Haiti Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ===Independent Haiti=== ====First Empire (1804–1806)==== {{main|First Empire of Haiti|1804 Haiti massacre}} [[File:Le Serment des Ancêtres, 1823.jpg|thumb|Pétion and Dessalines swearing allegiance to each other before God; painting by [[Guillaume Guillon-Lethière|Guillon-Lethière]]]] The independence of Saint-Domingue was proclaimed under the native name 'Haiti' by [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]] on 1 January 1804 in [[Gonaïves]]<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/dessalines.htm |title="A Brief History of Dessalines", 1825 Missionary Journal |publisher=Webster University |access-date=24 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051228150910/http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/dessalines.htm |archive-date=28 December 2005 }}</ref><ref name="Bradt209">Clammer, Paul (2016), ''Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti'', p. 209.</ref> and he was proclaimed "Emperor for Life" as Emperor Jacques I by his troops.<ref>Constitution of Haiti [{{sic}}] ''New-York Evening Post'' 15 July 1805.</ref> Dessalines at first offered protection to the white planters and others.<ref>{{cite book|title=Monthly Magazine and British Register|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVEoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA335|volume=XLVIII|year=1819|publisher=R. Phillips|page=335}}</ref> However, once in power, he ordered the [[1804 Haiti Massacre|genocide]] of nearly all the remaining white men, women, children; between January and April 1804, 3,000 to 5,000 whites were killed, including those who had been friendly and sympathetic to the black population.<ref name="Davies2008">{{cite book|last=Boyce Davies |first= Carole |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. A-C. Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mb6SDKfWftYC&pg=PA380|year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-700-5|page=380}}</ref> Only [[1804 Haiti massacre#Aftermath|three categories of white people]] were selected out as exceptions and spared: [[Polish Haitian|Polish]] soldiers, the majority of whom had deserted from the French army and fought alongside the Haitian rebels; the small group of [[German Haitian|German]] colonists invited to the [[Nord-Ouest (department)|north-west region]]; and a group of [[Doctor of Medicine|medical doctors]] and professionals.<ref>{{cite book|last=Popkin |first= Jeremy D. |title=Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSeLGtVm0iIC&pg=PA363|access-date=20 June 2017|date=15 February 2010|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-67585-5|pages=137}}</ref> Reportedly, people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were also spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.<ref>{{cite book|last=Popkin |first= Jeremy D. |title=The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence, 1801–1804|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03XSP22p3kgC|access-date=20 June 2017|date=11 February 2011|publisher=University of Alabama Press|isbn=978-0-8173-1732-4|pages=322}}</ref> Fearful of the potential impact the slave rebellion could have in the [[slave states]], U.S. President [[Thomas Jefferson]] refused to recognize the new republic. The Southern politicians who were a powerful voting bloc in the American Congress prevented U.S. recognition for decades until they withdrew in 1861 to form the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1784-1800/haitian-rev|title=The United States and the Haitian Revolution, 1791–1804|website=history.state.gov|language=en|access-date=7 February 2017}}</ref> The revolution led to a wave of emigration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.inmotionaame.org/migrations/topic.cfm;jsessionid=f8303469141230638453792?migration=5&topic=2&bhcp=1 |title=From Saint-Domingue to Louisiana, The African-American Migration Experience |publisher=Inmotionaame.org |access-date=24 July 2013 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225063309/http://www.inmotionaame.org/migrations/topic.cfm;jsessionid=f8303469141230638453792?migration=5&topic=2&bhcp=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1809, 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue, both white planters and people of color, settled ''en masse'' in [[New Orleans]], doubling the city's population, having been expelled from their initial refuge in Cuba by Spanish authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenation.com/article/congo-square-colonial-new-orleans?page=0,1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914132009/http://www.thenation.com/article/congo-square-colonial-new-orleans?page=0,1|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 September 2018|title=In Congo Square: Colonial New Orleans |publisher=Thenation.com |date=10 December 2008 |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref> In addition, the newly arrived enslaved persons added to the city's African population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ccet.louisiana.edu/tourism/cultural/The_People/haitian.html |title=Haitians |publisher=Center for Cultural & Eco-Tourism, University of Louisiana |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref> The plantation system was re-established in Haiti, albeit for wages; however, many Haitians were marginalized and resented the heavy-handed manner in which this was enforced in the new nation's politics.<ref name="Bradt13"/> The rebel movement splintered, and Dessalines was assassinated by rivals on 17 October 1806.<ref name="Haiti">{{cite news|title=News about Haiti, including commentary and archival articles published in ''The New York Times''|url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/haiti/index.html|access-date=24 July 2015|first=Deborah|last=Sontag|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>{{Deep link needed|date=March 2023}}<ref name="Bradt13"/> ====State of Haiti, Kingdom of Haiti and the Republic (1806–1820)==== {{main|State of Haiti|Kingdom of Haiti}} [[File:Citadelle Laferrière Aerial View.jpg|thumb|left|[[Citadelle Laferrière]], built 1805–1822, is the largest [[fortress]] in the Americas, and is considered locally to be an [[eighth wonder of the world]].<ref name="Reading Eagle"/>]] After Dessalines' death Haiti became split into two, with the [[Kingdom of Haiti]] in the north directed by Henri Christophe, later declaring himself [[Henri Christophe|Henri I]], and a republic in the south centered on Port-au-Prince, directed by [[Alexandre Pétion]], an ''homme de couleur''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3lPaBA9nMZkC |title=Toussaint L'Ouverture: A Biography |last=Bell |first= Madison Smartt |publisher=New York: Pantheon, 2007 (Vintage Books, 2008) |isbn=978-1-4000-7935-3|date=10 June 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.blackpast.org/gah/haitian-revolution-1791-1804 | title=Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) |last=Sutherland |first= Claudia E. | date=16 July 2007 |access-date=29 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |jstor=494418 |title=Teaching the Haitian Revolution: Its Place in Western and Modern World History |journal=The History Teacher |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=33–41 |date=Nov 1998 |last=Peguero |first= Valentina |doi=10.2307/494418 |s2cid=141205471 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |jstor=10.1086/526481 |title=Preoccupied with Haiti: The Dream of Diaspora in African American Art, 1915–1942 |journal=American Art |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=74–97 |date=Fall 2007 |last=Thompson |first= Krista A |doi=10.1086/526481 |s2cid=161805052 }}</ref><ref name="Bradt13"/> Christophe established a semi-feudal [[corvée]] system, with a rigid education and economic code.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-christophe |title=Henri Christophe: Biography |publisher=Answers.com |access-date=24 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915011325/http://www.answers.com/topic/henri-christophe |archive-date=15 September 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Pétion's republic was less absolutist, and he initiated a series of land reforms which benefited the peasant class.<ref name="Bradt13"/> President Pétion also gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader [[Simón Bolívar]], which were critical in enabling him to liberate the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Simón Bolívar: essays on the life and legacy of the liberator |editor1=Bushnell, David |editor2=Lester Langley |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2008 |page=5 |isbn=978-0-7425-5619-5 }}</ref> Meanwhile, the French, who had managed to maintain a precarious control of eastern Hispaniola, were [[Spanish reconquest of Santo Domingo|defeated]] by insurgents led by [[Juan Sánchez Ramírez]], with the area returning to Spanish rule in 1809 following the [[Battle of Palo Hincado]].<ref name="RECONQUEST">{{cite news|date=29 July 2010 <!-- to 13:04 -->|url=http://www.jmarcano.com/mipais/historia/batallas/phincado.html|title=La Reconquista: Batalla de Palo Hincado (La Reconquista: Battle of Palo Hincado) (In Spanish)|publisher=Mi país: Historia (My Country)|access-date=11 September 2010 <!-- at 3:45 -->|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630145140/http://www.jmarcano.com/mipais/historia/batallas/phincado.html|archive-date=30 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Unification of Hispaniola (1821–1844)==== {{main|Republic of Haiti (1820–1849)|Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo}} [[File:President Jean-Pierre Boyer of Haiti (Hispaniola Unification Regime) Portrait.jpg|thumb|Jean-Pierre Boyer, ruler of Haiti 1818–1843]] Beginning in 1821, President [[Jean-Pierre Boyer]], also an ''homme de couleur'' and successor to Pétion, reunified the island following the suicide of Henry Christophe.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Sagás |first= Ernesto|title=An apparent contradiction? Popular perceptions of Haiti and the foreign policy of the Dominican Republic |publisher=Sixth Annual Conference of the Haitian Studies Association |date=14 October 1994 |url=http://haitiforever.com/windowsonhaiti/esagas2.shtml |access-date=19 August 2007 }}</ref> After [[Republic of Spanish Haiti|Santo Domingo]] declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer invaded, seeking to [[Unification of Hispaniola|unite the entire island]] by force and ending slavery in Santo Domingo.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/168728/Dominican-Republic/129491/History |title=Dominican Republic – History |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref> Struggling to revive the agricultural economy to produce [[commodity crops]], Boyer passed the Code Rural, which denied peasant laborers the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own, causing much resentment as most peasants wished to have their own farms rather than work on plantations.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/76479/Jean-Pierre-Boyer?anchor=ref126082 |title=Jean-Pierre Boyer (President of Haiti) |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webster.edu/%7Ecorbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/boyer.htm |title=1820 – 1843: The rule of Jean-Pierre Boyer |last=Corbett |first= Bob |publisher=Webster University |date=July 1995 |access-date=24 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221124022/http://www2.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/earlyhaiti/boyer.htm |archive-date=21 December 2013 }}</ref> Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 [[African Americans]] migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by an American philanthropic group similar in function to the [[American Colonization Society]] and its efforts in [[Liberia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti-archive/msg00868.html |title=Haiti And Its Diaspora: New Historical, Cultural And Economic Frontiers, reprint from ''US Gazette'' Philadelphia, 1824 |last=Firire |first= Girard Alphonse |publisher=Webster.edu |date=27 August 1999 |access-date=24 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910113052/http://www2.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti-archive/msg00868.html |archive-date=10 September 2013 }}</ref> Many found the conditions too harsh and returned to the United States. In July 1825, [[Charles X of France|King Charles X]] of [[France]], during a period of restoration of the [[French monarchy]], sent a [[French Navy|fleet]] to reconquer Haiti. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the nation in exchange for [[Haiti indemnity controversy|a payment]] of 150 million [[francs]].<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> By an order of 17 April 1826, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty and formally recognized the independence of Haiti.<ref name="FrenchEmbassy">{{cite web|title=La première ambassade française en Haïti|url=https://ht.ambafrance.org/La-premiere-ambassade-francaise-en-Haiti|website=Menu Contenu Plan du siteAmbassade de France à Port-au-Prince|publisher=Government of France|access-date=27 October 2017|language=fr}}</ref><ref>M. Degros, Création des postes diplomatiques et consulaires, Revue d'histoire diplomatique, 1986; in French</ref><ref>J-F. Brière, Haïti et la France, 1804–1848 : le rêve brisé, Paris, Karthala 2008; in French</ref> The enforced payments to France hampered Haiti's economic growth for years, exacerbated by the fact that many Western nations continued to refuse formal [[Diplomacy|diplomatic]] recognition to Haiti; Britain recognized Haitian independence in 1833, and the United States not until 1862.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Haiti borrowed heavily from Western banks at extremely high interest rates to repay the debt. Although the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million in 1838, by 1900 80% of Haiti's government spending was debt repayment and the country did not finish repaying it until 1947.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jan/14/haiti-history-earthquake-disaster|title=Haiti: a long descent to hell|last=Henley|first=Jon|date=14 January 2010|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=15 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="Bradt13"/> ====Loss of the Spanish portion of the island==== {{main|Dominican War of Independence}} After losing the support of Haiti's elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843, with [[Charles Rivière-Hérard]] replacing him as president.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Nationalist Dominican forces in eastern Hispaniola led by [[Juan Pablo Duarte]] seized control of Santo Domingo on 27 February 1844.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> The Haitian forces, unprepared for a significant uprising, capitulated to the rebels, effectively ending Haitian rule of eastern Hispaniola. In March Rivière-Hérard attempted to reimpose his authority, but the [[Dominican Republic|Dominicans]] inflicted heavy losses.<ref name="Bethell" /> Rivière-Hérard was removed from office by the mulatto hierarchy and replaced with the aged general [[Philippe Guerrier]], who assumed the presidency on 3 May 1844. Guerrier died in April 1845, and was succeeded by General [[Jean-Louis Pierrot]].<ref name="leger197">{{citation-attribution|1={{cite book|last=Léger|first=Jacques Nicolas|author-link=Jacques Nicolas Léger|title=Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors|year=1907|publisher=[[Neale Publishing Company]]|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Haiti:_Her_History_and_Her_Detractors|pages=197–198}} }}</ref> Pierrot's most pressing duty as the new president was to check the incursions of the Dominicans, who were harassing the Haitian troops.<ref name="leger197"/> Dominican gunboats were also making depredations on Haiti's coasts.<ref name="leger197" /> President Pierrot decided to open a campaign against the Dominicans, whom he considered merely as insurgents; however, the Haitian offensive of 1845 was stopped on the frontier.<ref name="Bethell">{{cite book|last1=Bethell|first1=Leslie|title=The Cambridge History of Latin America: Volume 3|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0000beth|url-access=registration|date=1984|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0000beth/page/267 267–69]}}</ref> On 1 January 1846 Pierrot announced a fresh campaign to reimpose Haitian suzerainty over eastern Hispaniola, but his officers and men greeted this fresh summons with contempt.<ref name="Bethell" /> Thus, a month later – February 1846 – when Pierrot ordered his troops to march against the Dominicans, the Haitian army mutinied, and its soldiers proclaimed his overthrow as president of the republic.<ref name="Bethell" /> With the war against the Dominicans having become very unpopular in Haiti, it was beyond the power of the new president, General [[Jean-Baptiste Riché]], to stage another invasion.<ref name="Bethell" /> ====Second Empire (1849–1859)==== {{main|Second Empire of Haiti}} [[File:Faustin I.jpg|thumb|Faustin I, from ''[[The Illustrated London News]]'', 16 February 1856]] On 27 February 1847, President Riché died after only a year in power and was replaced by an obscure officer, General [[Faustin Soulouque]].<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> During the first two years of Soulouque's administration the conspiracies and opposition he faced in retaining power were so manifold that the Dominicans were given a further breathing space in which to consolidate their independence.<ref name="Bethell" /> But, when in 1848 France finally recognized the Dominican Republic as a free and independent state and provisionally signed a treaty of peace, friendship, commerce and navigation, Haiti immediately protested, claiming the treaty was an attack upon their own security.<ref name="Bethell" /> Soulouque decided to invade the new Republic before the French Government could ratify the treaty.<ref name="Bethell" /> On 21 March 1849, Haitian soldiers attacked the Dominican garrison at [[Las Matas de Farfán|Las Matas]]. The demoralized defenders offered almost no resistance before abandoning their weapons. Soulouque pressed on, capturing [[San Juan Province (Dominican Republic)|San Juan]]. This left only the town of [[Azua, Dominican Republic|Azua]] as the remaining Dominican stronghold between the Haitian army and the capital. On 6 April, Azua fell to the 18,000-strong Haitian army, with a 5,000-man Dominican counterattack failing to oust them.<ref name="Latin America's Wars: Volume 1"/> The way to [[Santo Domingo]] was now clear. But the news of discontent existing at Port-au-Prince, which reached Soulouque, arrested his further progress and caused him to return with the army to his capital.<ref name="Jacques">{{citation-attribution|1={{cite book|last=Léger|first=Jacques Nicolas|author-link=Jacques Nicolas Léger|title=Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors|year=1907|publisher=[[Neale Publishing Company]]|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Haiti:_Her_History_and_Her_Detractors|pages=202–204}}}}</ref> Emboldened by the sudden retreat of the Haitian army, the Dominicans counter-attacked. Their flotilla went as far as [[Dame-Marie, Grand'Anse|Dame-Marie]] on the west coast of Haiti, which they plundered and set on fire.<ref name="Jacques" /> After another Haitian campaign in 1855, Britain and France intervened and obtained an armistice on behalf of the Dominicans, who declared independence as the Dominican Republic.<ref name="Jacques" /> The sufferings endured by the soldiers during the campaign of 1855, and the losses and sacrifices inflicted on the country without yielding any compensation or any practical results provoked great discontent.<ref name="Jacques" /> In 1858 a revolution began, led by General [[Fabre Geffrard]], Duke of Tabara. In December of that year, Geffrard defeated the Imperial Army and seized control of most of the country.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> As a result, the Emperor abdicated his throne on 15 January 1859. Faustin was taken into exile and General Geffrard succeeded him as president. ====Late 19th century–early 20th century==== [[File:Luders Affair, Germany, Haiti.jpg|thumb|German Captain Thiele of the ''Charlotte'' handing over the German Ultimatum on 6 December 1897 during the Lüders Affair]] The period following Soulouque's overthrow down to the turn of the century was a turbulent one for Haiti, with repeated bouts of political instability. President Geffrard was overthrown in a coup in 1867,<ref>{{cite book| first= Jan| last= Rogozinski| year= 1999| title= A Brief History of the Caribbean| edition= Revised| publisher= Facts on File, Inc.| location= New York| isbn= 0-8160-3811-2| page= [https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofca00rogo_0/page/220 220]| url-access= registration| url= https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofca00rogo_0/page/220}}</ref> as was his successor, [[Sylvain Salnave]], in 1869.<ref>{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite book|chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Haiti:_Her_History_and_Her_Detractors/Part_I:_Chapter_XVI|title=[[Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors]]|last=Léger|first=Jacques Nicolas|author-link=Jacques Nicolas Léger|chapter=Chapter XVI |date=1907|publisher=[[Neale Publishing Company]]|pages=211–216}} }}</ref> Under the Presidency of [[Michel Domingue]] (1874–76) relations with the Dominican Republic were dramatically improved by the signing of a treaty, in which both parties acknowledged the independence of the other. Some modernisation of the economy and infrastructure also occurred in this period, especially under the Presidencies of [[Lysius Salomon]] (1879–1888) and [[Florvil Hyppolite]] (1889–1896).<ref>''[[Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors]]'' by [[Jacques Nicolas Léger]], University of Michigan, 2006, 235–236</ref> Haiti's relations with outside powers were often strained. In 1889 the United States attempted to [[Môle Saint-Nicolas affair|force Haiti]] to permit the building of a naval base at [[Môle Saint-Nicolas]], which was firmly resisted by President Hyppolite.<ref name="leger245">{{citation-attribution|1={{Cite book|chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Haiti:_Her_History_and_Her_Detractors/Part_I:_Chapter_XXII|title=[[Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors]]|last=Léger|first=Jacques Nicolas|author-link=Jacques Nicolas Léger|chapter=Chapter XXII |date=1907|publisher=[[Neale Publishing Company]]|location=New York; Washington|pages=245–247}} }}</ref> In 1892 the [[German Empire|German government]] supported suppression of the reform movement of [[Anténor Firmin]], and in 1897, the Germans used [[gunboat diplomacy]] to intimidate and then humiliate the Haitian government of President [[Tirésias Simon Sam]] (1896–1902) during the [[Lüders Affair]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Jacques Nicolas Léger|author-link=Jacques Nicolas Léger|title=Haiti, Her History and Her Detractors|url=https://archive.org/details/haitiherhistory00lggoog|year=1907|publisher=[[Neale Publishing Company]]|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/haitiherhistory00lggoog/page/n271 249]}}</ref> In the first decades of the 20th century, Haiti experienced great political instability and was heavily in debt to France, Germany and the United States. A series of short lived presidencies came and went: President [[Pierre Nord Alexis]] was forced from power in 1908,<ref>[https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1908/12/08/104772140.pdf "Hurry Election Of Simon In Haiti; Followers Fear Delay May Cause Disorders And Invite Intervention From United States"] ''New York Times'' 8 December 1908</ref><ref>[https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1908/12/18/105016384.pdf "Simon Elected President; Following Action by Haitian Congress, He Is Recognized By The United States"], ''The New York Times'' 18 December 1908</ref> as was his successor [[François C. Antoine Simon]] in 1911;<ref>{{cite news|title=Leconte in Haiti's Capital; Revolutionary Leader Takes Possession of National Palace|date=8 August 1911|url =https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1911/08/08/104873360.pdf|work =The New York Times|pages =4|access-date = 13 January 2010 }}</ref> President [[Cincinnatus Leconte]] (1911–12) was killed in a (possibly deliberate) explosion at the National Palace;<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hayes|first=Carlton H.|author2=Edward M. Sait|date=December 1912|title=Record of Political Events|journal=Political Science Quarterly|volume=27|issue=4|pages=752|doi=10.2307/2141264|jstor=2141264}}<!--|access-date=13 January 2010--></ref> [[Michel Oreste]] (1913–14) was ousted in a coup, as was his successor [[Oreste Zamor]] in 1914.<ref>Kaplan, ''U.S. Imperialism in Latin America'', p. 61.</ref> ====United States occupation (1915–1934)==== {{main|United States occupation of Haiti}} [[File:U.S. Marines and guide in search of bandits. Haiti, circa 1919., 1927 - 1981 - NARA - 532584.tif|thumb|left|U.S. Marines and guide in search of Haitian [[Cacos (military group)|Cacos]] fighters against the [[United States occupation of Haiti|U.S. occupation of Haiti]], {{circa|1919}}]] Germany increased its influence in Haiti in this period, with a small community of German settlers wielding disproportionate influence in Haiti's economy.<ref name=state>[https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwi/88275.htm Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34], US Department of State</ref><ref name="Bradt15"/> The German influence prompted anxieties in the United States, who had also invested heavily in the country, and whose government defended their right to oppose foreign interference in the Americas under the [[Monroe Doctrine]].<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="Bradt15"/> In December 1914, the Americans removed $500,000 from the Haitian National Bank, but rather than seize it to help pay the debt, it was removed for safe-keeping in New York, thus giving the United States control of the bank and preventing other powers from doing so. This gave a stable financial base on which to build the economy, and so enable the debt to be repaid.<ref>Office of the Historian, U.S. Government. [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/haiti U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34]</ref> In 1915, Haiti's new President [[Vilbrun Guillaume Sam]] sought to strengthen his tenuous rule by a mass execution of 167 political prisoners. Outrage at the killings led to riots, and Sam was captured and killed by a lynch mob.<ref name="Bradt15">Clammer, Paul (2016), ''Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti'', p. 15.</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last = Millett | first = Allan Reed | title = Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps | page = 185 | publisher= Simon and Schuster |location= New York |date = 1991 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sgkbAbwcLfAC| isbn = 9780029215968 }}</ref> Fearing possible foreign intervention, or the emergence of a new government led by the anti-American Haitian politician [[Rosalvo Bobo]], President [[Woodrow Wilson]] sent U.S. Marines into Haiti in July 1915. The {{USS|Washington|ACR-11|6}}, under Rear Admiral [[William Banks Caperton|Caperton]], arrived in Port-au-Prince in an attempt to restore order and protect U.S. interests. Within days, the Marines had taken control of the capital city and its banks and customs house. The Marines declared martial law and severely censored the press. Within weeks, a new pro-U.S. Haitian president, [[Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave]], was installed and a new constitution written that was favorable to the interests of the United States. The constitution (written by future US President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]) included a clause that allowed, for the first time, foreign ownership of land in Haiti, which was bitterly opposed by the Haitian legislature and citizenry.<ref name="Bradt15"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Schmidt|first=Hans|title=The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] |year=1971 |isbn=9780813522036 |page=99 }}</ref> [[File:Corps de Charlemagne Péralte.jpg|thumb|right|175px|The body of caco leader Charlemagne Péralte on display after his execution by US forces; the image was counterproductive, with the resemblance to the [[Descent from the Cross|deposition of Jesus]] gaining Péralte the status of national martyr.]] The occupation improved some of Haiti's [[infrastructure]] and centralized power in Port-au-Prince.<ref name="Bradt15"/> 1700 km of roads were made usable, 189 bridges were built, many irrigation canals were rehabilitated, hospitals, schools, and public buildings were constructed, and drinking water was brought to the main cities.{{Citation needed|date=September 2019}} Agricultural education was organized, with a central school of agriculture and 69 farms in the country.{{sfn|Heinl|1996|pp=454–455}}{{incomplete short citation|date=February 2023}} However, many infrastructure projects were built using the [[corvée]] system that allowed the government/occupying forces to take people from their homes and farms, at gunpoint if necessary, to build roads, bridges etc. by force, a process that was deeply resented by ordinary Haitians.<ref>Danticat, Edwidge (28 July 2015), ''New Yorker Magazine''.</ref><ref name="Bradt15"/> [[Sisal]] was also introduced to Haiti, and sugarcane and [[cotton]] became significant exports, boosting prosperity.<ref name="Henl, pp. 454–455">Henl, pp. 454–455.</ref> Haitian traditionalists, based in rural areas, were highly resistant to U.S.-backed changes, while the urban elites, typically mixed-race, welcomed the growing economy, but wanted more political control.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Together they helped secure an end to the occupation in 1934, under the Presidency of [[Sténio Vincent]] (1930–1941).<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://historicalstudiesineducation.ca/index.php/edu_hse-rhe/article/view/2357 |title=Education During the American Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 |journal=Historical Studies in Education |volume=22|issue=2|pages=1–17 |last=Angulo |first= A. J. |year=2010 |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref> The debts were still outstanding, though less due to increased prosperity, and the U.S. financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Munro|first=Dana G.|title=The American Withdrawal from Haiti, 1929–1934|journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review|volume=49|issue=1|pages=1–26|doi=10.2307/2511314|jstor=2511314|year=1969}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> The U.S. Marines were instilled with a special brand of paternalism towards Haitians "expressed in the metaphor of a father's relationship with his children."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Renda|first1=Mary|title=Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism 1915–1940|url=https://archive.org/details/takinghaiti00mary|url-access=registration|date=2001|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill and London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/takinghaiti00mary/page/15 15]}}</ref> Armed opposition to the US presence was led by the [[Cacos (military group)|cacos]] under the command of [[Charlemagne Péralte]]; his capture and execution in 1919 earned him the status of a national martyr.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=An Iconic Image of Haitian Liberty|url=https://www.newyorker.com/culture/photo-booth/haiti-u-s-occupation-charlemagne-peralte|magazine=The New Yorker|date=28 July 2015|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="Bradt15"/> During Senate hearings in 1921, the commandant of the Marine Corps reported that, in the 20 months of active unrest, 2,250 Haitians had been killed. However, in a report to the Secretary of the Navy, he reported the death toll as being 3,250.<ref>{{harvnb|Schmidt|1971|p=102}}</ref> Haitian historians have claimed the true number was much higher, but this is not supported by most historians outside Haiti.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Farmer |author-link=Paul Farmer |title=The Uses of Haiti |publisher=Common Courage Press |year=2003 |page=98}}</ref> ====Post-occupation era (1934–1957)==== After US forces left in 1934, [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] dictator [[Rafael Trujillo]] used [[Antihaitianismo|anti-Haitian]] sentiment as a nationalist tool. In an event that became known as the [[Parsley massacre|Parsley Massacre]], he ordered his army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border.<ref name="Farmer180">{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Farmer|title=AIDS and Accusation: Haiti and the Geography of Blame|year=2006|publisher=California University Press|isbn=978-0-520-24839-7|pages=180–181}}</ref><ref name="wucker">{{cite web |last=Wucker |first= Michele |title=Why the Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians and the Struggle for Hispaniola| work=Windows on Haiti |url=http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/wucker.html |access-date=26 December 2007}}</ref> Few bullets were used; instead, 20,000–30,000 Haitians were bludgeoned and bayoneted, then herded into the sea, where sharks finished what Trujillo had begun.<ref>{{cite book|title=Decision-making in the UN Security Council: The Case of Haiti, 1990–1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wadg8bm9_8oC&pg=PA198|isbn=978-0-19-829483-2|last1=Malone|first1=David|year=1998| publisher=Clarendon Press }}</ref> The indiscriminate massacre occurred over a period of five days. President Vincent became increasingly dictatorial, and resigned under US pressure in 1941, being replaced by [[Élie Lescot]] (1941–46).<ref>{{Cite web |title=amhe.org |url=https://amhe.org/journal/?page_id=2268 |access-date=24 May 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1941, during the [[Second World War]], Lescot declared war on [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] (8 December), [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] (12 December), [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] (12 December), [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] (24 December), [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920-46)|Hungary]] (24 December) and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] (24 December).<ref>Dr Erik Goldstein, Routledge, 2005, ''Wars and Peace Treaties: 1816 to 1991'', p. 217.</ref> Out of these six [[Axis Powers|Axis]] countries, only Romania reciprocated, declaring war on Haiti on the same day (24 December 1941).<ref>Dr Erik Goldstein, Routledge, 2005, ''Wars and Peace Treaties: 1816 to 1991'', p. 218.</ref> On 27 September 1945,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unms/founders.shtml|title=Founding Member States|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> Haiti became a [[member states of the United Nations|founding member]] of the [[United Nations]] (the successor to the [[Member states of the League of Nations|League of Nations]], of which Haiti was also a founding member).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~league/1thordinaryassemb.htm|title=League of Nations Photo Archive – First Assembly, Geneva, November 15- December 18, 1920|website=indiana.edu|access-date=22 June 2017|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406025135/http://www.indiana.edu/~league/1thordinaryassemb.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RbzX4PjxtgC&pg=PA255|title=Historical Dictionary of Haiti |editor=Hall, Michael R. |page=255 |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-8108-7810-5|publisher=Scarecrow Press |access-date=22 June 2017}}</ref> In 1946 Lescot was overthrown by the military, with [[Dumarsais Estimé]] later becoming the new president (1946–50).<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> He sought to improve the economy and education, and to boost the role of black Haitians; however, as he sought to consolidate his rule he too was overthrown in a coup led by [[Paul Magloire]], who replaced him as president (1950–56).<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=e6AyDQAAQBAJ|title=Haiti|editor=Clammer, Paul|page=16|year=2016|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781841629230|access-date=9 September 2019}}</ref> Firmly anti-Communist, he was supported by the United States; with greater political stability tourists started to visit Haiti.<ref name="guardiantourism">{{cite news |title=Tourism can help Haiti return to its halcyon days|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2013/jul/26/haiti-tourism-caribbean-redevelopment |work=guardian.co.uk |access-date=26 July 2013 |location=London |first=Prospery |last=Raymond |date=26 July 2013}}</ref> The waterfront area of [[Port-au-Prince]] was redeveloped to allow cruise ship passengers to walk to cultural attractions. ====Duvalier dynasty (1957–1986)==== {{main|Duvalier dynasty}} [[File:Duvalier crop2.jpg|thumb|upright|"Papa Doc" [[François Duvalier|Duvalier]] in 1968]] In 1956–57 Haiti underwent severe political turmoil; Magloire was forced to resign and leave the country in 1956 and he was followed by four short-lived presidencies.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> In the [[Haitian presidential election, 1957|September 1957 election]] [[François Duvalier]] was elected President of Haiti. Known as 'Papa Doc' and initially popular, Duvalier remained President until his death in 1971.<ref name="Bradt17">Clammer, Paul (2016), ''Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti'', p. 17.</ref> He advanced black interests in the public sector, where over time, people of color had predominated as the educated urban elite.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="bryan">{{cite book|last=Bryan |first= Patrick E. |title=The Haitian Revolution and Its Effects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q9owdkOc0wgC|year=1984|publisher=Heinemann|isbn=978-0-435-98301-7}}</ref> Not trusting the army, despite his frequent purges of officers deemed disloyal, Duvalier created a private militia known as ''[[Tonton Macoute|Tontons Macoutes]]'' ("Bogeymen"), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace and political opponents.<ref name="Bradt17"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/174718/François-Duvalier|title=François Duvalier|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> In 1964 Duvalier proclaimed himself 'President for Life'; [[Jérémie Vespers|an uprising]] against his rule that year in [[Jérémie]] was violently suppressed, with the ringleaders publicly executed and hundreds of mixed-raced citizens in the town killed.<ref name="Bradt17"/> The bulk of the educated and professional class began leaving the country, and corruption became widespread.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="Bradt17"/> Duvalier sought to create a personality cult, identifying himself with [[Baron Samedi]], one of the [[loa]] (or ''lwa''), or spirits, of [[Haitian Vodou]]. Despite the well-publicized abuses under his rule, Duvalier's firm anti-Communism earned him the support of the Americans, who furnished the country with aid.<ref name="Bradt17"/><ref name="Štraus">{{citation |mode=cs1 |title=Biographies: François Duvalier (1907–1971) |last=Štraus |first=Stane |website=PolymerNotes.org |url=http://www.polymernotes.org/biographies/HTI_bio_duvalier.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711133408/http://www.polymernotes.org/biographies/HTI_bio_duvalier.htm |archive-date=11 July 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1971 Duvalier died, and he was succeeded by his son [[Jean-Claude Duvalier]], nicknamed 'Baby Doc', who ruled until 1986.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shaw |first=Karl |title=Power Mad! |trans-title= Šílenství mocných |year=2005 |orig-year=2004 |publisher=Metafora |location=Praha |language=cs |isbn=978-80-7359-002-4 |page=52}}</ref><ref name="Bradt17"/> He largely continued his father's policies, though curbed some of the worst excesses in order to court international respectability.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Tourism, which had nosedived in Papa Doc's time, again became a growing industry.<ref name="Clammer, Paul">{{cite news|url=https://huffingtonpost.com/paul-clammer/haiti-caribbean-destination_b_2593487.html |title=Is Haiti The Caribbean's Best New Destination? |last=Clammer |first= Paul |date=1 February 2014 |access-date= 3 November 2014 |work=The Huffington Post}}</ref> However, as the economy continued to decline, Baby Doc's grip on power began to weaken. Haiti's pig population was slaughtered following an outbreak of swine fever in the late 1970s, causing hardship to rural communities who used them as an investment.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abrams|first=Elliott|date=November 2014|title=Getting Rid of Baby Doc|url=https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/getting-rid-of-baby-doc/|journal=Commentary|volume=138|pages=27–30|issn=0010-2601|access-date=9 September 2019|archive-date=11 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811200020/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/getting-rid-of-baby-doc/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The opposition became more vocal, bolstered by a visit to the country by [[Pope John Paul II]] in 1983, who publicly lambasted the president.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=6tkvAAAAIBAJ&pg=7222,4661909 |title='Things in Haiti must change,' pope tells Duvalier |page=15 |newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |date=10 March 1983 |issn=1064-7317 |location=Spokane, Washington |agency=Associated Press |quote=The Roman Catholic pontiff responded with a stern lecture to the island country's tiny moneyed elite, telling the 31-year-old president-for-life of the Western Hemisphere's poorest country, 'Things must change in Haiti.' ... 'I call on all those who have power, riches and culture so that they can understand the serious and urgent responsibility to help their brothers and sisters,' {{bracket|[[Pope John Paul II]]}} said.}}</ref> Demonstrations occurred in Gonaïves in 1985 which then spread across the country; under pressure from the United States, Duvalier left the country for France in February 1986. In total, roughly 40,000 to 60,000 Haitians are estimated to have been killed during the reign of the Duvaliers.<ref>"{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/28/AR2011012803142.html|title= 'Baby Doc' Duvalier missed Haiti. That's why he came back|newspaper=The Washington Post|first=Marjorie|last= Valbrun|date=28 January 2011}}</ref> Through the use of his intimidation tactics and executions, many intellectual Haitians had fled, leaving the country with a massive brain-drain from which it has yet to recover.<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=l8Nrdxzi-lkC |title=Farewell, Fred Voodoo: A Letter from Haiti|editor=Wilentz, Amy|page=13|year=2013|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9781451643978|access-date=24 May 2020}}</ref> ====Post-Duvalier era (1986–2004)==== [[File:DD-SD-99-03743.jpg|thumb|[[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] returns to Haiti following the [[Operation Uphold Democracy|U.S.-led invasion]] in 1994 designed to remove the [[Raoul Cédras|regime]] installed by the [[1991 Haitian coup d'état]]]] Following Duvalier's departure, army leader General [[Henri Namphy]] headed a new [[National Council of Government (Haiti)|National Governing Council]].<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> [[Haitian presidential election, 1987|Elections]] scheduled for November 1987 were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and ''Tontons Macoutes''.<ref name=Whitney>Whitney, Kathleen Marie (1996), "Sin, Fraph, and the CIA: U.S. Covert Action in Haiti", ''Southwestern Journal of Law and Trade in the Americas'', Vol. 3, Issue 2 (1996), pp. 303–32, esp. p. 319.</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Fraudulent [[Haitian presidential election, 1988|elections followed]] in 1988, in which only 4% of the citizenry voted.<ref name=JC>{{cite web|url=http://www.cartercenter.org/news/documents/doc1379.html|title= Haiti's Election Needs Help|date=30 September 1990|first=Jimmy|last= Carter|author-link=Jimmy Carter|publisher=Carter Center}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> The newly elected president, [[Leslie Manigat]], was then overthrown some months later in the [[June 1988 Haitian coup d'état]].<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name=IACHR>[[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights|IACHR]], [http://www.iachr.org/countryrep/Haiti88eng/chap.2e.htm Report on the Situation of Human Tights in Haiti] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728093219/http://www.iachr.org/countryrep/Haiti88eng/chap.2e.htm |date=28 July 2020 }}, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.74 doc. 9 rev. 1, 7 September 1988</ref> Another [[September 1988 Haitian coup d'état|coup followed]] in September 1988, after the [[St. Jean Bosco massacre]] in which approximately 13 to 50 people attending a mass led by prominent government critic and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] priest [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] were killed.<ref name=IACHR/><ref name=HRW2>Americas Watch Committee (U.S.), National Coalition for Haitian Refugees, Caribbean Rights (Organization). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRQPgQr_x04C&q=bosco The More things change-- human rights in Haiti]'', [[Human Rights Watch]], 1989. pp. 96–8.</ref> General [[Prosper Avril]] subsequently led a military regime until March 1990.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="Rohter">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/15/news/ex-ruler-of-haiti-faces-human-rights-suit-in-us.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206104600/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/15/news/ex-ruler-of-haiti-faces-human-rights-suit-in-us.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 February 2018 |title= Ex-Ruler of Haiti Faces Human Rights Suit in U.S.|editor=Rohter, Larry|date=15 November 1991|work=The New York Times|access-date=10 September 2019}}</ref><ref>Anthony Payne and Paul K. Sutton (1993), ''Modern Caribbean politics''. JHU Press, 1993. p90</ref> Avril transferred power to the army chief of staff, Gen. [[Hérard Abraham]], on March 10, 1990. Abraham gave up power three days later, becoming the only military leader in Haiti during the twentieth century to voluntarily give up power. Abraham later helped to secure the [[1990–91 Haitian general election]]. In December 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected president in the [[Haitian general election, 1990–91|Haitian general election]]. However, his ambitious reformist agenda worried the elites, and in September of the following year he was overthrown by the military, led by [[Raoul Cédras]], in the [[1991 Haitian coup d'état]].<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref>Collins, Edward Jr., Cole, Timothy M. (1996), "Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide", ''Journal of International Law & Practice'' 5(2), p 220.</ref> Amidst the continuing turmoil many Haitians attempted to flee the country.<ref name="Bradt17"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> In September 1994, the United States negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders and the peaceful entry of 20,000 US troops under [[Operation Uphold Democracy]].<ref name="Bradt17"/> This enabled the restoration of the democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president, who returned to Haiti in October to complete his term.<ref name="CCHaiti">{{cite web |publisher= The Carter Center |title=Activities by Country: Haiti |url=http://www.cartercenter.org/countries/haiti.html |access-date=19 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Manegol |first= Catherine S. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/10/16/world/mission-haiti-scene-for-aristide-s-followers-every-step-dance-every-cheer-song.html |title=For Aristide's Followers, Every Step Is a Dance, Every Cheer a Song |work=The New York Times |date=16 October 1994 |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref> As part of the deal Aristide had to implement free market reforms in an attempt to improve the Haitian economy, with mixed results.<ref name="Bell">{{cite book |last=Bell |first=Beverly |date=2013 |title=Fault Lines: Views across Haiti's Divide |location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=30–38 |isbn=978-0-8014-7769-0}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> In November 1994, [[Hurricane Gordon (1994)|Hurricane Gordon]] brushed Haiti, dumping heavy [[rain]] and creating [[flash flood]]ing that triggered mudslides. Gordon killed an estimated 1,122 people, although some estimates go as high as 2,200.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hurricane Gordon 1994|publisher=Hurricane Central|url=http://hurricanecentral.freeservers.com/Prelim_Reports/1994_Gordon.htm|access-date=4 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Hurricane Gordon 1994|publisher=NOAA|url=http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/gordon94.html|access-date=4 October 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007062220/http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/gordon94.html|archive-date=7 October 2016}}</ref> [[1995 Haitian general election|Elections]] were held in 1995 which were won by [[René Préval]], gaining 88% of the popular vote, albeit on a low turnout.<ref>[http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/2137_95.htm Haiti: Elections held in 1995] Inter-Parliamentary Union</ref><ref>[[Dieter Nohlen|Nohlen, D]] (2005) ''Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I'', p392 {{ISBN|978-0-19-928357-6}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> Aristide subsequently formed his own party, [[Fanmi Lavalas]], and political deadlock ensued; the [[Haitian presidential election, 2000|November 2000 election]] returned Aristide to the presidency with 92% of the vote.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hallward|first=P.|title=Damming the Flood:Haiti, Aristide, and the Politics of containment|location=London, UK|publisher=Verso Books|year=2007|pages=xiii, 78–79}}</ref> The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into the [[Convergence Démocratique]], over a dispute in the [[Haitian legislative election, 2000|May legislative elections]]. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence between rival political factions and [[human rights abuse]]s.<ref name="Bradt19">Clammer, Paul (2016), ''Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti'', p. 19.</ref><ref name="bussandgardner">{{cite book|last1=Buss|first1=Terry F.|last2=Gardner|first2=Adam|title=Haiti in the Balance: Why Foreign Aid Has Failed and What We Can Do about It|url=https://archive.org/details/haitiinbalancewh00buss|url-access=registration|date= 2009|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|isbn=978-0-8157-0164-4}}</ref> Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}} In 2004 [[2004 Haitian coup d'état|an anti-Aristide revolt began]] in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital, and Aristide was forced into exile.<ref name="Bradt19"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> The precise nature of the events are disputed; some, including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a "new [[coup d'état]] or modern kidnapping" by U.S. forces.<ref name="Bradt19"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/186/34344.html |title=Aristide Kidnapped by US Forces? |publisher=Globalpolicy.org |date=1 March 2004 |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2004/3/16/exclusive_aristide_and_his_bodyguard_describe |title=Exclusive: Aristide and His Bodyguard Describe the U.S. Role In His Ouster |publisher=[[Democracy Now!|Democracynow.org]] |date=16 March 2004 |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref> These charges were denied by the US government.<ref>{{cite news|last=Buschschluter |first=Vanessa |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8460185.stm |title=The long history of troubled ties between Haiti and the US |work=BBC News |date=16 January 2010 |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref><ref name="Bradt19"/> As political violence and crime continued to grow, a [[United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti|United Nations Stabilisation Mission (MINUSTAH)]] was brought in to maintain order.<ref name="Bradt20">Clammer, Paul (2016), ''Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti'', p. 20.</ref> However, MINUSTAH proved controversial, since their periodically heavy-handed approach to maintaining law and order and several instances of abuses, including the alleged sexual abuse of civilians, provoked resentment and distrust among ordinary Haitians.<ref>{{cite news|last=Varner |first=Bill |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=az0cdhHzic3M |title=Haitian Gangs Seek Truce That Would Ease Elections |publisher=Bloomberg.com |date=25 August 2005 |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Klarreich|first=Kathie|title=Will the United Nations' legacy in Haiti be all about scandal?|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2012/0613/Will-the-United-Nations-legacy-in-Haiti-be-all-about-scandal|newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor|access-date=10 September 2013|date=13 June 2012}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> [[Boniface Alexandre]] assumed interim authority until 2006, when René Préval was re-elected President following [[Haitian general election, 2006|elections]].<ref name="Bradt20"/><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/><ref name="thompson2006">{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/10/international/10haiti.html |last=Thompson |first= Ginger |title=Candidate of Haiti's Poor Leads in Early Tally With 61% of Vote. |work=The New York Times |date=10 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424203107/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/10/international/10haiti.html |archive-date=24 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> ====Post-Aristide era (2004–present)==== {{See also|Haitian crisis (2018–present)}} Amidst the continuing political chaos, a series of natural disasters hit Haiti. In 2004 [[Hurricane Jeanne#Haiti|Tropical Storm Jeanne]] skimmed the north coast, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and [[mudslide]]s, mostly in the city of [[Gonaïves]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sfl-0923haitigallery,0,7266223.photogallery |title=Photo Gallery: Jeanne hits Haiti |work=Orlando Sentinel |access-date=16 February 2010 |archive-date=5 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505105859/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sfl-0923haitigallery,0,7266223.photogallery |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2008 Haiti was again struck by tropical storms; [[Tropical Storm Fay (2008)|Tropical Storm Fay]], [[Hurricane Gustav]], [[Hurricane Hanna (2008)|Hurricane Hanna]] and [[Hurricane Ike]] all produced heavy winds and rain, resulting in 331 deaths and about 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-09-10-Haiti-floods_N.htm |title=UN seeks almost US$108 million for Haiti floods | work = [[USA Today]] | date=10 September 2008 |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref> The state of affairs produced by these storms was intensified by already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4718790.stm |work=BBC News |title=Preval declared Haiti poll winner |date=16 February 2006 |access-date=4 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSN1228245020080413 |title=Haiti's government falls after food riots |date=12 April 2008 |access-date=16 February 2010 | work=Reuters}}</ref><ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> [[File:Haitian national palace earthquake.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|The [[National Palace (Haiti)|Haitian National Palace]], located in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, heavily damaged after the [[2010 Haiti earthquake|earthquake of 2010]]. This was originally a two-story structure; the second story completely collapsed.]] On 12 January 2010, at 4:53 pm local time, Haiti was struck by a [[moment magnitude scale|magnitude]]-7.0 [[2010 Haiti earthquake|earthquake]]. This was the country's most severe earthquake in over 200 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2010/us2010rja6/ |title=Magnitude 7.0 – Haiti Region |access-date=12 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115110510/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2010/us2010rja6/ |archive-date=15 January 2010 }}</ref> The earthquake was reported to have left between 160,000 and 300,000 people dead and up to 1.6 million homeless, making it one of the [[List of natural disasters by death toll|deadliest natural disasters ever recorded]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Haiti Earthquake Fast Facts|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/12/12/world/haiti-earthquake-fast-facts/index.html|website=CNN|date=12 December 2013|access-date=12 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Archibold |first= Randal C.|date=13 January 2011|title=Haiti: Quake's Toll Rises to 316,000|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/14/world/americas/14briefs-Haiti.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/14/world/americas/14briefs-Haiti.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|access-date=18 March 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It is also one of the deadliest earthquakes ever recorded.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://ourworldindata.org/the-worlds-deadliest-earthquakes | title=What were the world's deadliest earthquakes? | journal=Our World in Data | date=2 February 2024 | last1=Ritchie | first1=Hannah | last2=Roser | first2=Max }}</ref> The situation was exacerbated by a subsequent massive [[Haiti cholera outbreak|cholera outbreak]] that was triggered when cholera-infected waste from a [[United Nations]] peacekeeping station contaminated the country's main river, the [[Artibonite River|Artibonite]].<ref name="Bradt20"/><ref>{{cite news|last1=Sontag|first1=Deborah|title=In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/world/americas/haitis-cholera-outraced-the-experts-and-tainted-the-un. |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/01/world/americas/haitis-cholera-outraced-the-experts-and-tainted-the-un. |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|access-date=21 June 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfam.org/en/pressroom/pressrelease/2011-01-06/year-indecision-leaves-haiti-recovery-standstill |title=A year of indecision leaves Haiti recovery at a standstill |publisher=Oxfam.org |date=6 January 2011 |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref> In 2017, it was reported that roughly 10,000 Haitians had died and nearly a million had been made ill. After years of denial, the United Nations apologized in 2016, but {{as of|2017|lc=y}}, they have refused to acknowledge fault, thus avoiding financial responsibility.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gladstone|first1=Rick|title=U.N. Brought Cholera to Haiti. Now It Is Fumbling Its Effort to Atone|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/26/world/americas/cholera-haiti-united-nations-peacekeepers-yemen.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/26/world/americas/cholera-haiti-united-nations-peacekeepers-yemen.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live|newspaper=The New York Times|date=27 June 2017|access-date=12 January 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> General elections had been planned for January 2010 but were postponed due to the earthquake.<ref name="Encylopedia Britannica - Haiti"/> [[2010–11 Haitian general election|Elections were held on 28 November 2010]] for the senate, the parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off between [[Michel Martelly]] and [[Mirlande Manigat]] took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner.<ref name="Bradt21">Clammer, Paul (2016), ''Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti'', p. 21.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.haitilibre.com/en/news-2951-haiti-inauguration-michel-martelly-56th-president-of-haiti.html |title=Haiti – Inauguration : Michel Martelly, 56th President of Haiti |publisher=Haitilibre.com |date=14 May 2011 |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref> In 2011 both former dictator Jean-Claude Duvalier and Jean-Bertrand Aristide returned to Haiti; attempts to try Duvalier for crimes committed under his rule were shelved following his death in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/20/world/americas/20haiti.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/20/world/americas/20haiti.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live |work= [[The New York Times]] |author=Ginger Thompson |title=Aristide Says He Is Ready to Follow Duvalier Back to Haiti |date=19 January 2011}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/04/jean-claude-duvalier-baby-doc-haiti-dies |title=Jean-Claude Duvalier, former Haitian dictator, dies aged 63 |newspaper=The Guardian |author=Agencies|date=4 October 2014 |access-date=17 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208082446/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/04/jean-claude-duvalier-baby-doc-haiti-dies |archive-date= 8 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kushner2011">{{cite news|first=Jacob |last=Kushner |url=http://www.salon.com/2011/01/17/cb_haiti_ex_dictator_returns/ |title=Haiti's 'Baby Doc' in surprise return from exile |work=Salon |agency=Associated Press |date=17 January 2011 |archive-date=27 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527224344/http://www.salon.com/2011/01/17/cb_haiti_ex_dictator_returns/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Bradt21"/> In 2013, Haiti called for European nations to pay [[reparations for slavery]] and establish an official commission for the settlement of past wrongdoings.<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SofDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT14| chapter=Formulating the Case for Reparations |last=Gifford |first= Lord Anthony| title=Colonialism, Slavery, Reparations and Trade: Remedying The 'Past'? |publisher=Routledge | year=2012 | pages=96|isbn=978-1-136-59792-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/americas/21587236-pressure-grows-compensation-caribbean-trade-blood-money |title=Slavery reparations: Blood money |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=5 October 2013}}</ref> Meanwhile, after continuing political wrangling with the opposition and allegations of electoral fraud, Martelly agreed to step down in 2016 without a successor in place.<ref name="Bradt21"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/08/world/americas/michel-martelly-haitis-president-departs-without-a-successor.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220102/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/08/world/americas/michel-martelly-haitis-president-departs-without-a-successor.html |archive-date=2 January 2022 |url-access=limited |url-status=live |title=Michel Martelly, Haiti's President, Departs Without a Successor|date=7 February 2016|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=7 February 2016 |last=Robles|first=Frances}}{{cbignore}}</ref> After numerous postponements, partly owing to the effects of devastating [[Hurricane Matthew]], [[November 2016 Haitian presidential election|elections]] were held in November 2016.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-haiti-election-idUSKCN0XM0CC | title=Haiti says election could drag on for months, protests grow | work=Reuters | date=25 April 2016 | access-date=26 April 2016 |last=Guyler Delva |first= Joseph}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.haitilibre.com/en/news-18834-haiti-flash-the-elections-of-october-9-postponed.html |title=Haiti – FLASH : The elections of October 9 postponed |work=Haiti Libre |date=5 October 2016 |access-date=6 October 2016}}</ref> The victor, [[Jovenel Moïse]] of the [[Haitian Tèt Kale Party]], was sworn in as president in 2017.<ref>{{cite tweet |user=cep_haiti |number=803456135873363968 |date=28 November 2016 |title=Résultats préliminaires des élections présidentielles du 20 Novembre 2016 pic.twitter.com/i9GsrkkU8p }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-haiti-elecion-idUKKBN13O08L |title=Businessman Moise wins Haiti election in first round – provisional results |work=Reuters |date=29 November 2016 |access-date=16 November 2017 |location=Port-au-Prince |first=Makini |last=Brice }}</ref> [[Haitian crisis (2018–present)|Protests began]] on 7 July 2018, in response to increased fuel prices. Over time these protests evolved into demands for the resignation of president Moïse.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/haiti-thousands-protest-against-corruption/a-47421473|title=Haiti: Thousands protest against corruption |date=8 February 2019|website=[[Deutsche Welle]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> On 7 July 2021, President Moïse was [[Assassination of Jovenel Moïse|assassinated]] in an attack on his private residence, and First Lady [[Martine Moïse]] was hospitalized.<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 July 2021|title=Official: Haiti President Jovenel Moïse assassinated at home|url=https://apnews.com/article/caribbean-haiti-government-and-politics-b56a0f8fec0832028bdc51e8d59c6af2|access-date=7 July 2021|website=AP NEWS|language=en}}</ref> Amid the political crisis, the government of Haiti installed [[Ariel Henry]] as both the Prime Minister and the President on 20 July 2021.<ref name="haitifactbook">{{cite web |title=Haiti – Background |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/haiti/ |website=The World Factbook |date=15 June 2022 |publisher=CIA |access-date=16 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first1=Caitlin |last1=Hu |first2=Natalie |last2=Gallón |first3=Matt |last3=Rivers |first4=Etant |last4=Dupain |title=Haiti's acting prime minister Claude Joseph to step down amid power struggle after president's assassination |url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/07/19/americas/haiti-acting-pm-claude-joseph-to-step-down-intl/index.html |date=19 July 2021 |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=CNN}}</ref> On 14 August 2021, Haiti suffered [[2021 Haiti earthquake|another huge earthquake]], with many casualties.<ref>{{Cite news|date=14 August 2021|title=Haiti struck by deadly 7.2-magnitude earthquake|language=en-GB|work=[[BBC News]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-58215631|access-date=15 August 2021}}</ref> The earthquake has also damaged Haiti's economic conditions and led to a rise in [[Gang|gang violence]] which by May 2020 had escalated to a long-lasting full-blown [[Gang war in Haiti|gang war]] and other violent crimes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.iadb.org/ideas-matter/en/estimating-the-potential-economic-impact-of-haitis-2021-earthquake/|title=Estimating the Potential Economic Impact of Haiti's 2021 Earthquake|first=Eduardo|last=Cavallo|author2=Laura Giles Álvarez|author3=Andrew Powell |website=IDB|date=28 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/10/1102062|title=Haiti facing stalled elections, kidnapping surge, rampant insecurity|website=UN News|publisher=United Nations|date=4 October 2021}}</ref> As of March 2022, Haiti still had no president, no parliamentary quorum, and a dysfunctional high court due to a lack of judges.<ref name="haitifactbook" /> In 2022, [[2022 Haitian crisis|protests]] against the government and [[Global energy crisis (2021–present)|rising fuel prices]] intensified.<ref>{{cite news |title=Haiti suffers deadly demonstrations against rise in fuel prices |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2022/09/17/haiti-suffers-deadly-demonstrations-against-rise-in-fuel-prices_5997305_4.html |work=Le Monde |date=17 September 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Haiti reaches a breaking point as the economy tanks and violence soars |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/haiti-reaches-a-breaking-point-as-the-economy-tanks-and-violence-soars |work=PBS |date=4 October 2022}}</ref> In 2023, kidnapping jumped 72% from the first quarter of the previous year.<ref>{{cite news |last=Phillips |first=Tom |title=UN calls for foreign intervention in Haiti as violence surges |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/mar/21/haiti-un-international-specialized-support-force |access-date=26 April 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=21 March 2023}}</ref> Doctors, lawyers, and other wealthy members of society were kidnapped and held for ransom.<ref name="kidnapping">{{cite news |last=Wilentz |first=Amy |title=Haiti, April 2023: Soon There Will Be No One Left to Kidnap |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/world/haiti-gangs-ariel-henry-biden/ |access-date=26 April 2023 |agency=The Nation |date=17 April 2023}}</ref> Many victims were killed when ransom demands were not met, leading those with the means to do so to flee the country, further hampering efforts to pull the country out of the crisis.<ref name="kidnapping"/> It is estimated that amidst the crisis up to 20% of qualified medical staff had left Haiti by the end of 2023.<ref name="medical crisis">{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/17/world/americas/haiti-gang-violence-health.html |title=Haiti's Hospitals Survived Cholera and Covid. Gangs Are Closing Them. |last1=David C. |first1=Adams |first2=Frances |last2=Robles |work=New York Times |date=2024-03-17 }}</ref> In March 2024, Ariel Henry was prevented by gangs from returning to Haiti, following a visit to Kenya.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/haiti-prime-minister-gangs-resign-e583a191a2f800bc63752220a47dec0d |title=Haiti's prime minister is locked out of his country and faces pressure to resign |website=[[Associated Press News]] |date=6 March 2024 |access-date=7 March 2024 |archive-date=6 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306214053/https://apnews.com/article/haiti-prime-minister-gangs-resign-e583a191a2f800bc63752220a47dec0d |url-status=live }}</ref> Henry agreed to resign once a transitional government had been formed. As of that month, nearly half of Haiti's population was living under [[Hunger|acute food insecurity]], according to the [[World Food Programme]].<ref name=":1" /> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page