Child sexual abuse Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Offenders== ===Demographics=== Offenders are more likely to be relatives or acquaintances of their victim than strangers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fergusson|first1=DM|last2=Lynskey|first2=MT|last3=Horwood|first3=LJ|s2cid=32786225|title=Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: I. Prevalence of sexual abuse and factors associated with sexual abuse|journal=J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry|volume= 35 |issue= 10 |pages=1355–1364|date=October 1996|doi= 10.1097/00004583-199610000-00023 |pmid= 8885590 |hdl=10523/10282|hdl-access=free}}</ref> A 2006–07 Idaho study of 430 cases found that 82% of juvenile sex offenders were known to the victims (acquaintances 46% or relatives 36%).<ref>{{cite web|author=C.L. Butch Otter |author2=Lawrence Wasden |date=January 2008|title=The Prosecution of Child Sexual Abuse in Idaho July 1, 2006 – June 30, 2007|url=http://www2.state.id.us/ag/sexual_prosecution_reports/2007IdahoProsecutionOfChildSexualAbuseReport.pdf|access-date=2008-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411140946/http://www2.state.id.us/ag/sexual_prosecution_reports/2007IdahoProsecutionOfChildSexualAbuseReport.pdf|archive-date=April 11, 2008|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kpvi.com/Global/story.asp?S=7770431|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625194210/http://www.kpvi.com/Global/story.asp?S=7770431|archive-date=25 June 2009|title=KPVI article|work=kpvi.com|access-date=23 March 2015}}</ref> More offenders are male than female, though the percentage varies between studies. The percentage of incidents of sexual abuse by female perpetrators that come to the attention of the legal system is usually reported to be between 1% and 4%.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/00224490309552195|pmid=14533025|last=M. S.|first=Denov|date=1 Aug 2003|title=The myth of innocence: sexual scripts and the recognition of child sexual abuse by female perpetrators|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|volume=40|issue=3|pages=303–314|s2cid=41459407|url=http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-3286320/The-myth-of-innocence-sexual.html}}</ref> Studies of sexual misconduct in US schools with female offenders have shown mixed results with rates between 4% and 43% of female offenders.<ref name="Shakeshaft25">{{cite web|url=http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/misconductreview/report.pdf|title=Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature", U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p25, Shakeshaft, C.|website=ed.gov}}</ref> Maletzky (1993) found that, of his sample of 4,402 convicted child sex offenders, 0.4% were female.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00856862 |title=Factors associated with success and failure in the behavioral and cognitive treatment of sexual offenders |year=1988 |last1=Maletzky |first1=Barry M. |journal=Annals of Sex Research |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=241–258|s2cid=198915624 }}</ref> According to research conducted in Australia by Kelly Richards on child sexual abuse, 35.1% of female victims were abused by another male relative and 16.4% of male victims were abused by another male relative. Male relatives were found to be the most relevant predators in the case of both gender.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi429|title=Misperceptions about child sex offenders|first=Australian Institute of|last=Criminology|date=September 30, 2011|website=Australian Institute of Criminology}}</ref> In U.S. schools, educators who offend range in age from "21 to 75 years old, with an average age of 28".<ref>Shakeshaft, C, "[http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/misconductreview/report.pdf Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature]", U.S. Department of Education, 2004, p.24-25.</ref> According to C.E. Dettmeijer-Vermeulen, Dutch national spokeswoman on human traffic and sexual violence against children, in the Netherlands, 3% of the convicted perpetrators are women,<ref name="ontuchtrechter">{{Cite web|url=http://content1a.omroep.nl/urishieldv2/l27m4a273de7013477f0005da98af5000000.f2fcc54cbfc460050cf0cd7108a6c9b9/nos/docs/BNRMOntuchtDEF.PDF|title=Ontucht voor de rechter|access-date=2019-10-18}}{{dead link|date=January 2020|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> 14.58% of the victims are boys<ref name="ontuchtrechter"/> and "most victims were abused by a family member, friend or acquaintance."<ref name="ontuchtrechter"/> One in six perpetrators is underage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nos.nl/artikel/2084576-seksueel-misbruik-minderjarigen-vrijwel-altijd-door-bekenden.html|title=Seksueel misbruik minderjarigen vrijwel altijd door bekenden|website=nos.nl|date=3 February 2016 }}</ref> ===Typology=== Early research in the 1970s and 1980s began to classify offenders based on their motivations and traits. Groth and Birnbaum (1978) categorized child sexual offenders into two groups, "fixated" and "regressed".<ref name="Groth">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF01542377 |title=Adult sexual orientation and attraction to underage persons |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-sexual-behavior_1978-05_7_3/page/175 |year=1978 |last1=Groth |first1=A. Nicholas |last2=Birnbaum |first2=H. Jean |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=175–81 |pmid=666571|s2cid=11477434 }}</ref> Fixated were described as having a primary attraction to children, whereas regressed had largely maintained relationships with other adults, and were even married. This study also showed that adult [[sexual orientation]] was not related to the sex of the victim targeted, e.g. men who molested boys often had adult relationships with women.<ref name="Groth"/> Later work (Holmes and Holmes, 2002) expanded on the types of offenders and their psychological profiles. They are divided as follows:<ref name="holmes">{{Cite book| last = Holmes | first = Ronald M. |author2=Holmes, Stephen T. | title =Profiling Violent Crimes: An Investigative Tool | url = https://archive.org/details/profilingviolent0000holm_y4s6 | publisher = Sage Publications, Inc | location = Thousand Oaks, CA | date = 2002-03-12 | page = 158-171 | isbn = 978-0-7619-2593-4}}</ref> *Situational – does not prefer children, but offend under certain conditions. **''Regressed'' – Typically has relationships with adults, but a stressor causes them to seek children as a substitute. **''Morally Indiscriminate'' – All-around sexual deviant, who may commit other sexual offenses unrelated to children. **''Naive/Inadequate'' – Often mentally disabled in some way, finds children less threatening. *Preferential – has true sexual interest in children. **''Mysoped'' – Sadistic and violent, target strangers more often than acquaintances. **''Fixated'' – Little or no activity with own age, described as an "overgrown child". ===Causal factors=== Causal factors of child sex offenders are not known conclusively.<ref name=psychtoday2008>{{cite web |url=http://psychologytoday.com/conditions/pedophilia.html |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20080219104453/http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/pedophilia.html |archive-date=19 February 2008 |title=Pedophilia |publisher=Sussex Publishers, LLC |work=Psychology Today |date=7 September 2006 |access-date=9 January 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The experience of sexual abuse as a child was previously thought to be a strong risk factor, but research does not show a causal relationship, as the vast majority of sexually abused children do not grow up to be adult offenders, nor do the majority of adult offenders report childhood sexual abuse. The US [[Government Accountability Office]] concluded, "the existence of a cycle of sexual abuse was not established." Before 1996, there was greater belief in the theory of a "cycle of violence", because most of the research done was retrospective—abusers were asked if they had experienced past abuse. Even the majority of studies found that most adult sex offenders said they had ''not'' been sexually abused during childhood, but studies varied in terms of their estimates of the percentage of such offenders who had been abused, from 0 to 79 percent. More recent prospective [[Longitudinal study|longitudinal]] research—studying children with documented cases of sexual abuse over time to determine what percentage become adult offenders—has demonstrated that the cycle of violence theory is not an adequate explanation for why people molest children.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cycle of Sexual Abuse: Research Inconclusive About Whether Child Victims Become Adult Abusers |url=http://www.gao.gov/archive/1996/gg96178.pdf |work=US Government Accountability Office General Government Division United States |author1=E L Rezmovic |author2=D Sloane |author3=D Alexander |author4=B Seltser |author5=T Jessor |year=1996 |access-date=2009-01-09 |archive-date=2011-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524004442/http://www.gao.gov/archive/1996/gg96178.pdf }}</ref> Offenders may use [[cognitive distortion]]s to facilitate their offenses, such as [[minimisation (psychology)|minimization]] of the abuse, [[victim blaming]], and [[making excuses|excuses]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=Tony |last2=Hudson |first2=Stephen M. |last3=Marshall |first3=William L. |year=1995 |title=Cognitive Distortions and Affective Deficits in Sex Offenders: A Cognitive Deconstructionist Interpretation |url=https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/cognitive-distortions-and-affective-deficits-sex-offenders#:~:text=Cognitive%20Distortions%20and%20Affective%20Deficits%20in%20Sex%20Offenders%3A%20A%20Cognitive%20Deconstructionist%20Interpretation,-NCJ%20Number&text=This%20paper%20conceptually%20integrates%20cognitive,maintaining%2C%20and%20justifying%20sexual%20offending |journal=Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=67–83 |doi=10.1177/107906329500700107 |s2cid=145666322}}</ref> === Treatment === ==== Cognitive behavioral therapy ==== [[Cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) aims to reduce attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that may increase the likelihood of sexual offenses against children. Its content varies widely between therapists, but a typical program might involve training in self-control, social competence and empathy, and use [[cognitive restructuring]] to change views on sex with children. The most common form of this therapy is [[relapse prevention]], where the patient is taught to identify and respond to potentially risky situations based on principles used for treating addictions.{{r|seto|p=171}} The evidence for cognitive behavioral therapy is mixed.{{r|seto|p=171}} A 2012 [[Cochrane Collaboration|Cochrane Review]] of randomized trials found that CBT had no effect on risk of reoffending for contact sex offenders.<ref name="cochrane2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dennis JA, Khan O, Ferriter M, Huband N, Powney MJ, Duggan C |year=2012 |title=Psychological interventions for adults who have sexually offended or are at risk of offending |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=CD007507 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007507.pub2 |pmid=23235646}}</ref> Meta-analyses in 2002 and 2005, which included both randomized and non-randomized studies, concluded that CBT reduced recidivism.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lösel F, Schmucker M |year=2005 |title=The effectiveness of treatment for sexual offenders: a comprehensive meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Experimental Criminology |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=117–46 |doi=10.1007/s11292-004-6466-7 |s2cid=145253074}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hanson RK, Gordon A, Harris AJ, Marques JK, Murphy W, etal |year=2002 |title=First report of the collaborative outcome data project on the effectiveness of treatment for sex offenders |journal=Sexual Abuse |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=169–94 |doi=10.1177/107906320201400207 |pmid=11961890 |s2cid=34192852}}</ref> There is debate over whether non-randomized studies should be considered informative.<ref name="SetoReview2">{{cite journal |author=Seto MC |year=2009 |title=Pedophilia |journal=Annual Review of Clinical Psychology |volume=5 |pages=391–407 |doi=10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153618 |pmid=19327034 |s2cid=241202227}}</ref><ref name="rice20122">{{cite book |title=Handbook of Legal & Ethical Aspects of Sex Offender Treatment & Management |vauthors=Rice ME, Harris GT |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |year=2012 |veditors=Harrison K, Rainey B |location=London, England |chapter=Treatment for adult sex offenders: may we reject the null hypothesis?}}</ref> More research is needed.<ref name="cochrane2" /> ==== Behavioral interventions ==== Behavioral treatments target sexual arousal to children, using satiation and aversion techniques to suppress sexual arousal to children and [[covert sensitization]] (or [[Masturbation|masturbatory]] reconditioning) to increase sexual arousal to adults.{{r|seto|p=175}} Behavioral treatments appear to have an effect on sexual arousal patterns during phallometric testing, but it is not known whether the effect represents changes in sexual interests or changes in the ability to control genital arousal during testing, nor whether the effect persists in the long term.<ref>Barbaree, H. E., Bogaert, A. F., & Seto, M. C. (1995). Sexual reorientation therapy for pedophiles: Practices and controversies. In L. Diamant & R. D. McAnulty (Eds.), ''The psychology of sexual orientation, behavior, and identity: A handbook'' (pp. 357–383). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.</ref><ref>Barbaree, H. C., & Seto, M. C. (1997). Pedophilia: Assessment and treatment. In D. R. Laws & W. T. O'Donohue (eds.), ''Sexual deviance: Theory, assessment and treatment'' (pp. 175–193). New York: Guildford Press.</ref> For sex offenders with mental disabilities, [[applied behavior analysis]] has been used.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Maguth Nezu C. |title=Problem Solving Treatment for Intellectually Disabled Sex Offenders |author2=Fiore A. A. |author3=Nezu A. M |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy |year=2006 |isbn=9780470713488 |volume=2 |pages=266–275 |doi=10.1002/9780470713488.ch6}}</ref> ==== Sex drive reduction ==== {{See also|Chemical castration}}Pharmacological interventions are used to lower the sex drive in general, which can ease the management of pedophilic feelings, but does not change sexual preference.<ref name="camilleri199">{{cite book |last1=Camilleri |first1=Joseph A. |url=https://archive.org/details/sexualdevianceth00laws |title=Sexual Deviance: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment, 2nd edition |last2=Quinsey |first2=Vernon L. |date=2008 |publisher=The Guilford Press |isbn=9781593856052 |editor1-last=Laws |editor1-first=D. Richard |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sexualdevianceth00laws/page/199 199]–200 |chapter=Pedophilia: Assessment and Treatment}}</ref> [[Antiandrogens]] work by interfering with the activity of testosterone. [[Cyproterone acetate]] (Androcur) and [[medroxyprogesterone acetate]] (Depo-Provera) are the most commonly used. The efficacy of antiandrogens has some support, but few high-quality studies exist. Cyproterone acetate has the strongest evidence for reducing sexual arousal, while findings on medroxyprogesterone acetate have been mixed.{{r|seto|pp=177-181}} [[Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog|Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs]] such as [[leuprorelin]] (Lupron), which last longer and have fewer side-effects, are also used to reduce libido,<ref name="pmid15985890">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cohen LJ, Galynker II |year=2002 |title=Clinical features of pedophilia and implications for treatment |journal=Journal of Psychiatric Practice |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=276–89 |doi=10.1097/00131746-200209000-00004 |pmid=15985890 |s2cid=22782583}}</ref> as are [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors]].{{r|seto|pp=177-181}} The evidence for these alternatives is more limited and mostly based on open trials and case studies.<ref name="SetoReview2" /> All of these treatments, commonly referred to as "[[chemical castration]]", are often used in conjunction with cognitive behavioral therapy.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Guay, DR |year=2009 |title=Drug treatment of paraphilic and nonparaphilic sexual disorders |journal=Clinical Therapeutics |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.1016/j.clinthera.2009.01.009 |pmid=19243704}}</ref> According to the [[Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers]], when treating child molesters, "anti-androgen treatment should be coupled with appropriate monitoring and counseling within a comprehensive treatment plan."<ref name="atsacast">{{cite web |year=1997 |title=Anti-androgen therapy and surgical castration |url=http://www.atsa.com/ppantiandro.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829070929/http://www.atsa.com/ppantiandro.html |archive-date=August 29, 2011 |work=Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers}}</ref> These drugs may have side-effects, such as weight gain, breast development, liver damage and osteoporosis.<ref name="SetoReview2" /> Historically, surgical [[castration]] was used to lower sex drive by reducing testosterone. The emergence of pharmacological methods of adjusting testosterone has made it largely obsolete, because they are similarly effective and less invasive.<ref name="camilleri199" /> It is still occasionally performed in Germany, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, and a few U.S. states. Non-randomized studies have reported that surgical castration reduces recidivism in contact sex offenders.{{r|seto|pp=181–182, 192}} The Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers opposes surgical castration<ref name="atsacast" /> and the [[Council of Europe]] works to bring the practice to an end in Eastern European countries where it is still applied through the courts.<ref>{{cite news |date=2009-02-05 |title=Prague Urged to End Castration of Sex Offenders |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,4004260,00.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107041148/http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,4004260,00.html |archive-date=2012-01-07 |access-date=2015-01-19 |newspaper=DW.DE}}</ref> ===Pedophilia=== {{Main|Pedophilia}} Pedophilia is a condition in which an adult or older adolescent is primarily or exclusively attracted to prepubescent children, whether the attraction is acted upon or not.<ref>World Health Organization, International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10. § F65.4</ref><ref>American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition text revision), § 302.2</ref> A person with this [[paraphilia]] is called a ''pedophile''. In [[Police|law enforcement]], the term ''pedophile'' is sometimes used to describe those accused or convicted of child sexual abuse under [[Minor (law)|sociolegal definitions of ''child'']] (including both prepubescent children and adolescents younger than the local [[age of consent]]);<ref name="ames">{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF01541928 |title=Legal, social, and biological definitions of pedophilia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-sexual-behavior_1990-08_19_4/page/333 |year=1990 |last1=Ames |first1=M. Ashley |last2=Houston |first2=David A. |journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=333–42 |pmid=2205170|s2cid=16719658 }}</ref> however, not all child sexual offenders are pedophiles and not all pedophiles engage in sexual abuse of children.<ref name="barbaree-seto">{{Cite book|first1=Richard|last1=Laws|first2=William T.|last2=O'Donohue |year=1997 |title=Sexual Deviance: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment|pages= 175–93 |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-57230-241-9|contribution=H. E. Barbaree, M. C. Seto }}</ref><ref name=apaDSM>{{cite web|url=http://www.psych.org/news_room/press_releases/diagnosticcriteriapedophilia.pdf |title=American Psychiatric Association Statement Diagnostic Criteria for Pedophilia |date=June 17, 2003|publisher=American Psychiatric Association |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070629090023/http://www.psych.org/news_room/press_releases/diagnosticcriteriapedophilia.pdf |archive-date = June 29, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/088626091006003002 |title=Self-Report of Crimes Committed by Sex Offenders |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-interpersonal-violence_1991-09_6_3/page/286 |year=1991 |last1=Weinrott |first1=M. R. |last2=Saylor |first2=M. |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=286–300|s2cid=143721956 }}</ref> For these reasons, researchers recommend against imprecisely describing all child molesters as ''pedophiles''.<ref>{{cite book | first= Kenneth V. | last= Lanning|title = Child Molesters: A Behavioral Analysis | edition = fifth | year = 2010 | publisher = [[National Center for Missing and Exploited Children]] | url = http://www.missingkids.com/en_US/publications/NC70.pdf | pages = 29–30 | access-date = June 9, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101224092439/http://www.missingkids.com/en_US/publications/NC70.pdf | archive-date = December 24, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | first=Michael | last=Seto| date = 2008 | title = Pedophilia and Sexual Offending Against Children | location = Washington, DC | publisher = [[American Psychological Association]] | page = vii}}</ref> The term ''pedocriminality'' ([[German language|De]]: ''Pädokriminalität''; [[French language|Fr]]: ''pédocriminalité'') is a controversial term which originated in the 1980s and has been used by organisations such as [[UNICEF]], [[UNHRC]], the [[World Health Organization]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Schauer |first=Cathrin |title=Kinder auf dem Strich: Bericht von der deutsch-tschechischen Grenze |date=2003 |publisher=Horleman Verlag |isbn=978-3-89502-174-9 |language=de}}</ref> and the [[Council of Europe]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Group of specialists on the impact of the use of new information technologies on trafficking in human beings for the purpose of sexual exploitation (EG-S-NT): Final Report|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/activities/EGSNT2002-9rev_en.asp|website=coe.int|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|access-date=31 July 2015|location=[[Strasbourg]], [[Alsace]], [[France]]|date=16 September 2003}}</ref> to refer to child sexual abuse and sexual violence used against children,<ref>Andrea Buskotte 2010: ''Sexuelle Ausbeutung von Kindern.'' In: Bernd-Dieter Meier (Hrsg.) ''Kinder im Unrecht, Junge Menschen als Täter und Opfer'', Band 27 von Kriminalwissenschaftliche Schriften, LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|3-643-10505-3}} S. 63.</ref><ref name="Gallwitz">Adolf Gallwitz, Manfred Paulus 2009: ''Pädokriminalität weltweit: sexueller Kindesmissbrauch, Kinderhandel, Kinderprostitution und Kinderpornographie''. VDP, Verl. Dt. Polizeiliteratur, {{ISBN|3-8011-0598-9}}.</ref> [[child prostitution]], [[child trafficking]] and the use of [[child pornography]].<ref>[https://so.ch/fileadmin/internet/staatskanzlei/stk-sekretariat/pdf/medienmitteilungen/2006/grundlagenbericht_jugendgewalt_def.pdf Amt für soziale Sicherheit ASO, Kanton Solothurn: ''Grundlagenbericht Dezember 2005/April 2006''] (PDF; 220 kB). S. 12</ref> The term "cyber-pedocriminality" has been used to refer to the activities of viewers of child pornography online.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 20605633 | doi=10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.01.011 | volume=34 | issue=8 | title=Cyber-pedocriminality: characteristics of a sample of internet child pornography offenders | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_child-abuse-neglect_2010-08_34_8/page/570 | journal=Child Abuse Negl | pages=570–5 | last1 = Niveau | first1 = G| year=2010 }}</ref> ===Recidivism=== Although reconviction data suggest that not many sex offenders reoffend,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csom.org/pubs/mythsfacts.html|title=CSOM Publications|work=csom.org|access-date=23 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401030750/http://www.csom.org/pubs/mythsfacts.html|archive-date=1 April 2015}}</ref> [[Office of Justice Programs|OJP]] reported that observed recidivism rates of sex offenders are underestimated of actual reoffending.<ref name=bjs-raso>{{Cite web |url=https://smart.ojp.gov/somapi/chapter-5-adult-sex-offender-recidivism |title=Sex Offender Management Assessment and Planning Initiative |access-date=2022-08-02 |work=Office of Justice Programs}}</ref> Estimated rates among child sex offenders vary by surveys and it is difficult to estimate accurately. One study found that 42% of offenders re-offended (either a sex crime, violent crime, or both) after they were released. Risk for re-offense was highest in the first 6 years after release, but continued to be significant even 10–31 years later, with 23% offending during this time.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Hanson RK, Steffy RA, Gauthier R |title=Long-term recidivism of child molesters |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-consulting-and-clinical-psychology_1993-08_61_4/page/646 |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=646–52 |date=August 1993 |pmid=8370860 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.61.4.646}}</ref> A study done in California in 1965 found an 18.2% recidivism rate for offenders targeting the opposite sex and a 34.5% recidivism rate for same-sex offenders after 5 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frisbie |first=Louise Viets |year=1965 |title=Treated Sex Offenders Who Reverted to Sexually Deviant Behavior |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_federal-probation_1965-12_29_4/page/52 |journal=Federal Probation |volume=29 |page=52}}</ref> Because recidivism is defined and measured differently from study to study, one can arrive at inaccurate conclusions being made based on comparison of two or more studies that are not conducted with similar methodology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smart.gov/SOMAPI/sec1/ch5_recidivism.html|title=Chapter 5: Adult Sex Offender Recidivism {{!}} Sex Offender Management Assessment and Planning Initiative|website=www.smart.gov|access-date=2019-10-18}}</ref> ===Other children=== {{Main|Child-on-child sexual abuse}} When a prepubescent child is sexually abused by one or more other children or adolescent youths, and no adult is directly involved, it is defined as [[child-on-child sexual abuse]]. The definition includes any sexual activity between children that occurs without [[consent]], without equality, or due to [[coercion]],<ref name="shaw">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Shaw JA, Lewis JE, Loeb A, Rosado J, Rodriguez RA |title=Child on child sexual abuse: psychological perspectives |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_child-abuse-neglect_2000-12_24_12/page/1591 |journal=Child Abuse & Neglect |volume=24 |issue=12 |pages=1591–600 |date=December 2000 |pmid=11197037 |doi=10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00212-X}}</ref> whether the offender uses physical force, threats, trickery or [[psychological manipulation|emotional manipulation]] to compel cooperation. When sexual abuse is perpetrated by one sibling upon another, it is known as "[[intersibling abuse]]", a form of [[incest]].<ref name="Caffaroa">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.avb.2004.12.001 |title=Treating sibling abuse families |year=2005 |last1=Caffaro |first1=J |last2=Conn-Caffaro |first2=A |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=10 |pages=604–623|issue=5}}</ref> Unlike research on adult offenders, a strong causal relationship has been established between child and adolescent offenders and these offenders' own prior victimization, by either adults or other children.<ref name=gray2>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Gray A, Pithers WD, Busconi A, Houchens P |title=Developmental and etiological characteristics of children with sexual behavior problems: treatment implications |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_child-abuse-neglect_1999-06_23_6/page/601 |journal=Child Abuse & Neglect |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=601–21 |date=June 1999 |pmid=10391518 |doi=10.1016/S0145-2134(99)00027-7}}</ref><ref name="gray">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/BF02674853 |title=Children with sexual behavior problems and their caregivers: Demographics, functioning, and clinical patterns |year=1997 |last1=Gray |first1=Alison |last2=Busconi |first2=Aida |last3=Houchens |first3=Paul |last4=Pithers |first4=William D. |journal=Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment |volume=9 |pages=267–290|issue=4|s2cid=195274544 }}</ref><ref name=Bromberg>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1002/pits.1023 |title=Sexual interest in children, child sexual abuse, and psychological sequelae for children |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychology-in-the-schools_2001-07_38_4/page/343 |year=2001 |last1=Bromberg |first1=Daniel S. |last2=Johnson |first2=Blair T. |journal=Psychology in the Schools |volume=38 |pages=343–355|issue=4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1023/A:1022194021593 |year=1998|last1=Wieckowski|first1=Edward|last2=Hartsoe|first2=Peggy|last3=Mayer|first3=Arthur|last4=Shortz|first4=Joianne|journal=Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment|volume=10 |pages=293–303|issue=4|title=Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment|s2cid=195292356}}</ref> === Teachers === {{Globalize|section|Africa|date=January 2024}} {{Main|Sexual abuse in primary and secondary schools}} According to a 2010 [[UNICEF]] report, 46% of Congolese schoolgirls confirmed that they had been victims of sexual harassment, abuse, and violence committed by their teachers or other school personnel.<ref name=fp>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2014/04/14/abuse_of_power_sexual_violence_schools_congo|title=Abuse of power|publisher=Foreignpolicy.com|date=14 April 2014|access-date=20 April 2014}}</ref> In [[Mozambique]], a study by the Ministry of Education found that 70 percent of female respondents reported knowing teachers who use sexual intercourse as a necessary condition to advance students to the next grade.<ref name=fp/> A survey by Promundo found that 16% of girls in [[North Kivu]] said they had been forced to have sex with their teachers.<ref name=fp/> According to UNICEF, teachers in [[Mali]] are known to use "La menace du bic rouge" ("the threat of the red pen"), using the threat of bad grades to coerce girls into acquiescing to sexual advances.<ref name=fp/> According to Plan International, 16% of children in [[Togo]], for instance, named a teacher as responsible for the pregnancy of a classmate.<ref name=fp/> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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