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Do not fill this in! ==Career== Hus began teaching at the University of Prague in 1398 and in 1399, he first publicly defended propositions of Wycliffe.{{sfn|Kuhns|1907|p=40}} He was ordained as a [[Catholic priest]] in 1400.<ref name="OD Renaissance">{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Gordon |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Renaissance |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780191727795 |chapter=Hus, Jan or Jan Huss (c.1372–1415)}}</ref> In 1401, his students and faculty promoted him to dean of the philosophical department, and a year later, he became a [[Rector (academia)|rector]] of the University of Prague.{{sfn|Kuhns|1907|p=43}} He was appointed a preacher at the [[Bethlehem Chapel]] in 1402.{{sfn|Kuhns|1907|p=47}} Hus was a strong advocate for the Czechs and the [[Philosophical realism|Realists]], and he was influenced by the writings of [[John Wycliffe]].{{sfn|Kuhns|1907|pp=45–46}} Although Church authorities banned many of Wycliffe's works in 1403, Hus translated ''Trialogus'' into [[Czech language|Czech]] and helped to distribute it.{{sfn|Wilhelm|1910}}[[File:Hus na kazatelne.jpg|thumb|left|Jan Hus preaching, illumination from a Czech manuscript, 1490s]] Hus denounced the moral failings of clergy, bishops, and even the papacy from his pulpit.{{sfn|Gillett|1863|pp=76–78}}{{sfn|Gilpin|1809|p=143}} Archbishop [[Zbyněk Zajíc]] tolerated this, and even appointed Hus a preacher at the clergy's biennial synod. On 24 June 1405, [[Pope Innocent VII]] directed the Archbishop to counter Wycliffe's teachings, especially the idea of [[impanation]] in the [[Eucharist]].{{sfn|Wilhelm|1910}} The archbishop complied by issuing a [[synod]] decree against Wycliffe, as well as forbidding any further attacks on the clergy.{{sfn|Wilhelm|1910}} In 1406, two Bohemian students brought to Prague a document bearing the seal of the [[University of Oxford]] and praising Wycliffe. Hus proudly read the document from his pulpit.{{sfn|Wilhelm|1910}} Then, in 1408, [[Pope Gregory XII]] warned Archbishop Zajic that the Church in Rome had been informed of Wycliffe's heresies and of the sympathies of King [[Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia]] for nonconformists.{{sfn|Gillett|1863|pp=140–141}} In response, the king and university ordered all of Wycliffe's writings surrendered to the archdiocesan chancery for correction. Hus obeyed, declaring that he condemned the errors in those writings.{{sfn|Hus|1372–1415|p=69}} ===Papal Schism=== In 1408, the [[Charles University in Prague]] was divided by the [[Western Schism]], in which Gregory XII in Rome and [[Antipope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]] in [[Avignon]] both claimed the papacy. Wenceslaus felt Gregory XII might interfere with his plans to be crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. He denounced Gregory, ordered the clergy in Bohemia to observe a strict neutrality in the schism and said that he expected the same of the university. Archbishop Zajíc remained faithful to Gregory. At the University, only the scholars of the Bohemian "nation" (one of the four governing sections), with Hus as their leader, vowed neutrality.{{sfn|Kuhns|Dickie|2017|pp=67–70}} ====Kutná Hora Decree==== {{see|Decree of Kutná Hora}} In January 1409, [[Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia|Wenceslaus]] summoned representatives of the four nations comprising the university to the Czech city of [[Kutná Hora]] to demand statements of allegiance. The Czech nation agreed, but the other three nations declined. The king then decreed that the Czech nation would have three votes in university affairs, while the "German nation" (composed of the former [[Bavaria]]n, [[Saxony|Saxon]], and [[Poland|Polish]] nations) would have one vote in total. Due to the change in voting structure by May 1409 the German dean and rector were deposed and replaced by Czechs. The [[Rupert, King of Germany|Palatine Elector]] called the Germans to his own University of Heidelberg, while the [[William II, Margrave of Meissen|Margrave of Meissen]] started a new [[University of Leipzig|university]] in Leipzig. It is estimated that over one thousand students and masters left Prague. The emigrants also spread accusations of Bohemian heresy.{{sfn|Fudge|2010|pp=97–100}} ====Antipope Alexander V==== {{More citations needed section|date=July 2020}} In 1409, the [[Council of Pisa]] tried to end the schism by electing [[Antipope Alexander V|Alexander V]] as Pope, but Gregory and Benedict did not submit. (Alexander was declared an "[[antipope]]" by the [[Council of Constance]] in 1418.) Hus, his followers, and Wenceslaus IV transferred their allegiance to Alexander V. Under pressure from King Wenceslaus IV, Archbishop Zajíc did the same. Zajíc then lodged an accusation of "ecclesiastical disturbances" against Wycliffites in Prague with Alexander V. On 20 December 1409, Alexander V issued a [[papal bull]] that empowered the Archbishop to proceed against Wycliffism in Prague. All copies of Wycliffe's writings were to be surrendered and his views repudiated, and free preaching discontinued. After the publication of the bull in 1410, Hus appealed to Alexander V, but in vain. The Wycliffe books and valuable manuscripts were burned, and Hus and his adherents were [[Excommunication|excommunicated]] by Alexander V. ====Crusade against Naples==== Alexander V died in 1410, and was succeeded by [[Antipope John XXIII|John XXIII]] (also later declared an antipope). In 1411, John XXIII proclaimed a [[crusade]] against King [[Ladislaus of Naples]], the protector of rival [[Pope Gregory XII]]. This crusade was preached in Prague as well. John XXIII also authorized [[indulgence]]s to raise money for the war. Priests urged the people on, and they crowded into churches to give their offerings. This traffic in indulgences was a sign of the corruption of the Church needing remediation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Archaeological and Historical Evidence – Falling Away from the Pure Gospel of Jesus Christ|url=http://www.supportingevidences.net/falling-away-from-the-pure-gos/|access-date=2020-12-11|website=www.supportingevidences.net|language=en}}</ref> ====Condemnation of indulgences and Crusade==== Archbishop Zajíc died in 1411 and with his death the [[Bohemian Reformation|religious movement in Bohemia]] entered a new phase during which the disputes concerning [[indulgences]] assumed great importance. Hus spoke out against indulgences, but he could not carry with him the men of the university. In 1412, a dispute took place, on which occasion Hus delivered his address ''Quaestio magistri Johannis Hus de indulgentiis''. It was taken literally from the last chapter of Wycliffe's book, ''De ecclesia'', and his treatise, ''De absolutione a pena et culpa''. Hus asserted that no pope or bishop had the right to take up the sword in the name of the Church; he should pray for his enemies and bless those who curse him; man obtains forgiveness of sins by true repentance, not money. The doctors of the theological faculty replied, but without success. A few days afterward some of Hus followers led by Vok Voksa z Valdštejna, burned the [[Papal bull]]s. Hus, they said, should be obeyed rather than the Church, which they considered a fraudulent mob of adulterers and [[Simony|Simonists]].{{sfn|Schaff|1953|pp=415–420}} In response, three men from the lower classes who openly called the indulgences a fraud were beheaded. They were later considered the first martyrs of the [[Hussite]] Church. In the meantime, the faculty had condemned the forty-five articles and added several other theses, deemed heretical, which had originated with Hus. The king forbade the teaching of these articles but neither Hus nor the university complied with the ruling. They requested that the articles should be first proven to be un-scriptural. The tumults at Prague had stirred up a sensation. Papal legates and Archbishop Albik tried to persuade Hus to give up his opposition to the papal bulls and the king made an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the two parties.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/newschaffherzog26haucgoog|quote=Archbishop Albik tried to persuade Hus to give up his opposition to the papal bulls and the king made an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the two parties.|title=The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge: Embracing Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology and Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Biography from the Earliest Times to the Present Day|last1=Herzog|first1=Johann Jakob|last2=Hauck|first2=Albert|last3=Jackson|first3=Samuel Macauley|last4=Sherman|first4=Charles Colebrook|last5=Gilmore|first5=George William|date=1909|publisher=Funk and Wagnalls Company|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newschaffherzog26haucgoog/page/n438 416]|language=en}}</ref> ====Attempts at reconciliation==== King Wenceslaus IV made efforts to harmonize the opposing parties. In 1412, he convoked the heads of his kingdom for a consultation and, at their suggestion, ordered a [[synod]] to be held at [[Český Brod]] on 2 February 1412. The synod was instead held in the palace of the archbishops at Prague in order to exclude Hus from participation. Propositions were made to restore peace in the Church. Hus declared that Bohemia should have the same freedom in regard to ecclesiastical affairs as other countries <!-- what other countries?? --> and that approbation and condemnation should therefore be announced only with the permission of the state power. This was the view of Wycliffe (''Sermones'', iii. 519, etc.). There followed treatises from both parties, but no harmony was obtained. "Even if I should stand before the stake which has been prepared for me," Hus wrote at the time, "I would never accept the recommendation of the theological faculty." The synod did not produce any results but the king ordered a commission to continue the work of reconciliation. The doctors of the university demanded Hus and his followers approve the university's conception of the Church. According to this conception, the pope is the head of the Church and the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] are the body of the Church. Hus protested vigorously. The Hussite party seems to have made a great effort toward reconciliation. To the article that the Roman Church must be obeyed, they added only "so far as every pious Christian is bound".{{sfn|Kuhns|1907|p=75}} Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč protested against this addition and left the convention; they were exiled by the king, with two others.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} ==== Hus leaves Prague and appeals to Jesus Christ ==== By this time, Hus's ideas had become widely accepted in Bohemia and there was broad resentment against the Church hierarchy. The attack on Hus by the pope and archbishop caused riots in parts of Bohemia. King Wenceslaus IV and his government took the side of Hus and the power of his adherents increased from day to day. Hus continued to preach in the [[Bethlehem Chapel]]. The churches of the city were put under the ban, and the [[Interdict (Catholic canon law)|interdict]] was pronounced against [[Prague]]. To protect the city, Hus left and went into the countryside where he continued to preach and write.{{sfn|Kuhns|1907|pp=77–78}} Before Hus left Prague, he decided to take a step which gave a new dimension to his endeavors. He wanted to become a preacher and then taught at the university he studied at before. He no longer put his trust in an indecisive king, a hostile pope or an ineffective council. On 18 October 1412, he appealed to Jesus Christ as the supreme judge.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Funda |first1=Otakar A. |title=Když se rákos chvěje nad hladinou|language=cs |date=2009 |publisher=Karolinum Press |isbn=978-8024615929 |page=145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0wZNBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA145}}</ref> By appealing directly to the highest Christian authority, Christ himself, he bypassed the laws and structures of the medieval Church. For the [[Bohemian Reformation]], this step was as significant as the [[The Ninety-Five Theses|95 theses]] posted in Wittenberg by Martin Luther in 1517. After Hus left Prague for the country, he realized what a gulf there was between university education and theological speculation and the life of uneducated country priests and the laymen entrusted to their care.{{sfn|Nodl|2010|pp=530–531}} Therefore he started to write many texts in Czech, such as basics of the Christian faith or preachings, intended mainly for the priests whose knowledge of Latin was poor.{{sfn|Šmahel|2013|p=143}} ====Writings of Hus and Wycliffe==== Of the writings occasioned by these controversies, those of Hus on the Church, entitled ''De Ecclesia'', were written in 1413 and have been most frequently quoted and admired or criticized, yet their first ten chapters are an epitome of Wycliffe's work of the same title and the following chapters are an abstract of another of Wycliffe's works (''De potentate papae'') on the power of the pope. Wycliffe had written his book to oppose the common position that the Church consisted primarily of the clergy, and Hus now found himself making the same point. He wrote his work at the castle of one of his protectors in Kozí Hrádek and sent it to Prague where it was publicly read in the Bethlehem Chapel. It was answered by Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán z Pálče (also Štěpán Páleč) with treatises of the same title.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} After the most vehement opponents of Hus had left Prague, his adherents occupied the whole ground. Hus wrote his treatises and preached in the neighborhood of Kozí Hrádek. Bohemian Wycliffism was carried into Poland, Hungary, [[Croatia]], and Austria. But in January 1413, a general council in Rome condemned the writings of Wycliffe and ordered them to be burned.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} ===Council of Constance=== King Wenceslaus's brother [[Sigismund of Hungary]], who was "[[King of the Romans]]" (that is, head of the Holy Roman Empire though not then Emperor) and heir to the Bohemian crown, was anxious to put an end to religious dissension within the Church. To put an end to the papal schism and to take up the long-desired reform of the Church, he arranged for a general council to convene on 1 November 1414, at [[Konstanz]] (Constance).{{sfn|Lützow|1909|pp=224–228}} The [[Council of Constance]] (1414–1418) became the 16th ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church. Hus, willing to make an end to all dissensions, agreed to go to Constance, under Sigismund's promise of [[safe-conduct]].{{sfn|Gillett|1863|pp=464–466}} ====Imprisonment and preparations for trial==== [[File:Hus (Lessing 1842).jpg|thumb|280px|Jan Hus at the [[Council of Constance]]. 19th-century painting by [[Karl Friedrich Lessing]]]] It is not known whether Hus knew what his fate would be, however, he made his [[last will and testament|will]] before setting out. He started on his journey on 11 October 1414, arriving in Constance on 3 November 1414. The following day, the bulletins on the church doors announced that Michal z Německého Brodu (Michal de Causis) would be opposing Hus. In the beginning, Hus was at liberty under his safe-conduct from Sigismund and lived at the house of a widow. But he continued celebrating mass and preaching to the people, in violation of restrictions decreed by the Church. After a few weeks on 28 November 1414, his opponents succeeded in imprisoning him on the strength of a rumor that he intended to flee. He was first brought into the residence of a canon and then on 6 December 1414 into the prison of the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] monastery. Sigismund, as the guarantor of Hus's safety, was greatly angered and threatened the prelates with dismissal. The prelates convinced him that he could not be bound by promises to a heretic.{{sfn|Fudge|2010|pp=125–127}} On 4 December 1414, John XXIII entrusted a committee of three bishops with a preliminary investigation against Hus. As was common practice, witnesses for the prosecution were heard but Hus was not allowed an advocate for his defense. His situation became worse after the downfall of John XXIII, who had left Constance to avoid abdicating. Hus had been the captive of John XXIII and in constant communication with his friends, but now he was delivered to the bishop of Constance and brought to his castle, ''Gottlieben on the Rhine''. Here he remained for 73 days, separated from his friends, chained day and night, poorly fed, and ill. ===Trial=== On 5 June 1415, he was tried for the first time and was transferred to a [[Franciscan]] monastery, where he spent the last weeks of his life. Extracts from his works were read and witnesses were heard. He refused all formulae of submission but declared himself willing to recant if his errors should be proven to him from the Bible. Hus conceded his veneration of Wycliffe and said that he could only wish his soul might some time attain unto that place where Wycliffe's was. On the other hand, he denied having defended Wycliffe's view of [[The Lord's Supper]] or the forty-five articles; he had only opposed their summary condemnation. King Sigismund admonished him to deliver himself up to the mercy of the council, as he did not desire to protect a heretic.{{sfn|Shahan|1908|p=III}} At the last trial, on 8 June 1415, thirty-nine sentences were read to him. Of these, twenty-six had been excerpted from his book on the Church (''De ecclesia''), seven from his treatise against Páleč (Contra Palecz), and six from that against Stanislav ze Znojma (''Contra Stanislaum''). The danger of some of these views to worldly power was explained to Sigismund to incite him against Hus. Hus again declared himself willing to submit if he could be convinced of errors. This declaration was considered an unconditional surrender, and he was asked to confess: 1. That he had erred in the theses which he had hitherto maintained; 2. That he renounced them for the future; 3. That he recanted them; and 4. That he declared the opposite of these sentences. He asked to be exempted from recanting teachings which he had never taught. Other views, which the assembly considered erroneous, he was not willing to revoke and to act differently would be against his conscience. These words found no favorable reception. After the trial on 8 June, several other attempts were purportedly made to induce him to recant, which he resisted.{{sfn|Kuhns|1907|pp=126–127}} ====Condemnation==== [[File:Hus památník.jpg|thumb|220px|The monument in [[Konstanz]], where reformer Jan Hus was executed (1862)]] {{More citations needed section|date=July 2020}} The condemnation of Jan Hus took place on 6 July 1415 in the presence of the assembly of the council in the cathedral. After the [[Solemn Mass|High Mass]] and Liturgy, Hus was led into the church. The [[Bishop of Lodi]] (then [[Giacomo Balardi Arrigoni]]) delivered an oration on the duty of eradicating heresy; various theses of Hus and Wycliffe and a report of his trial were then read. An Italian prelate pronounced the sentence of condemnation upon Hus and his writings. Hus protested, saying that even at this hour he did not wish anything but to be convinced from Scripture.{{citation required|date=September 2023}} He fell upon his knees and asked God with a soft voice to forgive all his enemies.{{citation required|date=September 2023}} Then followed his degradation from the priesthood. He was dressed in priestly vestments and again asked to recant and again he refused. With curses, Hus's ornaments were taken from him, his priestly [[tonsure]] was destroyed. The judgment of the Church was pronounced: {{Blockquote|text=This holy synod of Constance, seeing that God’s church has nothing more that it can do, relinquishes John Hus to the judgment of the secular authority and decrees that he is to be relinquished to the secular court.|source=Council of Constance, Session 15 – 6 July 1415<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fathers |first1=Council |title=Council of Constance 1414-18 Council Fathers |url=https://www.papalencyclicals.net/Councils/ecum16.htm |website=Papal Encyclicals |language=en |date=5 November 1414}}</ref>}} A tall paper hat was allegedly put upon his head with the inscription "''[[Heresiarch|Haeresiarcha]]''" (''i.e.'', the leader of a heretical movement).<ref>{{Cite book |last=De Schweinitz |first=Edmund |title=The History of the Church Known as the Unitas Fratrum: Or the Unity of the Brethren, Founded by the Followers of John Hus, the Bohemian Reformer and Martyr |publisher=Moravian Publication Office |year=1885 |location=Bethlehem, PA. |pages=74}}</ref> Hus was led away to the stake under a strong guard of armed men.{{citation required|date=September 2023}} Before his execution, Hus is said to have declared, "You may kill a weak goose [''Hus'' is Czech for "goose"], but more powerful birds, eagles and falcons, will come after me."{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}} [[Martin Luther|Luther]] modified the statement and reported that Hus had said that they might have roasted a goose, but that in a hundred years a swan would sing to whom they be forced to listen. In 1546, in his funeral sermon for Luther, [[Johannes Bugenhagen]] gave a further twist to Hus's declaration: "You may burn a goose, but in a hundred years will come a swan you will not be able to burn." Twenty years later, in 1566, [[Johannes Mathesius]], Luther's first biographer, found Hus's prophecy to be evidence of Luther's divine inspiration.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Scribner|first=R. W.|date=1986|title=Incombustible Luther: The Image of the Reformer in Early Modern Germany|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/650648|journal=Past & Present|volume=110|issue=110|pages=38–68|doi=10.1093/past/110.1.38|jstor=650648|issn=0031-2746}}</ref> ===Execution=== [[File:Jan Hus-Bible Martinicka.jpg|thumb|The oldest-known representation of Jan Hus is from the Martinická Bible 1430.]] [[File:Bohemian Protest.jpg|alt=A weathered piece of parchment 20 inches long and 30 1/2 inches wide with faded Latin text in the centre and a 100 signatures around the sides with corresponding wax seals attached.|thumb|The last surviving copy of the famous protest of the Bohemian nobles against the burning of the religious reformer Jan Hus in 1415]] [[File:Jan Hus at the Stake.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Jan Hus at the [[Death by burning|stake]], Jena codex (c. 1500)]] At the place of execution, he knelt down, spread out his hands and prayed aloud. The executioner undressed Hus and tied his hands behind his back with ropes. His neck was bound with a chain to a stake around which wood and straw had been piled up so that it covered him to the neck. At the last moment, the imperial marshal, von Pappenheim, in the presence of the [[Louis III, Elector Palatine|Count Palatine]], asked Hus to recant and thus save his own life. Hus declined, stating: {{Blockquote|God is my witness that the things charged against me I never preached. In the same truth of the Gospel which I have written, taught, and preached, drawing upon the sayings and positions of the holy doctors, I am ready to die today.{{sfn|Schaff|1953|pp=415–420}}}} Anecdotally, it has been said that the executioners had trouble intensifying the fire. An old woman then came to the stake and threw a relatively small amount of [[:wikt:brushwood|brushwood]] on it. Upon seeing her act, a suffering Hus then exclaimed, "O ''Sancta Simplicitas!''" It is said that when he was about to expire, he cried out, "Christ, son of the Living God, have mercy on us!" (a variant of the [[Jesus Prayer]]). Hus's ashes were later thrown into the [[Rhine]] river as a means of preventing the veneration of his remains. Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Discuss this page