Dubai Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Dubai}} {{further|Culture of the United Arab Emirates}} [[File:Museum of Future - Dubai.jpg|thumb|[[Museum of the Future]]]] The UAE culture mainly revolves around traditional Arab culture. The influence of Arab and Islamic culture on its architecture, music, attire, cuisine, and lifestyle is very prominent as well. Five times every day, Muslims are called to prayer from the [[minaret]]s of mosques that are scattered around the country. Major holidays in Dubai include [[Eid al-Fitr]], which marks the end of [[Ramadan]], and [[National Day]] (2 December), which marks the formation of the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 November 2015 |title=Gulf News Community |url=http://gulfnews.com/guides/life/community/how-the-uae-was-born-1.1610731 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220102503/http://gulfnews.com/guides/life/community/how-the-uae-was-born-1.1610731 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |access-date=11 December 2016 |website=gulfnews.com}}</ref> The city's cultural imprint as a small, ethnically homogeneous pearling community was changed with the arrival of other ethnic groups and nationals—first by the Iranians in the early 1900s, and later by Indians and Pakistanis in the 1960s. In 2005, 84% of the population of metropolitan Dubai was foreign-born, about half of them from India.<ref name="migrationinformation" /> From 2006 to 2022, the weekend had been Friday and Saturday, as a compromise between Friday's holiness to Muslims and the Western weekend of Saturday and Sunday.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jonathan Sheikh-Miller |title=UAE Weekend Switchover |url=http://www.ameinfo.com/95027.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212191741/http://www.ameinfo.com/95027.html |archive-date=12 February 2011 |access-date=22 March 2010 |publisher=AMEinfo}}</ref> Prior to 2006, the weekend was Thursday-Friday. On 1 January 2022, Dubai moved to a four-and-a-half day working week, with the weekend comprising Friday afternoon, Saturday, and Sunday.<ref>{{cite web |author=Government of Dubai Media Office |title=The changes to the working week system |url=https://www.mediaoffice.ae/en/news/2021/December/07-12/The-changes-to-the-working-week-system}}</ref> Because of the touristic approach of many Dubaites in the entrepreneurial sector and the high standard of living, Dubai's culture has gradually evolved towards one of luxury, opulence, and lavishness with a high regard for leisure-related extravagance.<ref>Luxury Fashion Branding: Trends, Tactics, Techniques – Page 80, Uché Okonkwo – 2007.</ref><ref>Dubai – Page 100, Terry Carter – 2009.</ref><ref>Introduction to Sociology – Page 14, George Ritzer – 2012.</ref> Dubai is known for its nightlife. Clubs and bars are found mostly in hotels because of liquor laws. ''[[The New York Times]]'' described Dubai as "the kind of city where you might run into [[Michael Jordan]] at the Buddha Bar or stumble across [[Naomi Campbell]] celebrating her birthday with a multiday bash".<ref name="nyt">{{Cite news |last=Sherwood |first=Seth |date=9 December 2007 |title=Clubs Bloom in the Desert |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/09/travel/09party.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017084536/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/09/travel/09party.html |archive-date=17 October 2015 |access-date=23 April 2010 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> [[File:Meydan Beach Club, Dubai (8668492594).jpg|right|thumb|Meydan Beach Club, Jumeirah]]Annual entertainment events such as the [[Dubai Shopping Festival]]<ref>[http://www.traveldealsfinder.com/travel-packages/dubai-shopping-festival Dubai Shopping Festival 2011] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106131951/http://www.traveldealsfinder.com/travel-packages/dubai-shopping-festival |date=6 January 2011}} More Details</ref> (DSF) and Dubai Summer Surprises (DSS) attract over 4 million visitors from across the region and generate revenues in excess of $2.7 billion.<ref name="dsf">[http://www.dubaicityguide.com/site/dsf/milestones.asp DSF Milestones] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100317124602/http://dubaicityguide.com/site/dsf/milestones.asp |date=17 March 2010}}. Dubaicityguide</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://gulfnews.com/in-focus/dubai-shopping-festival/sales-will-account-for-8-of-dubai-s-gdp-1.269917 |title=Sales will account for 8% of Dubai's GDP |work=Gulf News |date=3 May 2009 |access-date=20 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508235712/http://gulfnews.com/in-focus/dubai-shopping-festival/sales-will-account-for-8-of-dubai-s-gdp-1.269917 |archive-date=8 May 2013}}</ref> The [[International Festivals and Events Association]] (IFEA), the world's leading events trade association, has crowned Dubai as ''IFEA World Festival and Event City, 2012'' in the cities category with a population of more than one million.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 September 2012 |title=Dubai is world's festival city |url=http://www.khaleejtimes.com/kt-article-display-1.asp?xfile=/data/nationgeneral/2012/September/nationgeneral_September341.xml§ion=nationgeneral |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924032330/http://khaleejtimes.com/kt-article-display-1.asp?xfile=%2Fdata%2Fnationgeneral%2F2012%2FSeptember%2Fnationgeneral_September341.xml§ion=nationgeneral |archive-date=24 September 2012 |access-date=30 September 2012 |publisher=khaleejtimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=23 September 2012 |title=Dubai crowned World Festival and Event City by IFEA |url=http://news.definitelydubai.com/2012/09/23/dubai-crowned-world-festival-and-event-city-by-ifea/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928152914/http://news.definitelydubai.com/2012/09/23/dubai-crowned-world-festival-and-event-city-by-ifea/ |archive-date=28 September 2012 |access-date=30 September 2012 |publisher=news.definitelydubai.com}}</ref> Large shopping malls in the city, such as [[Deira City Centre]], [[Mirdiff City Centre]], [[BurJuman]], [[Mall of the Emirates]], [[Dubai Mall]] (the world's largest), [[Dubai Marina Mall]], [[Dubai Hills Mall]], [[Dragon Mart (Dubai)|Dragon Mart]], [[Dubai Festival City Mall]] and [[Ibn Battuta Mall]] as well as traditional [[Dubai Gold Souk]], [[Al Souk Al Kabir]] (known as Meena Bazaar) and other ''souks'' attract shoppers from the region.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.livingindubai.org/top-7-places-to-go-shopping-in-dubai/|title=Top 7 Places to go Shopping in Dubai – Dubai Expats Guide|date=29 September 2013|newspaper=Dubai Expats Guide|access-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202234802/http://www.livingindubai.org/top-7-places-to-go-shopping-in-dubai/|archive-date=2 February 2017}}</ref> ===Cuisine=== {{See also|Emirati cuisine}} [[File:Spice_Souq_Dubai_13.jpg|thumb|Traditional Middle Eastern spices at the [[Dubai Spice Souk]] in Deira, Old Dubai]] [[Arab cuisine|Arabic cuisine]] is very popular and is available everywhere in the city, from the small ''[[shawarma]]'' diners in [[Deira, Dubai|Deira]] and [[Al Karama, Dubai|Al Karama]] to the restaurants in Dubai's hotels. Fast food, South Asian, and Chinese cuisines are also very popular and are widely available. The sale and consumption of pork is regulated and is sold only to non-Muslims, in designated areas of supermarkets and airports.<ref name=pork>[http://www.stat-usa.gov/agworld.nsf/505c55d16b88351a852567010058449b/898e8206171d628385256d02006df0d7/$FILE/TC3003.PDF Food and Agricultural Import Regulations and Standards] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226222518/http://www.stat-usa.gov/agworld.nsf/505c55d16b88351a852567010058449b/898e8206171d628385256d02006df0d7/%24FILE/TC3003.PDF |date=26 February 2008}}. ''GAIN Report''. United States Department of Agriculture</ref> Similarly, the sale of alcoholic beverages is regulated. A liquor permit is required to purchase alcohol; however, alcohol is available in bars and restaurants within hotels.<ref name="Dubai Culture">[http://www.dubai-livethedream.com/dubai-culture.html Dubai Culture] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306150956/http://www.dubai-livethedream.com/dubai-culture.html |date=6 March 2010}} dubai-livethedream.com</ref> ''[[Hookah|Shisha]]'' and ''[[coffee|qahwa]]'' boutiques are also popular in Dubai. [[Biryani]] is also a popular cuisine across Dubai with being the most popular among Indians and Pakistanis present in Dubai.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.zomato.com/dubai/best-biryani-restaurants |title=Biryani in Dubai |publisher=zomato.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207234027/https://www.zomato.com/dubai/best-biryani-restaurants |archive-date=7 February 2016}}</ref> The inaugural Dubai Food Festival was held between 21 February to 15 March 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dubaifoodfestival.com/dff-2015/ |title=Dubai Food Festival |publisher=Dubai Food Festival |access-date=20 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141115191601/http://www.dubaifoodfestival.com/dff-2015/ |archive-date=15 November 2014}}</ref> According to ''[[Vision (magazine)|Vision]]'' magazine, the event was aimed at enhancing and celebrating Dubai's position as the gastronomic capital of the region. The festival was designed to showcase the variety of flavours and cuisines on offer in Dubai featuring the cuisines of over 200 nationalities at the festival.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vision.ae/en/articles/taste_of_culture_dubai_food_festival |title=Taste of culture: Dubai Food Festival |publisher=Vision.ae |date=February 2014 |access-date=20 November 2014 |author=East, Ben |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030181910/http://vision.ae/en/articles/taste_of_culture_dubai_food_festival |archive-date=30 October 2014}}</ref> The next food festival was held between 23 February 2017 to 11 March 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visitdubai.com/en/events/dubai-food-festival-2017|title=Dubai Food Festival 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010012413/http://www.visitdubai.com/en/events/dubai-food-festival-2017|archive-date=10 October 2016}}</ref> ===Entertainment=== {{See also|Music of the United Arab Emirates}} Dubai Opera opened its door on 31 August 2016 in Downtown Dubai with a performance by [[Plácido Domingo]]. The venue is a 2000-seat, multifunctional performing arts centre able to host not only theatrical shows, concerts and operas, but also weddings, gala dinners, banquets and conferences. [[File:DubaiOpera.jpg|thumb|[[Dubai Opera]]]] Arabic movies are popular in Dubai and the UAE. Since 2004, the city has hosted the annual [[Dubai International Film Festival]] which serves as a showcase for Arab and Middle Eastern film making talent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dubaifilmfest.com/en/about-diff/what-is-diff.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822190629/http://www.dubaifilmfest.com/en/about-diff/what-is-diff.html|archive-date=22 August 2008|title=About Dubai Film Festival (DFF)|publisher=7th Dubai International Film Festival|access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref> The [[Dubai Desert Rock Festival]] was also another major festival consisting of heavy metal and rock artists but is no longer held in Dubai. One of the lesser-known sides of Dubai is the importance of its young [[contemporary art]] gallery scene. Since 2008, the leading contemporary art galleries such as Carbon 12 Dubai,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://carbon12dubai.com/ |title=Carbon 12's website |publisher=Carbon12dubai.com |date=18 January 2013 |access-date=20 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331144906/http://carbon12dubai.com/ |archive-date=31 March 2013}}</ref> Green Art, gallery Isabelle van den Eynde, and The Third Line have brought the city onto the international art map. [[Art Dubai]], the growing and reputable art fair of the region is as well a major contributor of the contemporary art scene's development.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/art-dubai-adds-artist-residencies|title=Art Dubai to show international artists' vision of the UAE|date=15 March 2018|website=The Art Newspaper|access-date=27 August 2019|archive-date=27 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827132616/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/art-dubai-adds-artist-residencies|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Theatre of Digital Art]] Dubai (ToDA) opened in 2020 and presents immersive [[digital art]], including contemporary work.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://whatson.ae/2020/10/the-incredible-theatre-of-digital-art-open-its-doors-this-month/ | title=The incredible Theatre of Digital Art open its doors this month | first=Aarti | last=Saundalkar | date=6 October 2020 | website=whatson.ae | location=UAE | publisher=What's On | access-date=17 April 2022}}</ref> ===Media=== {{Main|Dubai Media Incorporated}} {{See also|List of media outlets in Dubai Media City|Radio and television channels of Dubai|Studio 52}} [[File:Etisalat tower - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Etisalat]]'s headquarters in Dubai]] Many international news agencies such as [[Reuters]], [[Associated Press Television News|APTN]], [[Bloomberg L.P.]] and [[Middle East Broadcasting Center|Middle East Broadcasting centre]] (MBC) operate in Dubai Media City and Dubai Internet City. Additionally, several local network television channels such as [[Dubai One]] (formerly Channel 33), and [[Dubai TV]] (EDTV) provide programming in English and Arabic respectively. Dubai is also the headquarters for several print media outlets. ''[[Dar Al Khaleej]]'', ''[[Al Bayan (newspaper)|Al Bayan]]'' and ''[[Al-Ittihad (Emirati newspaper)|Al Ittihad]]'' are the city's largest circulating Arabic language newspapers,<ref name=alkhaleej>[http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/New_Chart.pdf Largest-Circulation Arabic Newspapers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614232009/http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/New_Chart.pdf |date=14 June 2011}}. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. ''Arab Reform Bulletin'', December 2004.</ref> while ''[[Gulf News]]'', ''[[Khaleej Times]]'', ''Khaleej Mag'' and ''[[7days]]'' are the largest circulating English newspapers.<ref name=gulfnewskhaleejtimes>[https://archive.today/20130210023747/http://www.zawya.com/pdfstory.cfm?storyid=GN_03022010_040214&l=000000100204 Gulf News continues to lead the way]. zawya. February 2010.</ref> [[Etisalat]], the government-owned telecommunications provider, held a virtual monopoly over telecommunication services in Dubai prior to the establishment of other, smaller telecommunications companies such as Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company (EITC—better known as Du) in 2006. Internet was introduced into the UAE (and therefore Dubai) in 1995. The network has an Internet bandwidth of 7.5 Gbit/s with capacity of 49 STM1 links.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/etisalat-ramps-up-uae-bandwidth-62960.html|title=Etisalat ramps up UAE bandwidth|date=11 June 2006|publisher=arabianbusiness.com|access-date=3 May 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812064751/http://www.arabianbusiness.com/etisalat-ramps-up-uae-bandwidth-62960.html|archive-date=12 August 2011}}</ref> Dubai houses two of four Domain Name System (DNS) data centres in the country (DXBNIC1, DXBNIC2).<ref name="dxbittopology">{{cite web|url=http://www.isoc.org/isoc/conferences/inet/05/hashim.pdf|title=UAEnicat a Glance|last=Hashim|first=Abdulla|date=5 May 2005|publisher=isoc.org|access-date=21 April 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100311050524/https://www.isoc.org/isoc/conferences/inet/05/hashim.pdf|archive-date=11 March 2010}}</ref> Censorship is common in Dubai and used by the government to control content that it believes violates the cultural and political sensitivities of Emirates.<ref name=etisalatmon>[http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/united_arab_emirates.pdf United Arab Emirates] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909194905/http://opennet.net/sites/opennet.net/files/united_arab_emirates.pdf |date=9 September 2008}}. OpenNet Interactive. 2008.</ref> Homosexuality, drugs, and the theory of evolution are generally considered taboo.<ref name="Dubai Culture" /><ref name="Bedell">{{Cite news|url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article5741679.ece|title=Geraldine Bedell's novel banned in Dubai because of gay character|last=Jack|first=Malvern|date=16 February 2009|work=The Times |location=UK |access-date=22 April 2010}}</ref> Internet content is regulated in Dubai. Etisalat uses a proxy server to filter Internet content that the government deems to be inconsistent with the values of the country, such as sites that provide information on how to bypass the proxy; sites pertaining to dating, gay and lesbian networks, and pornography; and previously, sites originating from [[Israel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://opennet.net/studies/uae|title=Internet Filtering in the United Arab Emirates in 2004–2005: A Country Study|date=5 May 2005|publisher=OpenNet Initiative|access-date=9 June 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611125850/http://opennet.net/studies/uae|archive-date=11 June 2010}}</ref> Emirates Media and Internet (a division of Etisalat) notes that {{as of|2002|lc=y}}, 76% of Internet users are male. About 60% of Internet users were Asian, while 25% of users were Arab. Dubai enacted an Electronic Transactions and Commerce Law in 2002 which deals with digital signatures and electronic registers. It prohibits Internet Service Providers (ISPs) from disclosing information gathered in providing services.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tecom.ae/law/law_2.htm |title=Electronic Transactions and Commerce Law No.2/2002 |publisher=Dubai Technology and Media Free Zone Authority |access-date=9 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531152539/http://www.tecom.ae/law/law_2.htm |archive-date=31 May 2011}}</ref> The penal code contains official provisions that prohibit digital access to pornography; however, it does not address cyber crime or data protection.<ref name=privacy>{{cite web|url=http://www.privacyinternational.org/article.shtml?cmd%5B347%5D=x-347-103788 |title=Silenced – United Arab Emirates |publisher=Privacyinternational.org |date=21 September 2003 |access-date=20 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100903044652/http://www.privacyinternational.org/article.shtml?cmd%5B347%5D=x-347-103788 |archive-date=3 September 2010}}</ref> In 2019 the Italian artist [[Princess Bee]] produced "Hi Dubai", the first cross media format revealing the "soul of the city" through the life and work experience of 25 Emirati and expat women. The series also promoted the Emirate's lifestyle and main events to attract young people to visit and to live in Dubai. "Hi Dubai" was on air on the national channel Dubai One TV, in prime time, after the National News during the U.A.E. National Day's week; then distributed online on Dubai Post and in-flight on ICE in all Emirates Airlines flights.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.albayan.ae/five-senses/mirrors/2016-03-25-1.2602910 | title="مرحبا دبي" برنامج وثائقي برؤية إيطالية | date=24 March 2016}}</ref> ===Sports=== {{Main|List of sports venues in Dubai}} {{See also|Traditional sports in the United Arab Emirates}} [[File:DTC1.jpg|thumb|[[Aviation Club Tennis Centre|Dubai Tennis Stadium]]]] [[Association football|Football]] and [[cricket]] are the most popular sports in Dubai. Headquarters of [[International Cricket Council]] is in Dubai. Three football teams ([[Al Wasl FC]], [[Shabab Al-Ahli Dubai FC]] and [[Al Nasr SC (Dubai)|Al Nasr SC]]) represent Dubai in [[UAE Pro-League]].<ref name="Dubai Culture" /> Al-Wasl have the second-most championships in the UAE League, after [[Al Ain FC|Al Ain]]. Dubai also hosts both the annual [[Dubai Tennis Championships]] and [[The Legends Rock Dubai]] tennis tournaments, as well as the [[Dubai Desert Classic]] golf tournament and the [[DP World Tour Championship, Dubai|DP World Tour Championship]], all of which attract sports stars from around the world. The [[Dubai World Cup]], a [[thoroughbred]] horse race, is held annually at the [[Meydan Racecourse]]. The city's top basketball team has traditionally been [[Shabab Al Ahli Basket]]. Dubai also hosts the traditional [[rugby union]] tournament [[Dubai Sevens]], part of the [[Sevens World Series]] Event pictures of Rugby 7 Dubai 2015. In 2009, Dubai hosted the [[2009 Rugby World Cup Sevens]]. Auto racing is also a big sport in Dubai, the [[Dubai Autodrome]] is home to many auto racing events throughout the year. It also features a state-of-the-art indoor and outdoor [http://www.dubaiautodrome.com/kartdrome-main/racing/ Kartdrome], popular among racing enthusiasts and recreational riders. The Indian Premier League cricket competition was held in UAE in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. ===Dress code=== [[File:Al Tayer Motors Sponsors High-class Dubai World Cup Carnival (8490930005).jpg|thumb|Men wearing the [[Thawb|kandurah]] and the traditional [[Keffiyeh|ghotrah]], held in place by an [[Agal (accessory)|egal]]]] The Emirati attire is typical of several countries in the Arabian Peninsula. Women usually wear the "[[abaya]]", a long black robe with a [[hijab]] (the head-scarf which covers the neck and part of the head-all of the hair and ears). Some women may add a [[niqāb|niqab]] which cover the mouth and nose and only leaves the eyes exposed. Men wear the "[[thawb|kandurah]]" also referred to as "dishdasha" or even "thawb" (long white robe) and the headscarf ([[keffiyeh|ghotrah]]). The UAE traditional [[ghutrah]] is white and is held in place by an accessory called "[[Agal (accessory)|egal]]", which resembles a black cord. The younger Emiratis prefer to wear red and white ghutrah and tie it around their head like a turban.<ref>{{cite web |last=Grogan |first=Siobhan |date=2017-04-26 |title=Here's Everything You Need to Know About Emirati Clothing |url=https://theculturetrip.com/middle-east/united-arab-emirates/articles/heres-everything-you-need-to-know-about-emirati-clothing/ |access-date=2022-04-30 |website=Culture Trip}}</ref> The above dress code is never compulsory and many people wear western or other eastern clothing without any problems, but prohibitions on wearing "indecent clothing" or revealing too much skin are aspects of the UAE to which Dubai's visitors are expected to conform, and are encoded in Dubai's criminal law.<ref name="Criminal Law of Dubai">{{cite web|url=http://www.lawyersuae.com/court-cases/criminal-law-of-dubai|title=Criminal Law of Dubai|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006095228/http://www.lawyersuae.com/court-cases/criminal-law-of-dubai|archive-date=6 October 2014|date=23 October 2012}}</ref> The UAE has enforced decency regulations in most public places, aside from waterparks, beaches, clubs, and bars.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.emirates247.com/news/emirates/uae-laws-you-must-know-to-stay-out-of-trouble-2012-02-28-1.445519|title=UAE laws you must know to stay out of trouble|last=Leijen|first=Majorie van|newspaper=Emirates 24{{!}}7|access-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228163649/http://www.emirates247.com/news/emirates/uae-laws-you-must-know-to-stay-out-of-trouble-2012-02-28-1.445519|archive-date=28 December 2016}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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