjust and imposed poverty). He considered that the moderation implied in the former favors solidarity, and is a necessary condition so as to fight effectively to eradicate the abuse of the latter.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/homilies/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_hom_20090101_world-day-peace_en.html|title=World Peace Day Address 2009|publisher=The Vatican|date=1 January 2009|access-date=21 June 2011|archive-date=28 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628185005/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/homilies/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_hom_20090101_world-day-peace_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As it was indicated above the reduction of poverty results from [[religion]], but also can result from [[solidarity]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://wydawnictwoumk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/CJFA/article/view/CJFA.2014.001/3213 |title=S. Adamiak, D. Walczak, Catholic social teaching and social solidarity in the context of social security, Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting, Vol 3, No 1, p. 17. |access-date=19 December 2014 |archive-date=16 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416181657/http://wydawnictwoumk.pl/czasopisma/index.php/CJFA/article/view/CJFA.2014.001/3213 |url-status=live }}</ref> == See also == {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Accumulation by dispossession]] * [[Aporophobia]] * [[Bottom of the pyramid]] * [[Economic inequality]] * [[Environmental racism]] * [[Emotional detachment]] * [[Cycle of poverty]] * [[Distribution of wealth]] * [[Food bank]] * [[Income disparity]] * [[In-group and out-group]] * [[International development]] * [[International inequality]] * [[Involuntary unemployment]] * [[Juvenilization of poverty]] * [[List of countries by income inequality]] * [[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty]] * [[List of sovereign states by wealth inequality]] * [[Millennium Development Goals]] * [[Prosperity]] * [[Redistribution of income and wealth]] * [[Social programs]] * [[Social protection floor]] * [[Social safety net]] * [[Social stigma]] * [[United Nations Millennium Declaration]] * [[Universal basic income]] * [[World Poverty Clock]] {{div col end}} == References == === Citations === {{Reflist}} === Sources === {{refbegin}} * {{Free-content attribution | title = Global education monitoring report 2019: gender report: Building bridges for gender equality | author = UNESCO | publisher = UNESCO | page numbers = | source = UNESCO | documentURL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000368753 | license statement URL = | license = CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO }} {{refend}} == Further reading == {{refbegin}} * Allen, Robert C. 2020. "[https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-091819-014652 Poverty and the Labor Market: Today and Yesterday.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724225955/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-economics-091819-014652 |date=24 July 2021 }}" Annual Review of Economomics. * [https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/half-world-s-poor-live-just-5-countries Half of the world's poor live in just 5 countries] Roy Katayama & Divinshi Wadha. World Bank Blogs. * [[Tony Atkinson|Atkinson, Anthony]]. ''Poverty in Europe'' 1998 * {{cite book |author=Babb, Sarah |title=Behind the Development Banks: Washington Politics, World Poverty, and the Wealth of Nations |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-226-03365-5}} * Banerjee, Abhijit & Esther Duflo, Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011) * Bergmann, Barbara. [http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2000/0300bergmann.html "Deciding Who's Poor"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520150222/http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2000/0300bergmann.html |date=20 May 2008 }}, [[Dollars & Sense]], March/April 2000 * Betson, David M. & Warlick, Jennifer L. "Alternative Historical Trends in Poverty." ''American Economic Review'' 88:348–51. 1998. * Brady, David "Rethinking the Sociological Measurement of Poverty" ''Social Forces'' 81#3 2003, pp. 715–751 Online in Project Muse. * Buhmann, Brigitte, et al. 1988. "Equivalence Scales, Well-Being, Inequality, and Poverty: Sensitivity Estimates Across Ten Countries Using the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database." Review of Income and Wealth 34:115–142. * {{cite book |author1=Chase, Elaine |author2=Bantebya-Kyomuhendo, Grace|title=Poverty and Shame. Global Experiences |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-968672-8}} * Danziger, Sheldon H. & Weinberg, Daniel H. "The Historical Record: Trends in Family Income, Inequality, and Poverty." pp. 18–50 in ''Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change,'' edited by Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel. H. Weinberg. Russell Sage Foundation. 1994. * {{cite book |last=Desmond|first=Matthew |author-link=Matthew Desmond|date=2023 |title=[[Poverty, by America]]|url= |location= |publisher=[[Crown Publishing Group]]|page= |isbn=978-0-593-23991-9}} * Firebaugh, Glenn. "Empirics of World Income Inequality." ''American Journal of Sociology'' (2000) 104:1597–1630. in JSTOR * [[Herbert J. Gans|Gans, Herbert J.]], [http://www.sociology.org.uk/as4p3.pdf "The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay All"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605004424/http://www.sociology.org.uk/as4p3.pdf |date=5 June 2007 }}, Social Policy, July/August 1971: pp. 20–24 * Gordon, David M. ''Theories of Poverty and Underemployment: Orthodox, Radical, and Dual Labor Market Perspectives.'' 1972. * Haveman, Robert H. ''Poverty Policy and Poverty Research.'' [[University of Wisconsin Press]] 1987 {{ISBN|978-0-299-11150-2}} * Haymes, Stephen, Maria Vidal de Haymes and Reuben Miller (eds). ''[http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415673440/ The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617164555/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415673440/ |date=17 June 2015 }}.'' [[Routledge]], 2015. {{ISBN|978-0-415-67344-0}}. * Iceland, John ''Poverty in America: a handbook'' University of California Press, 2003 * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Lee|first=Dwight R. |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter=Wealth and Poverty|chapter-url=https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n326.xml|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n326 |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages=537–539}} * McEwan, Joanne, and Pamela Sharpe, eds. ''Accommodating Poverty: The Housing and Living Arrangements of the English Poor, c. 1600–1850'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2010) 292 pages; scholarly studies of rural and urban poor, as well as vagrants, unmarried mothers, and almshouse dwellers. * {{cite journal | last1 = O'Connor | first1 = Alice | year = 2000 | title = Poverty Research and Policy for the Post-Welfare Era | doi = 10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.547 | journal = Annual Review of Sociology | volume = 26| pages = 547–562}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Osberg | first1 = Lars | last2 = Xu | first2 = Kuan | title = International Comparisons of Poverty Intensity: index decomposition and bootstrap inference | journal = The Journal of Human Resources | volume = 2000 | issue = 35| pages = 51–81 }} * Paugam, Serge. "Poverty and Social Exclusion: a sociological view." pp. 41–62 in ''The Future of European Welfare'', edited by Martin Rhodes and Yves Meny, 1998. * {{cite journal | last1 = Philippou | first1 = Lambros | year = 2010 | title = Public Space, Enlarged Mentality and Being-In-Poverty | journal = Philosophical Inquiry | volume = 32 | issue = 1–2| pages = 103–115 | doi=10.5840/philinquiry2010321/218}} * [[Vijay Prashad|Prashad, Vijay]]. ''The Poorer Nations: A Possible History of the Global South.'' [[Verso Books]], June 2014. {{ISBN|978-1-78168-158-9}} * Prashad, Vijay. "[https://www.jacobinmag.com/2014/11/making-poverty-history/ Making Poverty History]". ''[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]].'' 10 November 2014. * [[Steven Pressman (economist)|Pressman, Steven]], ''Poverty in America: an annotated bibliography.'' Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1994 {{ISBN|978-0-8108-2833-9}} * [[Marilynne Robinson|Robinson, Marilynne]], "Is Poverty Necessary? An idea that won't go away", ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'', vol. 338, no. 2029 (June 2019), pp. 25–33. "To bring up the subject of providing a better life is to lean too far left, to flirt with [[socialism]].... 'Why... do wages tend to a minimum which will give but a bare living?' A short answer would be: because they can.... Insofar as the public is barred from taking a central role in society, we lose wisdom to stealth, stupidity, parochialism." * Rothman, David J., (editor). ''The Almshouse Experience'' (Poverty U.S.A.: the Historical Record). New York: Arno Press, 1971. {{ISBN|978-0-405-03092-5}}<small>Reprint of Report of the committee appointed by the Board of Guardians of the Poor of the City and Districts of Philadelphia to visit the cities of Baltimore, New York, Providence, Boston, and Salem (published in Philadelphia, 1827); Report of the Massachusetts General Court's Committee on Pauper Laws (published in [Boston?], 1821); and the 1824 Report of the New York Secretary of State on the relief and settlement of the poor (from the 24th annual report of the New York State Board of Charities, 1901).</small> * [[Arundhati Roy|Roy, Arundhati]], ''Capitalism: A Ghost Story'', Haymarket Books, 2014, {{ISBN|978-1-60846-385-5}}. * [[Amartya Sen|Sen, Amartya]], ''Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation'', Oxford, [[Oxford University Press|Clarendon Press]], 1981. * [[Amartya Sen|Sen, Amartya]], ''Development as Freedom'', New York, Knopf, 1999. * Smeeding, Timothy M., O'Higgins, Michael & Rainwater, Lee. ''Poverty, Inequality and Income Distribution in Comparative Perspective.'' Urban Institute Press 1990. * [[Stephen C. Smith (economist)|Smith, Stephen C.]], ''Ending Global Poverty: a guide to what works'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005 * {{cite journal | last1 = Triest | first1 = Robert K. | title = Has Poverty Gotten Worse? | journal = Journal of Economic Perspectives | year = 1998 | volume = 12| pages = 97–114 | doi = 10.1257/jep.12.1.97 | doi-access = free }} * Wilson, Richard & Pickett, Kate. ''The Spirit Level'', London: Allen Lane, 2009 * [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21050421~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html World Bank: "Can South Asia End Poverty in a Generation?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415192500/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21050421~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html |date=15 April 2008 }} * [[World Bank Group|World Bank]], "[http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100411043749/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTWDRS/EXTWDR2004/0%2C%2CmenuPK%3A477704%7EpagePK%3A64167702%7EpiPK%3A64167676%7EtheSitePK%3A477688%2C00.html World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work For Poor People"], 2004 {{refend}} == External links == {{Commons category|Poverty}} {{Wiktionary|poverty}} {{Wikiquote}} {{Wikiversity|Eliminating poverty}} * [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552568 Addressing Global Poverty] from the [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] * [https://ourworldindata.org/extreme-poverty Data visualizations of the long-run development of poverty and list of data sources on poverty] on 'Our World in Data'. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090918223238/http://www.isdb.org/irj/portal/anonymous Islamic Development Bank] (archived 18 September 2009) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051204101908/http://www.lisproject.org/ Luxembourg Income Study] Contains a wealth of data on income inequality and poverty, and hundreds of its sponsored research papers using this data (archived 4 December 2005) * [http://www.oecd.org/ Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development] Contains reports on economic development as well as relations between rich and poor nations. * [https://ophi.org.uk/ OPHI] [[Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative]] (OPHI) Research to advance the human development approach to poverty reduction. * [http://www.transparency.org/ Transparency International] Tracks issues of government and corporate corruption around the world. * [https://www.un.org/ United Nations] Hundreds of free reports related to economic development and standards of living in countries around the world, such as the annual ''Human Development Report.'' * [http://www.usaid.gov/ US Agency for International Development] USAID is the primary US government agency with the mission for aid to developing countries. * [http://www.worldbank.org/ World Bank] Contains hundreds of reports which can be downloaded for free, such as the annual ''World Development Report.'' * [http://www.wfp.org/ World Food Program] Associated with the United Nations, the World Food Program compiles hundreds of reports on hunger and food security around the world. * [http://www.whypoverty.net/ Why poverty] Documentary films about poverty broadcast on television around the world in November 2012, then will be available online. * [https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/annual-income-richest-100-people-enough-end-global-poverty-four-times-over Annual income of richest 100 people enough to end global poverty four times over]. ''[[Oxfam International]],'' 19 January 2013. * [https://books.google.com/books?id=xxZi6pe2DgQC&dq=poverty+belgium+1975&pg=PA15 Contains estimates on the number of people living in poverty in selected countries from 1973 to 1985] * [https://books.google.com/books?id=FuEXzh48RYQC&q=world+bank+poverty+1981 Contains information on poverty in 1980] * [https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/how-was-life-volume-ii_e20f2f1a-en Contains estimates on trends in global extreme poverty since 1820] * [https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w15433/w15433.pdf Contains estimates on trends in world poverty from 1970 to 2006] * [http://aei.pitt.edu/100280/1/poverty_in_figures.pdf Includes estimates on poverty in various European countries in the Eighties] * [https://books.google.com/books?id=S2W9jZcp6M0C&q=world+bank+poverty+1960 Contains estimates on global poverty in 1975] {{Clear}} {{Poverty}} {{Deprivation Indicators}} {{Social class}} {{Africa topic|Poverty in}} {{Americas topic|Poverty in}} {{Asia topic|Poverty in}} {{Europe topic|Poverty in}} {{Oceania topic|Poverty in}} {{Effective altruism}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Poverty| ]] [[Category:Aid]] [[Category:Development economics]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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