Seoul Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Geography== [[File:Han River sunrise.jpg|thumb|The [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]] at sunrise]] Seoul is in the northwest of South Korea. Seoul proper comprises {{convert|605.25|km2|sqmi|abbr=unit}},<ref name="seoul1">{{cite web|url=http://stat.seoul.go.kr/Seoul_System5.jsp?stc_cd=412|title=Seoul Statistics (Land Area)|publisher=[[Seoul Metropolitan Government]]|access-date=24 March 2010|archive-date=19 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019175850/http://stat.seoul.go.kr/Seoul_System5.jsp?stc_cd=412|url-status=live}}</ref> with a radius of approximately {{convert|15|km|0|abbr=on}}, roughly bisected into northern and southern halves by the [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]]. The river is no longer actively used for navigation, because its [[estuary]] is located at the borders of the two Koreas, with civilian entry barred. There are four main mountains in central Seoul: [[Bugaksan]], [[Inwangsan]], [[Naksan]] and [[Namsan (Seoul)|Namsan]]. The [[Fortress Wall of Seoul|Seoul Fortress Wall]], which historically bounded the city, goes over these mountains. The city is bordered by eight mountains, as well as the more level lands of the Han River plain and western areas. ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Seoul}} {{climate chart | Seoul | −5.5 | 2.1 | 16.8 | -3.2 | 5.1 | 28.2 | 1.9 | 11.0 | 36.9 | 8.0 | 17.9 | 72.9 | 13.5 | 23.6 | 103.6 | 18.7 | 27.6 | 129.5 | 22.3 | 29.0 | 414.4 | 22.9 | 30.0 | 348.2 | 17.7 | 26.2 | 141.5 | 10.6 | 20.2 | 52.2 | 3.5 | 11.9 | 51.1 | -3.4 | 4.2 | 22.6 |float=right}} Seoul has a [[humid continental climate|humid continental]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]]: ''Dwa'') or [[humid subtropical climate]] (''Cwa'', by {{convert|−3|°C|1|disp=or}} isotherm), influenced by the [[monsoon]]s; there is great variation in temperature and precipitation throughout the year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s=80174&cityname=Seoul,+South+Korea|title=Seoul, South Korea Köppen Climate Classification (Weatherbase)|website=Weatherbase|access-date=9 June 2019|archive-date=10 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010214852/http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s=80174&cityname=Seoul%2C+South+Korea|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Peterson|first=Adam|title=English: Data sources: Köppen types calculated from data from WorldClim.org|date=31 October 2018|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:K%C3%B6ppen_climate_types_of_South_Korea.svg|access-date=9 June 2019|archive-date=10 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010214905/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:K%C3%B6ppen_climate_types_of_South_Korea.svg|url-status=live}}</ref> The suburbs of Seoul are generally cooler than the center of Seoul because of the [[urban heat island]] effect.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Sang-Hyun|last2=Baik|first2=Jong-Jin|date=1 March 2010|title=Statistical and dynamical characteristics of the urban heat island intensity in Seoul|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226121380|journal=Theoretical and Applied Climatology|volume=100|issue=1–2|pages=227–237|doi=10.1007/s00704-009-0247-1|bibcode=2010ThApC.100..227L|s2cid=120641921|access-date=18 November 2018|archive-date=10 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201010214906/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226121380_Statistical_and_dynamical_characteristics_of_the_urban_heat_island_intensity_in_Seoul|url-status=live}}</ref> Summers are hot and humid, with the [[East Asian monsoon]] taking place from June until September. August, the hottest month, has average high and low temperatures of {{convert|30.0|and|22.9|C|F|0}} with higher temperatures possible. [[Heat index]] values can surpass {{convert|40|C|F|1}} at the height of summer. Winters are usually cold to freezing with average January high and low temperatures of {{convert|2.1|and|−5.5|C|F|1}}, and are generally much drier than summers, with an average of 24.9 days of snow annually. Sometimes, temperatures drop dramatically to below {{convert|−10|C}}, and on some occasions as low as {{convert|−15|C}} in the mid winter period of January and February. Temperatures below {{convert|−20|C}} have been recorded. {{Seoul weatherbox}} ===Air quality=== {{See also|Air pollution in South Korea}} [[File:2015 PM2.5 Air Pollution Index in Seoul (hourly).png|thumb|right|{{Columns-start}}{{legend|#9900ac| Very Unhealthy }} {{legend|#ff0000| Unhealthy }} {{legend|#ff7e00| Unhealthy for sensitive groups }} {{Column}} {{legend|#ffff00| Moderate}} {{legend|#00e400|Good}} {{Columns-end}}According to the [[Environmental Performance Index]] 2016, South Korea ranked 173rd out of 180 countries in terms of air quality. More than 50 percent of the populations in South Korea are exposed to dangerous levels of fine dust.<ref>{{cite web |title=South Korea near bottom of world survey of air quality |date=16 May 2016 |publisher=[[The Korea Herald]] |url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20160516000741 |quote=South Korea ranked 173rd out of 180 countries in terms of air quality, the Environmental Performance Index 2016 rankings showed Monday. ... A report said that 1.3 billion people exposed to poor air quality lived in East Asian countries, with more than 50 percent of the populations in South Korea and China exposed to dangerous levels of fine dust. |access-date=4 May 2017 |archive-date=2 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402233407/http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20160516000741 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://epi.yale.edu/country/south-korea|title=South Korea {{!}} Environmental Performance Index – Development|publisher=epi.yale.edu|language=en|access-date=4 May 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507191325/http://epi.yale.edu/country/south-korea|archive-date=7 May 2017}}</ref>]] [[Air pollution]] is a major issue in Seoul.<ref>Lee, Hyun-jeong. [http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20150323000889 "Korea Wrestles with Growing Health Threat from Fined Dust"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409113453/http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20150323000889 |date=9 April 2017 }}. ''Korea Herald''. 23 March 2015. Retrieved 8 April 2017.</ref><ref name=npr>Hu, Elise. [https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/06/03/478796463/koreas-air-is-dirty-but-its-not-all-close-neighbor-chinas-fault "Korea's Air Is Dirty, But It's Not All Close-Neighbor China's Fault"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809133256/https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2016/06/03/478796463/koreas-air-is-dirty-but-its-not-all-close-neighbor-chinas-fault |date=9 August 2018 }}. NPR. 3 June 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2017.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-34505628|title = Seoul's smelly gingko problem|work=[[BBC News]]|date = 12 October 2015|access-date = 16 February 2019|archive-date = 17 February 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190217034736/https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-34505628|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20181003000213|title = [Feature] South Korea's odor pollution problem|date = 3 October 2018|access-date = 16 February 2019|archive-date = 17 February 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190217030222/http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20181003000213|url-status = live}}</ref> According to the 2016 [[World Health Organization]] Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database,<ref name=who>[https://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/cities/en/ Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419180220/https://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/cities/en/ |date=19 April 2019 }} World Health Organization. May 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2017.</ref> the annual average [[PM2.5]] concentration in 2014 was {{Convert|24|ug/m3||sp=us}}, which is 2.4 times higher than that recommended by the WHO [[Air quality guideline|Air Quality Guidelines]]<ref name=guidelines>[https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/ WHO Air Quality Guidelines.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423114431/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/ |date=23 April 2018 }} World Health Organization. September 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2017.</ref> for the annual mean PM2.5. The [[Seoul Metropolitan Government]] monitors and publicly shares real-time air quality data.<ref>[http://english.seoul.go.kr/policy-information/environment-energy/air-quality-information/1-air-quality-information/ Air Quality Information.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410051914/http://english.seoul.go.kr/policy-information/environment-energy/air-quality-information/1-air-quality-information/ |date=10 April 2017 }} Seoul Metropolitan Government. Retrieved 8 April 2017.</ref> Since the early 1960s, the [[Ministry of Environment (South Korea)|Ministry of Environment]] has implemented a range of policies and air pollutant standards to improve and manage air quality for its people.<ref name=policy>{{cite web|author=Yu-Jin Choi|author2=Woon-Soo Kim|url=https://www.seoulsolution.kr/en/content/changes-seoul’s-air-quality-control-policy|title=Changes in Seoul's Air Quality Control Policy|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170906202717/https://www.seoulsolution.kr/en/content/changes-seoul%E2%80%99s-air-quality-control-policy|archive-date=6 September 2017|work=Seoul Solution|date=25 June 2015|access-date=12 April 2017}}</ref> The "Special Act on the Improvement of Air Quality in the Seoul Metropolitan Area" was passed in December 2003. Its 1st Seoul Metropolitan Air Quality Improvement Plan (2005–2014) focused on improving the concentrations of [[PM10]] and [[nitrogen dioxide]] by reducing emissions.<ref>[http://eng.me.go.kr/eng/web/index.do?menuId=235 1st Seoul Metropolitan Air Quality Improvement Plan.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427003345/http://eng.me.go.kr/eng/web/index.do?menuId=235 |date=27 April 2017 }} Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea. Retrieved 21 April 2017.</ref> As a result, the annual average PM10 concentrations decreased from 70.0 μg/m<sup>3</sup> in 2001 to 44.4 μg/m<sup>3</sup> in 2011<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.envres.2015.05.029| pmid=26079317| bibcode=2015ER....140..684K|title = Effects of ambient air particles on mortality in Seoul: Have the effects changed over time?| journal=Environmental Research| volume=140| pages=684–690|year = 2015|last1 = Kim|first1 = Honghyok| last2=Kim| first2=Hyomi| last3=Lee| first3=Jong-Tae}}</ref> and 46 μg/m<sup>3</sup> in 2014.<ref name=who/> As of 2014, the annual average PM10 concentration was still at least twice than that recommended by the WHO Air Quality Guidelines.<ref name=guidelines/> The 2nd Seoul Metropolitan Air Quality Improvement Plan (2015–2024) added PM2.5 and [[ozone]] to its list of managed pollutants.<ref>[http://eng.me.go.kr/eng/web/index.do?menuId=238 2nd Seoul Metropolitan Air Quality Improvement Plan.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426151808/http://eng.me.go.kr/eng/web/index.do?menuId=238 |date=26 April 2017 }} Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea. Retrieved 21 April 2017.</ref> [[Asian dust]], emissions from Seoul and in general from the rest of South Korea, as well as emissions from China, all contribute to Seoul's air quality.<ref name=npr/><ref>Chung, Anna. [http://www.centreasia.eu/sites/default/files/publications_pdf/note_ka2_anna_chung_march2014.pdf "Korea's policy towards pollution and fine particle: a sense of urgency"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427003611/http://www.centreasia.eu/sites/default/files/publications_pdf/note_ka2_anna_chung_march2014.pdf |date=27 April 2017 }}. Korea Analysis. v2. June 2014. Retrieved 21 April 2017.</ref> A partnership between researchers in South Korea and the United States is conducting an international air quality field study in Korea (KORUS-AQ) to determine how much each source contributes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zastrow |first=Mark |date=6 May 2016 |title=NASA jet gets a sniff of pollution over South Korea |url=http://www.nature.com/news/nasa-jet-gets-a-sniff-of-pollution-over-south-korea-1.19875 |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature.2016.19875 |s2cid=130657973 |access-date=26 April 2017 |archive-date=26 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170426155332/http://www.nature.com/news/nasa-jet-gets-a-sniff-of-pollution-over-south-korea-1.19875 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Update inline|date=August 2023}} Besides air quality, greenhouse gas emissions represent hot issues in South Korea since the country is among top-10 strongest emitters in the world. Seoul is the strongest hotspot of greenhouse gas emissions in the country and according to satellite data, the persistent carbon dioxide anomaly over the city is one of the strongest in the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Labzovskii|first1=Lev|last2=Jeong|first2=Su-Jong|last3=Parazoo|first3=Nicholas C.|date=2019|title=Working towards confident spaceborne monitoring of carbon emissions from cities using Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2|journal=Remote Sensing of Environment|volume=233|at=111359|doi=10.1016/j.rse.2019.111359|bibcode=2019RSEnv.23311359L|s2cid=202176909}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! 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