World War II Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{Short description|1939–1945 global conflict}} {{Redirect-several|WWII|The Second World War|World War II}} {{Good article}} {{Pp|small=yes}} {{Use British English|date=December 2019}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}} {{Infobox military conflict | conflict = World War II | image = {{multiple image|border=infobox|perrow=2/2/2|total_width=300 | image1=Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-646-5188-17, Flugzeuge Junkers Ju 87.jpg | alt1= | image2=Matilda tanks on the move outside the perimeter of Tobruk, Libya, 18 November 1941. E6600.jpg | alt2= | image3=Nagasakibomb.jpg | alt3=in the | image4=Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R76619, Russland, Kesselschlacht Stalingrad.jpg | alt4= | image5=Raising a flag over the Reichstag 600x778.png | alt5= | image6=USS Pennsylvania moving into Lingayen Gulf.jpg | alt6=}}'''Left to right:''' {{flatlist| * German [[Junkers Ju 87|Stuka]] dive bombers on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]], 1943 * British [[Matilda II]] tanks during the [[North African campaign]], 1941 * U.S. [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Nagasaki]] in Japan, 1945 * Soviet troops at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], 1942–1943 * Soviet soldier [[Raising a Flag over the Reichstag|raising a flag]] over the [[Reichstag building|Reichstag]] after the [[Battle of Berlin]], 1945 * U.S. warships in [[Invasion of Lingayen Gulf|Lingayen Gulf]] in the [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines|Philippines]], 1945 }} | date = [[Invasion of Poland|1 September 1939]] – [[Surrender of Japan|2 September 1945]]{{efn| While [[#Start and end dates|various other dates]] have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the period most frequently cited.}} <br /> ({{Age in years and days|1 September 1939|2 September 1945}}) | place = Major [[Theater (warfare)|theaters]]: {{flatlist| * [[European theatre of World War II|Europe]] * [[Pacific War|Pacific]] * [[Battle of the Atlantic|Atlantic]] * [[Indian Ocean in World War II|Indian Ocean]] * [[South-East Asian theatre of World War II|South-East Asia]] * [[Second Sino-Japanese War|China]] * [[Air raids on Japan|Japan]] * [[Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II|Middle East]] * [[Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II|Mediterranean]] * [[North African campaign|North Africa]] * [[East African campaign (World War II)|Horn of Africa]] * [[Battle of Gabon|Central Africa]] * [[Attacks on Australia during World War II|Australia]] * [[Battle of the Caribbean|Caribbean]] * [[American Theater (World War II)|North and South America]] }} | result = {{ubl|[[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory}}<!--This fixes label and data text alignment by locking it in place--> | combatants_header = [[World War II by country|Participants]] | combatant1 = [[Allies of World War II|'''Allies''']]<!--NOTE: The consensus of a discussion which concluded in November 2014 at [[Talk:World War II#Request for comment: WWII infobox]] was to only list the 'Allies' and 'Axis' as combatants. PLEASE do not make any changes without first obtaining consensus for the change on the article's talk page. --> | combatant2 = [[Axis powers|'''Axis''']]<!--NOTE: The consensus of a discussion which concluded in November 2014 at [[Talk:World War II#Request for comment: WWII infobox]] was to only list the 'Allies' and 'Axis' as combatants. PLEASE do not make any changes without first obtaining consensus for the change on the article's talk page. --> | commander1 = '''[[Allied leaders of World War II|Main Allied leaders]]:'''{{plainlist| * {{flagdeco|Soviet Union|1936|size=22px}} [[Joseph Stalin]] * {{flagdeco|United States|1912|size=22px}} [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] * {{flagdeco|United Kingdom|size=22px}} [[Winston Churchill]] * {{flagdeco|Republic of China (1912–1949)|size=22px}} [[Chiang Kai-shek]]}} | commander2 = '''[[Axis leaders of World War II|Main Axis leaders]]:'''{{plainlist| * {{flagdeco|Nazi Germany|size=22px}} [[Adolf Hitler]] * {{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|size=22px}} [[Hirohito]] * {{flagdeco|Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|size=22px}} [[Benito Mussolini]] }} | casualties1 = {{plainlist| * '''Military dead:''' * Over 16,000,000 * '''Civilian dead:''' * Over 45,000,000 * '''Total dead:''' * Over 61,000,000 * (1937–1945) * [[World War II casualties|...''further details'']]}} | casualties2 = {{plainlist| * '''Military dead:''' * Over 8,000,000 * '''Civilian dead:''' * Over 4,000,000 * '''Total dead:''' * Over 12,000,000 * (1937–1945) * [[World War II casualties|...''further details'']]}} | campaignbox = {{Campaignbox World War II}} }} {{TopicTOC-World War II}} '''World War II'''{{efn|Often abbreviated as '''WWII''' or '''WW2'''}} or the '''Second World War''' was a [[World war|global conflict]] that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The [[World War II by country|vast majority of the world's countries]], including all the [[great power]]s, fought as part of two opposing [[military alliance]]s: the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] and the [[Axis powers|Axis]]. Many participating countries invested all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities into this [[total war]], blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. [[Air warfare of World War II|Aircraft played a major role]], enabling the [[strategic bombing]] of population centres and delivery of the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|only two nuclear weapons]] ever used in war. It was by far the [[List of wars by death toll|deadliest conflict]] in history, resulting in [[World War II casualties|70–85 million fatalities]]. Millions died due to [[genocides]], including [[the Holocaust]], as well as starvation, massacres, and disease. In the wake of Axis defeat, [[Allied-occupied Germany|Germany]], [[Allied-occupied Austria|Austria]], and [[Occupation of Japan|Japan were occupied]], and [[War crimes in World War II|war crime]] tribunals were conducted [[Nuremberg trials|against German]] and [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East|Japanese leaders]]. The [[causes of World War II|causes of the war]] are debated; contributing factors included the rise of [[fascism in Europe]], the [[Spanish Civil War]], the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], [[Soviet–Japanese border conflicts]], and tensions in the [[aftermath of World War I]]. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when [[Nazi Germany]], under [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Invasion of Poland|invaded Poland]]. The [[United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)|United Kingdom]] and [[French declaration of war on Germany (1939)|France]] [[Declaration of war|declared war]] on Germany on 3 September. Under the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] of August 1939, Germany and the [[Soviet Union]] had partitioned [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] and marked out their "[[Sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]" across [[Winter War|Finland]], [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania]], and [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|Romania]]. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of [[Military campaign|campaigns]] and [[Tripartite Pact|treaties]], Germany conquered or controlled much of [[continental Europe]] in a military alliance called the Axis with [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Italy]], [[Empire of Japan|Japan]], and other countries. Following the onset of campaigns in [[Western Desert campaign|North]] and [[East African campaign (World War II)|East Africa]], and the [[Battle of France|fall of France]] in mid-1940, the war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the [[British Empire]], with the war in the [[Balkans campaign (World War II)|Balkans]], the aerial [[Battle of Britain]], [[the Blitz]] of the UK, and the [[Battle of the Atlantic]]. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis powers in [[Operation Barbarossa|an invasion of the Soviet Union]], opening the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]], the largest land [[theatre of war]] in history. Japan aimed to [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|dominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific]], and by 1937 was at war with the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories with near-simultaneous [[Pacific War#Japanese offensives, 1941–42|offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific]], including an [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] which resulted in the United States and the United Kingdom declaring war against Japan. The [[German declaration of war against the United States|European Axis powers declared war on the US]] in solidarity. [[Pacific War|Japan soon conquered much of the western Pacific]], but its advances were halted in 1942 after losing the critical [[Battle of Midway]]; Germany and Italy were [[Tunisian campaign|defeated in North Africa]] and at [[Battle of Stalingrad|Stalingrad]] in the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, the [[Allied invasion of Sicily|Allied invasions of Sicily]] and the [[Allied invasion of Italy|Italian mainland]], and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies [[Normandy landings|invaded German-occupied France]], while the Soviet Union [[Stalin's ten blows|regained its territorial losses]] and pushed Germany and its allies back. During 1944–1945, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese Navy]] and captured key western Pacific islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of [[German-occupied Europe|German-occupied territories]]; the [[Western Allied invasion of Germany|invasion of Germany by the Western Allies]] and the Soviet Union, culminating in the [[Battle of Berlin|Fall of Berlin]] to Soviet troops; [[Death of Adolf Hitler|Hitler's suicide]]; and the German [[German Instrument of Surrender|unconditional surrender]] on [[Victory in Europe Day|8 May 1945]]. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of the [[Potsdam Declaration]], the US [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|dropped the first atomic bombs]] on [[Hiroshima]] on 6 August and [[Nagasaki]] on 9 August. Faced with imminent [[Operation Downfall|invasion of the Japanese archipelago]], the possibility of more atomic bombings, and the Soviet Union's [[Soviet–Japanese War|declared entry]] into the war against Japan on the eve of [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|invading Manchuria]], Japan announced on 10 August its intention to surrender, signing [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender|a surrender document]] on [[Victory over Japan Day|2 September 1945]]. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation for the international order for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The [[United Nations]] was established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members]] of its [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]]. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival [[superpower]]s, setting the stage for the [[Cold War]]. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the [[decolonisation of Africa]] and [[Decolonisation of Asia|Asia]]. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards [[Post–World War II economic expansion|economic recovery and expansion]]. ==Start and end dates== {{See also|List of timelines of World War II}} {{WWII timeline}} World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=6}}<ref>Wells, Anne Sharp (2014) ''Historical Dictionary of World War II: The War against Germany and Italy''. Rowman & Littlefield Publishing. p. 7.</ref> with the [[German invasion of Poland]] and the [[United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)|United Kingdom]] and [[French declaration of war on Germany (1939)|France]]'s declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of the [[Pacific War]] include the start of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] on 7 July 1937,<ref>{{Cite book|first1=John|last1=Ferris|first2=Evan|last2=Mawdsley|title=The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War|location=[[Cambridge]]|language=en|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Förster|Gessler|2005|p=64}} or the earlier [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria]], on 19 September 1931.<ref>Ghuhl, Wernar (2007) ''Imperial Japan's World War Two'' Transaction Publishers pp. 7, 30</ref><ref>Polmar, Norman; Thomas B. Allen (1991) ''[[iarchive:worldwariiameric00polm|World War II: America at war, 1941–1945]]'' {{ISBN|978-0-394-58530-7}}</ref> Others follow the British historian [[A. J. P. Taylor]], who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hett |first=Benjamin Carter |date=1 August 1996 |title="Goak here": A.J.P. Taylor and 'The Origins of the Second World War.' |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=00084107&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA18672225&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs |journal=Canadian Journal of History |language=English |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=257–281 |doi=10.3138/cjh.31.2.257 |access-date=14 September 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307200155/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=00084107&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA18672225&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs&userGroupName=nm_p_oweb&isGeoAuthType=true |url-status=live }}</ref> Other theorised starting dates for World War II include the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Italian invasion of Abyssinia]] on 3 October 1935.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ben-Horin|1943|p=169}}; {{Harvnb|Taylor|1979|p=124}}; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). ''Asian and African Studies'', p. 191.<br />For 1941 see {{Harvnb|Taylor|1961|p=vii}}; Kellogg, William O (2003). ''[[iarchive:americanhistorye00kell|American History the Easy Way]]''. Barron's Educational Series. p. 236 {{ISBN|978-0-7641-1973-6}}.<br />There is also the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same "[[European Civil War]]" or "[[Second Thirty Years' War]]": {{Harvnb|Canfora|2006|p=155}}; {{Harvnb|Prins|2002|p=11}}.</ref> The British historian [[Antony Beevor]] views the beginning of World War{{nbsp}}II as the [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol]] fought between [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] and the forces of [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolia]] and the [[Soviet Union]] from May to September 1939.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|p=10}} Others view the [[Spanish Civil War]] as the start or prelude to World War II.<ref>{{Cite news |date=10 March 2017 |title=In Many Ways, Author Says, Spanish Civil War Was 'The First Battle Of WWII' |website=Fresh Air |publisher=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2017/03/10/519462137/in-many-ways-author-says-spanish-civil-war-was-the-first-battle-of-wwii |url-status=live |access-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416013707/https://www.npr.org/2017/03/10/519462137/in-many-ways-author-says-spanish-civil-war-was-the-first-battle-of-wwii |archive-date=16 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40105814|title=The Spanish Civil War and the Coming of the Second World War|author=Frank, Willard C.|year=1987|journal=The International History Review|volume=9|issue=3|pages=368–409|doi=10.1080/07075332.1987.9640449|jstor=40105814|via=JSTOR|access-date=17 February 2022|archive-date=1 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201143429/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40105814|url-status=live}}</ref> The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 ([[Victory over Japan Day|V-J Day]]), rather than with the formal [[surrender of Japan]] on 2 September 1945, which officially [[End of World War II in Asia|ended the war in Asia]]. A [[Treaty of San Francisco|peace treaty between Japan and the Allies]] was signed in 1951.{{sfn|Masaya|1990|p=4}} A 1990 [[Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany|treaty regarding Germany's future]] allowed the [[German reunification|reunification of East and West Germany]] to take place and resolved most post–World War{{nbsp}}II issues.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 September 1990 |title=German-American Relations – Treaty on the Final Settlement concerning Germany |url=https://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/2plusfour8994e.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507180629/https://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/2plusfour8994e.htm |archive-date=7 May 2012 |access-date=6 May 2012 |publisher=usa.usembassy.de}}</ref> No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,<ref>[https://asiatimes.com/article/fact-box-japan-russia-never-signed-wwii-peace-treaty/ Why Japan and Russia never signed a WWII peace treaty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180604072306/https://www.atimes.com/article/fact-box-japan-russia-never-signed-wwii-peace-treaty/ |date=4 June 2018 }}. ''Asia Times''.</ref> although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the [[Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956]], which also restored full diplomatic relations between them.<ref name=nyt>[https://www.nytimes.com/1956/10/20/archives/texts-of-sovietjapanese-statements-peace-declaration-trade-protocol.html?sq=Soviet-Japanese+Joint+Declaration&scp=1&st=p ''Texts of Soviet–Japanese Statements; Peace Declaration Trade Protocol.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209133402/https://www.nytimes.com/1956/10/20/archives/texts-of-sovietjapanese-statements-peace-declaration-trade-protocol.html?sq=Soviet-Japanese+Joint+Declaration&scp=1&st=p |date=9 December 2021 }} [[The New York Times]], page 2, 20 October 1956.<br />Subtitle: "Moscow, October 19. (UP) – Following are the texts of a Soviet–Japanese peace declaration and of a trade protocol between the two countries, signed here today, in unofficial translation from the Russian". Quote: "The state of war between the U.S.S.R. and Japan ends on the day the present declaration enters into force [...]"</ref> ==History== ===Background=== {{Main|Causes of World War II}} ====Aftermath of World War I==== {{stack|[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-09042, Genf, Völkerbund, Sitzungssaal.jpg|thumb|The [[League of Nations]] assembly, held in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]] (1930).]]}} [[World War I]] had radically altered the political European map with the defeat of the [[Central Powers]]—including [[Austria-Hungary]], [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]—and the 1917 [[October Revolution|Bolshevik seizure of power]] in [[Russian Republic|Russia]], which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious [[Allies of World War I]], such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and new [[Nation state|nation-states]] were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mintz |first1=Steven |title=Historical Context: The Global Effect of World War I |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/teaching-resource/historical-context-global-effect-world-war-i |website=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |access-date=4 March 2024 |archive-date=4 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304193001/https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/teaching-resource/historical-context-global-effect-world-war-i |url-status=live }}</ref> To prevent a future world war, the [[League of Nations]] was established in 1920 by the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]]. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and [[Washington Naval Treaty|naval disarmament]], as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gerwarth |first1=Robert |title=Paris Peace Treaties failed to create a secure, peaceful and lasting world order |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/paris-peace-treaties-failed-to-create-a-secure-peaceful-and-lasting-world-order-1.3745849 |newspaper=The Irish Times |access-date=29 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=14 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814213229/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/paris-peace-treaties-failed-to-create-a-secure-peaceful-and-lasting-world-order-1.3745849 |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite strong pacifist sentiment [[Aftermath of World War I|after World War{{nbsp}}I]],{{sfn|Ingram|2006|pp=[{{GBurl|id=bREQibN9i-sC|p=76}} 76–78]}} [[Irredentism|irredentist]] and [[Revanchism|revanchist]] [[nationalism]] had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all [[German colonial empire|its overseas possessions]], while German annexation of other states was prohibited, [[World War I reparations|reparations]] were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's [[Reichswehr|armed forces]].{{sfn|Kantowicz|1999|p=149}} ====Germany==== The German Empire was dissolved in the [[German Revolution of 1918–1919]], and a democratic government, later known as the [[Weimar Republic]], was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the [[Treaty of London (1915)|promises made]] by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the [[Italian fascism|Fascist]] movement led by [[Benito Mussolini]] seized power in Italy with a nationalist, [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]], and [[class collaboration]]ist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "[[New Roman Empire]]".{{sfn|Shaw|2000|p=35}} [[File:Nürnberg Reichsparteitag Hitler retouched.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Adolf Hitler]] at a German [[Nazism|Nazi]] political rally in [[Nuremberg]], August 1933]] [[Adolf Hitler]], after an [[Beer Hall Putsch|unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government]] in 1923, eventually [[Adolf Hitler's rise to power|became the Chancellor of Germany]] in 1933 when [[Paul von Hindenburg]] and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself ''Führer'' of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a [[New Order (Nazism)|radical, racially motivated revision of the world order]], and soon began a massive [[German rearmament|rearmament campaign]].{{sfn|Brody|1999|p=4}} France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, [[Franco-Italian Agreement of 1935|allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia]], which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the [[Territory of the Saar Basin]] was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription.{{sfn|Zalampas|1989|p=62}} ====European treaties==== The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the [[Stresa Front]] in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards [[Military globalization|military globalisation]]; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an [[Anglo-German Naval Agreement|independent naval agreement]] with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's [[Drang nach Osten|goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe]], drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the [[Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance|Franco-Soviet pact]] was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mandelbaum|1988|p=96}}; {{Harvnb|Record|2005|p=50}}.</ref> The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s|Neutrality Act]] in August of the same year.{{sfn|Schmitz|2000|p=124}} Hitler defied the Versailles and [[Locarno Treaties]] by [[Remilitarisation of the Rhineland|remilitarising the Rhineland]] in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of [[appeasement]].{{sfn|Adamthwaite|1992|p=52}} In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the [[Axis powers|Rome–Berlin Axis]]. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]], which Italy joined the following year.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|pp=298–299}} ====Asia==== The [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) party in China launched a [[Northern Expedition|unification campaign]] against [[Warlord Era|regional warlords]] and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in [[Chinese Civil War|a civil war]] against its former [[Chinese Communist Party]] allies{{sfn|Preston|1998|p=104}} and [[Central Plains War|new regional warlords]]. In 1931, an [[Statism in Shōwa Japan|increasingly militaristic]] [[Empire of Japan]], which had long sought influence in China{{sfn|Myers|Peattie|1987|p=458}} as the first step of what its government saw as the country's [[Hakkō ichiu|right to rule Asia]], staged the [[Mukden incident]] as a pretext to [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria|invade Manchuria]] and establish the [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]].{{sfn|Smith|Steadman|2004|p=28}} China appealed to the [[League of Nations]] to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being [[Lytton Report|condemned]] for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in [[January 28 incident|Shanghai]], [[Battle of Rehe|Rehe]] and [[Defense of the Great Wall|Hebei]], until the [[Tanggu Truce]] was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in [[Pacification of Manchukuo|Manchuria]], and [[Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936)|Chahar and Suiyuan]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Coogan|1993}}: "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed to retreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, or surrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. The forces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies."</ref> After the 1936 [[Xi'an Incident]], the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present [[Second United Front|a united front]] to oppose Japan.{{sfn|Busky|2002|p=10}} ===Pre-war events=== ====Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935)==== {{Main|Second Italo-Ethiopian War}} [[File:Mussolini truppe Etiopia.jpg|thumb|[[Benito Mussolini]] inspecting troops during the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Italo-Ethiopian War]], 1935]] The [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]] was a brief [[colonial war]] that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the [[Ethiopian Empire]] (also known as [[Etymology of Ethiopia|Abyssinia]]) by the armed forces of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] (''Regno d'Italia''), which was launched from [[Italian Somaliland]] and [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC |title=Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia |author1=Andrea L. Stanton |author2=Edward Ramsamy |author3=Peter J. Seybolt |page=308 |access-date=6 April 2014 |isbn=978-1-4129-8176-7 |year=2012 |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201327/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtCL2OYsH6wC |url-status=live }}</ref> The war resulted in the [[military occupation]] of Ethiopia and its [[annexation]] into the newly created colony of [[Italian East Africa]] (''Africa Orientale Italiana'', or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of the [[League of Nations]] as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, [[Appeasement|but the League did little]] when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's [[Covenant of the League of Nations|Covenant]].{{sfn|Barker|1971|pp=131–132}} The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|p=289}} Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing [[Federal State of Austria|Austria]].{{sfn|Kitson|2001|p=231}} ====Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)==== {{Main|Spanish Civil War}} When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the [[Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)|Nationalist rebels]], led by General [[Francisco Franco]]. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.{{sfn|Neulen|2000|page=25}} The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the [[Second Spanish Republic|Spanish Republic]]. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the [[International Brigades]], also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this [[proxy war]] as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War{{nbsp}}II but [[Spain during World War II|generally favoured the Axis]].{{sfn|Payne|2008|page=271}} His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of [[Blue Division|volunteers]] to fight on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]].{{sfn|Payne|2008|page=146}} ====Japanese invasion of China (1937)==== {{Main|Second Sino-Japanese War}} [[File:Shanghai1937IJA ruins.jpg|thumb|[[Imperial Japanese Army]] soldiers during the [[Battle of Shanghai]], 1937]] In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of [[Beijing|Peking]] after instigating the [[Marco Polo Bridge incident]], which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.{{sfn|Eastman|1986|pp=547–551}} The Soviets quickly signed a [[Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact|non-aggression pact with China]] to lend [[materiel]] support, effectively ending China's prior [[China–Germany relations (1912–1949)|cooperation with Germany]]. From September to November, the Japanese attacked [[Battle of Taiyuan|Taiyuan]], engaged the [[National Revolutionary Army|Kuomintang Army]] [[Battle of Xinkou|around Xinkou]],<ref name="Hsu & Chang 1971 221">{{Harvnb|Hsu|Chang|1971|pp=195–200}}.</ref> and fought [[Chinese Communist Party|Communist forces]] [[Battle of Pingxingguan|in Pingxingguan]].<ref name=Tucker2009>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA1873|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|first=Spencer C.|last=Tucker|year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|access-date=27 August 2017|via=Google Books|isbn=978-1-85109-672-5|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201303/https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&pg=PA1873|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=yang>Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan"</ref> [[Generalissimo]] [[Chiang Kai-shek]] deployed his [[List of German-trained divisions of the National Revolutionary Army|best army]] to [[Battle of Shanghai|defend Shanghai]], but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, [[Battle of Nanking|capturing the capital Nanking]] in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were [[Nanjing Massacre|murdered by the Japanese]].<ref>Levene, Mark and Roberts, Penny. ''The Massacre in History''. 1999, pp. 223–224</ref><ref name=tot>Totten, Samuel. ''Dictionary of Genocide''. 2008, 298–299.</ref> In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their [[Battle of Taierzhuang|first major victory at Taierzhuang]], but then the city of [[Xuzhou]] [[Battle of Xuzhou|was taken by the Japanese]] in May.{{sfn|Hsu|Chang|1971|pp=221–230}} In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by [[1938 Yellow River flood|flooding the Yellow River]]; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at [[Wuhan]], but the [[Battle of Wuhan|city was taken]] by October.{{sfn|Eastman|1986|p=566}} Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to [[Chongqing]] and continued the war.{{sfn|Taylor|2009|pp=150–152}}{{sfn|Sella|1983|pp=651–687}} ====Soviet–Japanese border conflicts==== {{Main|Soviet–Japanese border conflicts}} In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in [[Manchukuo]] had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and [[Mongolian People's Republic|Mongolia]]. The Japanese doctrine of [[Hokushin-ron]], which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|Khalkin Gol]] in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War{{sfn|Beevor|2012|p=342}} and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact|Neutrality Pact]] in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of [[Nanshin-ron]], promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies.<ref>{{cite magazine |author=Goldman, Stuart D. |date=28 August 2012 |title=The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939 |access-date=26 June 2015 |magazine=The Diplomat |url=https://thediplomat.com/2012/08/the-forgotten-soviet-japanese-war-of-1939/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629092821/https://thediplomat.com/2012/08/the-forgotten-soviet-japanese-war-of-1939/ |archive-date=29 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Timothy Neeno |access-date=26 June 2015 |title=Nomonhan: The Second Russo-Japanese War |publisher=MilitaryHistoryOnline.com |url=https://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/20thcentury/articles/nomonhan.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124070956/https://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/20thcentury/articles/nomonhan.aspx |archive-date=24 November 2005 |url-status=live}}</ref> ====European occupations and agreements==== [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R69173, Münchener Abkommen, Staatschefs.jpg|thumb|left|[[Neville Chamberlain|Chamberlain]], [[Édouard Daladier|Daladier]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], and [[Galeazzo Ciano|Ciano]] pictured just before signing the [[Munich Agreement]], 29 September 1938]] In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany [[Anschluss|annexed Austria]], again provoking [[appeasement|little response]] from other European powers.{{sfn|Collier|Pedley|2000|p=144}} Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the [[Sudetenland]], an area of [[Czechoslovakia]] with a predominantly [[Germans|ethnic German]] population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] and conceded this territory to Germany in the [[Munich Agreement]], which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|pp=121–122}} Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to [[First Vienna Award|cede additional territory]] to Hungary, and Poland annexed the [[Trans-Olza]] region of Czechoslovakia.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|p=157}} Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 [[Plan Z|secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy]] to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, [[Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)|Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia]] and subsequently split it into the German [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] and a pro-German [[client state]], the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]].{{sfn|Davies|2006|loc=pp. 143–44 (2008 ed.)}} Hitler also delivered an [[1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania|ultimatum to Lithuania]] on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the [[Klaipėda Region]], formerly the German ''Memelland''.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|pp=461–462}} [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H27337, Moskau, Stalin und Ribbentrop im Kreml.jpg|right|thumb|upright|German Foreign Minister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] (right) and the Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]], after signing the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], 23 August 1939]] Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the [[Free City of Danzig]], the United Kingdom and France [[Anglo-Polish alliance#British assurance to Poland|guaranteed their support for Polish independence]]; when [[Italian invasion of Albania|Italy conquered Albania]] in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the [[Kingdom of Romania|Kingdoms of Romania]] and [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]].{{sfn|Lowe|Marzari|2002|p=330}} Shortly after the [[Franco-Polish alliance|Franco]]-[[Anglo-Polish alliance|British]] pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the [[Pact of Steel]].{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=234}} Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to "encircle" Germany and renounced the [[Anglo-German Naval Agreement]] and the [[German–Polish declaration of non-aggression]].{{sfn|Shirer|1990|p=471}} The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signed [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|a non-aggression pact]] with Germany,{{sfn|Shore|2003|p=108}} after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=Derek |year=2000 |title=Molotov's Apprenticeship in Foreign Policy: The Triple Alliance Negotiations in 1939 |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=695–722 |doi=10.1080/713663077 |jstor=153322 |s2cid=144385167}}</ref> This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence" (western [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] and Lithuania for Germany; [[Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union|eastern Poland]], Finland, [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Bessarabia]] for the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=608}} The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World War{{nbsp}}I. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/DAP-Poland/Campaign-II.html#chapter5|title=The German Campaign In Poland (1939)|access-date=29 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140524013551/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/DAP-Poland/Campaign-II.html#chapter5|archive-date=24 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.<ref name=ww2db_com>{{cite web |url=https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162 |title=The Danzig Crisis |website=ww2db.com |access-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505010109/https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162 |archive-date=5 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish [[plenipotentiary]] immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of [[Gdańsk|Danzig]], and to allow a [[referendum|plebiscite]] in the [[Polish Corridor]] in which the German minority would vote on secession.<ref name=ww2db_com /> The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassador [[Nevile Henderson]], Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected.<ref name=ibiblio1939>{{cite web |title=Major international events of 1939, with explanation |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1939.html |publisher=Ibiblio.org |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310103815/https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1939.html |archive-date=10 March 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> ===Course of the war=== {{For timeline|List of timelines of World War II}} {{See also|Diplomatic history of World War II|World War II by country}} ====War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940)==== {{Main|European theatre of World War II}} [[File:Germans at Polish Border (1939-09-01).jpg|thumb|Soldiers of the German ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' tearing down the border crossing into [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]], 1 September 1939]] On 1 September 1939, Germany [[Invasion of Poland|invaded Poland]] after [[Operation Himmler|having staged]] several [[Gleiwitz incident|false flag border incidents]] as a pretext to initiate the invasion.{{sfn|Evans|2008|pp=1–2}} The first German attack of the war came against the [[Battle of Westerplatte|Polish defenses at Westerplatte]].<ref name="Zabecki2015">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mq_lCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1663|title=World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia|author=David T. Zabecki|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-81242-3|page=1663|quote=The earliest fighting started at 0445 hours when marines from the battleship Schleswig-Holstein attempted to storm a small Polish fort in Danzig, the Westerplate|access-date=17 June 2019|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201256/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mq_lCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1663|url-status=live}}</ref> The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany,<ref>[[United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)|The UK declared war on Germany]] at 11 am. [[French declaration of war on Germany (1939)|France followed 6 hours later]] at 5 pm.</ref> followed by [[Australia]], [[Dominion of New Zealand|New Zealand]], [[Union of South Africa|South Africa]], and [[Canada]]. During the [[Phoney War]] period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a [[Saar Offensive|cautious French probe into the Saarland]].<ref name="Keegan 1997 35">{{Harvnb|Keegan|1997|p=35}}.<br />{{Harvnb|Cienciala|2010|p=128}}, observes that, while it is true that Poland was far away, making it difficult for the French and British to provide support, "[f]ew Western historians of World War II ... know that the British had committed to bomb Germany if it attacked Poland, but did not do so except for one raid on the base of Wilhelmshaven. The French, who committed to attacking Germany in the west, had no intention of doing so."</ref> The Western Allies also began a [[Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)|naval blockade of Germany]], which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|p=32}}; {{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=248–249}}; {{Harvnb|Roskill|1954|p=64}}.</ref> Germany responded by ordering [[Submarine warfare#World War II|U-boat warfare]] against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the [[Battle of the Atlantic]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Battle of the Atlantic |url=https://www.history.co.uk/history-of-ww2/battle-of-the-atlantic |access-date=11 July 2022 |website=Sky HISTORY TV channel |language=en |archive-date=20 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520073745/https://www.history.co.uk/history-of-ww2/battle-of-the-atlantic |url-status=live }}</ref> On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of [[Warsaw]]. The Polish [[Battle of the Bzura|counter-offensive]] to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the ''[[Wehrmacht]]''. Remnants of the Polish army broke through to [[Siege of Warsaw (1939)|besieged Warsaw]]. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|cease-fire with Japan]], the [[Soviet invasion of Poland|Soviet Union invaded Poland]]{{sfn|Zaloga|2002|pp=80, 83}} under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 2195670|title = A Case Study in the Soviet Use of International Law: Eastern Poland in 1939|journal = The American Journal of International Law|volume = 52|issue = 1|pages = 69–84|last1 = Ginsburgs|first1 = George|year = 1958|doi = 10.2307/2195670|s2cid = 146904066}}</ref> On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and [[Independent Operational Group Polesie|the last large operational unit of the Polish Army]] [[Battle of Kock (1939)|surrendered on 6{{nbsp}}October]]. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the [[Polish government-in-exile]] and a [[Polish Underground State|clandestine state apparatus remained]] in occupied Poland.{{sfn|Hempel|2005|p=24}} A significant part of Polish military personnel [[Romanian Bridgehead|evacuated to Romania]] and Latvia; many of them later [[Military history of Poland during World War II|fought against the Axis]] in other theatres of the war.{{sfn|Zaloga|2002|pp=88–89}} Germany [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany|annexed western]] Poland and [[General Government|occupied central Poland]]; the Soviet Union [[Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union|annexed eastern Poland]]; small shares of Polish territory were transferred to [[Territorial evolution of Poland#World War II|Lithuania]] and [[Slovak invasion of Poland|Slovakia]]. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected<ref name=ibiblio1939 /> and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,<ref>Nuremberg Documents C-62/GB86, a directive from Hitler in October 1939 which concludes: "The attack [on France] is to be launched this Autumn if conditions are at all possible."</ref> which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather.{{sfn|Liddell Hart|1977|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Bullock|1990|loc=pp. 563–64, 566, 568–69, 574–75 (1983 ed.)}}<ref>Blitzkrieg: From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk, L Deighton, Jonathan Cape, 1993, pp. 186–87. Deighton states that "the offensive was postponed twenty-nine times before it finally took place."</ref> [[File:Karelian Isthmus 13 March 1940.png|thumb|left|[[Mannerheim Line]] and [[Karelian Isthmus]] on the last day of the [[Winter War]], 13 March 1940]] After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], and [[Lithuania]] with military invasion, forcing the three [[Baltic states|Baltic countries]] to sign [[Background of the occupation of the Baltic states#Soviet ultimatums and occupation|pacts]] allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.{{sfn|Smith|Pabriks|Purs|Lane|2002|p=24}}{{sfn|Bilinsky|1999|p=9}}{{sfn|Murray|Millett|2001|pp=55–56}} [[Finland]] refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. [[Winter War#Soviet invasion|The Soviet Union invaded Finland]] in November 1939,{{sfn|Spring|1986|pp=207–226}} and was subsequently expelled from the [[League of Nations]] for this crime of aggression.<ref>Carl van Dyke. ''The Soviet Invasion of Finland''. Frank Cass Publishers, Portland, OR. {{ISBN|978-0-7146-4753-1}}, p. 71.</ref> Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the [[Winter War]] was modest,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/winter-war-finland.html|title=The Winter War – When the Finns Humiliated the Russians|first=Ivano|last=Massari|publisher=War History Online|date=18 August 2015|access-date=19 December 2021|archive-date=19 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219185618/https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/winter-war-finland.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 with [[Moscow Peace Treaty|some Finnish concessions of territory]].{{sfn|Hanhimäki|1997|p=12}} In June 1940, the Soviet Union [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|occupied]] the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,{{sfn|Bilinsky|1999|p=9}} as well as the Romanian regions of [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region]]. In August 1940, Hitler imposed the [[Second Vienna Award]] on Romania which led to the transfer of [[Northern Transylvania]] to Hungary.{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=745, 975}} In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded [[Southern Dobruja]] from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the [[Treaty of Craiova]].<ref name="Haynes-2000">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_I-AQAAIAAJ|title=Romanian policy towards Germany, 1936–40|first=Rebecca|last=Haynes|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|page=205|year=2000|isbn=978-0-312-23260-3|access-date=3 February 2022|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201243/https://books.google.com/books?id=b_I-AQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal [[Ion Antonescu]], with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.<ref>Deletant, pp. 48–51, 66; Griffin (1993), p. 126; Ornea, pp. 325–327</ref> Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operation{{sfn|Ferguson|2006|pp=367, 376, 379, 417}}{{sfn|Snyder|2010|pp=118ff}} gradually stalled,{{sfn|Koch|1983|pp=912–914, 917–920}}{{sfn|Roberts|2006|p=56}} and both states began preparations for war.{{sfn|Roberts|2006|p=59}} ====Western Europe (1940–1941)==== {{Main|Western Front (World War II)}} [[File:WWIIEuropeMay40.gif|thumb|upright=1.4|German advance into Belgium and Northern France, 10 May{{snd}}4 June 1940, swept past the [[Maginot Line]] (shown in dark red)]] In April 1940, [[Operation Weserübung|Germany invaded Denmark and Norway]] to protect shipments of [[Swedish iron-ore industry during World War II|iron ore from Sweden]], which the Allies were [[Operation Wilfred|attempting to cut off]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Murray|Millett|2001|pp=57–63}}.</ref> [[German invasion of Denmark (1940)|Denmark capitulated after six hours]], and [[Norwegian campaign|despite Allied support]], Norway was conquered within two months.{{sfn|Commager|2004|p=9}} [[Norway Debate|British discontent over the Norwegian campaign]] led to the resignation of Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]], who was replaced by [[Winston Churchill]] on 10{{spaces}}May 1940.{{sfn|Reynolds|2006|p=76}} On the same day, Germany [[Battle of France|launched an offensive against France]]. To circumvent the strong [[Maginot Line]] fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of [[German invasion of Belgium (1940)|Belgium]], [[German invasion of the Netherlands|the Netherlands]], and [[German invasion of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]].{{sfn|Evans|2008|pp=122–123}} The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the [[Ardennes]] region,{{sfn|Keegan|1997|pp=59–60}} which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.{{sfn|Regan|2004|p=152}}{{sfn|Liddell Hart|1977|p=48}} By successfully implementing new ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'' tactics, the ''Wehrmacht'' rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able [[Dunkirk evacuation|to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops]] from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment.{{sfn|Keegan|1997|pp=66–67}} On 10 June, [[Italian invasion of France|Italy invaded France]], declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|p=207}} The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and [[Paris in World War II|Paris]] fell to them on 14{{spaces}}June. Eight days later [[Armistice of 22 June 1940|France signed an armistice with Germany]]; it was divided into [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|German]] and [[Italian occupation of France|Italian occupation zones]],{{sfn|Umbreit|1991|p=311}} and an unoccupied [[rump state]] under the [[Vichy France|Vichy Regime]], which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which [[Attack on Mers-el-Kébir|the United Kingdom attacked]] on 3{{spaces}}July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany.{{sfn|Brown|2004|p=198}} [[File:View from St Paul's Cathedral after the Blitz.jpg|left|thumb|[[London]] seen from [[St Paul's Cathedral]] after the German [[The Blitz|''Blitz'']], 29 December 1940]] The air [[Battle of Britain]]{{sfn|Keegan|1997|p=[{{GBurl|id=TF8kcx9hTssC|p=72}} 72]}} began in early July with [[Kanalkampf|Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours]].<ref name=Murray_BoB>{{harvnb|Murray|1983|loc=[https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/AAF-Luftwaffe/AAF-Luftwaffe-2.html#cn70 The Battle of Britain].}}</ref> The United Kingdom rejected Hitler's peace offer,<ref name=ibiblio_1940>{{cite web |title=Major international events of 1940, with explanation |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1940.html |publisher=Ibiblio.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525060313/https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1940.html |archive-date=25 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Adlertag|German air superiority campaign]] started in August but failed to defeat [[RAF Fighter Command]], forcing the indefinite postponement of the [[Operation Sea Lion|proposed German invasion of Britain]]. The German [[strategic bombing]] offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in [[the Blitz]], but largely ended in May 1941{{sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=108–109}} after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort.{{r|Murray_BoB}} Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy [[Battle of the Atlantic#'The Happy Time' (June 1940 – February 1941)|enjoyed success]] against an over-extended [[Royal Navy]], using [[U-boat]]s against British shipping [[Battle of the Atlantic|in the Atlantic]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Goldstein|2004|p=35}}</ref> The British [[Home Fleet]] scored a significant victory on 27{{spaces}}May 1941 by [[Last battle of Bismarck|sinking the German battleship ''Bismarck'']].<ref>{{Harvnb|Steury|1987|p=209}}; {{Harvnb|Zetterling|Tamelander|2009|p=282}}.</ref> In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s|Neutrality Act]] to allow [[Cash and carry (World War II)|"cash and carry"]] purchases by the Allies.{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|pp=328–330}} In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the [[United States Navy]] was [[Two-Ocean Navy Act|significantly increased]]. In September the United States further agreed to a [[Destroyers-for-bases deal|trade of American destroyers for British bases]].{{sfn|Maingot|1994|p=52}} Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.{{sfn|Cantril|1940|p=390}} In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an "[[Arsenal of Democracy|arsenal of democracy]]" and promoting [[Lend-Lease]] programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded]] by Germany.{{r|ibiblio_1940}} The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany.<ref>{{cite web |author=Skinner Watson, Mark |title=Coordination With Britain |website=US Army in WWII – Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Operations |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Plans/USA-WD-Plans-12.html |access-date=13 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430001549/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Plans/USA-WD-Plans-12.html |archive-date=30 April 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> At the end of September 1940, the [[Tripartite Pact]] formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the [[Axis powers]]. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.{{Sfn|Bilhartz|Elliott|2007|p=179}} The Axis expanded in November 1940 when [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungary]], [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovakia]], and [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] joined.{{Sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|p=877}} [[Romania in World War II|Romania]] and [[Hungary in World War II|Hungary]] later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|territory ceded to the Soviet Union]].{{Sfn|Dear|Foot|2001|pp=745–746}} ====Mediterranean (1940–1941)==== {{Main|Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II}} In early June 1940, the Italian ''Regia Aeronautica'' [[Siege of Malta (World War II)|attacked and besieged Malta]], a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy [[Italian invasion of British Somaliland|conquered British Somaliland]] and made an [[Italian invasion of Egypt|incursion into British-held Egypt]]. In October, [[Greco-Italian War|Italy attacked Greece]], but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.{{sfn|Clogg|2002|p=118}} To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean.<ref>{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|pp=146, 152}}; {{Harvnb|US Army|1986|pp=[https://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/20_260_1.htm 4–6]}}</ref> [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-783-0109-11, Nordafrika, Panzer III in Fahrt.jpg|thumb|German [[Panzer III]] of the [[Afrika Korps]] advancing across the North African desert, April–May 1941]] In December 1940, British Empire forces began [[Operation Compass|counter-offensives]] against Italian forces in Egypt and [[East African campaign (World War II)|Italian East Africa]].{{sfn|Jowett|2001|pp=9–10}} The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The [[Regia Marina|Italian Navy]] also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a [[Battle of Taranto|carrier attack at Taranto]], and neutralising several more warships at the [[Battle of Cape Matapan]].{{sfn|Jackson|2006|p=106}} Italian defeats prompted Germany to [[Operation Sonnenblume|deploy an expeditionary force]] to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, [[Erwin Rommel|Rommel]]'s [[Afrika Korps]] [[Western Desert campaign|launched an offensive]] which drove back Commonwealth forces.{{sfn|Laurier|2001|pp=7–8}} In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and [[Siege of Tobruk|besieged the port of Tobruk]].{{sfn|Murray|Millett|2001|pp=263–276}} By late March 1941, [[Bulgaria]] and [[Yugoslavia]] signed the [[Tripartite Pact]]; however, the Yugoslav government was [[Yugoslav coup d'état|overthrown two days later]] by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both [[Invasion of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and [[German invasion of Greece|Greece]], commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.{{sfn|Gilbert|1989|pages=174–175}} The airborne [[Battle of Crete|invasion of the Greek island of Crete]] at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.{{sfn|Gilbert|1989|pages=184–187}} Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the [[World War II in Yugoslavia|Axis occupation of Yugoslavia]], which continued until the end of the war.{{sfn|Gilbert|1989|pages=208, 575, 604}} In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces [[Anglo-Iraqi War|quashed an uprising in Iraq]] which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|Syria]].{{sfn|Watson|2003|p=80}} Between June and July, British-led forces [[Syria–Lebanon campaign|invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon]], assisted by the [[Free France|Free French]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Morrisey|first=Will|chapter=What Churchill and De Gaulle learned from the Great War|date=2019|pages=119–126|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-02764-2|doi=10.4324/9780429027642-6|title=Winston Churchill|s2cid=189257503}}</ref> ====Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941)==== {{Main|Eastern Front (World War II)}} [[File:Second world war europe animation large de.gif|thumb|upright=1.2|[[European theatre of World War II]] animation map, 1939–1945 – Red: [[Allies of World War II|Western Allies]] and the Soviet Union after 1941; Green: [[Soviet Union]] before 1941; Blue: [[Axis powers]]]] With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in [[Southeast Asia]], the two powers signed the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] in April 1941.{{sfn|Garver|1988|p=114}} By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border.{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=195}} Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.{{sfn|Murray|1983|p=[https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/AAF-Luftwaffe/AAF-Luftwaffe-3.html 69]}} On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukraine]], the [[Baltic states]] and [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussia]].<ref name="GSWW4_26">{{Harvnb|Förster|1998|p=26}}.</ref> However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.<ref name="GSWW4_38">{{Harvnb|Förster|1998|pp=38–42}}.</ref> In November 1940, [[German–Soviet Axis talks|negotiations took place]] to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|pp=810–812}} On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]], with Germany accusing the Soviets of [[Soviet offensive plans controversy|plotting against them]]; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.<ref name=Events1941>{{citation |last1=Klooz |first1=Marle |last2=Wiley |first2=Evelyn |others=Director: Humphrey, Richard A. |year=1944 |title=Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History |series=78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=US Government Printing Office |at=pp. 267–312 ([https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1941.html 1941]) |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/ |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214113907/https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/ |archive-date=14 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The primary targets of this surprise offensive{{sfn|Sella|1978|p=555}} were the [[Baltic region]], Moscow and Ukraine, with the [[Strategic goal (military)|ultimate goal]] of ending the 1941 campaign near the [[A-A line|Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line]]—from the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] to the [[White Sea]]s. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate [[Communism]], generate ''[[Lebensraum]]'' ("living space"){{sfn|Kershaw|2007|pp=66–69}} by [[Generalplan Ost|dispossessing the native population]],{{sfn|Steinberg|1995}}<!--please, don't add "page needed" template: it is a journal article--> and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.{{sfn|Hauner|1978}}<!--please, don't add "page needed" template: it is a journal article--> Although the [[Red Army]] was preparing for strategic [[counter-offensive]]s before the war,{{sfn|Roberts|1995}}<!--please, don't add "page needed" template: it is a journal article--> ''Operation'' ''Barbarossa'' forced the [[Stavka|Soviet supreme command]] to adopt [[strategic defence]]. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel<!-- not a typo -->. By mid-August, however, the German [[Oberkommando des Heeres|Army High Command]] decided to [[Battle of Smolensk (1941)|suspend the offensive]] of a considerably depleted [[Army Group Centre]], and to divert the [[2nd Panzer Army|2nd Panzer Group]] to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.{{sfn|Wilt|1981}}<!--please, don't add "page needed" template: it is a journal article--> The [[Battle of Kiev (1941)|Kiev offensive]] was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further [[Crimean campaign|advance into Crimea]] and industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (the [[First Battle of Kharkov]]).{{sfn|Erickson|2003|pp=114–137}} [[File:RIAN archive 2153 After bombing.jpg|thumb|Russian civilians leaving destroyed houses after a German bombardment during the [[siege of Leningrad]] ([[Saint Petersburg]]), 10 December 1942]] The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=9}} prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its [[grand strategy]].{{sfn|Farrell|1993}}<!--please, don't add "page needed" template: it is a journal article--> In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a [[Anglo-Soviet Agreement|military alliance against Germany]]{{sfn|Keeble|1990|p=29}} and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the [[Atlantic Charter]], which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|p=220}} In late August the British and Soviets [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|invaded neutral Iran]] to secure the [[Persian Corridor]], Iran's [[oil fields]], and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India.{{sfn|Bueno de Mesquita|Smith|Siverson|Morrow|2003|p=425}} By October, Axis powers had achieved [[operational objective]]s in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of [[siege of Leningrad|Leningrad]]{{sfn|Kleinfeld|1983}}<!--please, don't add "page needed" template: it is a journal article--> and [[Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)|Sevastopol]] continuing.{{sfn|Jukes|2001|p=113}} A major [[Battle of Moscow|offensive against Moscow]] was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|2001|p=26}}: "By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its ½ million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83 full-strength divisions."</ref> were forced to suspend the offensive.{{sfn|Reinhardt|1992|p=227}} Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet [[Military capability|capability to resist]] was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The ''blitzkrieg'' [[Phase (combat)|phase]] of the war in Europe had ended.{{sfn|Milward|1964}}<!--please, don't add "page needed" template: it is a journal article--> By early December, freshly mobilised [[Military reserve force|reserves]]{{sfn|Rotundo|1986}}<!--please, don't add "page needed" template: it is a journal article--> allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=26}} This, as well as [[Richard Sorge#Wartime intelligence|intelligence data]] which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese [[Kwantung Army]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Blood, Tears and Folly|last=Deighton|first=Len|publisher=Pimlico|year=1993|isbn=978-0-7126-6226-0|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/bloodtearsfollyo0000deig_v3m3/page/479 479]|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodtearsfollyo0000deig_v3m3}}</ref> allowed the Soviets to begin a [[Winter campaign of 1941–1942|massive counter-offensive]] that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops {{convert|100|-|250|km|mi}} west.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|1998|pp=41–42}}; {{Harvnb|Evans|2008|pp=213–214}}, notes that "Zhukov had pushed the Germans back where they had launched Operation Typhoon two months before. ... Only Stalin's decision to attack all along the front instead of concentrating his forces in an all-out assault against the retreating German Army Group Centre prevented the disaster from being even worse."</ref> ====War breaks out in the Pacific (1941)==== {{main|Pacific War}} [[File:228 regiment in HK.jpg|thumb|left|Japanese soldiers [[Battle of Hong Kong|entering Hong Kong]], 8 December 1941]] Following the Japanese [[false flag]] [[Mukden incident]] in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American [[USS Panay incident|gunboat ''USS Panay'']] in 1937, and the 1937–1938 [[Nanjing Massacre]], [[Japan–United States relations#1937–1941|Japanese-American relations deteriorated]]. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the [[Export Control Act]]s—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.{{r|ibiblio_1940}}<ref>{{cite journal |year=1983 |title=Peace and War: United States Foreign Policy, 1931–1941 |journal=U.S. Department of State Publication |issue=1983 |pages=87–97 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/paw/ |access-date=17 February 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114073007/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/paw/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Maechling, Charles. ''Pearl Harbor: The First Energy War''. History Today. December 2000</ref> During 1939 Japan launched its [[Battle of Changsha (1939)|first attack against Changsha]], but was repulsed by late September.{{sfn|Jowett|Andrew|2002|p=14}} Despite [[1939–1940 Winter Offensive|several offensives]] by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and [[Japanese invasion of French Indochina|occupied northern Indochina]] in September 1940.{{sfn|Overy|Wheatcroft|1999|p=289}} Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale [[1939–1940 Winter Offensive|counter-offensive]] in early 1940. In August, [[Chinese Communist Party|Chinese communists]] launched an [[Hundred Regiments Offensive|offensive in Central China]]; in retaliation, Japan instituted [[Three Alls policy|harsh measures]] in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.{{sfn|Joes|2004|p=224}} Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces [[New Fourth Army incident|culminated in armed clashes in January 1941]], effectively ending their co-operation.{{sfn|Fairbank|Goldman|2006|p=320}} In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during [[Battle of Shanggao]].{{sfn|Hsu|Chang|1971|p=30}} In September, Japan attempted to [[Battle of Changsha (1941)|take the city of Changsha]] again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.{{sfn|Hsu|Chang|1971|p=33}} German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in [[Southeast Asia]]. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the [[Dutch East Indies]], but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.<ref>{{cite web |title=Japanese Policy and Strategy 1931 – July 1941 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategy and Command: The First Two Years |pages=45–66 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-2.html |access-date=15 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106021700/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-2.html |archive-date=6 January 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.{{sfn|Anderson|1975|p=201}}{{sfn|Evans|Peattie|2012|p=456}} At the same time, Japan was [[Kantokuen|planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East]], intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Coox|first1=Alvin|title=Nomonhan: Japan against Russia, 1939|date=1985|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, CA|pages=1046–1049|isbn=978-0-8047-1835-6}}</ref> Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.<ref name=USAWWIIcp5>{{cite web |title=The decision for War |website=US Army in WWII – Strategy, and Command: The First Two Years |pages=113–127 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html |access-date=15 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525064812/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Strategy/Strategy-5.html |archive-date=25 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.<ref name=USAWWIIcp4>{{cite web |title=The Showdown With Japan Aug–Dec 1941 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pages=63–96 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-4.html |access-date=15 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109144920/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-4.html |archive-date=9 November 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Roosevelt reinforced [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)]] and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries".{{r|USAWWIIcp4}} [[File:The USS Arizona (BB-39) burning after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor - NARA 195617 - Edit.jpg|thumb|right|The {{USS|Arizona|BB-39|6}} was a total loss in the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Japanese surprise air attack]] on the [[United States Pacific Fleet|American Pacific Fleet]] at [[Pearl Harbor]], Sunday 7 December 1941.]] Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. Emperor [[Hirohito]], after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,<ref>{{cite book|last = Bix | first = Herbert P.| author-link = Herbert P. Bix | date = 3 November 2016 | title = Hirohito and the making of modern Japan | publisher = HarperPerennial | isbn = 978-0-06-256051-3 | pages = 399–414}}</ref> began to favour Japan's entry into the war.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14496398 |journal=The Asahi Shimbun |first=Ryuichi |last=Kitano |title=Diary: Hirohito prepared for U.S. war before Pearl Harbor attack |date=6 December 2021 |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417192302/https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14496398 |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result, Prime Minister [[Fumimaro Konoe]] resigned.<ref>{{cite book | last = Fujiwara | first = Akira | date = 1991 | title = Shōwa tennō no jūgo-nen sensō | page = 126, citing Kenji Tomita's diary}}</ref><ref>Bix, ''Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan'', pp. 417–420</ref> Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint [[Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni]] in his place, choosing War Minister [[Hideki Tojo]] instead.<ref>Bix, ''Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan'', p. 418</ref> On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] to the Emperor.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wetzler | first = Peter | date = 1998 | title = Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan | publisher = University of Hawai'i Press | isbn = 978-0-8248-1925-5 | pages = 29, 35 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BWqEkwH1KRMC&pg=PA29 | access-date = 15 January 2024 | archive-date = 15 March 2024 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240315182053/https://books.google.com/books?id=BWqEkwH1KRMC&pg=PA29 | url-status = live }}</ref> On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.<ref>Bix, ''Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan'', p. 424</ref> On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.{{r|USAWWIIcp5}} The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.<ref>[https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/app-d.html#363 The United States Replies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429222741/https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/app-d.html#363 |date=29 April 2013 }}. Investigation of the Pearl Harbor attack.</ref> That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;<ref>{{Harvnb|Painter|2012|p=26}}: "The United States cut off oil exports to Japan in the summer of 1941, forcing Japanese leaders to choose between going to war to seize the oil fields of the Netherlands East Indies or giving in to U.S. pressure."</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Wood|2007|p=9}}, listing various military and diplomatic developments, observes that "the threat to Japan was not purely economic."</ref> the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.{{sfn|Lightbody|2004|p=125}} Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Weinberg|2005|p=310}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Dower|1986|p=5}}, calls attention to the fact that "the Allied struggle against Japan exposed the racist underpinnings of the European and American colonial structure. Japan did not invade independent countries in southern Asia. It invaded colonial outposts which the Westerners had dominated for generations, taking absolutely for granted their racial and cultural superiority over their Asian subjects." Dower goes on to note that, before the horrors of Japanese occupation made themselves felt, many Asians responded favourably to the victories of the Imperial Japanese forces.</ref> To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the [[United States Pacific Fleet]] and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.{{sfn|Wood|2007|pp=11–12}} On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous [[Japanese expansion (1941–42)|offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific]].{{sfn|Wohlstetter|1962|pp=341–343}} These included an [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor]] and [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|the Philippines]], as well as invasions of [[Battle of Guam (1941)|Guam]], [[Battle of Wake Island|Wake Island]], [[Malayan campaign|Malaya]],{{sfn|Wohlstetter|1962|pp=341–343}} [[Japanese invasion of Thailand|Thailand]], and [[Battle of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]].<ref>[[John Keegan|Keegan, John]] (1989) ''The Second World War''. New York: Viking. pp. 256–257. {{isbn|978-0399504341}}</ref> These attacks led the [[United States declaration of war on Japan|United States]], [[United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan|United Kingdom]], China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dunn|1998|p=157}}. According to {{Harvnb|May|1955|p=155}}, Churchill stated: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided, that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front."</ref> Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States<ref>[[s:Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States|Adolf Hitler's Declaration of War against the United States]] in Wikisource.</ref> in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.{{r|Events1941}}<ref>{{citation |last1=Klooz |first1=Marle |last2=Wiley |first2=Evelyn |others=Director: Humphrey, Richard A. |year=1944 |title=Events leading up to World War II – Chronological History |series=78th Congress, 2d Session – House Document N. 541 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=US Government Printing Office |at=p. 310 ([https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/1941.html 1941]) |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/ |access-date=9 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214113907/https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/events/ |archive-date=14 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> ====Axis advance stalls (1942–1943)==== On 1 January 1942, the [[Four Policemen|Allied Big Four]]{{sfn|Bosworth|Maiolo|2015|pp=313–314}}—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the [[Declaration by United Nations]], thereby affirming the [[Atlantic Charter]]{{sfn|Mingst|Karns|2007|p=22}} and agreeing not to sign a [[separate peace]] with the Axis powers.{{sfn|Shirer|1990|p=904}} During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate [[grand strategy]] to pursue. All agreed that [[Europe first|defeating Germany]] was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, [[Operation Sledgehammer|large-scale attack]] on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.<ref>{{cite web |title=The First Full Dress Debate over Strategic Deployment. Dec 1941 – Jan 1942 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pages=97–119 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-5.html |access-date=16 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109145033/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-5.html |archive-date=9 November 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Elimination of the Alternatives. Jul–Aug 1942 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pages=266–292 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-12.html |access-date=16 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430013447/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic1/USA-WD-Strategic1-12.html |archive-date=30 April 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> At the [[Casablanca Conference]] in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the [[unconditional surrender]] of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Casablanca – Beginning of an Era: January 1943 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pages=18–42 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic2/USA-WD-Strategic2-1.html |access-date=16 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525075310/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic2/USA-WD-Strategic2-1.html |archive-date=25 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Trident Conference – New Patterns: May 1943 |website=US Army in WWII – Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare |pages=126–145 |url=https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic2/USA-WD-Strategic2-6.html |access-date=16 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525100621/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-WD-Strategic2/USA-WD-Strategic2-6.html |archive-date=25 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> =====Pacific (1942–1943)===== [[File:Second world war asia 1937-1942 map en6.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Map of Japanese military advances through mid-1942]] By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally [[Thailand in World War II|Thailand]] had almost conquered [[Japanese invasion of Burma|Burma]], [[Malayan campaign|Malaya]], [[Dutch East Indies campaign|the Dutch East Indies]], [[Fall of Singapore|Singapore]], and [[Battle of Rabaul (1942)|Rabaul]], inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=247–267, 345}} Despite stubborn [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|resistance by Filipino and U.S. forces]], the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippine Commonwealth]] was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.{{sfn|Lewis|1953|loc=p. 529 (Table 11)}} On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the [[Battle of Yenangyaung]] and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.{{sfn|Slim|1956|pp=71–74}} Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|South China Sea]], [[Battle of the Java Sea|Java Sea]], and [[Indian Ocean raid|Indian Ocean]],{{sfn|Grove|1995|p=362}} and [[Bombing of Darwin|bombed the Allied naval base]] at [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese [[Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)|victory at Changsha]].{{sfn|Ch'i|1992|p=158}} These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended.{{sfn|Perez|1998|p=145}} In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to [[Operation Mo|capture Port Moresby]] by [[amphibious warfare|amphibious assault]] and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]].{{sfn|Maddox|1992|pp=111–112}} Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier [[Doolittle Raid]], was to seize [[Midway Atoll]] and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to [[Aleutian Islands campaign|occupy the Aleutian Islands]] in Alaska.{{sfn|Salecker|2001|p=186}} In mid-May, Japan started the [[Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign]] in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.<ref>{{Harvnb|Schoppa|2011|p=28}}.</ref><ref>[{{GBurl|id=lILltXBTo8oC|p=19}} Chevrier & Chomiczewski & Garrigue 2004], p. 19.</ref> In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken [[Japanese naval codes]] in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive [[Battle of Midway|victory at Midway]] over the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ropp|2000|p=368}}.</ref> With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture [[Port Moresby]] by an [[Kokoda Track campaign|overland campaign]] in the [[Territory of Papua]].{{sfn|Weinberg|2005|p=339}} The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern [[Solomon Islands]], primarily [[Guadalcanal]], as a first step towards capturing [[Rabaul]], the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Adrian |year=2003 |title=The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day |publisher=Globe Pequot |isbn=978-1-59228-027-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwa0000gilb/page/259 259] |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwa0000gilb/page/259 |access-date=26 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719123035/https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwa0000gilb/page/259 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, [[Guadalcanal campaign|the Battle for Guadalcanal]] took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the [[Oro Province|northern part of the island]], where they faced Australian and United States troops in the [[Battle of Buna–Gona]].{{sfn|Swain|2001|p=197}} Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and [[Operation Ke|withdrew their troops]].{{sfn|Hane|2001|p=340}} In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous [[Arakan campaign (1942–1943)|offensive into the Arakan region]] in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.{{sfn|Marston|2005|p=111}} The second was the [[Operation Longcloth|insertion of irregular forces]] behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.{{sfn|Brayley|2002|p=9}} =====Eastern Front (1942–1943)===== [[File:RIAN archive 44732 Soviet soldiers attack house.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Red Army]] soldiers on the counterattack during the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], February 1943]] Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in [[Central Russia|central]] and [[southern Russia]], keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.{{sfn|Glantz|2001|p=31}} In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the [[Battle of the Kerch Peninsula|Kerch Peninsula]] and at [[Second Battle of Kharkov|Kharkov]],{{sfn|Read|2004|p=764}} and then in June 1942 launched their main [[Case Blue|summer offensive]] against southern Russia, to seize the [[Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan|oil fields of the Caucasus]] and occupy the [[Kuban]] [[steppe]], while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split [[Army Group South]] into two groups: [[Army Group A]] advanced to the lower [[Don (river)|Don River]] and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while [[Army Group B]] headed towards the [[Volga|Volga River]]. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.{{sfn|Davies|2006|loc=p. 100 (2008 ed.)}} By mid-November, the Germans had [[Battle of Stalingrad|nearly taken Stalingrad]] in bitter [[urban warfare|street fighting]]. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an [[Operation Uranus|encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad]],{{sfn|Beevor|1998|pp=239–265}} and an assault on the [[Operation Mars|Rzhev salient near Moscow]], though the latter failed disastrously.{{sfn|Black|2003|p=119}} By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,{{sfn|Beevor|1998|pp=383–391}} and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another [[Third Battle of Kharkov|attack on Kharkov]], creating a [[Salient (military)|salient]] in their front line around the Soviet city of [[Kursk]].{{sfn|Erickson|2001|p=142}} =====Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943)===== [[File:8th AF Bombing Marienburg.JPEG|right|thumb|American [[Eighth Air Force]] [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]] bombing raid on the Focke-Wulf factory in Germany, 9 October 1943]] Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, [[Second Happy Time|the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast]].{{sfn|Milner|1990|p=52}} By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, [[Operation Crusader]], and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=224–228}} The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the [[Battle of Gazala#Gazala line|Gazala line]] by early February,{{sfn|Molinari|2007|p=91}} followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.{{sfn|Mitcham|2007|p=31}} Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in [[French Madagascar|Vichy-held Madagascar]] caused the British to [[Battle of Madagascar|invade the island]] in early May 1942.{{sfn|Beevor|2012|pp=380–381}} An Axis [[Battle of Gazala|offensive in Libya]] forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were [[First Battle of El Alamein|stopped at El Alamein]].{{sfn|Rich|1992|p=178}} On the Continent, raids of Allied [[commando]]s on strategic targets, culminating in the failed [[Dieppe Raid]],{{sfn|Gordon|2004|p=129}} demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.{{sfn|Neillands|2005|p=60}} In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a [[Battle of Alam el Halfa|second attack against El Alamein]]{{sfn|Keegan|1997|p=277}} and, at a high cost, managed to [[Operation Pedestal|deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta]].{{sfn|Smith|2002}} A few months later, the Allies [[Second Battle of El Alamein|commenced an attack of their own]] in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.{{sfn|Thomas|Andrew|1998|p=8}} This attack was followed up shortly after by [[Operation Torch|Anglo-American landings in French North Africa]], which resulted in the region joining the Allies.{{sfn|Ross|1997|p=38}} Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the [[Case Anton|occupation of Vichy France]];{{sfn|Ross|1997|p=38}} although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to [[Scuttling of the French fleet at Toulon|scuttle their fleet]] to prevent its capture by German forces.{{sfn|Ross|1997|p=38}}{{sfn|Bonner|Bonner|2001|p=24}} Axis forces in Africa withdrew into [[Tunisia]], which was [[Tunisian campaign|conquered by the Allies]] in May 1943.{{sfn|Ross|1997|p=38}}{{sfn|Collier|2003|p=11}} In June 1943, the British and Americans began [[Combined Bomber Offensive|a strategic bombing campaign]] against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and "[[Dehousing|de-house]]" the civilian population.<ref>[https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/USSBS/ETO-Summary.html#tc "The Civilians"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105044932/https://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/USSBS/ETO-Summary.html#tc |date=5 November 2013 }} the United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War)</ref> The [[Bombing of Hamburg in World War II|firebombing of Hamburg]] was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre.{{sfn|Overy|1995|pp=119–120}} ====Allies gain momentum (1943–1944)==== [[File:SBD VB-16 over USS Washington 1943.jpg|thumb|left|[[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[Douglas SBD Dauntless|SBD-5]] [[scout plane]] flying patrol over {{USS|Washington|BB-56|6}} and {{USS|Lexington|CV-16|6}} during the [[Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign]], 1943]] After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent to [[Aleutian Islands campaign#Allied response|eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians]].{{sfn|Thompson|Randall|2008|p=164}} Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to [[Operation Cartwheel|isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands]], and [[Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign|breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands]].{{sfn|Kennedy|2001|p=610}} By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also [[Operation Hailstone|neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk]] in the [[Caroline Islands]]. In April, the Allies launched an operation to [[Western New Guinea campaign|retake Western New Guinea]].{{sfn|Rottman|2002|p=228}} In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in [[central Russia]]. On 5 July 1943, Germany [[Battle of Kursk|attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge]]. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|1986}}; {{Harvnb|Glantz|1989|pp=149–159}}.</ref> and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|p=592}} This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' [[Allied invasion of Sicily|invasion of Sicily]] launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the [[Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy|ousting and arrest of Mussolini]] later that month.{{sfn|O'Reilly|2001|p=32}} On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own [[Operation Kutuzov|counter-offensives]], thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,{{sfn|Bellamy|2007|p=595}} giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.{{sfn|O'Reilly|2001|p=35}}{{sfn|Healy|1992|p=90}} The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified [[Panther–Wotan line]], but the Soviets broke through it at [[Smolensk operation|Smolensk]] and the [[Battle of the Dnieper|Lower Dnieper Offensive]].{{sfn|Glantz|2001|pp=50–55}} On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies [[Allied invasion of Italy|invaded the Italian mainland]], following [[Armistice of Cassibile|Italy's armistice with the Allies]] and the ensuing German occupation of Italy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kolko|1990|p=45}}</ref> Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice by [[Operation Achse|disarming Italian forces]] that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,{{sfn|Mazower|2008|p=362}} and creating a series of defensive lines.{{sfn|Hart|Hart|Hughes|2000|p=151}} German special forces then [[Gran Sasso raid|rescued Mussolini]], who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the [[Italian Social Republic]],{{sfn|Blinkhorn|2006|p=52}} causing an [[Italian Civil War|Italian civil war]]. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the [[Winter Line|main German defensive line]] in mid-November.{{sfn|Read|Fisher|2002|p=129}} [[File:Soviet troops and T-34 tanks counterattacking Kursk Voronezh Front July 1943.jpg|thumb|[[Red Army]] troops in a counter-offensive on German positions at the [[Battle of Kursk]], July 1943]] German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By [[Black May (1943)|May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective]], the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Padfield|1998|pp=335–336}}.</ref> In November 1943, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and Winston Churchill met with [[Chiang Kai-shek]] [[Cairo Conference|in Cairo]] and then with Joseph Stalin [[Tehran Conference|in Tehran]].<ref name="Kolko 1990 211,235,267_268">{{Harvnb|Kolko|1990|pp=211, 235, 267–268}}.</ref> The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory<ref name="Iriye 1981 154">{{Harvnb|Iriye|1981|p=154}}.</ref> and the military planning for the [[Burma campaign]],{{sfn|Mitter|2014|p=286}} while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.<ref name="polley148">{{Harvnb|Polley|2000|p=148}}.</ref> From November 1943, during the seven-week [[Battle of Changde]], the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.<ref name="Beevor 2012 268_274">{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=268–274}}.</ref><ref name=H161>{{Harvnb|Ch'i|1992|p=161}}.</ref><ref name="Hsu Chang 412-416">{{Harvnb|Hsu|Chang|1971|pp=412–416, Map 38}}</ref> In January 1944, the Allies launched a [[Battle of Monte Cassino|series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino]] and tried to outflank it with [[Battle of Anzio|landings at Anzio]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Weinberg|2005|pp=660–661}}.</ref> On 27 January 1944, [[Leningrad Front|Soviet]] troops launched [[Siege of Leningrad#Soviet relief of the siege|a major offensive]] that expelled German forces from the [[Leningrad Oblast|Leningrad region]], thereby ending the [[List of battles by casualties#Sieges and urban combat|most lethal siege in history]].<ref name="Glantz 2002 327_366">{{Harvnb|Glantz|2002|pp=327–366}}.</ref> The [[Leningrad–Novgorod offensive|following Soviet offensive]] was [[Battle of Narva (1944)|halted on the pre-war Estonian border]] by the German [[Army Group North]] aided by [[German occupation of Estonia during World War II#Estonians in Nazi German military units|Estonians]] hoping to [[Estonian government-in-exile#Failure to reestablish independence|re-establish national independence]]. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the [[Baltic Sea]] region.<ref name="Glantz 2002 367_414">{{Harvnb|Glantz|2002|pp=367–414}}.</ref> By late May 1944, the Soviets had [[Crimean offensive|liberated Crimea]], [[Dnieper–Carpathian offensive|largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine]], and made [[First Jassy–Kishinev offensive|incursions into Romania]], which were repulsed by the Axis troops.<ref name="Chubarov 2001 122">{{Harvnb|Chubarov|2001|p=122}}.</ref> The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on June 4.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holland|2008|pp=169–184}}; {{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=568–573}}.<br />The weeks after the fall of Rome saw a dramatic upswing in German atrocities in Italy ({{Harvnb|Mazower|2008|pp=500–502}}). The period featured massacres with victims in the hundreds at [[Civitella in Val di Chiana|Civitella]] ({{Harvnb|de Grazia|Paggi|1991}}; {{Harvnb|Belco|2010}}), [[Ardeatine massacre|Fosse Ardeatine]] ({{Harvnb|Portelli|2003}}), and [[Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre|Sant'Anna di Stazzema]] ({{Harvnb|Gordon|2012|pp=10–11}}), and is capped with the [[Marzabotto massacre]].</ref> The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, [[Operation U-Go|an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India]],<ref name="Lightbody 2004 224">{{Harvnb|Lightbody|2004|p=224}}.</ref> and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at [[Battle of Imphal|Imphal]] and [[Battle of Kohima|Kohima]].<ref name="Zeiler">{{Harvnb|Zeiler|2004|p=60}}.</ref> In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,<ref name="Zeiler" /> and Chinese forces that had [[Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan|invaded northern Burma]] in late 1943 [[Siege of Myitkyina|besieged Japanese troops]] in [[Myitkyina]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=555–560}}.</ref> The [[Operation Ichi-Go|second Japanese invasion]] of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ch'i|1992|p=163}}.</ref> By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of [[Henan]] and begun a [[Battle of Changsha (1944)|new attack on Changsha]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Coble|2003|p=85}}.</ref> ====Allies close in (1944)==== [[File:Approaching Omaha.jpg|thumb|American troops approaching [[Omaha Beach]] during the [[Operation Overlord|invasion of Normandy]] on [[Normandy landings|D-Day]], 6 June 1944]] On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as [[Normandy landings|D-Day]]), after three years of Soviet pressure,<ref name=rees406>{{Harvnb|Rees|2008|pp=406–407}}: "Stalin always believed that Britain and America were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war."</ref> the Western Allies [[Operation Overlord|invaded northern France]]. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also [[Operation Dragoon|attacked southern France]].<ref name="Weinberg 2005 695">{{Harvnb|Weinberg|2005|p=695}}.</ref> These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the [[Falaise pocket|German Army units in France]]. [[Paris]] was [[Liberation of Paris|liberated]] on 25 August by the [[French Resistance|local resistance]] assisted by the [[Free French Forces]], both led by General [[Charles de Gaulle]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Badsey|1990|p=91}}.</ref> and the Western Allies continued to [[Siegfried Line campaign|push back German forces]] in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by [[Operation Market Garden|a major airborne operation]] in the Netherlands failed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=562}}.</ref> After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but [[Operation Queen|failed to cross the Rur river]]. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the [[Gothic Line|last major German defensive line]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Forrest|Evans|Gibbons|2012|p=191}}</ref> On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus ("[[Operation Bagration]]") that nearly destroyed the German [[Army Group Centre]].<ref name="Zaloga 1996 7">{{Harvnb|Zaloga|1996|p=7}}: "It was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II."</ref> Soon after that, [[Lvov–Sandomierz offensive|another Soviet strategic offensive]] forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed the [[Polish Committee of National Liberation]] to control territory in Poland and combat the Polish [[Home Army|Armia Krajowa]]; the Soviet Red Army remained in the [[Praga]] district on the other side of the [[Vistula]] and watched passively as the Germans quelled the [[Warsaw Uprising]] initiated by the Armia Krajowa.<ref>{{Harvnb|Berend|1996|p=8}}.</ref> The [[Slovak National Uprising|national uprising]] in [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovakia]] was also quelled by the Germans.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mzv.sk/documents/10182/2369491/BROZURA_70_VYROCIE_SNP_indd.pdf/007d0f33-4aa1-4e3a-95ae-5ef5096360d3|title=Slovak National Uprising 1944|publisher=Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic|work=Museum of the Slovak National Uprising|access-date=27 April 2020|archive-date=19 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519024459/https://www.mzv.sk/documents/10182/2369491/BROZURA_70_VYROCIE_SNP_indd.pdf/007d0f33-4aa1-4e3a-95ae-5ef5096360d3|url-status=live}}</ref> The Soviet [[Red Army]]'s [[Second Jassy–Kishinev offensive|strategic offensive in eastern Romania]] cut off and destroyed the [[Army Group South Ukraine|considerable German troops there]] and triggered [[1944 Romanian coup d'état|a successful coup d'état in Romania]] and [[1944 Bulgarian coup d'état|in Bulgaria]], followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{cite web|url=https://countrystudies.us/romania/23.htm|title=Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation|publisher=US Library of Congress|access-date=14 November 2009|quote=The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for his courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. Western historians uniformly point out that the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup; postwar Romanian historians, however, ascribe to the Communists the decisive role in Antonescu's overthrow|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430001849/https://countrystudies.us/romania/23.htm|archive-date=30 April 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Douglas MacArthur lands Leyte1.jpg|thumb|left|[[General (United States)|General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]] returns to the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippines]] during the [[Battle of Leyte]], 20 October 1944]] In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into [[Democratic Federal Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups [[Army Group E|E]] and [[Army Group F|F]] in [[Axis occupation of Greece|Greece]], [[German occupation of Albania|Albania]] and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.<ref name="Evans 2008 653">{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|p=653}}.</ref> By this point, the communist-led [[Yugoslav Partisans|Partisans]] under Marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]], who had led an [[World War II in Yugoslavia|increasingly successful guerrilla campaign]] against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern [[Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia|Serbia]], the Soviet [[Red Army]], with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint [[Belgrade offensive|liberation of the capital city of Belgrade]] on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a [[Budapest offensive|massive assault]] against [[Operation Panzerfaust|German-occupied]] Hungary that lasted until [[Siege of Budapest|the fall of Budapest]] in February 1945.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wiest|Barbier|2002|pp=65–66}}.</ref> Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, [[Continuation War|bitter Finnish resistance]] to the [[Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive|Soviet offensive]] in the [[Karelian Isthmus]] denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a [[Moscow Armistice|Soviet-Finnish armistice]] on relatively mild conditions,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wiktor|first=Christian L|title=Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995|publisher=Kluwer Law International|year=1998|isbn=978-90-411-0584-4|page=426}}</ref> although Finland was forced to [[Lapland War|fight their former German allies]].{{sfn|Shirer|1990|p=1085}} By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in [[Assam]], pushing the Japanese back to the [[Chindwin River]]<ref name="Marston 2005 120">{{Harvnb|Marston|2005|p=120}}.</ref> while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces [[Battle of Mount Song|captured Mount Song]] and reopened the [[Burma Road]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.china1931.cn/China/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID%3D7648 |script-title=zh:全面抗战，战犯前仆后继见阎王 |trans-title=The war criminals tries to be the first to see their ancestors<!-- in source --> |language=zh |access-date=16 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224203/https://www.china1931.cn/China/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=7648 |archive-date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally [[Battle of Changsha (1944)|captured Changsha]] in mid-June and the city of [[Battle of Hengyang|Hengyang]] by early August.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jowett|Andrew|2002|p=8}}.</ref> Soon after, they invaded the province of [[Guangxi]], winning major engagements against Chinese forces at [[Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou|Guilin and Liuzhou]] by the end of November<ref>{{Harvnb|Howard|2004|p=140}}.</ref> and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December.<ref name="Drea 2003 54">{{Harvnb|Drea|2003|p=54}}.</ref> In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their [[Mariana and Palau Islands campaign|offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands]] and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]]. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, [[Hideki Tojo]], and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces [[Battle of Leyte|invaded the Filipino island of Leyte]]; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], one of the largest naval battles in history.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cook|Bewes|1997|p=305}}.</ref> ====Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945)==== [[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg|thumb|[[Yalta Conference]] held in February 1945, with [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[Joseph Stalin]]]] On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch [[Battle of the Bulge|a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes]] and [[Operation Northwind (1944)|along the French-German border]], hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at [[Antwerp]]. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.<ref name="parkerxiii">{{Harvnb|Parker|2004|pp=xiii–xiv, 6–8, 68–70, 329–330}}</ref> In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, [[Vistula–Oder offensive|pushing from the Vistula to the Oder]] river in Germany, and [[East Prussian offensive|overran East Prussia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|2001|p=85}}.</ref> On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for the [[Yalta Conference]]. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|pp=709–722}}.</ref> In February, the Soviets [[Silesian offensives|entered Silesia]] and [[East Pomeranian offensive|Pomerania]], while the [[Western Allied invasion of Germany|Western Allies entered western Germany]] and closed to the [[Rhine]] river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine [[Operation Plunder|north]] and [[Remagen|south]] of the [[Ruhr (river)|Ruhr]], [[Ruhr pocket|encircling the German Army Group B]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Buchanan|2006|p=21}}.</ref> In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched [[Operation Spring Awakening|its last major offensive]] against Soviet troops near [[Lake Balaton]]. In two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to [[Vienna offensive|Vienna]], and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops [[Battle of Königsberg|captured Königsberg]], while the Western Allies finally [[Spring 1945 offensive in Italy|pushed forward in Italy]] and swept across western Germany capturing [[Capture of Hamburg|Hamburg]] and [[Battle of Nuremberg (1945)|Nuremberg]]. [[Elbe Day|American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river]] on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troops [[Battle of Berlin|stormed and captured Berlin]] in late April.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|pp=793–829}} In Italy, [[Surrender of Caserta|German forces surrendered]] on 29 April, while the [[Italian Social Republic]] capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the [[Reichstag building|Reichstag]] was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany.<ref name="Shepardson 1998">{{Harvnb|Shepardson|1998}}</ref> Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, [[Harry S. Truman]]. Benito Mussolini [[Death of Benito Mussolini|was killed]] by [[Italian resistance movement|Italian partisans]] on 28 April.<ref name="O'Reilly 2001 244">{{Harvnb|O'Reilly|2001|p=244}}.</ref> On 30 April, [[Death of Adolf Hitler|Hitler committed suicide]] in his [[Führerbunker|headquarters]], and was succeeded by [[Grand Admiral]] [[Karl Dönitz]] (as [[President of Germany (1919–1945)|President of the Reich]]) and [[Joseph Goebbels]] (as [[Chancellor of the Reich]]); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by [[Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk]], in what would later be known as the [[Flensburg Government]]. [[German Instrument of Surrender|Total and unconditional surrender]] in Europe was signed [[Victory in Europe Day|on 7{{nbsp}}and 8{{nbsp}}May]], to be effective by the end of [[Victory Day (9 May)|8 May]].<ref name="Evans 2008 737">{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|p=737}}.</ref> German Army Group Centre [[Prague offensive|resisted in Prague]] until 11 May.<ref name="Glantz 1998 34">{{Harvnb|Glantz|1998|p=24}}.</ref> On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces in [[Flensburg]], while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through the [[Berlin Declaration (1945)|Berlin Declaration]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Selby |first1=Scott A. |title=The Axmann Conspiracy: The Nazi Plan for a Fourth Reich and How the U.S. Army Defeated It |date=28 July 2021 |page=8 |publisher=Scott Andrew Selby |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SQ_EAAAQBAJ |access-date=4 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref> In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippine Commonwealth]] advanced [[Philippines campaign (1944–1945)|in the Philippines]], [[Battle of Leyte|clearing Leyte]] by the end of April 1945. They [[Battle of Luzon|landed on Luzon]] in January 1945 and [[Battle of Manila (1945)|recaptured Manila]] in March. Fighting continued on Luzon, [[Battle of Mindanao|Mindanao]], and other islands of the Philippines until the [[End of World War II in Asia|end of the war]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Chant|first=Christopher|year=1986|title=The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|page=118|isbn=978-0-7102-0718-0}}</ref> Meanwhile, the [[United States Army Air Forces]] launched [[Air raids on Japan|a massive firebombing campaign]] of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating [[Bombing of Tokyo|bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March]] was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2011/03/0309incendiary-bombs-kill-100000-tokyo/|title=March 9, 1945: Burning the Heart Out of the Enemy|last=Long|first=Tony|date=9 March 2011|magazine=Wired|publisher=Wired Magazine|access-date=22 June 2018|quote=1945: In the single deadliest air raid of World War II, 330 American B-29s rain incendiary bombs on Tokyo, touching off a firestorm that kills upwards of 100,000 people, burns a quarter of the city to the ground, and leaves a million homeless.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323180239/https://www.wired.com/2011/03/0309incendiary-bombs-kill-100000-tokyo/|archive-date=23 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Mamoru Shigemitsu signs the Instrument of Surrender, officially ending the Second World War.jpg|thumb|Japanese foreign affairs minister [[Mamoru Shigemitsu]] signs the [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender]] on board {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}}, 2 September 1945.]] In May 1945, Australian troops [[Borneo campaign|landed in Borneo]], overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern [[Burma campaign|Burma]] in March, and the British pushed on to reach [[Yangon|Rangoon]] by 3 May.<ref name="Drea 2003 57">{{Harvnb|Drea|2003|p=57}}.</ref> Chinese forces started a counterattack in the [[Battle of West Hunan]] that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking [[Battle of Iwo Jima|Iwo Jima]] by March, and [[Battle of Okinawa|Okinawa]] by the end of June.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jowett|Andrew|2002|p=6}}.</ref> At the same time, a naval blockade by [[Allied submarines in the Pacific War|submarines]] was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces.<ref name="results of german and american submarines">{{cite web|last=Poirier |first=Michel Thomas |title=Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II |url=https://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/history/wwii-campaigns.html |publisher=U.S. Navy |date=20 October 1999 |access-date=13 April 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409052122/https://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/history/wwii-campaigns.html |archive-date=9 April 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zuberi |first1=Matin |title=Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki |journal=Strategic Analysis |date=August 2001 |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=623–662 |doi=10.1080/09700160108458986|s2cid=154800868 }}</ref> On 11 July, Allied leaders [[Potsdam Conference|met in Potsdam, Germany]]. They [[Potsdam Agreement|confirmed earlier agreements]] about Germany,<ref name="Williams 2006 90">{{Harvnb|Williams|2006|p=90}}.</ref> and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that "[[Potsdam Declaration|the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction]]".<ref name="Miscamble 2007 201">{{Harvnb|Miscamble|2007|p=201}}.</ref> During this conference, the United Kingdom [[1945 United Kingdom general election|held its general election]], and [[Clement Attlee]] replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.<ref name="Miscamble 2007 203_204">{{Harvnb|Miscamble|2007|pp=203–204}}.</ref> The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.<ref>Ward Wilson. "The Winning Weapon? Rethinking Nuclear Weapons in Light of Hiroshima". ''International Security'', Vol. 31, No. 4 (Spring 2007), pp. 162–79.</ref> In early August, the United States [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|dropped atomic bombs]] on the Japanese cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, [[Soviet–Japanese War|declared war on Japan]], [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|invaded Japanese-held Manchuria]] and quickly defeated the [[Kwantung Army]], which was the largest Japanese fighting force.<ref>{{Harvnb|Glantz|2005}}.</ref> These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.<ref name="Pape 1993">{{Harvnb|Pape|1993}} " The principal cause of Japan's surrender was the ability of the United States to increase the military vulnerability of Japan's home islands, persuading Japanese leaders that defense of the homeland was highly unlikely to succeed. The key military factor causing this effect was the sea blockade, which crippled Japan's ability to produce and equip the forces necessary to execute its strategy. The most important factor accounting for the timing of surrender was the Soviet attack against Manchuria, largely because it persuaded previously adamant Army leaders that the homeland could not be defended.".</ref> The Red Army also captured the [[Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin|southern part of Sakhalin Island]] and the [[Invasion of the Kuril Islands|Kuril Islands]]. On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor [[Hirohito]] announced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the [[Potsdam Declaration]].<ref>Bix, ''Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan'' pp. 525–526</ref> On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio ([[Hirohito surrender broadcast|''Gyokuon-hōsō'']], literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice").<ref>Bix ''Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan'', pp. 526–528</ref> On 15 August 1945, [[Surrender of Japan|Japan surrendered]], with the [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender|surrender documents]] finally signed at [[Tokyo Bay]] on the deck of the American battleship {{USS|Missouri|BB-63|6}} on 2 September 1945, ending the war.<ref name="Beevor 2012 776">{{Harvnb|Beevor|2012|p=776}}.</ref> ==Aftermath== {{Main|Aftermath of World War II|Consequences of Nazism}} [[File:Ww2 170.jpg|thumb|Defendants at the [[Nuremberg trials]], where the Allied forces prosecuted prominent members of the political, military, judicial and economic leadership of [[Nazi Germany]] for [[crimes against humanity]]]] The Allies established occupation administrations in [[Allied-occupied Austria|Austria]] and [[Allied-occupied Germany|Germany]], both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the [[Trizone|western]] and [[Soviet occupation zone in Germany|eastern occupation zones]] controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]].<ref name="Wettig 2008 96_100">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|pp=96–100}}.</ref> In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A [[denazification]] program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the [[Nuremberg trials]] and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.<ref name="Frei 2002 41_66">{{Harvnb|Frei|2002|pp=41–66}}.</ref> Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, [[Silesia]], [[Neumark]] and most of [[Pomerania]] were taken over by Poland,<ref name="Eberhardt-2015">{{Cite journal|last=Eberhardt|first=Piotr|year=2015|title=The Oder-Neisse Line as Poland's western border: As postulated and made a reality|url=https://www.geographiapolonica.pl/article/item/9928.html|journal=Geographia Polonica|volume=88|issue=1|pages=77–105|access-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503111248/https://www.geographiapolonica.pl/article/item/9928.html|archive-date=3 May 2018|url-status=live|doi=10.7163/GPol.0007|doi-access=free}}</ref> and [[East Prussia]] was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|expulsion to Germany]] of the nine million Germans from these provinces,<ref name="Eberhardt-2006">{{Cite book|url=https://www.igipz.pan.pl/en/zpz/Political_migrations.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626151411/https://www.igipz.pan.pl/en/zpz/Political_migrations.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=26 June 2015|title=Political Migrations in Poland 1939–1948|last=Eberhardt|first=Piotr|publisher=Didactica|year=2006|isbn=978-1-5361-1035-7|location=Warsaw}}</ref><ref name="Eberhardt-2011">{{Cite book|url=https://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf|title=Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939–1950)|last=Eberhardt|first=Piotr|publisher=Polish Academy of Sciences|year=2011|isbn=978-83-61590-46-0|location=Warsaw|access-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520220409/https://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf|archive-date=20 May 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as three million Germans from the [[Sudetenland]] in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the [[Curzon Line]],<ref name="Eberhardt-2012">{{Cite journal|last=Eberhardt|first=Piotr|year=2012|title=The Curzon line as the eastern boundary of Poland. The origins and the political background|url=https://www.geographiapolonica.pl/article/item/7563.html|journal=Geographia Polonica|volume=85|issue=1|pages=5–21|access-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503111001/https://www.geographiapolonica.pl/article/item/7563.html|archive-date=3 May 2018|url-status=live|doi=10.7163/GPol.2012.1.1}}</ref> from which [[Polish population transfers (1944–1946)|2 million Poles were expelled]];<ref name="Eberhardt-2011" /><ref name="stalinswars43">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=43}}.</ref> north-east Romania,<ref name="stalinswars55">{{Harvnb|Roberts|2006|p=55}}.</ref><ref name="shirer794">{{Harvnb|Shirer|1990|p=794}}.</ref> parts of eastern Finland,<ref name="ckpipe">{{Harvnb|Kennedy-Pipe|1995}}.</ref> and the [[Baltic states]] were [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|annexed into the Soviet Union]].<ref name="Wettig 2008 20_21">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|pp=20–21}}.</ref><ref name="Senn 2007 ?">{{Harvnb|Senn|2007|p=?}}.</ref> Italy [[1946 Italian institutional referendum|lost its monarchy]], [[Italian Empire|colonial empire]] and some [[Treaty of Paris between Italy and the Allied Powers|European territories]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Italy since 1945 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/Italy-since-1945 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=2 October 2023 |language=en |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005052527/https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy/Italy-since-1945 |url-status=live }}</ref> In an effort to maintain [[world peace]],<ref name="Yoder 1997 39">{{Harvnb|Yoder|1997|p=39}}.</ref> the Allies formed the [[United Nations]],<ref>{{cite web |title=History of the UN |url=https://www.un.org/un70/en/content/history/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215170453/https://www.un.org/un70/en/content/history/index.html |archive-date=15 December 2021 |access-date=17 January 2022 |work=United Nations}}</ref> which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm |title=History of the UN |publisher=United Nations |access-date=25 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218221016/https://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm |archive-date=18 February 2010 }}</ref> and adopted the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in 1948 as a common standard for all [[Member states of the United Nations|member nations]].<ref name="Waltz 2002">{{Harvnb|Waltz|2002}}.<br /> The UDHR is viewable here [https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703093353/https://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/|date=3 July 2017}}</ref> The [[great powers]] that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent members]] of the UN's [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]].<ref name="The UN Security Council">{{Citation|title=The UN Security Council|url=https://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620101548/https://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html|access-date=15 May 2012|archive-date=20 June 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758|between]] the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] and the [[China|People's Republic of China]] in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its [[Succession of states|successor state]], the [[Russia|Russian Federation]], following the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|dissolution of the USSR]] in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.<ref name="Kantowicz 2000 6">{{Harvnb|Kantowicz|2000|p=6}}.</ref> [[File:EasternBloc BorderChange38-48.svg|thumb|Post-war border changes in [[Central Europe]] and creation of the [[Communism|Communist]] [[Eastern Bloc]]]] Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet [[spheres of influence]].<ref name="Trachtenberg 1999 33">{{Harvnb|Trachtenberg|1999|p=33}}.</ref> Most eastern and central European countries fell into [[Eastern Bloc|the Soviet sphere]], which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, [[East Germany]],<ref name="Applebaum 2012">{{Harvnb|Applebaum|2012}}.</ref> [[Polish People's Republic|Poland]], [[Hungarian People's Republic|Hungary]], [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]], [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Czechoslovakia]], and [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]]<ref name="Naimark 2010">{{Harvnb|Naimark|2010}}.</ref> became Soviet [[Satellite state#Soviet satellite states|satellite states]]. Communist [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] conducted a fully [[Non-Aligned Movement|independent policy]], causing [[Tito–Stalin split|tension with the Soviet Union]].<ref name="Swain 1992">{{Harvnb|Swain|1992}}.</ref> A [[Greek Civil War|Communist uprising in Greece]] was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Greek Civil War |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Greek-Civil-War |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=28 May 2023 |language=en |access-date=15 May 2023 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324172645/https://www.britannica.com/event/Greek-Civil-War |url-status=live }}</ref> Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led [[NATO]] and the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]].<ref name="Borstelmann 2005 318">{{Harvnb|Borstelmann|2005|p=318}}.</ref> The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the [[Cold War]]—would be accompanied by an unprecedented [[arms race]] and number of [[proxy war]]s throughout the world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Leffler|Westad|2010}}.</ref> In Asia, the United States led the [[occupation of Japan]] and [[Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands|administered Japan's former islands]] in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed [[South Sakhalin]] and the [[Kuril Islands]].<ref name="Weinberg 2005 911">{{Harvnb|Weinberg|2005|p=911}}.</ref> [[Korea]], formerly [[Korea under Japanese rule|under Japanese colonial rule]], was [[Division of Korea|divided and occupied]] by the Soviet Union in the [[North Korea|North]] and the United States in the [[South Korea|South]] between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the [[Korean War]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Stueck|2010|p=71}}.</ref> In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed [[Chinese Civil War|the civil war]] in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to [[Taiwan]] in 1949.<ref name="Lynch 2010 12_13">{{Harvnb|Lynch|2010|pp=12–13}}.</ref> In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] and the [[creation of Israel]] marked the escalation of the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]]. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their [[colonial empire]]s, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to [[Decolonization|decolonisation]].<ref name="JMRoberts 1996 589">{{Harvnb|Roberts|1997|p=589}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|2007|pp=441–443, 464–68}}.</ref> The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a [[Mid-20th century baby boom|baby boom]], and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=1006}}; {{Harvnb|Harrison|1998|pp=34–55}}.</ref> The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of [[Allied plans for German industry after World War II|industrial disarmament in Western Germany]] from 1945 to 1948.<ref name="Balabkins 1964 207">{{Harvnb|Balabkins|1964|p=207}}.</ref> Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years.<ref>{{Harvnb|Petrov|1967|p=263}}.</ref><ref name="Balabkins 1964 208,209">{{Harvnb|Balabkins|1964|pp=208–209}}.</ref> At the [[Bretton Woods Conference]] in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD), which later became part of the [[World Bank Group]]. The [[Bretton Woods system]] lasted until 1973.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Bretton Woods Conference, 1944 |date=7 January 2008 |publisher=United States Department of State |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/98681.htm |access-date=18 April 2022 |archive-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417233116/https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/wwii/98681.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Recovery began with the mid-1948 [[Deutsche Mark|currency reform in Western Germany]], and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S. [[Marshall Plan]] economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.<ref>{{Harvnb|DeLong|Eichengreen|1993|pp=190–191}}</ref><ref name="Balabkins 1964 212">{{Harvnb|Balabkins|1964|p=212}}.</ref> The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the [[Wirtschaftswunder#West Germany|German economic miracle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Wolf|1993|pp=29–30, 32}}</ref> Italy also experienced an [[Italian economic miracle|economic boom]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Bull|Newell|2005|pp=20–21}}</ref> and the [[Trente Glorieuses|French economy rebounded]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ritchie|1992|p=23}}.</ref> By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,<ref>{{Harvnb|Minford|1993|p=117}}.</ref> and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,<!--twice as much as Germany for example--><ref>{{Harvnb|Schain|2001}}.</ref> it continued in relative economic decline for decades.<ref>{{Harvnb|Emadi-Coffin|2002|p=64}}.</ref> The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,<ref name="Smith 1993 32">{{Harvnb|Smith|1993|p=32}}.</ref> having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted [[World War II reparations|war reparations]] from its satellite states.{{efn|Reparations were exacted from [[East Germany]], [[Hungarian People's Republic|Hungary]], [[Romanian People's Republic|Romania]], and [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. The USSR also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the [[Marshall Plan]]."}}<ref>Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in {{Cite book |editor-first=Klaus | editor-last=Larresm |url={{GBurl|id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ|pg=PT174}} |title=A Companion to Europe Since 1945 |publisher=Wiley |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-89024-0 |page=79}}</ref> Japan recovered much later.<ref>{{Harvnb|Neary|1992|p=49}}.</ref> China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.<ref>{{cite book|last=Genzberger|first=Christine|title=China Business: The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business with China|year=1994|publisher=World Trade Press|isbn=978-0-9631864-3-0|url=https://archive.org/details/chinabusinesspor0000genz/page/4|location=Petaluma, CA|page=[https://archive.org/details/chinabusinesspor0000genz/page/4 4]}}</ref> ==Impact== {{Main|Historiography of World War II}} ===Casualties and war crimes=== {{Main|World War II casualties}} {{Further|War crimes in World War II}} [[File:World War II Casualties.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|World War II deaths]] Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.<ref>''Quick Reference Handbook Set, Basic Knowledge and Modern Technology'' (revised) by [[Edward H. Litchfield]], Ph.D 1984 p. 195 {{ISBN?}}</ref> Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about [[Battle casualties of World War II|20 million military personnel]] and 40 million civilians.<ref name="WWII: C&C">{{cite web|last=O'Brien |first=Joseph V |title=World War II: Combatants and Casualties (1937–1945) |url=https://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225004221/https://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html |archive-date=25 December 2010 |work=Obee's History Page |publisher=John Jay College of Criminal Justice |access-date=28 December 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Matthew|last=White|title=Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm|url=https://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm#Second|work=Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century|publisher=Matthew White's Homepage|access-date=20 April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307141223/https://necrometrics.com/20c5m.htm#Second|archive-date=7 March 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World War II Fatalities|url=https://secondworldwar.co.uk/index.php/fatalities|publisher=secondworldwar.co.uk|access-date=20 April 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922185149/https://secondworldwar.co.uk/index.php/fatalities|archive-date=22 September 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,<ref>{{Harvnb|Hosking|2006|p=[{{GBurl|id=CDMVMqDvp4QC|p=242}} 242]}}</ref> including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.<ref name="Ell&Mak 1994">{{Harvnb|Ellman|Maksudov|1994}}.</ref> A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Smith|1994|p=204}}.</ref> Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.<ref name="Herf 2003">{{Harvnb|Herf|2003}}.</ref> An estimated 11<ref>{{cite web|author=Florida Center for Instructional Technology|url=https://fcit.usf.edu/Holocaust/people/victims.htm|title=Victims|work=A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust|publisher=[[University of South Florida]]|year=2005|access-date=2 February 2008|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516094229/https://fcit.usf.edu/Holocaust/people/victims.htm|archive-date=16 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> to 17 million<ref name=Niewyk45>{{Harvnb|Niewyk|Nicosia|2000|pp=45–52}}.</ref> civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|racist policies]], including [[mass killing]] of [[the Holocaust|around 6{{nbsp}}million Jews]], along with [[Romani Holocaust|Roma]], [[Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany|homosexuals]], at least 1.9 million ethnic [[World War II casualties of Poland|Poles]]<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2009/07/16/holocaust-the-ignored-reality/|title=Holocaust: The Ignored Reality|first=Timothy|last=Snyder|journal=The New York Review of Books|access-date=27 August 2017|date=16 July 2009|volume=56 |issue=12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010063645/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2009/07/16/holocaust-the-ignored-reality/|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005473|title=Polish Victims|website=www.ushmm.org|access-date=27 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507145904/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005473|archive-date=7 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|millions of other Slavs]] (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and [[Holocaust victims|other ethnic and minority groups]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/tyne/content/articles/2005/01/20/holocaust_memorial_other_victims_feature.shtml|title=Non-Jewish Holocaust Victims : The 5,000,000 others|work=[[BBC]]|date=April 2006|access-date=4 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303054845/https://www.bbc.co.uk/tyne/content/articles/2005/01/20/holocaust_memorial_other_victims_feature.shtml|archive-date=3 March 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Niewyk45 /> Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnic [[Serbs]], along with Roma and Jews, were [[Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia|persecuted and murdered]] by the Axis-aligned Croatian [[Ustaše]] in [[Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Evans|2008|pp=158–160, 234–236}}.</ref> Concurrently, [[Bosniaks|Muslims]] and [[Croats]] were [[Chetnik war crimes in World War II|persecuted and killed]] by Serb nationalist [[Chetniks]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Redžić|first=Enver|title=Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War|year=2005|publisher=Tylor and Francis|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7146-5625-0|page=155|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pVCx3jerQmYC&pg=PA155|access-date=18 August 2021|archive-date=7 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201309/https://books.google.com/books?id=pVCx3jerQmYC&pg=PA155|url-status=live}}</ref> with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).<ref name="Geiger">{{cite journal|first=Vladimir|last=Geiger|publisher=Croatian Institute of History|title=Human Losses of the Croats in World War II and the Immediate Post-War Period Caused by the Chetniks (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherand) and the Partisans (People's Liberation Army and the Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia/Yugoslav Army) and the Communist Authorities: Numerical Indicators |journal=Review of Croatian History |volume=VIII |issue=1 |date=2012 |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/103223?lang=en|page=117|access-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117064114/https://hrcak.srce.hr/103223?lang=en|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] in the [[Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia|Volhynia massacres]], between 1943 and 1945.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://volhyniamassacre.eu/zw2/history/179,The-Effects-of-the-Volhynian-Massacres.html|title=The Effects of the Volhynian Massacres|last=Massacre|first=Volhynia|work=Volhynia Massacre|access-date=9 July 2018|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621015851/https://volhyniamassacre.eu/zw2/history/179,The-Effects-of-the-Volhynian-Massacres.html|archive-date=21 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish [[Home Army]] and other Polish units, in reprisal attacks.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://dzieje.pl/aktualnosci/od-rzezi-wolynskiej-do-akcji-wisla-konflikt-polsko-ukrainski-1943-1947|title=Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji Wisła. Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947|work=dzieje.pl|access-date=10 March 2018|language=pl|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624040412/https://dzieje.pl/aktualnosci/od-rzezi-wolynskiej-do-akcji-wisla-konflikt-polsko-ukrainski-1943-1947|archive-date=24 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Nanking bodies 1937.jpg|thumb|left|Bodies of Chinese civilians killed by the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] during the [[Nanjing Massacre]] in December 1937]] In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3{{nbsp}}million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM|title=Statistics|last=Rummell|first=R.J.|work=Freedom, Democide, War|publisher=The University of Hawaii System|access-date=25 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323044733/https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM|archive-date=23 March 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the British historian [[M. R. D. Foot]], civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dear|Foot|2001|p=182}}.</ref> Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Carmichael|first1=Cathie|last2=Maguire|first2=Richard| title=The Routledge History of Genocide|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|page=105|isbn=978-0-367-86706-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.historynet.com/a-culture-of-cruelty/ |title=A Culture of Cruelty |publisher=HistoryNet |date=6 November 2017 |access-date=7 May 2022 |archive-date=7 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220507032834/https://www.historynet.com/a-culture-of-cruelty/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The most infamous Japanese atrocity was the [[Nanjing Massacre]], in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chang|1997|p=102}}.</ref> Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the [[Three Alls policy]]. General [[Yasuji Okamura]] implemented the policy in [[Hebei]] and [[Shandong]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Bix|2000|p=?}}.</ref> Axis forces employed [[Biological warfare|biological]] and [[Chemical warfare|chemical weapons]]. The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] used a variety of such weapons during its [[Second Sino-Japanese War|invasion and occupation of China]] (''see [[Unit 731]]'')<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gold|first=Hal|title=Unit 731 testimony|publisher=Tuttle|year=1996|pages=75–77|isbn=978-0-8048-3565-7}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=320}}.</ref> and in [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|early conflicts against the Soviets]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Harris|2002|p=74}}.</ref> Both the Germans and the [[Japanese human experimentation on the Chinese|Japanese tested]] such weapons against civilians,<ref>{{Harvnb|Lee|2002|p=69}}.</ref> and sometimes on [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Japan tested chemical weapons on Aussie POW: new evidence|newspaper=[[The Japan Times Online]]|date=27 July 2004|url=https://search.japantimes.co.jp/member/nn20040727a9.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529003741/https://search.japantimes.co.jp/member/nn20040727a9.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=29 May 2012|access-date=25 January 2010}}</ref> The Soviet Union was responsible for the [[Katyn massacre]] of 22,000 Polish officers,<ref>Kużniar-Plota, Małgorzata (30 November 2004). "Decision to commence investigation into Katyn Massacre". Departmental Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation. Retrieved 4 August 2011.</ref> and the imprisonment or execution of [[NKVD prisoner massacres|hundreds of thousands of political prisoners]] by the [[NKVD]] secret police, along with [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|mass civilian deportations to Siberia]], in the [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Baltic states]] and [[Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union|eastern Poland]] annexed by the Red Army.<ref>Robert Gellately (2007).'' Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe''. Knopf, {{ISBN|978-1-4000-4005-6}} p. 391</ref> Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially [[Soviet occupation zone in Germany|in Germany]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Women and War|url={{GBurl|id=lyZYS_GxglIC|p=480}}|year=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-770-8|pages=480–}}</ref><ref name=Bird>{{cite journal |last=Bird |first=Nicky |title=Berlin: The Downfall 1945 by Antony Beevor |journal=International Affairs |volume=78 |number=4 |date=October 2002 |pages=914–916 |institution=Royal Institute of International Affairs}}</ref> The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Naimark|first=Norman|title=The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949|publisher=Cambridge: Belknap Press|year=1995|isbn=|location=|pages=70}}</ref> while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million.<ref>[http://www.gegenwind.info/175/sonderheft_wehrmacht.pdf Zur Debatte um die Ausstellung Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944 im Kieler Landeshaus (Debate on the War of Extermination. Crimes of the Wehrmacht, 1941–1944)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718080318/http://www.gegenwind.info/175/sonderheft_wehrmacht.pdf |date=18 July 2011 }} (PDF). Kiel. 1999.</ref><ref>Pascale R . Bos, "Feminists Interpreting the Politics of Wartime Rape: Berlin, 1945"; Yugoslavia, 1992–1993 ''[[Journal of Women in Culture and Society]]'', 2006, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 996–1025</ref> The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no [[Positive law|positive]] or specific [[Customary international law|customary]] [[international humanitarian law]] with respect to [[aerial warfare]] existed before or during World War II.<ref>{{cite book |title=Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II |year=2010 |page=167 |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |isbn=978-1-84545-844-7}}</ref> The USAAF [[Air raids on Japan|bombed a total of 67 Japanese cities]], killing 393,000 civilians, including the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]], and destroying 65% of built-up areas.<ref>{{cite journal|author=John Dower|title=Lessons from Iwo Jima|journal=Perspectives|year=2007|volume=45|issue=6|pages=54–56|url=https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/september-2007/lessons-from-iwo-jima|access-date=17 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117075824/https://www.historians.org/Perspectives/issues/2007/0709/index.cfm|archive-date=17 January 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour=== {{Main|The Holocaust|Nazi concentration camps|Extermination camp|Forced labour under German rule during World War II|Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany|Nazi human experimentation|Soviet war crimes#World War II|Japanese war crimes}} [[File:The Liberation of Bergen-belsen Concentration Camp, April 1945 BU4031.jpg|thumb|[[Schutzstaffel]] (SS) female camp guards removing prisoners' bodies from lorries and carrying them to a mass grave, inside the German [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp]], 1945]] [[Nazi Germany]], under the [[dictatorship]] of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6{{nbsp}}million Jews in what is now known as [[the Holocaust]]. They also murdered an additional 4{{nbsp}}million others who were deemed "[[life unworthy of life|unworthy of life]]" (including the [[Disability|disabled]] and [[Mental disorder|mentally ill]], [[German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet prisoners of war]], [[Romani people|Romani]], [[homosexuals]], [[Freemasons]], and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a "[[Genocide|genocidal]] state".<ref>''The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum'' (2nd ed.), 2006. Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. {{ISBN|978-0-8018-8358-3}}.</ref> [[German atrocities committed against Soviet prisoners of war|Soviet POWs]] were kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Herbert|1994|p=[{{GBurl|id=M7Y9AAAAIAAJ|p=222}} 222]}}</ref><ref name="Overy 2004 568_569">{{Harvnb|Overy|2004|pp=568–569}}.</ref> In addition to [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camps]], [[Extermination camp|death camps]] were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used [[Forced labour under German rule during World War II|forced labourers]]; about 12 million [[Ostarbeiter|Europeans]] from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy.<ref name="compensation">{{cite web|url=https://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1757323,00.html|title=Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers|date=27 October 2005|access-date=19 January 2010|first=Michael|last=Marek|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060502123049/https://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1757323,00.html|archive-date=2 May 2006|work=dw-world.de|publisher=Deutsche Welle|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[File:Czeslawa Kwoka - Brasse.jpg|thumb|left|[[Czesława Kwoka|Prisoner identity photograph of a Polish girl]] taken by the German [[SS]] in [[Auschwitz]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/colorized-photo-of-girl-at-auschwitz-strikes-chord-on-social-media/a-43033478 |title=Color photo of girl at Auschwitz strikes chord |first=Alexander |last=Pearson |date=March 19, 2018 |access-date=July 12, 2023 |work=[[Deutsche Welle]] |quote=Kwoka was murdered with a phenol injection to the heart a few weeks later. |archive-date=19 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319065203/https://www.dw.com/en/colorized-photo-of-girl-at-auschwitz-strikes-chord-on-social-media/a-43033478 |url-status=live }}</ref> Approximately 230,000 children were held prisoner and used in forced labour and [[Nazi human experimentation|Nazi medical experiments]].]] The Soviet [[Gulag]] became a ''de facto'' system of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,<ref>J. Arch Getty, Gábor T. Rittersporn and Viktor N. Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basisof Archival Evidence. ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct. 1993), pp. 1017–49</ref> including foreign citizens of Poland and [[Occupation of the Baltic states|other countries]] occupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis [[German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union|POWs]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Applebaum|2003|pp=389–396}}.</ref> By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to [[NKVD]] evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators.<ref>Zemskov V.N. ''On repatriation of Soviet citizens''. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No. 4, (in Russian). See also [https://scepsis.ru/library/id_1234.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014134645/https://scepsis.ru/library/id_1234.html|date=14 October 2011}} (online version), and {{Harvnb|Bacon|1992}}; {{Harvnb|Ellman|2002}}.</ref> Japanese [[prisoner-of-war camp]]s, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bataan/peopleevents/e_atrocities.html|title=Japanese Atrocities in the Philippines|access-date=18 January 2010|archive-date=27 July 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030727223501/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bataan/peopleevents/e_atrocities.html|work=American Experience: the Bataan Rescue|publisher=PBS Online|url-status=dead}}</ref> seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tanaka|1996|pp=2–3}}.</ref> While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the [[surrender of Japan]], the number of Chinese released was only 56.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bix|2000|p=360}}.</ref> At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the [[East Asia Development Board]], or ''Kōain'', for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.<ref name="zhifen2002">{{cite web|last=Ju|url=https://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/sino-japanese/session6.htm|first=Zhifen|title=Japan's Atrocities of Conscripting and Abusing North China Draftees after the Outbreak of the Pacific War|work=Joint Study of the Sino-Japanese War: Minutes of the June 2002 Conference|publisher=Harvard University Faculty of Arts and Sciences|date=June 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120521093637/https://www.fas.harvard.edu/~asiactr/sino-japanese/session6.htm|archive-date=21 May 2012|access-date=28 December 2013}}</ref> In [[Java]], between 4{{nbsp}}and 10 million ''[[rōmusha]]'' (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.<ref name="indonesiaww2">{{cite web|url=https://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+id0029)|title=Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45|access-date=9 February 2007|publisher=Library of Congress|year=1992|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030225658/https://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+id0029%29|archive-date=30 October 2004|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Occupation=== {{Main|German-occupied Europe|Resistance during World War II|Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy|Collaboration with Imperial Japan|Nazi plunder}} [[File:Palmiry before execution.jpg|thumb|Polish civilians wearing blindfolds photographed just before being massacred by German soldiers in [[Palmiry massacre|Palmiry forest]], 1940]] In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia|annexed portions of Czechoslovakia]]) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the [[Nazi plunder|plunder]] of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.<ref>{{Harvnb|Liberman|1996|p=42}}.</ref> Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.<ref name="Milward 1979 138">{{Harvnb|Milward|1992|p=138}}.</ref> [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-031-2436-03A, Russland, Hinrichtung von Partisanen retouched.jpg|thumb|left|[[Soviet partisans]] hanged by the German army. The [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] reported in 1995 that [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|civilian victims in the Soviet Union]] at German hands totalled 13.7 million dead, twenty percent of the 68 million people in the occupied Soviet Union.]] In the East, the intended gains of ''[[Lebensraum]]'' were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet [[scorched earth]] policies denied resources to the German invaders.<ref name="Milward 1992 148">{{Harvnb|Milward|1992|p=148}}.</ref> Unlike in the West, the [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Nazi racial policy]] encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the "[[Untermensch|inferior people]]" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by [[Generalplan Ost|mass atrocities and war crimes]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Barber|Harrison|2006|p=232}}.</ref> The Nazis [[Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|killed an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Poles]] during the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.<ref>Institute of National Remembrance, Polska 1939–1945 Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami. Materski and Szarota. p. 9 ''"Total Polish population losses under German occupation are currently calculated at about 2 770 000"''.</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2023}} Although [[Resistance during World War II|resistance groups]] formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East<ref>{{Harvnb|Hill|2005|p=5}}.</ref> or the West<ref>{{Harvnb|Christofferson|Christofferson|2006|p=156}}</ref> until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]], essentially a Japanese [[hegemony]] which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.<ref>{{Harvnb|Radtke|1997|p=107}}.</ref> Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, [[Japanese war crimes]] frequently turned local public opinion against them.<ref name="GSWW6_266">{{Harvnb|Rahn|2001|p=266}}.</ref> During Japan's initial conquest, it captured {{convert|4000000|oilbbl}} of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to {{convert|50|e6oilbbl}} of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate.<ref name="GSWW6_266" /> ===Home fronts and production=== {{Main|Military production during World War II|Home front during World War II}} {{Image frame | caption=Allies to Axis GDP ratio between 1938 and 1945 | content = {{Graph:Chart | width = 275 | height = 200 | type = line | xAxisTitle = Year | yAxisTitle = Allies GDP / Axis GDP | yAxisFormat = % | yAxisMin = 0.00 | x = 1938,1939,1940,1941,1942,1943,1944,1945 | y = 2.38,2.15,1.58,1.75,2.06,2.31,2.86,5.02 }} }} In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output - essential for projecting military power.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Leith |first1 = C. K. |author-link1 = Charles Kenneth Leith |title = The Struggle for Mineral Resources |url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/1021443 |journal = The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |publication-date = July 1939 |volume = 204, Democracy and the Americas |pages = 42–48 |jstor = 1021443 |quote = [...] mineral raw materials [...] are the basis of industrial power, and this in turn is the basis of military power. [...] England and the United States of America alone control economic proportions of nearly three-fourths of the world's production of minerals. Not less important, they control the seas over which the products must pass. |access-date = 26 January 2024 |archive-date = 26 January 2024 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240126024338/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1021443 |url-status = live }}</ref> In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.<ref name="6Econ3">{{Harvnb|Harrison|1998|p= 3}}.</ref> In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.<ref name="6Econ3" /> The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.<ref>Compare: {{cite book |last1 = Wilson |first1 = Mark R. |title = Destructive Creation: American Business and the Winning of World War II |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AcqADAAAQBAJ |series = American Business, Politics, and Society |edition = reprint |location = Philadelphia |publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press |date = 2016 |page = 2 |isbn = 978-0-8122-9354-8 |access-date = 19 December 2019 |quote = By producing nearly two thirds of the munitions used by Allied forces – including huge numbers of aircraft, ships, tanks, trucks, rifles, artillery shells, and bombs – American industry became what President Franklin D. Roosevelt once called 'the arsenal of democracy' [...].|archive-date = 7 March 2023|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230307201318/https://books.google.com/books?id=AcqADAAAQBAJ|url-status = live}}</ref> Though the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of [[Attrition warfare|attrition]].<ref name="6Econ2">{{Harvnb|Harrison|1998|p=2}}.</ref> While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the [[Workforce |labour force]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Bernstein|1991|p= 267}}.</ref> Allied [[Strategic bombing during World War II|strategic bombing]],<ref>{{Cite book |last= Griffith |first= Charles |title= The Quest: Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II|isbn= 978-1-58566-069-8|publisher= Diane Publishing|year= 1999 |page= 203}}</ref> and Germany's late shift to a [[war economy]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Overy|1994|p= 26}}.</ref> contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.<ref>{{Harvnb|BBSU|1998|p= 84}}; {{Harvnb|Lindberg|Todd|2001|p= 126}}.</ref> To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of [[Slavery |slave labourers]];<ref>{{Cite book |last= Unidas |first= Naciones |title= World Economic And Social Survey 2004: International Migration |page= 23 |publisher= United Nations Pubns |year= 2005 |isbn= 978-92-1-109147-2}}</ref> [[Forced labour under German rule during World War II|Germany enslaved]] about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,<ref name="compensation" /> while [[Slavery in Japan|Japan used]] more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.<ref name="zhifen2002" /><ref name="indonesiaww2" /> ===Advances in technology and its application=== {{Main|Technology during World War II}} [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1978-Anh.026-01, Peenemünde, V2 beim Start.jpg|thumb|A [[V-2 rocket]] launched from a fixed site in [[Peenemünde]], 21 June 1943]] Aircraft were used for [[Reconnaissance aircraft|reconnaissance]], as [[fighter aircraft|fighters]], [[bomber]]s, and [[close air support|ground-support]], and each role developed considerably. Innovations included [[airlift]] (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);<ref name="EncWWII_76">{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=76}}.</ref> and [[strategic bombing]] (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).<ref>{{Harvnb|Levine|1992|p=227}}.</ref> [[Anti-aircraft warfare|Anti-aircraft weaponry]] also advanced, including defences such as [[radar]] and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the [[proximity fuze]]. The use of the [[jet aircraft]] was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide.<ref>{{Harvnb|Klavans|Di Benedetto|Prudom|1997}}; {{Harvnb|Ward|2010|pp=247–251}}.</ref> Advances were made in nearly every aspect of [[naval warfare]], most notably with [[aircraft carrier]]s and [[submarine]]s. Although [[Aeronautics|aeronautical]] warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, [[Battle of Taranto|actions at Taranto]], [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]], and the [[Battle of the Coral Sea|Coral Sea]] established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).<ref name="EncWWII_163">{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=163}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1= Bishop|first1= Chris|last2= Chant|first2=Chris|title=Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft|page= 7|publisher= Silverdale Books|year= 2004|isbn=978-1-84509-079-1|location= Wigston, Leics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Chenoweth|first1=H. Avery|last2= Nihart|first2= Brooke|title= Semper Fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines|publisher= Main Street|year= 2005|isbn= 978-1-4027-3099-3|page= 180|location= New York}}</ref> In the Atlantic, [[escort carrier]]s became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the [[Mid-Atlantic gap]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Sumner|Baker|2001|p=25}}.</ref> Carriers were also more economical than [[battleship]]s due to the relatively low cost of aircraft<ref>{{Harvnb|Hearn|2007|p=14}}.</ref> and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gardiner|Brown|2004|p=52}}.</ref> Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the [[World War I|First World War]],<ref name="Bur&Ryd 1995 15">{{Harvnb|Burcher|Rydill|1995|p=15}}.</ref> were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on [[Anti-submarine warfare|anti-submarine]] [[anti-submarine weapon|weaponry]] and tactics, such as [[sonar]] and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the [[Type VII submarine]] and [[Wolfpack (naval tactic)|wolfpack]] tactics.<ref name="Bur&Ryd 1995 16">{{Harvnb|Burcher|Rydill|1995|p=16}}.</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=this is arguably a reference in passing – the book is about the design of submarines and deals with this fairly superficially. Also reference in article only points to a review of this book.|date=July 2020}} Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the [[Leigh Light]], [[Hedgehog (weapon)|Hedgehog]], [[Squid (weapon)|Squid]], and [[Mark 24 mine|homing torpedoes]] proved effective against German submarines.<ref>{{Cite journal |title= Impact of technology on the defeat of the U-boat September 1939 – May 1943 |journal= IEE Proceedings - Science, Measurement and Technology|date=September 1994 |volume=141 |issue=5 |pages=343–355 |doi=10.1049/ip-smt:19949918 |last1=Burns |first1=R. W. }}</ref> [[File:Trinity device readied.jpg|thumb|Nuclear ''Gadget'' being raised to the top of the detonation "shot tower", at [[Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range|Alamogordo Bombing Range]]; [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity nuclear test]], [[New Mexico]], July 1945]] [[Land warfare]] changed from the static frontlines of [[trench warfare]] of World War I, which had relied on improved [[artillery]] that outmatched the speed of both [[infantry]] and [[cavalry]], to increased mobility and [[combined arms]]. The [[tank]], which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.<ref name="EncWWII_125">{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=125}}.</ref> In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War{{nbsp}}I,<ref>{{Cite book|last= Dupuy|first= Trevor Nevitt|title= The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare|publisher=[[Jane's Information Group]]|isbn= 978-0-7106-0123-0|year= 1982|page= 231}}</ref> and [[Tanks in World War II|advances continued throughout the war]] with increases in speed, armour and firepower.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Vital Role Of Tanks In The Second World War |url= https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/the-vital-role-of-tanks-in-the-second-world-war |access-date=5 April 2022 |website=Imperial War Museums |language=en |archive-date=25 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220325104344/https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/the-vital-role-of-tanks-in-the-second-world-war |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castaldi |first1=Carolina |last2=Fontana |first2=Roberto |last3=Nuvolari |first3=Alessandro |date=1 August 2009 |title='Chariots of fire': the evolution of tank technology, 1915–1945 |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Economics |language=en |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=545–566 |doi=10.1007/s00191-009-0141-0 |s2cid=36789517 |issn=1432-1386 |doi-access=free |hdl=10419/89322 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.<ref name="EncWWII_108">{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=108}}.</ref> This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.<ref name="EncWWII_125" /> Many means of [[Anti-tank warfare|destroying tanks]], including [[Indirect fire|indirect artillery]], [[anti-tank gun]]s (both towed and [[Self-propelled artillery|self-propelled]]), [[Anti-tank mine|mines]], short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.<ref name="EncWWII_108" /> Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,<ref name="EncWWII_734">{{Harvnb|Tucker|Roberts|2004|p=734}}.</ref> and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.<ref name="Comp_221">{{Harvnb|Cowley|Parker|2001|p=221}}.</ref> The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German [[MG 34]], and various [[submachine gun]]s which were suited to [[close combat]] in urban and jungle settings.<ref name="Comp_221" /> The [[assault rifle]], a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces.<ref>{{cite web |title=The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine |publisher=controlarms.org |first1=Oliver |last1=Sprague |first2=Hugh |last2=Griffiths |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/act30/011/2006/en/ |access-date=14 November 2009 |year=2006 |format=PDF |page=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228130914/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/act30/011/2006/en/ |archive-date=28 December 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large [[codebook]]s for [[cryptography]] by designing [[cipher]]ing machines, the most well-known being the German [[Enigma machine]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ratcliff|2006|p=11}}.</ref> Development of [[SIGINT]] (''sig''nals ''int''elligence) and [[cryptanalysis]] enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of [[Japanese naval codes]]<ref name=Schoenherr>{{cite web|access-date=15 November 2009|archive-date=9 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509054959/https://history.sandiego.edu/gen/WW2Timeline/espionage.htm|first=Steven|last=Schoenherr|publisher=History Department at the University of San Diego|title=Code Breaking in World War I|url=https://history.sandiego.edu/gen/WW2Timeline/espionage.htm|url-status=dead|year=2007}}</ref> and British [[Ultra (cryptography)|Ultra]], a [[Bombe#The British Bombe|pioneering method]] for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the [[Cipher Bureau (Poland)#Gift to allies|Polish Cipher Bureau]], which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.<ref>{{cite news |author=Macintyre, Ben |date=10 December 2010 |title=Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory |page=27 |work=The Times |location=London |id={{Gale|IF0504159516}}}}</ref> Another component of [[military intelligence]] was [[deception]], which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as [[Operation Mincemeat|Mincemeat]] and [[Operation Bodyguard|Bodyguard]].<ref name=Schoenherr /><ref>{{cite web|title=Deception for Defense of Information Systems: Analogies from Conventional Warfare|url=https://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/nps/mildec.htm|first1=Neil C.|last1=Rowe|first2=Hy|last2=Rothstein|work=Departments of Computer Science and Defense Analysis U.S. Naval Postgraduate School|publisher=Air University|access-date=15 November 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123031630/https://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/nps/mildec.htm|archive-date=23 November 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers ([[Z3 (computer)|Z3]], [[Colossus computer|Colossus]], and [[ENIAC]]), [[V-1 flying bomb|guided missiles]] and [[V-2 rocket|modern rockets]], the [[Manhattan Project]]'s development of [[nuclear weapon]]s, [[operations research]], the development of [[Mulberry harbour|artificial harbours]], and [[Operation Pluto|oil pipelines under the English Channel]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=World War – II |url=https://www.insightsonindia.com/world-history/world-war-i/world-war-ii/ |website=InsightsIAS |language=en-US |access-date=17 September 2022 |archive-date=11 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711080947/https://www.insightsonindia.com/world-history/world-war-i/world-war-ii/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Penicillin]] was first [[History of penicillin|developed, mass-produced, and used]] during the war.<ref>{{cite web|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190628035235/https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html|archive-date=28 June 2019|url= https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/flemingpenicillin.html |title=Discovery and Development of Penicillin: International Historic Chemical Landmark|location=Washington, DC|publisher=[[American Chemical Society]]|access-date=15 July 2019}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Opposition to World War II]] * [[World War I]] * [[World War III]] ==Notes== {{Notelist}} ==Citations== {{reflist|21em}} ==References== {{See also|Bibliography of World War II}} {{Reflist|group=nb}} {{Refbegin|indent=yes|30em}} * {{Cite book|last=Adamthwaite|first=Anthony P.|year=1992|title=The Making of the Second World War|isbn=978-0-415-90716-3|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/makingofsecondwo00adam_0}} * {{Cite journal|last=Anderson| first=Irvine H. 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Taylor|year=1961|title=The Origins of the Second World War|location=London|publisher=[[Hamish Hamilton]]}} * {{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=A.J.P.|author-mask=3|year=1979|title=How Wars Begin|location=London|publisher=[[Hamish Hamilton]]|isbn=978-0-241-10017-2}} * {{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jay|year=2009|title=The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|isbn=978-0-674-03338-2|url=https://archive.org/details/generalissimochi00tayl}} * {{Cite book|last1=Thomas|first1=Nigel|last2=Andrew|first2=Stephen|year=1998|title=German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-85532-640-8}} * {{Cite book|last1=Thompson|first1=John Herd|last2=Randall|first2=Stephen J.|author2-link=Stephen Randall (political scientist)|year=2008|title=Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies|edition=4th|location=Athens, GA|publisher=[[University of Georgia Press]]|isbn=978-0-8203-3113-3|url=https://archive.org/details/canadaunitedsta00thom}} * {{Cite book|last=Trachtenberg|first=Marc|author-link=Marc Trachtenberg|year=1999|title=A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-00273-6}} * {{Cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|author-link1=Spencer C. Tucker|last2=Roberts|first2=Priscilla Mary|title=Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CIO|isbn=978-1-57607-999-7|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo0000unse_p0k0}} * {{Cite book|last=Umbreit|first=Hans|year=1991|chapter=The Battle for Hegemony in Western Europe|editor=P. S. Falla |title=Germany and the Second World War - Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe |volume=2|pages=227–326 |location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-822885-1}} * {{Cite book|author=United States Army|author-link=United States Army|year=1986|orig-year=1953|title=The German Campaigns in the Balkans (Spring 1941)|url=https://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/intro.htm|location=Washington, DC|publisher=[[Department of the Army]]|ref=CITEREFUS_Army1986|access-date=17 February 2022|archive-date=17 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117141003/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/intro.htm|url-status=dead}} * {{Cite journal|last=Waltz|first=Susan|author-link=Susan Waltz|year=2002|title=Reclaiming and Rebuilding the History of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|journal=[[Third World Quarterly]]|volume=23|issue=3|pages=437–448|jstor=3993535|doi=10.1080/01436590220138378|s2cid=145398136}} * {{Cite book|last=Ward|first=Thomas A.|year=2010|title=Aerospace Propulsion Systems|location=Singapore|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-0-470-82497-9}} * {{Cite book|last=Watson|first=William E.|author-link=William E. Watson|year=2003|title=Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World|location=Westport, CT|publisher=[[Praeger Publishers|Praeger]]|isbn=978-0-275-97470-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Weinberg|first=Gerhard L.| author-link=Gerhard Weinberg|year=2005|title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II|edition=2nd|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-85316-3}}; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy * {{Cite book|last=Wettig|first=Gerhard|year=2008|title=Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939–1953|location=Lanham, MD|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|isbn=978-0-7425-5542-6}} * {{Cite book|last1=Wiest|first1=Andrew|last2=Barbier|first2=M.K.|year=2002|title=Strategy and Tactics: Infantry Warfare|location=St Paul, MN|publisher=[[MBI Publishing Company]]|isbn=978-0-7603-1401-2}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Andrew|year=2006|title=Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished|location=Abingdon & New York|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-0-415-35980-1}} * {{Cite journal|last=Wilt|first=Alan F.|author-link=Alan F. Wilt|year=1981|title=Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941|journal=Military Affairs|volume=45|issue=4|pages=187–191|jstor=1987464|doi=10.2307/1987464}} * {{Cite book|last=Wohlstetter|first=Roberta|author-link=Roberta Wohlstetter|year=1962|title=Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision|url=https://archive.org/details/pearlharborwarni0000wohl|url-access=registration|location=Palo Alto, CA|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8047-0597-4}} * {{Cite book|last=Wolf|first=Holger C.|year=1993|chapter=The Lucky Miracle: Germany 1945–1951|editor=Rudiger Dornbusch |editor2=Wilhelm Nölling |editor3=Richard Layard |title=Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today |pages=29–56 |location=Cambridge|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|isbn=978-0-262-04136-2}} * {{Cite book|last=Wood|first=James B.|year=2007|title=Japanese Military Strategy in the Pacific War: Was Defeat Inevitable?|location=Lanham, MD|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|isbn=978-0-7425-5339-2}} * {{Cite book|last=Yoder|first=Amos|year=1997|title=The Evolution of the United Nations System|edition=3rd|location=London & Washington, DC|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=978-1-56032-546-8}} * {{Cite book|last=Zalampas|first=Michael|year=1989|title=Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939|publisher=Bowling Green University Popular Press|isbn=978-0-87972-462-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Zaloga|first=Steven J.|author-link=Steven Zaloga|year=1996|title=Bagration 1944: The Destruction of Army Group Centre|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-85532-478-7}} * {{Cite book|last=Zaloga|first=Steven J.|author-mask=3|year=2002|title=Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]|isbn=978-1-84176-408-5}} * {{Cite book|last=Zeiler|first=Thomas W.|year=2004|title=Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II|location=Wilmington, DE|publisher=Scholarly Resources|isbn=978-0-8420-2991-9}} * {{Cite book|last1=Zetterling|first1=Niklas|last2=Tamelander|first2=Michael|year=2009|title=''Bismarck'': The Final Days of Germany's Greatest Battleship|location=Drexel Hill, PA|publisher=[[Casemate Publishers|Casemate]]|isbn=978-1-935149-04-0}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|voy=World War II|World War II|collapsible=collapsed}} * [https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/world-war-two-europe West Point Maps of the European War]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323092741/https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/world-war-two-europe |date=23 March 2019 }}. * [https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/world-war-two-asia West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323092715/https://westpoint.edu/academics/academic-departments/history/world-war-two-asia |date=23 March 2019 }}. * [[s:Atlas of the World Battle Fronts in Semimonthly Phases to August 15 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