Cold War Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ===Third World escalations=== {{See also|1964 Brazilian coup d'état|Dominican Civil War|Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966|Vietnam War|1973 Chilean coup d'état|1973 Uruguayan coup d'état|1976 Argentine coup d'état|Operation Condor|Six-Day War|War of Attrition|Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Yom Kippur War|Ogaden War|Angolan Civil War|South African Border War|Indonesian invasion of East Timor|Stability–instability paradox}} Under the [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] [[Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson|administration]], which gained power after the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]], the US took a more hardline stance on Latin America—sometimes called the "[[Thomas C. Mann#Mann Doctrine|Mann Doctrine]]".{{sfn|LaFeber|1993a|pp=186–190}} In 1964, the Brazilian military [[1964 Brazilian coup d'état|overthrew the government]] of president [[João Goulart]] with US backing.{{sfn|LaFeber|1993a|p=191}} In late April 1965, the US sent some 22,000 troops to the [[Dominican Republic]] in an intervention, codenamed Operation Power Pack, into the [[Dominican Civil War]] between supporters of deposed president [[Juan Bosch (politician)|Juan Bosch]] and supporters of General [[Elías Wessin y Wessin]], citing the threat of the emergence of a Cuban-style revolution in Latin America. The [[Organization of American States|OAS]] also deployed soldiers to the conflict through the mostly Brazilian [[Inter-American Peace Force]].{{sfn|LaFeber|1993a|pp=194–97}} [[Héctor García-Godoy]] acted as provisional president, until conservative former president [[Joaquín Balaguer]] won the 1966 presidential election against non-campaigning Juan Bosch.{{sfn|Itzigsohn|2000|pp=41–42}} Activists for Bosch's [[Dominican Revolutionary Party]] were violently harassed by the Dominican police and armed forces.{{sfn|Itzigsohn|2000|pp=41–42}} [[File:Suharto at funeral.jpg|thumb|[[Suharto]] of Indonesia attending funeral of five generals slain in [[30 September Movement]], 2 October 1965]] In Indonesia, the hardline anti-communist [[Suharto|General Suharto]] wrested control of the state from his predecessor [[Sukarno]] in an attempt to [[Transition to the New Order|establish a "New Order"]]. From 1965 to 1966, with the [[CIA activities in Indonesia#Anti-communist purge|aid of the United States]] and other Western governments,{{sfn|Robinson|2018|p=203}}{{sfn|Simpson|2010|p=193}}{{sfn|Thaler|2015}}{{sfn|Perry|2016}}{{sfn|Bevins|2017}} the military [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|led the mass killing]] of more than 500,000 members and sympathizers of the [[Communist Party of Indonesia|Indonesian Communist Party]] and other leftist organizations, and detained hundreds of thousands more in prison camps around the country under extremely inhumane conditions.{{sfn|Farid|2005|pp=3–16}}{{sfn|Aarons|2007}} A top-secret CIA report stated that the massacres "rank as one of the worst [[mass murder]]s of the 20th century, along with the Soviet purges of the 1930s, the Nazi mass murders during the Second World War, and the Maoist bloodbath of the early 1950s."{{sfn|Aarons|2007}} These killings served US strategic interests and constitute a major turning point in the Cold War as the balance of power shifted in Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Bevins|2020|p=2}}{{sfn|Scott|2017}} [[Joint warfare in South Vietnam, 1963–1969|Escalating the scale of American intervention]] in the ongoing conflict between [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Đình Diệm]]'s [[South Vietnam]]ese government and the communist [[Viet Cong|National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam]] (NLF) insurgents opposing it, Johnson deployed some 575,000 troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the NLF and their North Vietnamese allies in the [[Vietnam War]], but his costly policy weakened the US economy and sparked domestic anti-war protests, which lead to the US withdrawal by 1972. Without American support, South Vietnam was [[Fall of Saigon|conquered by North Vietnam in 1975]]; the US reputation suffered as a result, as most of the world saw the events in Vietnam as the defeat of the world's most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the world's poorest nations.{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} [[File:Henry Kissinger with Anwar Sadat cph.3b13868.jpg|thumb|230px|Egyptian leader [[Anwar Sadat]] with Henry Kissinger in 1975]] The Middle East remained a source of contention. [[Egypt]], which received the bulk of its arms and economic assistance from the USSR, was a troublesome client, with a reluctant Soviet Union feeling obliged to assist in both the 1967 [[Six-Day War]] (with advisers and technicians) and the [[War of Attrition]] (with pilots and aircraft) against pro-Western [[Israel]].{{sfn|Stone|2010|p=230}} Despite the beginning of an Egyptian shift from a pro-Soviet to a pro-American orientation in 1972 (under Egypt's new leader [[Anwar Sadat]]), the Soviets supported Egypt and [[Syria]] during the [[Yom Kippur War]] the following year, as the United States supported Israel.{{sfn|Grenville|Wasserstein|1987}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Quandt |first1=William |title=Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict Since 1967 |date=2005 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=California |isbn=978-0520246317 |pages=104–105 |edition=third |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MVXxUGe9qEkC}}</ref> Although pre-Sadat Egypt had been the largest recipient of Soviet aid in the Middle East, the Soviets were also successful in establishing close relations with communist [[South Yemen]], as well as the nationalist governments of [[Algeria]] and [[Iraq]].{{sfn|Grenville|Wasserstein|1987}} Iraq signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in 1972. According to historian [[Charles R. H. Tripp]], the treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the [[Arab Cold War]]. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States."{{sfn|Tripp|2002}} In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by [[Mustafa Barzani]] during the [[Second Iraqi–Kurdish War]]; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians.{{sfn|Tripp|2002}} Indirect Soviet assistance to the Palestinian side of the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] included support for [[Yasser Arafat]]'s [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO).{{sfn|Friedman|2007|p=330}} In East Africa, a territorial dispute between [[Somalia]] and [[Ethiopia]] over the [[Ogaden]] region resulted in the [[Ogaden War]]. Around June 1977, Somali troops occupied the Ogaden and began advancing inland towards Ethiopian positions in the [[Ahmar Mountains]]. Both countries were client states of the [[Soviet Union]]; Somalia was led by self-proclaimed Marxist military leader [[Siad Barre]], and Ethiopia was controlled by the [[Derg]], a cabal of military generals loyal to the pro-Soviet [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]], who had declared the Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia in 1975.{{sfn|Erlich|2008|pp=84–86}} The Soviets initially attempted to exert a moderating influence on both states, but in November 1977 Barre broke off relations with Moscow and expelled his Soviet military advisers.{{sfn|Perrett|2016|pp=216–217}} He then turned to the China and [[Safari Club]]—a group of pro-American intelligence agencies including those of Iran, Egypt, Saudi Arabia—for support and weapons.<ref>"Chinese to Increase Aid to Somalia". The Washington Post. 21 April 1987.</ref>{{sfn|Bronson|2006|p=134|ps=: "Encouraged by Saudi Arabia, Safari Club members approached Somali president Siad Barre and offered to provide the arms he needed if he stopped taking Soviet aid. Barre agreed. Egypt then sold Somalia $75 million worth of its unwanted Soviet arms, with Saudi Arabia footing the bill."}}{{efn-ua|Miglietta, ''American Alliance Policy'' (2002), p. 78. "American military goods were provided by Egypt and Iran, which transferred excess arms from their inventories. It was said that American M-48 tanks sold to Iran were shipped to Somalia via Oman."}} While declining to take a direct part in hostilities, the Soviet Union did provide the impetus for a successful Ethiopian counteroffensive to expel Somalia from the Ogaden. The counteroffensive was planned at the command level by Soviet advisers attached to the Ethiopian general staff, and bolstered by the delivery of millions of dollars' of sophisticated Soviet arms.{{sfn|Perrett|2016|pp=216–217}} About 11,000 Cuban troops spearheaded the primary effort, after receiving a hasty training on some of the newly delivered Soviet weapons systems by East German instructors.{{sfn|Perrett|2016|pp=216–217}} [[File:Reunión Pinochet - Kissinger.jpg|thumb|Chilean leader [[Augusto Pinochet]] shaking hands with Henry Kissinger in 1976]] In [[Chile]], the [[Socialist Party of Chile|Socialist Party]] candidate [[Salvador Allende]] won the [[1970 Chilean presidential election|presidential election of 1970]], thereby becoming the first democratically elected [[Marxism|Marxist]] to become president of a country in the Americas.{{sfn|BBC|2003}} The CIA targeted Allende for removal and operated to undermine his support domestically, which contributed to a period of unrest culminating in General [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|coup d'état]] on 11 September 1973. Pinochet consolidated power as a military dictator, Allende's reforms of the economy were rolled back, and leftist opponents were killed or detained in internment camps under the [[Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional]] (DINA). The socialist states—with the exception of China and [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]]—broke off relations with Chile.<ref>J. Samuel Valenzuela and Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), ''Military Rule in Chile: Dictatorship and Oppositions'', p. 317</ref> The Pinochet regime would go on to be one of the leading participants in [[Operation Condor]], an international campaign of political assassination and [[state terrorism]] organized by right-wing military dictatorships in the [[Southern Cone]] of South America that was covertly supported by the US government.{{sfn|McSherry|2011|p=107}}{{sfn|Hixson|2009|p=223}}{{sfn|Grandin|2011|p=75}} [[File:Cuban PT-76 Angola.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Cuban tank in the streets of [[Luanda]], [[Angola]], 1976]] On 24 April 1974, the [[Carnation Revolution]] succeeded in ousting [[Marcello Caetano]] and Portugal's right-wing ''[[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]]'' government, sounding the death knell for the Portuguese Empire.{{sfn|Hamann|2007|pp=15–32, 44}} Independence was hastily granted to a number of Portuguese colonies, including [[Angola]], where the disintegration of colonial rule was followed by a violent civil war.{{sfn|Stockwell|1979|pp=161–165, 185–194}} There were three rival militant factions competing for power in Angola: the [[MPLA|People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA), the [[UNITA|National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA), and the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]] (FNLA).{{sfn|Rothschild|1997|pp=115–121}} While all three had socialist leanings, the MPLA was the only party with close ties to the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Rothschild|1997|pp=115–121}} Its adherence to the concept of a Soviet one-party state alienated it from the FNLA and UNITA, which began portraying themselves as anti-communist and pro-Western in orientation.{{sfn|Rothschild|1997|pp=115–121}} When the Soviets began supplying the MPLA with arms, the CIA and China offered substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA.{{sfn|Vanneman|1990|pp=48–49}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB67/gleijeses4.pdf|title=Document obtained by National Security Archive, from National Archives Record Group 59. Records of the Department of State, Policy Planning Staff, Director's Files (Winston Lord), 1969–1977, Box 373|website=Gwu.edu|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-date=17 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140617093833/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB67/gleijeses4.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Hughes, Geraint (2014). My Enemy's Enemy: Proxy Warfare in International Politics. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. pp. 65–79. {{ISBN|978-1-84519-627-1}}.</ref> The MPLA eventually requested direct military support from Moscow in the form of ground troops, but the Soviets declined, offering to send advisers but no combat personnel.{{sfn|Vanneman|1990|pp=48–49}} Cuba was more forthcoming and began amassing troops in Angola to assist the MPLA.{{sfn|Vanneman|1990|pp=48–49}} By November 1975, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country.{{sfn|Vanneman|1990|pp=48–49}} The persistent buildup of Cuban troops and Soviet weapons allowed the MPLA to secure victory and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and [[South Africa]]n troops, which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA.{{sfn|Weigert|2011|pp=56–65}} [[File:Skulls from the killing fields.jpg|thumb|right|During the [[Khmer Rouge]] [[Democratic Kampuchea|regime]] led by [[Pol Pot]], 1.5 to 2 million people died due to the policies of his four-year premiership.]] During the Vietnam War, North Vietnam [[Sihanouk Trail|used border areas of Cambodia as military bases]], which Cambodian head of state [[Norodom Sihanouk]] tolerated in an attempt to preserve Cambodia's neutrality. Following [[1970 Cambodian coup d'état|Sihanouk's March 1970 deposition]] by pro-American general [[Lon Nol]], who ordered the North Vietnamese to leave Cambodia, North Vietnam attempted to overrun all of Cambodia following negotiations with [[Nuon Chea]], the second-in-command of the Cambodian communists (dubbed the [[Khmer Rouge]]) fighting to overthrow the Cambodian government.{{sfn|Mosyakov|2004|p=54}} Sihanouk fled to China with the establishment of the [[GRUNK]] in Beijing.<ref>Norodom Sihanouk, My War with the CIA, Random House, 1973, p. 62</ref> American and South Vietnamese forces responded to these actions with a [[Operation Menu|bombing campaign]] and a brief [[Cambodian campaign|ground incursion]], which contributed to the violence of the [[Cambodian Civil War|civil war]] that soon enveloped all of Cambodia.{{sfn|BBC|2018}} US carpet bombing [[Operation Freedom Deal|lasted until 1973]], and while it prevented the Khmer Rouge from seizing the capital, it also accelerated the collapse of rural society, increased social polarization,{{sfn|Chandler|2000|pp=96–98}} and killed tens of thousands of civilians.{{sfn|Power|2013}} After taking power and distancing himself from the Vietnamese,{{sfn|Mosyakov|2004|p=66}} pro-China Khmer Rouge leader [[Pol Pot]] killed 1.5 to 2 million Cambodians in the [[Killing Fields|killing fields]], roughly a quarter of the Cambodian population (an event commonly labelled the [[Cambodian genocide]]).{{sfn|Locard|2005}}{{sfn|Kiernan|2003}}{{sfn|Heuveline|2001|pp=102–105}}{{sfn|World Peace Foundation|2015}} [[Martin Shaw (sociologist)|Martin Shaw]] described these atrocities as "the purest genocide of the Cold War era."{{sfn|Shaw|2000|p=141}} Backed by the [[Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation]], an organization of Khmer pro-Soviet Communists and Khmer Rouge defectors led by [[Heng Samrin]], Vietnam invaded Cambodia on 22 December 1978. The [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War|invasion]] succeeded in deposing Pol Pot, but the new state would struggle to gain international recognition beyond the Soviet Bloc sphere. Despite the previous international outcry at the Pol Pot regime's gross human rights violations, representatives of the Khmer Rouge were allowed to be seated in the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]], with strong support from China, Western powers, and the member countries of [[ASEAN]]. Cambodia would become bogged down in a guerrilla war led from refugee camps located on the border with [[Thailand]]. Following the destruction of the Khmer Rouge, the national reconstruction of Cambodia would be severely hampered, and Vietnam would suffer a punitive [[Sino-Vietnamese War|Chinese attack]].{{sfn|Slocomb|2001}} Although unable to deter Vietnam from ousting [[Pol Pot]] from Cambodia, China demonstrated that its Cold War communist adversary, the [[Soviet Union]], was unable to protect its Vietnamese ally.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=Elleman|first=Bruce A.|title=Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989|url=https://archive.org/details/modernchinesewar00elle|url-access=limited|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0415214742|page=[https://archive.org/details/modernchinesewar00elle/page/n309 297]}}</ref> Former U.S. Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]] wrote that "China succeeded in exposing the limits of...[Soviet] strategic reach" and speculated that the desire to "compensate for their ineffectuality" contributed to the Soviets' decision to [[Soviet–Afghan War|intervene in Afghanistan]] a year later.<ref>{{Citation| title=On China| author1=Kissinger, H.| year=2011| publisher=New York:Penguin Press| isbn=9781101445358| language=English| pages=304–305}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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