Puerto Rico Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Environment== {{Main|Geography of Puerto Rico|Geology of Puerto Rico|List of islands of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Patillas Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|Beach and coastline at [[Patillas, Puerto Rico|Patillas]], in southeast Puerto Rico|alt=|left]] Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]], [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra]], [[Mona, Puerto Rico|Mona]], [[Desecheo Island|Desecheo]], and [[Caja de Muertos, Puerto Rico|Caja de Muertos]]. Of these five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona, which has played a key role in maritime history, is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the [[Department of Natural and Environmental Resources (Puerto Rico)|Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ciencia y economía del guano: La isla mona en puerto rico, siglo XIX |author1=Cortés Zavala |author2=María Teresa |author3=José Alfredo Uribe Salas |name-list-style=amp |journal=Memorias: Revista Digital de Historia y Arqueología Desde el Caribe |year=2014 |volume=11 |issue=22 |pages=81–106 |doi=10.14482/memor.22.5948|doi-access=free }}</ref> There are many other even smaller [[islets]], like [[Monito Island|Monito]], located near Mona,<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B_q6VhhkczIYV3NTbkNYMmpIWk0 |title=Marine Managed Areas and Associated Fisheries in the US Caribbean |author=Schärer-Umpierre, Michelle T. |journal=Marine Managed Areas and Fisheries |series=Advances in Marine Biology |year=2014 |volume=69 |page=140 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-800214-8.00004-9 |pmid=25358299 |isbn=978-0-12-800214-8 |display-authors=etal |access-date=10 December 2015 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728043246/https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B_q6VhhkczIYV3NTbkNYMmpIWk0/view?usp=drive_open |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Isla de Cabras]] and [[Isleta de San Juan|La Isleta de San Juan]], both located on the [[San Juan Bay]]. The latter is the only inhabited islet with communities like [[Old San Juan]] and [[Puerta de Tierra]], which are connected to the main island by bridges.<ref>{{cite journal |title=La ciudad contemporanea, una polis sin politica? |author=Helmer, Etienne |journal=Boletin Cientifico Sapiens Research |year=2011 |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=88}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Edenes insostenibles: El campo de la ciudad en la intentona cultural de los cincuenta |author=Esterrich, Carmelo |journal=CENTRO: Journal of the Center for Puerto Rican Studies |year=2009 |volume=21 |issue=1 |page=180}}</ref> [[File:NOAA Bathymetry Image of Puerto Rico (2020).png|thumb|NOAA Bathymetry Image of Puerto Rico (2020)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bathymetric Data Viewer|url=https://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/bathymetry/|access-date=23 February 2021|website=maps.ngdc.noaa.gov|archive-date=9 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709195021/https://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/bathymetry/|url-status=live}}</ref>]] The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of {{convert|5320|sqmi|km2|sp=us}}, of which {{convert|3420|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} is land and {{convert|1900|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} is water.<ref name=ciafactbook>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/ |title=The World Factbook – Puerto Rico#Geography |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=5 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105163943/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Puerto Rico is larger than [[Delaware]] and [[Rhode Island]] but smaller than [[Connecticut]]. The maximum length of the main island from east to west is {{convert|110|mi|km|abbr=on}}, and the maximum width from north to south is {{convert|40|mi|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name=topuertorico.com>{{cite web |url=http://www.topuertorico.org/descrip.shtml |title=Welcome to Puerto Rico! |publisher=topuertorico.org |access-date=30 December 2007 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224225019/http://www.topuertorico.org/descrip.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Puerto Rico is the smallest of the [[Greater Antilles]]. It is 80% of the size of [[Jamaica]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jamaica/ |title=The World Factbook – Jamaica |publisher=[[CIA]] |access-date=24 April 2008 |archive-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111023238/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jamaica |url-status=live }}</ref> just over 18% of the size of [[Hispaniola]] and 8% of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/ |title=The World Factbook – Cuba |publisher=CIA |access-date=24 April 2008 |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202182827/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The topography of the island is mostly mountainous with large flat areas in the northern and southern coasts. The main mountain range that crosses the island from east to west is called the [[Cordillera Central (Puerto Rico)|Cordillera Central]] (also known as the Central Mountain Range in English). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, [[Cerro de Punta]] {{convert|4390|ft|m}},<ref name="ciafactbook"/> is located in this range. Another important peak is [[El Yunque, Puerto Rico|El Yunque]], one of the highest in the [[Sierra de Luquillo]] at the [[El Yunque National Forest]], with an elevation of {{convert|3494|ft|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gorp.com/parks-guide/travel-ta-caribbean-national-forest-hiking-fishing-puerto-rico-sidwcmdev_066593.html |title=Caribbean National Forest – El Yunque Trail # 15 |publisher=GORP.com |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818050917/http://www.gorp.com/parks-guide/travel-ta-caribbean-national-forest-hiking-fishing-puerto-rico-sidwcmdev_066593.html |archive-date=18 August 2010 }}</ref>[[File:Map of Highways, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Routes in Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|Map by USGIS]] Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, and more than [[List of Puerto Rico rivers|50 rivers]], most of which originate in the Cordillera Central.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gobierno.pr/DRNA/ReservasNaturales/LagosRiosLagunas/Lagos/Lagos_I.htm |title=Los Lagos de Puerto Rico |access-date=29 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041225032628/http://www.gobierno.pr/DRNA/ReservasNaturales/LagosRiosLagunas/Lagos/Lagos_I.htm |archive-date=25 December 2004 }} (archived from on 29 June 2007). {{in lang|es}}</ref> Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher [[Volumetric flow rate|water flow rates]] than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions. Puerto Rico is composed of [[Cretaceous]] to [[Eocene]] [[volcanic]] and [[plutonic]] rocks, overlain by younger [[Oligocene]] and more recent [[carbonate]]s and other [[sedimentary rocks]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3790/is_200605/ai_n17177064 |title=Late Cretaceous Siliceous Sponges From El Rayo Formation, Puerto Rico |author1=Andrzej Pisera |author2=Michael Martínez |author3=Hernan Santos |publisher=[[Journal of Paleontology]] |date=May 2006 |access-date=6 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105065534/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3790/is_200605/ai_n17177064 |archive-date=5 January 2009 }}</ref> Most of the [[caverns]] and [[karst]] topography on the island occurs in the northern region. The oldest rocks are approximately {{Nowrap|190 million}} years old ([[Jurassic]]) and are located at [[Sierra Bermeja]] in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the [[oceanic crust]] and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm. Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the [[Caribbean Plate|Caribbean]] and [[North American Plate|North American Plates]] and is being deformed by the [[tectonics|tectonic]] stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause [[earthquakes]] and [[tsunami]]s. These [[seismic]] events, along with [[landslide]]s, represent some of the most dangerous [[geologic hazards]] in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean. The [[1918 San Fermín earthquake]] occurred on {{Nowrap|11 October}}, 1918 and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the [[Richter magnitude scale|Richter scale]].<ref name="1918 quake">{{cite web |url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/puerto_rico/puerto_rico_history.php |title=Earthquake History of Puerto Rico |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=11 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714105156/https://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/puerto_rico/puerto_rico_history.php |archive-date=14 July 2007}}</ref> It originated off the coast of [[Aguadilla]], several kilometers off the northern coast, and was accompanied by a [[tsunami]]. It caused extensive property damage and widespread losses, damaging infrastructure, especially bridges. It resulted in an estimated 116 deaths and $4 million in property damage. The failure of the government to move rapidly to provide for the general welfare contributed to political activism by opponents and eventually to the rise of the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]]. On 7 January 2020,<ref>[https://www.usgs.gov/news/morning-update-puerto-rico-january-7-2020 ''Morning Update for Puerto Rico - January 7, 2020: On Jan. 7, a magnitude 6.4 earthquake struck the region at 4:24 am local time (08:24:26 UTC). Significant damage is possible. Over the past several weeks, hundreds of small earthquakes have occurred in the Puerto Rico region, beginning in earnest with a M 4.7 earthquake late on December 28 and a M 5.0 event a few hours.''] Puerto Rico Earthquakes. 7 January 2020. Accessed 9 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220210022037/https://www.usgs.gov/news/morning-update-puerto-rico-january-7-2020 Archived.]</ref> the country experienced [[2019–20 Puerto Rico earthquakes|its largest earthquake]] since 1918,<ref>[https://reporter.lcms.org/2020/puerto-rico-hit-by-largest-earthquake-in-100-years/ ''Puerto Rico hit by largest earthquake in 100 years.''] Cheryl Magness. Reporter. 8 January 2020. Accessed 9 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220210021015/https://reporter.lcms.org/2020/puerto-rico-hit-by-largest-earthquake-in-100-years/ Archived.]</ref> estimated at magnitude 6.4.<ref>[https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/6-5-quake-strikes-puerto-rico-amid-heavy-seismic-activity-n1111666 ''6.4-magnitude quake strikes Puerto Rico, killing at least 1 amid heavy seismic activity: "We've never been exposed to this kind of emergency in 102 years," Gov. Wanda Vázquez said as the island grapples with ongoing aftershocks and assesses the damage.''] Nicole Acevedo and Ben Kesslen. NBC News. 7 January 2020. Accessed 7 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220210022858/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/6-5-quake-strikes-puerto-rico-amid-heavy-seismic-activity-n1111666 Archived.]</ref> Economic losses were estimated to be more than $3.1 billion.<ref>[https://www.cnn.com/us/live-news/puerto-rico-earthquake-01-07-2020/index.html ''Analyst says earthquakes could cost Puerto Rico's economy up to $3.1 billion.''] Kate Trafecante. CNN. 7 January 2020. Accessed 9 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220210015803/https://www.cnn.com/us/live-news/puerto-rico-earthquake-01-07-2020/index.html Archived.]</ref> The [[Puerto Rico Trench]], the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about {{convert|71|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates.<ref name="trench">{{cite web |author=Uri ten Brink |url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html |title=Explorations: Puerto Rico Trench 2003 – Cruise Summary and Results |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |access-date=20 November 2009 |archive-date=24 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724090028/http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It is {{convert|170|mi|km|abbr=on}} long.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html |title=NOAA Ocean Explorer: Puerto Rico Trench |publisher=Oceanexplorer.noaa.gov |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-date=24 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724090028/http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At its deepest point, named the [[Milwaukee Deep]], it is almost {{convert|27600|ft|m|abbr=on}} deep.<ref name="trench" /> The [[Mona Canyon]], located in the [[Mona Passage]] between Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, is another prominent oceanic landform with steep walls measuring between 1.25 and 2.17 miles (2-3.5 km) in height from bottom to top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mondziel |first=Steven A. |year=2007 |title=Morphology, Structure, and Tectonic Evolution of the Mona Canyon, Puerto Rico |url=https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncw/f/mondziels2007-1.pdf |website=uncg.edu |publisher=University of North Carolina Wilmington |via=Journal of Marine Geology |access-date=20 August 2023 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820221315/https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncw/f/mondziels2007-1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Puerto Rico Köppen.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Köppen climate types in Puerto Rico indicating that the island primarily has rainforest and monsoon climate types]] The climate of Puerto Rico in the [[Köppen climate classification]] is mostly [[tropical rainforest]]. Temperatures are warm to hot year round, averaging near 85 °F (29 °C) in lower elevations and 70 °F (21 °C) in the mountains. Easterly [[trade winds]] pass across the island year round. Puerto Rico has a [[Wet season|rainy season]], which stretches from April into November, and a [[dry season]] stretching from December to March. The mountains of the Cordillera Central create a [[rain shadow]] and are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances. The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects, adding to the climatic variation. Daily temperature changes seasonally are quite small in the lowlands and coastal areas. Between the dry and wet seasons, there is a temperature change of around {{convert|6|F-change|1}}. This change is due mainly to the warm waters of the tropical [[Atlantic Ocean]], which significantly modify cooler air moving in from the north and northwest. Coastal water temperatures during the year are about {{convert|75|°F|°C|abbr=on}} in February and {{convert|85|°F|°C|abbr=on}} in August. The highest temperature ever recorded was {{convert|110|F}} at [[Arecibo, Puerto Rico|Arecibo]],<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last=Stillman |first=Dan |date=2023-06-07 |title=Historic heat is roasting Puerto Rico, where it feels like 125 degrees |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2023/06/07/puerto-rico-heat-wave-caribbean/ |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=17 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017040357/https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2023/06/07/puerto-rico-heat-wave-caribbean/ |url-status=live }}</ref> while the lowest temperature ever recorded was {{convert|40|F}} in the mountains at [[Adjuntas, Puerto Rico|Adjuntas]], [[Aibonito, Puerto Rico|Aibonito]], and [[Corozal, Puerto Rico|Corozal]].<ref name="NOAA-PR">{{cite web |url=http://nowdata.rcc-acis.org/SJU/pubACIS_results |title=NOWData – NOAA Online Weather Data |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |access-date=27 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009161414/http://nowdata.rcc-acis.org/SJU/pubACIS_results |archive-date=9 October 2011}}</ref> The average yearly precipitation is {{convert|66|in|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Daly2003">{{cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=Christopher |last2=Helmer |first2=Eileen H. |last3=Quiñonez |first3=Maya |year=2003 |title=Mapping the Climate of Puerto Rico, Vieques and Culebra |journal=International Journal of Climatology |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=1359–81 |doi=10.1002/joc.937 |bibcode=2003IJCli..23.1359D|doi-access=free }}</ref> ==== Hurricanes ==== Puerto Rico experiences the [[Atlantic hurricane season]], similar to the rest of the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic Ocean. On average, a quarter of its annual rainfall is contributed from [[Tropical cyclone|tropical cyclones]], which are more prevalent during periods of [[La Niña]] than [[El Niño]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodgers |first1=Edward B. |last2=Adler |first2=Robert F. |last3=Pierce |first3=Harold F. |title=Contribution of Tropical Cyclones to the North Atlantic Climatological Rainfall as Observed from Satellites |journal=Journal of Applied Meteorology |date=November 2001 |volume=40 |issue=11 |pages=1785–1800 |doi=10.1175/1520-0450(2001)040<1785:COTCTT>2.0.CO;2|bibcode=2001JApMe..40.1785R |doi-access=free }}</ref> A cyclone of tropical storm strength passes near Puerto Rico, on average, every five years. A hurricane passes in the vicinity of the island, on average, every seven years. Since 1851, the [[1928 Okeechobee Hurricane|Lake Okeechobee Hurricane]] (also known as the San Felipe Segundo hurricane in Puerto Rico) of September 1928 is the only hurricane to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane.<ref>Aurelio Mercado and Harry Justiniano. [http://coastalhazards.uprm.edu/ Coastal Hazards of Puerto Rico.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134919/http://coastalhazards.uprm.edu/ |date=6 October 2011 }} Retrieved on 23 January 2008.</ref> In the busy [[2017 Atlantic hurricane season]], Puerto Rico avoided a direct hit by the Category 5 [[Hurricane Irma]] on 6 September 2017, as it passed about {{cvt|60|mi}} north of Puerto Rico, but high winds caused a loss of electrical power to some one million residents. Almost 50% of hospitals were operating with power provided by generators.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/damage-hurricane-irma-caribbean-49703893 |title=A look at the damage from Hurricane Irma in the Caribbean |work=ABC News |language=en |access-date=20 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910132716/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/damage-hurricane-irma-caribbean-49703893 |archive-date=10 September 2017 }}</ref> The Category 4 [[Hurricane Jose (2017)|Hurricane Jose]], as expected, veered away from Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ketv.com/article/katia-strengthens-jose-maintains-wind-speed-in-the-atlantic/12197516 |title=Jose remains dangerous Category 4 hurricane |date=9 September 2017 |website=KETV |language=en |access-date=20 September 2017 |archive-date=10 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910193530/http://www.ketv.com/article/katia-strengthens-jose-maintains-wind-speed-in-the-atlantic/12197516 |url-status=live }}</ref> A short time later, the devastating [[Hurricane Maria]] made landfall on Puerto Rico on Wednesday, 20 September, near the [[Yabucoa]] municipality at 10:15 UTC (6:15 am local time) as a high-end Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 155 mph (250 km/h), powerful rains and widespread flooding causing tremendous destruction, including the electrical grid, which would remain out for 4–6 months in many portions of the island.<ref name="MariaDisc18">{{cite web |url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2017/al15/al152017.discus.018.shtml |title=Hurricane Maria |last=Berg |first=Robbie |date=20 September 2017 |publisher=National Hurricane Center |access-date=20 September 2017 |archive-date=21 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921001351/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2017/al15/al152017.discus.018.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/weather/hurricane-maria-makes-landfall-puerto-rico-category-4-storm-n802911|title=Hurricane Maria cuts all electricity as it crushes Puerto Rico|website=NBC News|date=21 September 2017|access-date=21 September 2017|archive-date=21 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921235245/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/weather/hurricane-maria-makes-landfall-puerto-rico-category-4-storm-n802911|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2017/9/23/16354564/puerto-rico-hurricane-maria-electricity-relief-dam-breaking |title=The entire island of Puerto Rico may be without electricity for months |date=23 September 2017 |access-date=28 September 2017 |archive-date=28 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928103436/https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2017/9/23/16354564/puerto-rico-hurricane-maria-electricity-relief-dam-breaking |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019, [[Hurricane Dorian]] became the third hurricane in three years to hit Puerto Rico. The recovering infrastructure from the 2017 hurricanes, as well as new governor [[Wanda Vázquez Garced]], were put to the test against a potential humanitarian crisis.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://triblive.com/local/pittsburgh-allegheny/pittsburgh-army-corps-teams-in-puerto-rico-florida-ahead-of-dorian-arrival/|title=Pittsburgh Army Corps teams in Puerto Rico, Florida ahead of Dorian's mainland arrival | TribLIVE.com|website=triblive.com|date=28 August 2019|access-date=28 August 2019|archive-date=28 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828171706/https://triblive.com/local/pittsburgh-allegheny/pittsburgh-army-corps-teams-in-puerto-rico-florida-ahead-of-dorian-arrival/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/puerto-rico-dorian-s-bullseye-three-things-know-island-braces-n1047196|title=Puerto Rico is in Dorian's bull's-eye: Three things to know as island braces for the storm|website=NBC News|date=28 August 2019|access-date=28 August 2019|archive-date=28 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828171913/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/puerto-rico-dorian-s-bullseye-three-things-know-island-braces-n1047196|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Tropical Storm Karen (2019)|Tropical Storm Karen]] also caused impacts to Puerto Rico during 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/09/24/763750825/tropical-storm-karen-bears-down-on-puerto-rico-virgin-islands|title=Tropical Storm Karen's Squalls Hit Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands|author=Barbara Campbell, Paolo Ziaclita|newspaper=NPR|date=24 September 2019|access-date=28 January 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201095554/https://www.npr.org/2019/09/24/763750825/tropical-storm-karen-bears-down-on-puerto-rico-virgin-islands|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Climate change ==== {{Excerpt|Climate change in Puerto Rico|file=2}} ===Biodiversity=== {{main|Fauna of Puerto Rico|Flora of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Common Coquí.jpg|thumb|right|alt=In this image there is a brown coquí. The species resembles a small frog.|[[Eleutherodactylus coqui|Common coquí]]]] Puerto Rico is home to three terrestrial ecoregions: [[Puerto Rican moist forests]], [[Puerto Rican dry forests]], and [[Greater Antilles mangroves]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> Puerto Rico has two biosphere reserves recognized by the [[UNESCO]] [[Man and the Biosphere Programme]]: Luquillo Biosphere Reserve represented by [[El Yunque National Forest]] and the [[Guánica State Forest|Guánica Biosphere Reserve]]. Species [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the archipelago number 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 [[amphibian]]s/[[reptile]]s, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://islands.unep.ch/ISV.htm#459 |title=Island Directory |publisher=Islands.unep.ch |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=7 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907000405/http://islands.unep.ch/ISV.htm#459 }}</ref> The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the ''[[coquí]]'', a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, from which it gets its name. Most ''coquí'' species (13 of 17) live in the [[El Yunque National Forest]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coquí in the Rainforest |url=https://www.discoverpuertorico.com/coqui |access-date=2023-03-30 |website=Discover Puerto Rico |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330103426/https://www.discoverpuertorico.com/coqui |url-status=live }}</ref> the only [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rainforest]] in the [[United States Forest Service|U.S. Forest Service]] system, located in the northeast of the island. It was previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered [[Puerto Rican amazon]]. In addition to El Yunque National Forest, the Puerto Rican moist forest ecoregion is represented by protected areas such as the [[Maricao State Forest|Maricao]] and [[Toro Negro State Forest|Toro Negro]] [[List of Puerto Rico state forests|state forests]]. These areas are home to endangered endemic species such as the Puerto Rican boa (''[[Puerto Rican boa|Chilabothrus inornatus]]''), the Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk (''[[Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk|Accipiter striatus venator]]''), the Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk (''[[Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk|Buteo platypterus brunnescens]]'') and the elfin woods warbler ([[Elfin woods warbler|Setophaga angelae]]). The [[Northern Karst]] country of Puerto Rico is also home to one of the remaining rainforest tracts in the island, with the [[Río Abajo State Forest]] being the first focus for the reintroduction of the highly endangered Puerto Rican parrot outside of the Sierra de Luquillo.<ref>{{cite web |title=Iguaca Aviary Techniques used in the Puerto Rican Parrot Recovery Program |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd699768.pdf |access-date=23 July 2022 |website=US Fish & Wildlife Services |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208022640/https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd699768.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=View of News of the Rio Abajo Aviary for Puerto Rican Parrot |url=https://jco.birdscaribbean.org/index.php/jco/article/view/1133/879 |access-date=July 23, 2022 |journal=Journal of Caribbean Ornithology |date=18 December 1990 |volume=3 |issue=3 |page=4 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820221314/https://jco.birdscaribbean.org/index.php/jco/article/view/1133/879 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the southwest, the Guánica State Forest and Biosphere Reserve contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 that are endemic to Puerto Rico, and is considered a prime example of the Puerto Rican dry forest ecoregion and the best-preserved dry forest in the Caribbean.<ref>Ewel, J.L. & J.L. Whitmore. 1973. The ecological life zones of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. ITF-18.</ref> Other protected dry forests in Puerto Rico can be formed within the [[Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex|Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge complex]] at the [[Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge|Cabo Rojo]], [[Desecheo National Wildlife Refuge|Desecheo]], [[Culebra National Wildlife Refuge|Culebra]] and [[Vieques National Wildlife Refuge|Vieques National Wildlife Refuges]], and in the [[Caja de Muertos Nature Reserve|Caja de Muertos]] and [[Mona and Monito Islands Nature Reserve]]s.<ref name="Ewel">{{Cite book |last1=Ewel |first1=J. J. |url=https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/rp/rp_itf018.pdf |title=The Ecological Life Zones of Puerto Rico and the U. S. Virgin Islands |last2=Whitmore |first2=J. L. |id=Forest Service Research Paper ITF-18 |publisher=USDA Forest Service Institute of Tropical Forestry |year=1973 |author-link=John Ewel |access-date=20 August 2023 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820221316/https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/rp/rp_itf018.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Examples of endemic species found in this ecoregion are the higo chumbo (''[[Harrisia portoricensis]]''), the Puerto Rican crested toad (''[[Puerto Rican crested toad|Peltophryne lemur]]''), and the Mona ground iguana (''[[Mona ground iguana|Cyclura stejnegeri]]''), the largest land animal native to Puerto Rico.<ref name="alberts">{{citation |last1=Alberts |first1=Allison |title=Testing the Utility of Headstarting as a Conservation Strategy for West Indian Iguanas |work=Iguanas: Biology and Conservation |page=210 |year=2004 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23854-1 |last2=Lemm |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Grant |first3=Tandora |last4=Jackintell |first4=Lori}}</ref> Puerto Rico has three of the seven year-long [[Bioluminescent bay|bioluminescent bays]] in the Caribbean: [[Las Cabezas de San Juan (Puerto Rico)|Laguna Grande]] in [[Fajardo, Puerto Rico|Fajardo]], [[La Parguera Nature Reserve|La Parguera]] in [[Lajas, Puerto Rico|Lajas]] and [[Puerto Mosquito]] in [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]]. These are unique bodies of water surrounded by [[Mangrove|mangroves]] that inhabited by the [[dinoflagellate]] ''[[Pyrodinium bahamense]]''.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last1=Soler-Figueroa |first1=Brenda María |last2=Otero |first2=Ernesto |date=2015-01-01 |title=The Influence of Rain Regimes and Nutrient Loading on the Abundance of Two Dinoflagellate Species in a Tropical Bioluminescent Bay, Bahía Fosforescente, La Parguera, Puerto Rico |journal=Estuaries and Coasts |language=en |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=84–92 |doi=10.1007/s12237-014-9827-0 |bibcode=2015EstCo..38...84S |issn=1559-2731 |s2cid=85305359}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/bioluminescent-bay-puerto-rico-unique-places-around-the-world.html|title=Bioluminescent Bay, Puerto Rico - Unique Places around the World|website=WorldAtlas|access-date=15 February 2020|archive-date=15 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215211706/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/bioluminescent-bay-puerto-rico-unique-places-around-the-world.html}}</ref> However, tourism, pollution, and hurricanes have highly threatened these unique ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Yancey-Bragg|first=N'dea|title=After Hurricane Maria, Puerto Rico's rare bioluminescent bays may go dark|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/09/22/after-hurricane-maria-puerto-ricos-rare-bioluminescent-bays-may-go-dark/694833001/|access-date=29 June 2020|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|archive-date=27 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227163632/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/09/22/after-hurricane-maria-puerto-ricos-rare-bioluminescent-bays-may-go-dark/694833001/|url-status=live}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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