West Africa Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Westernmost region of the African continent}} {{About||the region of the African Union|Regions of the African Union#West}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}} {{Infobox | image = [[File:Africa-countries-WAFU-UFOA.png|300px]] | caption = {{align|left|{{legend|#00a000|Western Africa ([[United Nations geoscheme|UN subregion]])}}}} | bodyclass = geography | above = West Africa | label1 = Area | data1 = {{convert|5,112,903|km2|abbr=on}} ([[List of countries and dependencies by area|7th]]) | label2 = Population | data2 = {{UN_Population|Western Africa}} ({{UN_Population|Year}} est.) ([[List of countries by population|3rd]]){{UN_Population|ref}} <br> 381,981,000 (female: 189,672,000; male: 192,309,000 (2017 est.<ref name="UN Wt Af">[[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]], Population Division (2017). World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, custom data acquired via website. [https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/]</ref>) | label3 = Density | data3 = 49.2/km<sup>2</sup> (127.5/sq mi) | label4 = [[Demonym]] | data4 = West African | label5 = Countries | data5 = {{collapsible list | title = {{nowrap|Sovereign states (16)}} |bwn titlestyle = text-align:left;padding-right:4em;font-weight:normal;background-color:whitesmoke; |{{BEN}} |{{BUR}} |{{CPV}} |{{GMB}} |{{GHA}} |{{GUI}} |{{GBS}} |{{CIV}} |{{LBR}} |{{MLI}} |{{MTN}} |{{NIG}} |{{NGA}} |{{SEN}} |{{SLE}} |{{TOG}} }} | label6 = Dependencies | data6 = {{flagcountry|SHN}} | label7 = Time zones | data7 = [[UTC−1]] to [[UTC+1]] | label8 = Major Regional Organizations | data8 = [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS; established 1975) | label9 = Total [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) | data9 = {{US$|link=yes}}2.091 trillion (2022) ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|23rd]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=62&pr.y=13&sy=2012&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=668%2C638%2C748%2C678%2C624%2C692%2C694%2C722%2C662%2C724%2C648%2C652%2C742%2C656&s=PPPGDP&grp=0&a= |title=IMF GDP 2011 |access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref> | label10 = [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) per capita | data10 = $2,500 (2013)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2012&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=80&pr1.y=16&c=638%2C668%2C748%2C678%2C624%2C692%2C694%2C662%2C722%2C724%2C648%2C652%2C742%2C656%2C654&s=PPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=IMF GDP data, September 2011 |access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref> | label11 = Total [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (nominal) | data11 = $810 billion (2023)<ref name="IMF GDP Nominal data, October 2013">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=95&pr.y=7&sy=2013&ey=2015&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=668%2C638%2C748%2C678%2C624%2C692%2C694%2C722%2C662%2C724%2C648%2C652%2C742%2C656&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a= |title=IMF GDP data, October 1515 |access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-04-06/nigerian-economy-overtakes-south-africa-s-on-rebased-gdp.html|title=Nigerian Economy Overtakes South Africa's on Rebased GDP|date=7 April 2014 |work=Bloomberg News |access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref> | label12 = Total [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (nominal) per capita | data12 = $1,937 (2023)<ref name="IMF GDP Nominal data, October 2013"/> | label13 = Currency | data13 = {{collapsible list |titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal; |title = | {{flagicon|Ghana}} [[Ghana cedi|Cedi]] {{smaller|(GHS)}} | {{flagicon|Gambia}} [[Gambian dalasi|Dalasi]] {{smaller|(GMD)}} | {{flagicon|Guinea}} [[Guinean franc|Franc]] {{smaller|(GNF)}} | {{flagicon|Liberia}} [[Liberian dollar|Dollar]] {{smaller|(LRD)}} | {{flagicon|Mauritania}} [[Mauritanian Ouguiya|Ouguiya]] {{smaller|(MRU)}} | {{flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Nigerian naira|Naira]] {{smaller|(NGN)}} | {{flagicon|Saint Helena}} [[Saint Helena pound|Pound]] {{smaller|(SHP)}} | {{flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Sierra Leonean leone|Leone]] {{smaller|(SLL)}} | {{nowrap|[[West African CFA franc|W. African CFA franc]] {{smaller|(XOF)}}}}}} | label14 = Largest cities | data14 = <br /> {{collapsible list| * {{flagicon|NGA}} [[Lagos]] * {{flagicon|CIV}} [[Abidjan]] * {{flagicon|MLI}} [[Bamako]] * {{flagicon|GHA}} [[Accra]] * {{flagicon|NGA}} [[Abuja]] * {{flagicon|NGA}} [[Kano (city)|Kano]] * {{flagicon|NGA}} [[Port Harcourt]] * {{flagicon|BFA}} [[Ouagadougou]] * {{flagicon|GHA}} [[Kumasi]] }} | label15 = [[UN M.49|UN M.49 code]] | data15 = <code>011</code> – West Africa<br /><code>202</code> – [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]<br /><code>002</code> – [[Africa]]<br /><code>001</code> – [[World]] }} '''West Africa''' or '''Western Africa''' is the westernmost region of [[Africa]]. The [[United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa|United Nations defines]] Western Africa as the 16 countries of [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cape Verde]], [[The Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Liberia]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Senegal]], [[Sierra Leone]], and [[Togo]], as well as [[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]] ([[United Kingdom Overseas Territories|United Kingdom Overseas Territory]]).<ref name="UNSD Country and Area Codes">{{cite web|url=http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm|title=United Nations Statistics Division – Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications|access-date=17 October 2014|archive-date=13 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713041240/http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Paul R. Masson 2001">Paul R. Masson, Catherine Anne Pattillo, "Monetary union in West Africa (ECOWAS): is it desirable and how could it be achieved?" (Introduction). International Monetary Fund, 2001. {{ISBN|1-58906-014-8}}</ref> The population of West Africa is estimated at {{#expr:{{replace|{{UN_Population|Western Africa}}|,||}}/1e6 round 0}} million{{UN_Population|ref}} people as of {{UN_Population|Year}}, and at 381,981,000 as of 2017, of which 189,672,000 were female and 192,309,000 male.<ref name="UN Wt Af">[[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]], Population Division (2017). World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, custom data acquired via website. [https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/]</ref> The region is demographically<ref>{{Cite web|title=West African population, 1950–2050 {{!}} West Africa Gateway {{!}} Portail de l'Afrique de l'Ouest|url=http://west-africa-brief.org/content/en/west-african-population-1950-2050|access-date=2021-10-30|website=west-africa-brief.org|archive-date=30 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030144214/http://west-africa-brief.org/content/en/west-african-population-1950-2050|url-status=dead}}</ref> and economically<ref>{{Cite web|title=UEMOA economies are projected to grow by 6.6% in 2020 {{!}} West Africa Gateway {{!}} Portail de l'Afrique de l'Ouest|url=http://www.west-africa-brief.org/content/en/uemoa-economies-are-projected-grow-66-2020|access-date=2021-10-30|website=www.west-africa-brief.org|archive-date=30 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030144214/http://www.west-africa-brief.org/content/en/uemoa-economies-are-projected-grow-66-2020|url-status=dead}}</ref> one of the fastest growing on the African continent. Early history in West Africa included a number of prominent regional powers that dominated different parts of both the coastal and internal trade networks, such as the [[Mali Empire|Mali]] and [[Gao Empire]]s. West Africa sat at the intersection of trade routes between [[Arabs|Arab]]-dominated [[North Africa]] and further south on the continent, the source of specialized goods such as [[gold]], advanced [[iron-working]], and [[ivory]]. After European exploration encountered rich local economies and kingdoms, the [[Atlantic slave trade]] built on already existing slave systems to provide labor for colonies in the Americas. After the [[Blockade of Africa|end of the slave trade in the early 19th century]], European nations, especially [[French West Africa|France]] and [[British West Africa|Britain]], continued to [[Scramble for Africa|exploit the region through colonial relationships]]. For example, they continued exporting a number of [[Extractive industries|extractive goods]], including labor-intensive agricultural crops like [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]] and [[coffee]], forestry products like [[tropical timber]], and mineral resources like gold. Since independence, many West African countries, like [[Ivory Coast]], [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Senegal]], have played important roles in the regional and global economies. West Africa has a rich [[ecology]], with strong [[biodiversity]] and several distinct regions. The area's climate and ecology are heavily influenced by the dry [[Sahara]] to the north and east, which provides dry winds during the [[Harmattan]], as well as the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the south and west, which provides seasonal monsoons. This mixture of climates gives West Africa a rich array of [[biome]]s, from biodiversity-rich [[tropical forest]]s to [[drylands]] supporting rare and endangered fauna such as [[pangolin]]s, [[rhinoceros]], and [[elephant]]s. Because of the pressure for economic development, many of these ecologies are threatened by processes like [[deforestation]], [[biodiversity loss]], [[overfishing]], [[Environmental effects of mining|pollution from mining]], [[Plastics industry|plastics]] and other industries, and extreme changes resulting from [[Climate change in Africa|climate change in West Africa]]. ==History== {{Main|History of West Africa}} {{See|Sub-Saharan Africa#Western Africa|African empires#West Africa|List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa#West Africa}} The history of West Africa can be divided into five major periods: first, its prehistory, in which the first [[human]] settlers arrived, developed [[agriculture]], and made contact with peoples to the north; the second, the Iron Age empires that consolidated both intra-Africa, and extra-Africa trade, and developed centralized states; third, major polities flourished, which would undergo an extensive history of contact with non-Africans; fourth, the colonial period, in which [[Great Britain]] and [[France]] controlled nearly the entire region; and fifth, the post-independence era, in which the current nations were formed. ===Prehistory=== {{Main|Prehistoric West Africa#Early Stone Age 2}} West African populations were considerably mobile and interacted with one another throughout the [[population history of West Africa]].<ref name="Haour II">{{cite book |last1=Haour |first1=Anne |title=Outsiders and Strangers: An Archaeology of Liminality in West Africa |date=Jul 25, 2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-969774-8 |page=38 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xYBpAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22population+history+of+west+africa%22&pg=PP1 |chapter=Wealth-in-people |doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199697748.001.0001 |oclc=855890703 |s2cid=127485241}}</ref> Acheulean tool-using [[archaic humans]] may have dwelled throughout West Africa since at least between 780,000 BP and 126,000 BP ([[Middle Pleistocene]]).<ref name="Scerri">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.137 |chapter=The Stone Age Archaeology of West Africa |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |date=2017 |last1=Scerri |first1=Eleanor |isbn=978-0-19-027773-4 }}</ref> During the [[Pleistocene]], [[Middle Stone Age]] peoples (e.g., [[Iwo Eleru skull|Iwo Eleru people]],<ref name="MacDonald">{{cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=Kevin C. |title=Korounkorokalé Revisited: The Pays Mande and the West African Microlithic Technocomplex |journal=The African Archaeological Review |date=1997 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=161–200 |doi=10.1007/BF02968406 |jstor=25130625 |s2cid=161691927 }}</ref> possibly [[Aterians]]), who dwelled throughout West Africa between [[MIS 4]] and [[MIS 2]],<ref name="Niang">{{cite journal |last1=Niang |first1=Khady |last2=Blinkhorn |first2=James |last3=Ndiaye |first3=Matar |last4=Bateman |first4=Mark |last5=Seck |first5=Birame |last6=Sawaré |first6=Gora |title=The Middle Stone Age occupations of Tiémassas, coastal West Africa, between 62 and 25 thousand years ago |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |date=December 2020 |volume=34 |pages=102658 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102658 |bibcode=2020JArSR..34j2658N |s2cid=228826414 }}</ref> were gradually replaced by incoming [[Central African foragers|Late Stone Age peoples]], who migrated into West Africa<ref name="Schlebusch">{{cite journal |last1=Schlebusch |first1=Carina M. |last2=Jakobsson |first2=Mattias |title=Tales of Human Migration, Admixture, and Selection in Africa |journal=Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics |date=31 August 2018 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=405–428 |doi=10.1146/annurev-genom-083117-021759 |pmid=29727585 }}</ref> as an increase in humid conditions resulted in the subsequent expansion of the [[Guinean Forests of West Africa|West African forest]].<ref name="Scerri II">{{cite journal |last1=Scerri |first1=Eleanor M. L. |title=Continuity of the Middle Stone Age into the Holocene |journal=Scientific Reports |year=2021 |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=70 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-79418-4 |pmid=33431997 |pmc=7801626 |oclc=8878081728 |s2cid=231583475}}</ref> [[West African hunter-gatherers]] occupied western [[Central Africa]] (e.g., [[Shum Laka]]) earlier than 32,000 BP,<ref name="MacDonald" /> dwelled throughout [[Guinea (region)|coastal West Africa]] by 12,000 BP,<ref name="MacDonald X">{{cite book |last1=MacDonald |first1=Kevin C. |title=Archaeology and Language II: Archaeological Data and Linguistic Hypotheses |chapter=Archaeology, language and the peopling of West Africa: a consideration of the evidence |date=Sep 2, 2003 |publisher=Routledge |pages=39–40, 43–44 |isbn=9780203202913 |doi=10.4324/9780203202913-11 |oclc=815644445 |s2cid=163304839 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48iKiprsRMwC&q=%22West+African+hunter-gatherers%22&pg=PA37}}</ref> and migrated northward between 12,000 BP and 8000 BP as far as Mali, Burkina Faso,<ref name="MacDonald X" /> and Mauritania.<ref name="Abd-El-Moniem">{{cite book |last1=Abd-El-Moniem |first1=Hamdi Abbas Ahmed |title=A New Recording Of Mauritanian Rock Art |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1444476/1/U591781.pdf |date=May 2005 |page=221 |publisher=University of London |oclc=500051500 |s2cid=130112115}}</ref> During the [[Holocene]], [[Niger-Congo]] speakers independently created pottery in [[Ounjougou]], Mali<ref name="Ness">{{cite book |last1=Ness |first1=Immanuel |title=The Global Prehistory of Human Migration |chapter=Sub-Saharan Africa: Linguistics |date=Nov 10, 2014 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |page=100 |isbn=9781118970591 |oclc=890071926 |s2cid=160957067 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ&q=niger+congo+bce&pg=PA100}}</ref><ref name="Ehret V">{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691244105 |pages=14–17 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5KjEAAAQBAJ |chapter=African Firsts in the History of Technology |doi=10.2307/j.ctv34kc6ng.5 |jstor=j.ctv34kc6ng.5 |oclc=1330712064}}</ref><ref name="Jesse">{{cite journal |last1=Jesse |first1=Friederike |title=Early Pottery in Northern Africa - An Overview |journal=Journal of African Archaeology |date=December 2010 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=219–238 |doi=10.3213/1612-1651-10171 |jstor=43135518 }}</ref> – the earliest [[Pottery#Africa|pottery in Africa]]<ref name="Huysecom X">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.66 |chapter=The First Emergence of Ceramic Production in Africa |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology |date=2020 |last1=Huysecom |first1=Eric |isbn=978-0-19-085458-4 }}</ref> – by at least 9400 BCE,<ref name="Ness" /> and along with their pottery,<ref name="Huysecom X" /> as well as wielding independently invented [[bows and arrows]],<ref name="Blench">{{cite web|last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Africa over the last 12000 years: how we can interpret the interface of archaeology and linguistics? |date=21 October 2017 |url=https://www.academia.edu/28768228 |pages=13, 25 |publisher=University of Cambridge}}</ref><ref name="Roy">{{cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Kaushik |title=A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare: Before the Rise of the West, 10,000 BCE–1500 CE |date=Sep 15, 2021 |page=Unnumbered |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781000432121 |oclc=1261367188 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yE85EAAAQBAJ&q=Bows+arrows+West+Africa+independently+hunting |chapter=Military Convergence And The Bronze Age Civilisations of Eurasia}}</ref> migrated into the Central Sahara,<ref name="Huysecom X" /> which became their primary region of residence by 10,000 BP.<ref name="Blench" /> The emergence and expansion of ceramics in the Sahara may be linked with the origin of Round Head and Kel Essuf rock art, which occupy rockshelters in the same regions (e.g., [[Djado]], [[Tadrart Acacus|Acacus]], [[Tadrart Rouge|Tadrart]]).<ref name="Achrati">{{cite journal |last1=Achrati |first1=Ahmed |title=What ever Happened to the People? Humans and Anthropomorphs in the Rock Art of Northern Africa: International Conference (Brussels, 17, 18 & 19 September 2015) |journal=Rock Art Research |date=May 2020 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=109–112 |id={{Gale|A623569190}} {{ProQuest|2403309251}} }}</ref> Hunters in the Central Sahara farmed, stored, and cooked undomesticated central Saharan [[flora]],<ref name="Mercuri">{{cite journal |last1=Mercuri |first1=Anna Maria |title=Plant behaviour from human imprints and the cultivation of wild cereals in Holocene Sahara |journal=Nature Plants |date=January 29, 2018 |volume=4 |issue=2 |page=73 |doi=10.1038/s41477-017-0098-1 |pmid=29379157 |s2cid=3302383 |hdl=11380/1153032 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> underwent domestication of [[antelope]],<ref name="Aïn-Séba">{{cite journal |last1=Aïn-Séba |first1=Nagète |title=Saharan rock art, a reflection of climate change in the Sahara |journal=Tabona |date=2022 |volume=22 |pages=303–317 |doi=10.25145/j.tabona.2022.22.15 }}</ref> and [[domesticated]] and shepherded [[Barbary sheep]].<ref name="Mercuri" /> After the [[Kel Essuf Period]] and [[Round Head Period]] of the Central Sahara, the [[Pastoral Period]] followed.<ref name="Soukopova I">{{cite journal |last1=Soukopova |first1=Jitka |title=Central Saharan rock art: Considering the kettles and cupules |journal=Journal of Arid Environments |date=August 2017 |volume=143 |pages=10–14 |doi=10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2016.12.011 |s2cid=132225521 |bibcode=2017JArEn.143...10S }}</ref> Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not.<ref name="Soukopova X">{{cite journal |last1=Soukopova |first1=Jitka |title=Tassili Paintings: Ancient roots of current African beliefs? |date=September 2015 |url=https://www.academia.edu/24483825 |journal=Expression |issn=2499-1341 |pages=116–120}}</ref> As a result of increasing [[aridification]] of the [[Green Sahara]], Central Saharan [[hunter-gatherers]] and cattle [[herders]] may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to the [[Niger River]] and [[Chad Basin]] of West Africa.<ref name="Soukopova II">{{cite journal |last1=Soukopova |first1=Jitka |title=Rain and rock art in the Sahara: a possible interpretation |date=2020 |url=https://www.academia.edu/43418786 |journal=Expression |issn=2499-1341 |pages=79–90}}</ref> In 2000 BCE, "[[Thiaroye]] Woman",<ref name="Metropolitan Museum of Art">{{cite book |last1=LaGamma |first1=Alisa |title=Sahel: Art and Empires on the Shores of the Sahara |date=2020 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-1-58839-687-7 }}{{pn|date=January 2024}}</ref> also known as the "[[Venus figurine|Venus]] of Thiaroye",<ref name="Thiam">{{cite journal |last1=Thiam |first1=Mandiomé |title=Milieu et culture matérielle dans le Néolithique sénégambien |journal=Antropo |date=2012 |volume=27 |pages=13–121 |url=http://www.didac.ehu.es/antropo/27/27-16/Thiam.pdf |oclc=884501689 |s2cid=160637192}}</ref><ref name="Metropolitan Museum of Art"/> may have been the earliest [[statuette]] created in [[Sub-Saharan]] West Africa; it may have particularly been a [[Fertility rite|fertility]] statuette, created in the region of [[Senegambia]],<ref name="Thiam" /> and may be associated with the emergence of [[complex society|complexly organized]] [[Pastoral period|pastoral societies]] in [[History of West Africa#Iron Age|West Africa]] between 4000 BCE and 1000 BCE.<ref name="LaGamma">{{cite book |last1=LaGamma |first1=Alisa |title=Sahel: Art and Empires on the Shores of the Sahara |date=2020 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-1588396877 |pages=74–75 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_cfLDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Thiaroye%22+%22Venus%22&pg=PP2 |chapter=Pre-Islamic Artistic Patronage}}</ref> Though possibly developed as early as 5000 BCE,<ref name="Akpan" /> [[Nsibidi]] may have also developed in 2000 BCE,<ref name="Hales">{{cite thesis |last1=Hales |first1=Kevin |title=The Moving Finger: A Rhetorical, Grammatological and Afrinographic Exploration of Nsibidi in Nigeria and Cameroon |date=2015 |url=http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ohiou1431071905 |page=15 }}</ref><ref name="Akpan">{{cite book |last1=Akpan |first1=Unwana Samuel |title=African Media Space and Globalization |date=Aug 24, 2023 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-3-031-35060-3 |page=32 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pPPSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |chapter=African Traditional Media: Looking Back, Looking Forward |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-35060-3_1 |oclc=1395910241}}</ref> as evidenced by depictions of the [[West African script]] on [[Ikom monoliths]] at [[Ikom]], in [[Nigeria]].<ref name="Akpan" /> Migration of Saharan peoples south of the Sahelian region resulted in seasonal interaction with and gradual absorption of West African hunter-gatherers, who primarily dwelt in the [[West Sudanian savanna|savannas]] and [[Guinean Forests of West Africa|forests]] of West Africa.<ref name="MacDonald X" /> In West Africa, which may have been a major regional cradle in Africa for the [[domestication]] of crops and animals,<ref name="Shen">{{cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Quan-Kuan |display-authors=etal |title=Genomic analyses unveil helmeted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) domestication in West Africa |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |date=1 May 2021 |volume=13 |issue=evab090 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evab090 |pmid=34009300 |pmc=8214406 |oclc=9123485061 |s2cid=234783117 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Scarcelli">{{cite journal |last1=Scarcelli |first1=Nora |title=Yam genomics supports West Africa as a major cradle of crop domestication |journal=Science Advances |volume=5 |issue=5 |page=eaaw1947 |year=2019 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw1947 |bibcode=2019SciA....5.1947S |oclc=8291779404 |pmid=31114806 |pmc=6527260 |s2cid=155124324}}</ref> Niger-Congo speakers domesticated the [[helmeted guineafowl]]<ref name="Murunga">{{cite journal |last1=Murunga |first1=Philip |display-authors=etal |title=Mitochondrial DNA D-Loop Diversity of the Helmeted Guinea Fowls in Kenya and Its Implications on HSP70 Gene Functional Polymorphism |journal=BioMed Research International |year=2018 |volume=2018 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1155/2018/7314038 |pmid=30539018 |pmc=6258102 |oclc=8754386965 |s2cid=54463512 |doi-access=free}}</ref> between 5500 BP and 1300 BP;<ref name="Shen" /> domestication of field crops occurred throughout various locations in West Africa, such as [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]] (d. praehensilis) in the Niger River basin between eastern Ghana and western Nigeria (northern Benin), [[rice]] ([[oryza glaberrima]]) in the [[Inner Niger Delta]] region of Mali, [[Pearl millet#Africa|pearl millet]] ([[cenchrus americanus]]) in northern Mali and Mauritania, and [[cowpeas]] in northern Ghana.<ref name="Scarcelli"/> After having persisted as late as 1000 BP,<ref name="MacDonald X" /> or some period of time after 1500 CE,<ref name="Van Beek">{{cite book |last1=Van Beek |first1=Walter E.A. |last2=Banga |first2=Pieteke M. |title=Bush Base, Forest Farm: Culture, Environment, and Development |chapter=The Dogon and their trees |date=Mar 11, 2002 |publisher=Routledge |page=66 |isbn=9781134919567 |doi=10.4324/9780203036129-10 |oclc=252799202 |s2cid=126989016 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppuKAgAAQBAJ&q=%22Tellem%22+%22Dogon%22&pg=PA57}}</ref> remaining West African hunter-gatherers, many of whom dwelt in the [[Guinean forest-savanna mosaic|forest-savanna]] region, were ultimately acculturated and admixed into the larger groups of West African [[agriculturalists]], akin to the migratory [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]]-speaking agriculturalists and their [[Bantu expansion#Central Africa|encounters]] with [[Central African hunter-gatherers]].<ref name="MacDonald X" /> [[File:West African sites with archaeobotanical remains from third to first millennium cal bc.webp|thumb|300px|West African sites with [[archaeobotany|archaeobotanical]] remains from third to first millennium cal bc. The arrows indicate directions of [[pearl millet]] diffusion into [[sub-Saharan]] West Africa.]] ===Empires=== {{Main|History of West Africa#Iron Age}} {{See|History of Africa#West Africa|History of Africa#West Africa 2|Blacksmiths of western Africa}} {{See also|Jews of Bilad el-Sudan}} [[File:Mansa Musa.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mansa Musa]] depicted holding a [[gold nugget]] from a 1395 map of [[Africa]] and [[Europe]]]] The development of the region's economy allowed more centralized states and civilizations to form, beginning with [[Dhar Tichitt]] that began in 1600 B.C. followed by [[Djenné-Djenno]] beginning in 300 B.C. This was then succeeded by the [[Ghana Empire]] that first flourished roughly between the 2nd and 12th centuries C.E., which later gave way to the [[Mali Empire]]. In current-day Mauritania, there exist archaeological sites in the towns of [[Tichit]] and [[Oualata]] that were initially constructed around 2000 B.C., and were found to have originated from the [[Soninke people|Soninke]] branch of the [[Mandé peoples]]. Also, based on the archaeology of the city of [[Kumbi Saleh]] in modern-day Mauritania, the Mali empire came to dominate much of the region until its defeat by [[Almoravid]] invaders in 1052. Three great kingdoms were identified in ''Bilad al-Sudan'' by the ninth century. They included Ghana, [[Gao]] and [[Kanem Empire|Kanem]].<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Nehemia Levtzion|last1=Levtzion|first1=Nehemia|title=Ancient Ghana and Mali|date=1973|publisher=Methuen & Co Ltd|location=New York|isbn=978-0841904316|page=3}}</ref> The [[Sosso Empire]] sought to fill the void but was defeated ({{Circa|1240}}) by the [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] forces of [[Sundiata Keita]], founder of the new Mali Empire. The Mali Empire continued to flourish for several centuries, most particularly under Sundiata's grandnephew [[Mansa Musa|Musa I]], before a succession of weak rulers led to its collapse under [[Mossi people|Mossi]], [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] and [[Songhai people|Songhai]] invaders. In the 15th century, the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on [[Gao]], in the [[Songhai Empire]], under the leadership of [[Sonni Ali]] and [[Askia Mohammed]]. [[File:African slave trade.png|thumb|13th-century Africa – Map of the main trade routes and states, kingdoms and empires.]] Meanwhile, south of the Sudan, strong city-states arose in [[Igboland]], such as the 10th-century [[Kingdom of Nri]], which helped birth the arts and customs of the [[Igbo people]], [[Bono state|Bono State]] in the 11th century, which gave birth to the numerous [[Akan people|Akan]] States, while [[Ife]] rose to prominence around the 12th century. Further east, [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]] arose as the dominant [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] state and the [[Aro Confederacy]] as a dominant [[Igbo people|Igbo]] state in modern-day Nigeria. The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in present-day southeastern Nigeria and a subgroup of the Igbo people. The Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland and was administered by a priest-king called as an [[Eze Nri]]. The Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people and possessed divine authority in religious matters. The [[Oyo Empire]] was a [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] empire of what is today Western, North central [[Nigeria]] and southern [[Republic of Benin]]. Established in the 14th century, the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states. It rose through the outstanding organizational skills of the Yoruba, wealth gained from trade and its powerful [[cavalry]]. The Oyo Empire was the most politically important state in the region from the mid-17th to the late 18th century, holding sway not only over most of the other kingdoms in [[Yorubaland]], but also over nearby African states, notably the [[Fon people|Fon]] [[Kingdom of Dahomey]] in the modern [[Republic of Benin]] to the west. The Benin Empire was a [[post-classical]] empire located in what is now southern [[Nigeria]]. Its capital was Edo, now known as [[Benin City]], [[Edo State|Edo]]. It should not be confused with the modern-day country called [[Benin]], formerly called [[Republic of Dahomey|Dahomey]]. The Benin Empire was "one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the coastal hinterland of West Africa, dating perhaps to the eleventh century CE",. The Benin Empire was governed by a sovereign Emperor with hundreds of thousands of soldiers and a powerful council rich in resources, wealth, ancient science and technology with cities described as beautiful and large as [[Haarlem]]. "[[Olfert Dapper]], a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book ''[[Description of Africa (Olfert Dapper)|Description of Africa]]'' (1668) ". Its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa. It was annexed by the [[British Empire]] in 1897 during the invasion and scramble of Africa. ===European contact and enslavement=== {{Main|Atlantic slave trade}} [[File:Africa de l'Oèst en 1875-es.svg|thumb|right|260px|West Africa {{Circa|1875}}]] Portuguese traders began establishing settlements along the coast in 1445, followed by the [[France|French]], [[England|English]], [[Spain|Spanish]], [[Denmark|Danish]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]]; the [[African slave trade]] began not long after, which over the following centuries would debilitate the region's economy and population.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 |title=Historical survey: Slave-owning societies |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223090720/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 |archive-date=February 23, 2007}}</ref> The slave trade also encouraged the formation of states such as the [[Bono state|Bono State]], [[Bambara Empire]] and [[Dahomey]], whose economic activities include but not limited to exchanging slaves for European [[firearm]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peterson|first1=Derek R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Om12BgAAQBAJ|title=The Politics of Heritage in Africa|last2=Gavua|first2=Kodzo|last3=Rassool|first3=Ciraj|date=2015-03-02|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09485-7|language=en}}</ref> ===Colonialism=== {{Further|Colonisation of Africa}} [[File:French West Africa 1913 map.png|thumb|left|French in West Africa {{Circa|1913}}]] In the early 19th century, a series of Fulani reformist [[jihad]]s swept across Western Africa. The most notable include [[Usman dan Fodio]]'s [[Fulani Empire]], which replaced the [[Hausa people|Hausa]] city-states, [[Seku Amadu]]'s [[Massina Empire]], which defeated the Bambara, and El Hadj [[Umar Tall]]'s [[Toucouleur Empire]], which briefly conquered much of modern-day Mali. However, the [[France|French]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] continued to advance in the [[Scramble for Africa]], subjugating kingdom after kingdom. With the fall of [[Samory|Samory Ture's]] new-founded [[Wassoulou Empire]] in 1898 and the [[Ashanti people|Ashanti]] queen [[Yaa Asantewaa]] in 1902, most West African military resistance to colonial rule resulted in failure. Part of the West-African regions underwent an increase in the [[numeracy]] level throughout the 19th century. The reason for such a growth was predetermined by a number of factors. Namely, the [[peanut]] production and trade, which was boosted by the [[demand]] of the [[Colonialism|colonial states]]. Importantly, the rise of the numeracy was higher in the regions which were less [[Hierarchy|hierarchical]] and had less dependent from the [[slavery]] trade (e.g. Sine and Salum). Whereas areas with the opposite trends illustrated opposite tendencies (e.g. central and northern Senegal). Those patterns were further even more stimulated with the French colonial campaign.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baten |first1=Jörg |title=European Trade, Colonialism and Human Capital Accumulation in Senegal, Gambia and Western Mali, 1770 – 1900 |journal=CESifo Working Papers |date=May 2017}}</ref> Britain controlled the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, and Nigeria throughout the colonial era, while France unified Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin, Ivory Coast, and Niger into [[French West Africa]]. [[Portugal]] founded the colony of [[Guinea-Bissau]], while [[Germany]] claimed [[Togoland]], but was forced to divide it between France and Britain following [[First World War]] due to the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. Only [[Liberia]] retained its independence, at the price of major territorial concessions. ===Postcolonial era=== {{Further|Decolonisation of Africa|Postcolonial Africa#West Africa|Neocolonialism}} {{See also|Neocolonialism#Françafrique|West African CFA franc|Status of forces agreement}} Following [[World War II]], nationalist movements arose across West Africa. In 1957, Ghana, under [[Kwame Nkrumah]], became the first West African colony to achieve its independence, followed the next year by France's colonies (Guinea in 1958 under the leadership of President Ahmed Sekou Touré); by 1974, West Africa's nations were entirely autonomous. Since independence, many West African nations have been submerged under political instability, with notable civil wars in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast, and a succession of military coups in [[History of Ghana|Ghana]] and [[History of Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]]. Since the end of colonialism, the region has been the stage for some brutal conflicts, including: * [[Nigerian Civil War]] * [[First Liberian Civil War]] * [[Second Liberian Civil War]] * [[Guinea-Bissau Civil War]] * [[First Ivorian Civil War|Ivorian Civil War]] * [[Sierra Leone Civil War|Sierra Leone Rebel War]] * [[Mali War]] ==Geopolitical division== [[File:Map of West AFrica.gif|thumb|350px|<div align="center">[[Geopolitical]] [[State (polity)|States]] of West Africa;<br /> {{Col-begin|width=100%}} {{Col-break}} * '''[[Benin]]''' * '''[[Burkina Faso]]''' * '''[[Cape Verde]]''' * '''[[Ivory Coast]]''' * '''[[The Gambia]]''' {{Col-break}} * '''[[Ghana]]''' * '''[[Guinea]]''' * '''[[Guinea-Bissau]]''' * '''[[Liberia]]''' * '''[[Mali]]''' {{Col-break}} * '''[[Niger]]''' * '''[[Nigeria]]''' * '''[[Senegal]]''' * '''[[Sierra Leone]]''' * '''[[Togo]]''' {{Col-break}} {{Col-end}} </div> ]] {{clear left}} [[Geopolitically]], the [[United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa|United Nations definition]] of [[subregion]] Western Africa includes the preceding states with the addition of [[Mauritania]] (which withdrew from ECOWAS in 1999), comprising an area of approximately 6.1 million square km.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/unowa/unowa/bckgrdnew.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516091903/https://www.un.org/unowa/unowa/bckgrdnew.pdf|archive-date=2006-05-16|title=''The UN office for West Africa''}}</ref> The UN region also includes the [[United Kingdom Overseas Territories|United Kingdom Overseas Territory]] of [[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]] in the south [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref name="UNSD Country and Area Codes" /> {{clear left}} ===Area=== In the [[United Nations]] [[United Nations geoscheme for Africa|scheme of African regions]], the region of Western Africa includes 16 [[Sovereign state|states]] and the [[United Kingdom Overseas Territories|United Kingdom Overseas Territory]] of [[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]]:<ref name="UNSD Country and Area Codes"/> [[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Senegal]] and the [[Niger]] are mostly in the [[Sahel]], a transition zone between the [[Sahara Desert|Sahara desert]] and the [[Sudanian Savanna]]; [[Benin]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[The Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Liberia]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Togo]] and [[Nigeria]] compose most of [[Guinea (region)|Guinea]], the traditional name for the area near the [[Gulf of Guinea]]; [[Mauritania]] lies in the [[Maghreb]], the northwestern region of Africa that has historically been inhabited by West African groups such as the [[Fulani]], [[Soninke people|Soninke]], [[Wolof people|Wolof]], [[Serer people|Serer]] and [[Toucouleur people]],<ref>Polski Instytut Spraw Międzynarodowych, ''Studies on the Developing Countries, Issues 6–8'', [[Polish Institute of International Affairs]] (1988), p. 53</ref> along with [[Arab-Berber]] [[Maghrebis|Maghrebi people]] such as the [[Tuareg]]; [[Cape Verde]] is an island country in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]; and [[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]] consists of eight main islands located in four different parts of the Atlantic. Due to Mauritania's increasingly close ties to the [[Arab World]] and its 1999 withdrawal from the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS), in modern times it is often considered, especially in Africa, as now part of western [[North Africa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uneca.org/sro-na|title=Office for North Africa of the Economic Commission for Africa|work=United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e486026.html|title=2014 UNHCR country operations profile – Mauritania|access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afdb.org/en/countries/north-africa/mauritania/|title=African Development Bank Group: Mauritania|access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref><ref>Facts On File, Incorporated, ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East'' (2009), p. 448, <!--books.google.com/books?-->{{ISBN|143812676X}}: "The Islamic Republic of Mauritania, situated in western North Africa..."</ref><ref>David Seddon, ''A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East'' (2004), <!--books.google.com/books?-->{{ISBN|020340291X}}: "We have, by contrast, chosen to include the predominantly Arabic-speaking countries of western North Africa (the Maghreb), including Mauritania (which is a member of the Arab Maghreb Union)..."</ref><ref>Mohamed Branine, Managing Across Cultures: Concepts, Policies and Practices (2011), p. 437, <!--books.google.com/books?-->{{ISBN|1849207291}}: "The Magrebian countries or the Arab countries of western North Africa (Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia)..."</ref> ===List of countries=== * {{flag|Benin}} * {{flag|Burkina Faso}} * {{flag|Cape Verde}} * {{flag|Ivory Coast}} * {{flag|The Gambia}} * {{flag|Ghana}} * {{flag|Guinea}} * {{flag|Guinea-Bissau}} * {{flag|Liberia}} * {{flag|Mali}} * {{flag|Niger}} * {{flag|Nigeria}} * {{flag|Senegal}} * {{flag|Sierra Leone}} * {{flag|Togo}} * {{flag|United Kingdom}} ** {{flag|Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha}}<br>([[United Kingdom Overseas Territories|United Kingdom Overseas Territory]]) === Cities === Major and principal cities in West Africa include, geographically eastward: {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} * [[Dakar]], Senegal * [[Touba]], Senegal * [[Serrekunda]], The Gambia * [[Bissau]], Guinea-Bissau * [[Conakry]], Guinea * [[Freetown]], Sierra Leone * [[Monrovia]], Liberia * [[Bamako]], Mali {{col-3}} * [[Abidjan]], Ivory Coast * [[Yamoussoukro]], Ivory Coast * [[Bouaké]], Ivory Coast * [[Ouagadougou]], Burkina Faso * [[Bobo-Dioulasso]], Burkina Faso * [[Accra]], Ghana * [[Kumasi]], Ghana * [[Lomé]], Togo {{col-4}} * [[Cotonou]], Benin * [[Abuja]], Nigeria * [[Lagos (Nigeria)|Lagos]], Nigeria * [[Ibadan]], Nigeria * [[Port Harcourt]], Nigeria * [[Kano (city)|Kano]], Nigeria * [[Benin City]], Nigeria * [[Jos]], Nigeria {{col-end}} ==Environment== ===Nature=== [[File:Rhinoceros blanc- réserve de Bandia - panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[rhinoceros]] in Bandia Nature Reserve, [[Senegal]]]] [[File:Yankari Elephants.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[African bush elephants]] in [[Yankari National Park]], Nigeria]] Before [[Scramble for Africa|European colonisation]], West African countries such as those from the [[Senegambia|Senegambia region]] (Senegal and the Gambia) used to have a diverse [[wildlife]] including [[lion]]s, [[hippopotamus]], [[elephant]]s, [[antelope]]s, [[leopard]]s etc.<ref>Koslow, Philip, ''Senegambia: Land of the Lion'', Chelsea House Publishers (1997), pp. 11, 35–47, {{ISBN|9780791031353}}.</ref> However, during colonization, the European colonizers such as the French and British killed most of the wildlife particularly the lions, using their body parts as trophies. By the turn of the 20th century, the Senegambia region had lost most of its lion population and other exotic animals due to [[poaching]]. By the 1930s, the Gambian elephant population became extinct. That phenomenon was not only limited to the Senegambia region but affected much of West Africa as the region lost much of its "natural resources once tied so closely to its cultural identity. [[Poaching]] has stolen most of its wildlife." The British issued poaching licenses, and although they would later try to reverse the damage that had been done by attempting to preserve what was left of the local wildlife, but by that time, it was too late.<ref name="New York Times">''[[The New York Times]]'', [https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/30/world/africa/senegal-baobabs-climate-change.html "Across Senegal, the Beloved Baobab Tree Is the 'Pride of the Neighborhood{{'"}}], by Dionne Searcey (Sept. 30, 2018) (Retrieved 1 April 2019)</ref><ref name="Somerville">Somerville, Keith, ''Ivory: Power and Poaching in Africa'', [[Oxford University Press]] (2016), p. 84–85 {{ISBN|9781849046763}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=D2sjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85] (Retrieved 1 April 2019)</ref> During the 1930s, the elephant population in the [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] was about 300, and Sierra Leone between 500 and 600. Although a small number of elephants survived in Nigeria, hunting, [[agricultural expansion]] and [[Deforestation in Nigeria|clearing of forest in that country]] drastically affected its wildlife population, particularly elephants.<ref name="Somerville"/> Despite the historical damage that has been done to the region's wildlife populations, there are still some protected nature reserves within the region. Some of these include: * The Bandia Nature Reserve in Senegal (French: ''Réserve de Bandia''), animal life includes: [[giraffes]], [[zebras]], [[rhinos]], a variety of antelopes, [[African buffalo|buffaloes]], [[monkeys]], [[crocodiles]], [[tortoises]]. apes and a variety of exotic birds.<ref>Bandia Nature Reserve is sometimes called ''Bandia park reserve'', [[Lonely Planet]], ''Half-Day Somone Lagoon and Bandia Park Safari from Dakar'', [https://www.lonelyplanet.com/senegal/dakar/activities/half-day-somone-lagoon-and-bandia-park-safari-from-dakar/a/pa-act/v-28135P1/355589] (Retrieved 1 April 2019)</ref> * The [[Yankari National Park]] in Nigeria, animal life includes: the [[African bush elephant]], [[olive baboon]], [[patas monkey]], [[Tantalus monkey]], [[roan antelope]], [[Hartebeest|western hartebeest]], [[West African lion]], [[African buffalo]], [[waterbuck]], [[bushbuck]] and [[hippopotamus]].<ref>Lonely Plane, ''Yankari National Park''[https://www.lonelyplanet.com/nigeria/northern-nigeria/yankari-national-park] (Retrieved 1 April 2019)</ref> #The [[Ankasa Conservation Area]] in Ghana, animal life includes: the elephant, [[bongo (antelope)|bongo]], leopard, [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]], [[Diana Monkey|Diana monkey]], and other primates.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tilahun|first1=Mesfin|last2=Damnyag|first2=Lawrence|last3=Anglaaere|first3=Luke C.N.|title=The Ankasa Forest Conservation Area of Ghana: Ecosystem service values and on-site REDD + opportunity cost|journal=Forest Policy and Economics|volume=73|pages=168–176|doi=10.1016/j.forpol.2016.08.011|year=2016}}</ref> * The [[Mole National Park]] is Ghana's biggest wildlife refuge. It is home to over 83 mammal species including about 800 resident elephants, buffalo, hippos, and warthogs<ref>{{Cite book|last=Riley|first=Laura|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59347952|title=Nature's strongholds : the world's great wildlife reserves|date=2005|publisher=Princeton University Press|others=William Riley|isbn=0-691-12219-9|location=Princeton, N.J.|oclc=59347952}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Brodowsky|first=Pamela K.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/233549707|title=Destination wildlife : an international site-by-site guide to the best places to experience endangered, rare, and fascinating animals and their habitats|date=2009|publisher=Penguin|others=National Wildlife Federation|isbn=978-0-399-53486-7|location=New York|oclc=233549707}}</ref> as well as various fauna and flora. West Africa is also home to several [[Adansonia|baobab]] trees and other [[plant life]]. Some baobab trees are several centuries old and form part of the local folklore, for example, a mythical baobab tree named ''Ngoye njuli'' in Senegal which is regarded as a sacred site by the [[Serer people|Serer]]. The tree itself is rather majestic and looks like a huge [[phallus]] and a deformed animal or thing is protruding from it. It is said to be the dwelling place of a [[pangool]]. Ngoye njuli is protected by the Senegalese authorities and attracts visitors. In West Africa, as in other parts of Africa where the baobab tree is found, the leaves are mixed with couscous and eaten, the bark of the tree is used to make ropes, and the fruit and seeds used for drinks and oils.<ref name="New York Times"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=V. |last2=Becker |first2=C. |title=Lieux de culte et emplacements celebres dans les pays Sereer (Sénégal) |trans-title=Places of worship and famous locations in the Sereer countries (Senegal) |language=fr |journal=Bulletin de l'Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire, Série B: Sciences humaines |date=1979 |volume=41 |pages=133–189 }}</ref><ref name="SRC">{{Cite web|url=https://www.seereer.org/|title=The Seereer Resource Centre (SRC)|website=The Seereer Resource Centre (SRC)|access-date=1 April 2019|archive-date=30 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430163337/https://www.seereer.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[File:Deforestation in Nigeria (3509228297).jpg|thumb|200px| [[Deforestation in Nigeria]].]] ===Deforestation=== {{Further|Deforestation in Nigeria}} West Africa is greatly affected by [[deforestation]] and has one of worst deforestation rate.<ref name="ThoughtCo"/> Even "the beloved baobab tree" which is viewed as sacred by some West African cultures are under threat due to [[climate change]], [[urbanization]] and population growth. "Huge swaths of forest are being razed to clear space for palm oil and cocoa plantations. Mangroves are being killed off by pollution. Even wispy [[acacia]]s are hacked away for use in cooking fires to feed growing families."<ref name="New York Times"/> Nigeria, Liberia, Guinea, Ghana and the Ivory Coast, have lost large areas of their [[rainforest]].<ref>Deforestation by Country & Region ("Country Forest Data [sorted by region]") [in] [https://data.mongabay.com/deforestation_rate_tables.htm Mongabay.com] (Retrieved 2 April 2019) </ref><ref>''Rainforest Destruction'' [in] rainforestweb.org. Archived by [[Wayback Machine]] — [https://web.archive.org/web/20090205200836/http://rainforestweb.org/Rainforest_Destruction/] (Retrieved 2 April 2019)</ref> In 2005, the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations ranked [[Deforestation in Nigeria|Nigeria as the state with the worst deforestation rate]] in the entire world. Causes include logging, [[subsistence agriculture]], and the collection of fuelwoods.<ref>[[Mongabay|Mongabay News]], ''Nigeria has worst deforestation rate, FAO revises figures'' (17 November 2005) by Rhett A. Butler, [http://news.mongabay.com/2005/1117-forests.html] (Retrieved 2 April 2019)</ref> According to a [[ThoughtCo]] publication authored Steve Nix (2018), almost 90 percent of West Africa's original rainforest has been destroyed, and the rest "heavily fragmented and in a degraded state, being poorly used."<ref name="ThoughtCo">[[ThoughtCo]], ''The Territory and Current Status of the African Rainforest'' by Steve Nix (November 04, 2018) [https://www.thoughtco.com/african-rainforest-1341794] (Retrieved 2 April 2019)</ref> === Overfishing === [[Overfishing]] is a major issue in West Africa. Besides reducing fish stocks in the region, it also threatens [[food security]] and the livelihoods of many coastal communities who largely depend on [[artisanal fishing]]. The overfishing generally comes from [[Trawling|foreign trawlers]] operating in the region.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/may-july-2017/overfishing-destroying-livelihoods|title=Overfishing destroying livelihoods | Africa Renewal|website=www.un.org|date=12 May 2017}}</ref> To combat the overfishing, [[Greenpeace]] has recommended countries reduce the number of registered trawlers operating in African waters, increase the monitoring and control and set up regional fisheries organizations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-05-04 |title=Greenpeace welcomes cancellation of fishing licences of 29 foreign trawlers |url=https://en.africanmanager.com/greenpeace-welcomes-cancellation-of-fishing-licences-of-29-foreign-trawlers-2/ |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=African Manager |language=en-US}}</ref> Some steps have already been taken in the form of [[WARFP]] (the World Bank's West Africa Regional Fisheries Program which empowers west-African countries (i.e. Liberia, Sierra Leone, Cape Verde, and Senegal) with information, training and monitoring systems. Furthermore, Liberia enacted a fisheries regulations Act in 2010<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-01-05 |title=Liberia Gets New Fisheries Regulations. |url=https://fcwc-fish.org/other-news/liberia-gets-new-fisheries-regulations |access-date=2022-07-01 |website=Fisheries Committee for the West Central Gulf of Guinea |language=en-US}}</ref> and installed a satellite-based monitoring system and Senegal enacted a fisheries code in 2015. In Cape Verde, the fishermen communities of Palmiera and Santa Maria have organized themselves to protect fishing zones. Mozambique finally created a [[Conservation biology|conservation]] area, including a coastline. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nepadwatercoe.org/cape-verde-greenpeace-raises-awareness-on-the-state-of-fisheries-in-west-africa/|title=Cape Verde: Greenpeace Raises Awareness on the State Of Fisheries in West Africa|access-date=28 July 2019|archive-date=28 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728124507/https://nepadwatercoe.org/cape-verde-greenpeace-raises-awareness-on-the-state-of-fisheries-in-west-africa/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucn.org/news/secretariat/201701/overfishing-threatens-food-security-africa%E2%80%99s-western-and-central-coast-many-fish-species-region-face-extinction-%E2%80%93-iucn-report|title=Overfishing threatens food security off Africa's western and central coast as many fish species in the region face extinction – IUCN report|date=January 19, 2017|website=IUCN}}</ref> ===Geography and climate=== West Africa, broadly defined to include the western portion of the [[Maghreb]] ([[Western Sahara]], [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], and [[Tunisia]]), occupies an area in excess of 6,140,000 km<sup>2</sup>, or approximately one-fifth of Africa. The vast majority of this land is plains lying less than 300 meters above sea level, though isolated high points exist in numerous states along the southern shore of West Africa.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> <!--Start of table definition--> {|style="background-color:darkgray; color:black; border:thin solid black;" height="230" align="center" valign="bottom" cellpadding=10px cellspacing=0px <!--Start of the details for the top-of-table heading--> |||'''''Western [[Afrotropical realm]]''''' <!--Start the first row and add row formats--> |-align="center" <!--Start of individual cell details for the first row--> | {| |-style="text-align:left;text-decoration:none;width:220px;" valign="middle" | [[Geography of Benin|Benin]]<br/> [[Geography of Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]]<br/> [[Geography of The Gambia|The Gambia]]<br/> [[Geography of Ghana|Ghana]]<br/> [[Geography of Guinea-Bissau|Guinea-Bissau]]<br/> [[Geography of Guinea|Guinea]]<br/> [[Geography of Ivory Coast|Ivory Coast]]<br/> [[Geography of Liberia|Liberia]]<br/> [[Geography of Mali|Mali]]<br/> [[Geography of Mauritania|Mauritania]]<br/> [[Geography of Nigeria|Nigeria]]<br/> [[Geography of Niger|Niger]]<br/> [[Geography of Senegal|Senegal]]<br/> [[Geography of Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]]<br/> [[Geography of Togo|Togo]]<br/> |} |[[File:Afrotropic-Ecozone-West Tropical Africa.svg|300px|none]] |[[File:Afrotropic-West Tropical Africa.svg|300x430px|none]] <!--Start of a second row and add formats--> |-align="center" valign="top" <!--Start of individual cell details for the second row--> |width="200"|'''State''' |width="100"|'''The biostate''' |width="100"|'''Location in Afrotropic''' |} [[File:West Africa may 8 2001 1200Z.jpg|thumb|right|upright=2.25|{{center|[[Satellite imagery]] from [[outer space]] of West Africa}}]] The northern section of West Africa (narrowly defined to exclude the western Maghreb) is composed of semi-arid terrain known as [[Sahel]], a transitional zone between the Sahara and the [[West Sudanian savanna]]. [[Forest]]s form a belt between the savannas and the southern coast, ranging from 160 km to 240 km in width.<ref>Peter Speth. ''Impacts of Global Change on the Hydrological Cycle in West and Northwest Africa'', p. 33. Springer, 2010. Prof. Kayode Omitoogun 2011, {{ISBN|3-642-12956-0}}</ref> The northwest African region of [[Mauritania]] periodically suffers country-wide plagues of [[locust]]s which consume water, salt and crops on which the human population relies.<ref>''National Geographic'', February 2013, p. 8.</ref> ====Background==== West Africa is west of an imagined north–south axis lying close to [[10th meridian east|10° east longitude]].<ref name=autogenerated1>Peter Speth. ''Impacts of Global Change on the Hydrological Cycle in West and Northwest Africa'', p. 33. Springer, 2010. {{ISBN|3-642-12956-0}}</ref> The Atlantic [[The Atlantic Ocean|Ocean]] forms the western as well as the southern borders of the West African region.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> The northern border is the [[Sahara Desert]], with the Ranishanu Bend generally considered the northernmost part of the region.<ref>Anthony Ham. ''West Africa'', p. 79. Lonely Planet, 2009. {{ISBN|1-74104-821-4}}</ref> The eastern border is less precise, with some placing it at the [[Benue Trough]], and others on a line running from [[Mount Cameroon]] to [[Lake Chad]]. Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states.<ref>Celestine Oyom Bassey, Oshita Oshita. ''Governance and Border Security in Africa'', p. 261. African Books Collective, 2010. {{ISBN|978-8422-07-1}}</ref> In contrast to most of Central, Southern, and Southeast Africa, West Africa is not populated by [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking peoples.<ref>Ian Shaw, Robert Jameson. ''A Dictionary of Archaeology'', p. 28. Wiley-Blackwell, 2002. {{ISBN|0-631-23583-3}}</ref> === Climate change === {{Excerpt|Climate change in Africa|West Africa and the Sahel}} ==Transport== ===Rail transport=== {{Main|ECOWAS rail}} [[File:Railways in westafrica 2022.jpg|center|thumb|700x700px|Railway systems in West Africa, 2022]] A Trans-ECOWAS project, established in 2007, plans to upgrade railways in this zone. One of the goals of the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) is the development of an integrated [[railroad]] network.<ref name="Proposed Ecowas railway"/> Aims include the extension of railways in member countries, the interconnection of previously isolated railways and the standardization of gauge, brakes, couplings, and other parameters. The first line would connect the cities and ports of [[Lagos]], [[Cotonou]], [[Lomé]] and [[Accra]] and would allow the largest container ships to focus on a smaller number of large ports, while efficiently serving a larger [[hinterland]]. This line connects {{RailGauge|3ft6in|lk=on}} gauge and {{RailGauge|1000mm|allk=on}} systems, which would require four rail [[dual gauge]], which can also provide [[standard gauge]].<ref name="Proposed Ecowas railway">[http://www.railwaysafrica.com/2009/10/proposed-ecowas-railway/ "Proposed Ecowas railway"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091024131043/http://www.railwaysafrica.com/2009/10/proposed-ecowas-railway/ |date=2009-10-24 }}. ''railwaysafrica.com''.</ref> [[File:Railways in westafrica 2030b.jpg|center|thumb|700x700px|Railway systems in West Africa 2030, projection]] ===Road transport=== {{Main|Trans–West African Coastal Highway}} [[File:Dakar-Lagos Highway Map.PNG|450px|right]] The ''Trans–West African Coastal Highway'' is a transnational [[highway]] project to link 12 West African coastal states, from [[Mauritania]] in the north-west of the region to [[Nigeria]]<ref name="Nigeria Real Estate Market Review">{{cite book |url=https://www.northcourtrealestate.com/download/Nigeria_RE_Market_Review_H1_2022.pdf |title=Nigeria Real Estate Market Review |publisher=Northcourt }}{{pn|date=January 2024}}</ref> in the east, with feeder roads already existing to two landlocked countries, [[Mali]] and [[Burkina Faso]].<ref name="NEPAD">[https://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/vol20no3/203-highways.html Itai Madamombe (2006): "NEPAD promotes better transport networks"], ''Africa Renewal'', Vol. 20, No. 3 (October 2006), p. 14.</ref> The eastern end of the highway terminates at [[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]].<ref name="Nigeria Real Estate Market Review"/> [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS) consider its western end to be [[Nouakchott]], [[Mauritania]], or to be [[Dakar]], [[Senegal]], giving rise to these alternative names for the road: * Nouakchott–Lagos Highway * Lagos–Nouakchott Highway * Dakar–Lagos Highway * Lagos–Dakar Highway * Trans-African Highway 7 in the [[Trans-African Highway]] network ===Air transport=== The capitals' airports include: *[[Cadjehoun Airport]] (COO) International; Cotonou, Benin *[[Ouagadougou Airport]] (OUA); Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso *[[Amílcar Cabral International Airport]] (SID); Praia, Cape Verde *[[Banjul International Airport]] (BJL) International; Banjul, Gambia *[[Kotoka International Airport]] (ACC); Accra; Ghana *[[Conakry International Airport]] (CKY); Conakry, Guinea *[[Osvaldo Vieira International Airport]] (OXB); Bissau, Guinea-Bissau *[[Port Bouet Airport]] (ABJ); Abidjan, Ivory Coast *[[Roberts International Airport]] (ROB); Monrovia, Liberia *[[Bamako–Sénou International Airport]] (BKO); Bamako, Mali *[[Nouakchott–Oumtounsy International Airport]] (NKC); Nouakchott, Mauritania *[[Diori Hamani International Airport]] (NIM); Niamey, Niger *[[Murtala Muhammed International Airport]] (LOS); Lagos, Nigeria *[[Saint Helena Airport]]; Jamestown, Saint Helena *[[Blaise Diagne International Airport]] (DSS); Dakar, Senegal *[[Lungi International Airport]] (FNA); Freetown, Sierra Leone *[[Lomé–Tokoin Airport]] (LFW); Lomé, Togo Of the sixteen, the most important hub and entry point to West Africa are [[Kotoka International Airport]], and [[Murtala Muhammed International Airport]], offering many international connections. ==Health== {{Main|History of West Africa#Health}} West Africa has made considerably improvement in the health outcomes of its populations, in spite of the challenges posed by pervasive poverty, epidemic diseases, and food insecurity. The traditional communicable diseases of HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis are still the major reasons of mortality. Primary health care is the best answer to curing diseases, as it provides the basic preventive strategies as it reduce the rate of child and maternal morbidity and mortality—two of the most preventable outcomes that can prolong life expectancy at birth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Azevedo |first=Mario J. |title=Historical Perspectives on the State of Health and Health Systems in Africa, Volume II |chapter=The State of Health System(s) in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities |date=February 2017 |series=African Histories and Modernities |pages=1–73 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-32564-4_1|pmc=7123888 |isbn=978-3-319-32563-7 }}</ref> Recently, mental health problems are on the rise in West Africa, as they are in many other world regions. However, the subject is largely a taboo, and professional treatment is still rare.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Abi|first1=Samir|title=Metaphysical explanations|url=https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/west-africa-traditional-or-religious-practices-are-often-preferred-method-treating-mental|website=D+C, Development and Cooperation|date=12 June 2019 }}</ref> ==Culture== Despite the wide variety of cultures in West Africa, from [[Nigeria]] through to [[Senegal]], there are general similarities in [[Boubou (clothing)|dress]], [[West African cuisine|cuisine]], [[Music of West Africa|music]] and culture that are not shared extensively with groups outside the geographic region. This long history of cultural exchange predates the colonization era of the region and can be approximately placed at the time of the [[Ghana Empire]] (proper: [[Wagadou]] Empire), [[Mali Empire]] or perhaps before these empires. West Africa varies a series of tribes and cultures that have combined a diverse regional subculture.{{fact|date=January 2024}} ===Art=== {{Main|African art#West Africa}} ===Traditional architecture=== {{See|Architecture of Africa#West Africa}} [[File:Airport in Timbuktu.jpg|thumb|right|A street and airport in the famous town of [[Timbuktu]], [[Mali]], showing the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style of the West African interior]] The main traditional styles of building (in conjunction with modern styles) are the distinct [[Sudano-Sahelian architecture|Sudano-Sahelian]] style in inland areas, and the coastal forest styles more reminiscent of other sub-Saharan areas. They differ greatly in construction due to the demands made by the variety of climates in the area, from tropical humid forests to arid grasslands and deserts. Despite the architectural differences, buildings perform similar functions, including the [[compound (enclosure)|compound]] structure central to West African family life or strict distinction between the private and public worlds needed to maintain taboos or social etiquette.{{fact|date=January 2024}} ===Clothing=== {{See|Folk costume#Western Africa}} [[File:Philip Emeagwali in white "agbada.".jpg|thumb|left|[[Philip Emeagwali]] wearing the [[Boubou (clothing)|Boubou]] (or ''Agbada''), a traditional robe symbolic of West Africa]] In contrast to other parts of the continent south of the [[Sahara Desert]], the concepts of [[hem]]ming and [[embroidered|embroidering]] clothing have been traditionally common to West Africa for centuries, demonstrated by the production of various [[breeches]], [[shirts]], [[tunic]]s and [[jackets]]. As a result, the peoples of the region's diverse nations wear a wide variety of clothing with underlying similarities. Typical pieces of west African formal attire include the knee-to-ankle-length, flowing [[Boubou (clothing)|Boubou]] robe, [[Dashiki]], and [[Senegalese]] [[Kaftan]] (also known as ''Agbada'' and ''Babariga''), which has its origins in the clothing of nobility of various West African empires in the 12th century. Traditional half-sleeved, hip-long, woven smocks or tunics (known as ''fugu'' in Gurunsi, ''riga'' in Hausa) – worn over a pair of baggy trousers—is another popular garment.<ref>Barbara K. Nordquist, Susan B. Aradeon, Howard University. School of Human Ecology, Museum of African Art (U.S.). ''Traditional African dress and textiles: an exhibition of the Susan B. Aradeon collection of West African dress at the Museum of African Art'' (1975), pp. 9–15.</ref> In the coastal regions stretching from southern Ivory Coast to Benin, a huge rectangular cloth is wrapped under one arm, draped over a shoulder, and held in one of the wearer's hands—coincidentally, reminiscent of [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]' [[toga]]s. The best-known of these toga-like garments is the [[Kente]] (made by the [[Akan people]] of [[Ghana]] and [[Ivory Coast]]), who wear them as a gesture of national pride. ===Cuisine=== {{Main|West African cuisine}} {{See|History of West Africa#Cuisine|African cuisine#West Africa|List of African cuisines#West African cuisine}} [[File:Jollof rice.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jollof rice]] or ''Benachin'', one of many Pan–West African dishes found only in West Africa]] Scores of foreign visitors to West African nations (e.g., [[merchant|traders]], [[historians]], [[emigrant]]s, colonists, missionaries) have benefited from its citizens' generosity, and even left with a piece of its cultural heritage, via its foods. West African cuisines have had a significant influence on those of [[Western culture|Western civilization]] for centuries; several dishes of West African origin are currently enjoyed in the [[Caribbean]] (e.g., the [[West Indies]] and [[Haiti]]); Australia; the USA (particularly [[Louisiana]], [[Virginia]], [[North Carolina|North]] and [[South Carolina]]); Italy; and other countries. Although some of these recipes have been altered to suit the sensibilities of their adopters, they retain a distinct West African essence.<ref>Chidi Asika-Enahoro. ''A Slice of Africa: Exotic West African Cuisines'', Introduction. iUniverse, 2004. {{ISBN|0-595-30528-8}}.{{pn|date=January 2024}}</ref> West Africans cuisines include fish (especially among the coastal areas), meat, vegetables, and fruits—most of which are grown by the nations' local farmers. In spite of the obvious differences among the various local cuisines in this multinational region, the foods display more similarities than differences. The small difference may be in the ingredients used. Most foods are cooked via boiling or frying. Commonly featured, starchy vegetables include [[Yam (vegetable)|yam]]s, [[Plantain (cooking)|plantain]]s, [[cassava]], and sweet potatoes.<ref>Pamela Goyan Kittler, Kathryn Sucher. ''Food and Culture'', p. 212. Cengage Learning, 2007. {{ISBN|0-495-11541-X}}.</ref> Rice is also a staple food, as is the [[Serer people]]'s [[sorghum]] [[couscous]] (called {{-"}}''Chereh''{{-"}} in [[Serer language|Serer]]) particularly in Senegal and [[the Gambia]].<ref>[[UNESCO]]. The Case for indigenous West African food culture, p. 4. BREDA series, Vol. 9 (1995), [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0010/001055/105546E.pdf (UNESCO)].</ref> [[Jollof rice]]—originally from the [[Kingdom of Jolof]] (now part of modern-day Senegal) but has spread to the Wolofs of Gambia—is also enjoyed in many Western nations, as well;<ref>Alan Davidson, Tom Jaine. ''The Oxford Companion to Food'', p. 423. Oxford University Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0-19-280681-5}}.</ref> [[Maafe|Mafé]] (proper: {{-"}}''Tigh-dege-na{{-"}}'' or ''Domodah'') from [[Mali]] (via the [[Bambara people|Bambara]] and [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]])<ref>''Mafé'' or ''Maafe'' is a Wolof word for it, the proper name is ''"Domodah"'' among the [[Mandinka people]] of [[Senegal]] and [[Gambia]], who are the originators of this dish, or {{-"}}''Tigh-dege-na''{{-"}} among the [[Bambara people]] or Mandinka people of [[Mali]]. "Domodah" is also used by all [[Senegambians]] borrowed from the [[Mandinka language]].</ref>—a peanut-butter stew served with rice;<ref>James McCann. ''Stirring the Pot: A History of African Cuisine'', p. 132. Ohio University Press, 2009. {{ISBN|0-89680-272-8}}.</ref><ref>Emma Gregg, Richard Trillo. ''Rough Guide to The Gambia'', p. 39. Rough Guides, 2003. {{ISBN|1-84353-083-X}}.</ref> [[Akara]] (fried bean balls seasoned with spices served with sauce and bread) from Nigeria is a favorite breakfast for Gambians and Senegalese, as well as a favorite side snack or side dish in [[Brazil]] and the [[Caribbean]] just as it is in West Africa. It is said that its exact origin may be from [[Yorubaland]] in Nigeria.<ref>[[Carole Boyce Davies]] (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora: Origins, Experiences and Culture'', Volume 1, p. 72. ABC-CLIO, 2008. {{ISBN|1-85109-700-7}}.</ref><ref>Toyin Ayeni. ''I Am a Nigerian, Not a Terrorist'', p. 2. Dog Ear Publishing, 2010. {{ISBN|1-60844-735-9}}.</ref> [[Fufu]] (from the [[Twi language]], a dough served with a spicy stew or sauce for example [[okra]] stew etc.) from [[Ghana]] is enjoyed throughout the region and beyond even in [[Central Africa]] with their own versions of it.<ref>Dayle Hayes, Rachel Laudan. ''Food and Nutrition''. Dayle Hayes, Rachel Laudan, editorial advisers. Volume 7, p. 1097. Marshall Cavendish, 2008. {{ISBN|0-7614-7827-2}}.</ref> Dishes such as [[taguella]], [[eghajira]], etc. are popular among the [[Tuareg people]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Customs & Cuisine of Niger {{!}} Amman Imman {{!}} Dining for Women|url=https://diningforwomen.org/customsandcuisine/customs-cuisine-of-niger-amman-imman/|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-29|archive-date=20 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920183119/https://diningforwomen.org/customsandcuisine/customs-cuisine-of-niger-amman-imman/|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Recreation and sports=== {{See also|West Africa cricket team}} [[File:Supportairemimos.jpg|right|Supporters of [[ASEC Mimosas]]|thumb]] The board game [[oware]] is quite popular in many parts of Southern Africa. The word ''"Oware"'' originates from the [[Akan people]] of Ghana. However, virtually all African peoples have a version of this board game.<ref>''West Africa'', issues 4106–4119, pp. 1487–8. Afrimedia International, (1996)</ref> The major [[multi-sport event]] of West Africa is the ECOWAS Games which commenced at the [[2012 ECOWAS Games]]. [[Association football|Football]] is also a pastime enjoyed by many, either spectating or playing. The major national teams of West Africa, the [[Ghana national football team]], the [[Ivory Coast national football team]], and the [[Nigeria national football team]] regularly win the [[Africa Cup of Nations]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/piersedwards/2010/11/why_does_the_west_dominate_afr.html "Why does the West dominate African football?"] BBC.</ref> Major [[football team]]s of West Africa are [[Asante Kotoko SC]] and [[Accra Hearts of Oak SC]] of the [[Ghana Premier League]], [[Enyimba International F.C.|Enyimba International]] of the [[Nigerian Premier League]] and [[ASEC Mimosas]] of the [[Ligue 1 (Ivory Coast)]]. The [[association football|football]] governing body of West Africa is the [[West African Football Union]] (WAFU) and the major tournament is the [[West African Club Championship]] and [[WAFU Nations Cup]], along with the annual individual award of [[West African Footballer of the Year]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/africa/7642679.stm|title=Wafu Cup to make a comeback |date=29 September 2008|work=BBC Sport|access-date=15 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="WAFU split-2">{{cite web |url=http://www.goal.com/en/news/89/africa/2011/05/17/2490472/caf-have-split-the-west-african-football-union-into-two-separate- |title=Caf have split the West African Football Union into two separate zones |work=Goal.com |date=17 May 2011 |access-date=15 July 2014}}</ref> ===Music=== {{Main|Music of West Africa}} {{See|Music of Africa#West, Central, Southeast and South Africa|Sub-Saharan African music traditions#West Africa}} [[File:TalkingDrum.jpg|thumb|left|The [[talking drum]] is an instrument unique to West Africa.]] [[Mbalax]], [[Highlife]], [[Fuji music|Fuji]], [[Afrobeat]], and [[Afrobeats]] are modern musical genres of West Africa and its diaspora. Traditional [[folk music]] is also well-preserved. Some types of folk music are religious in nature such as the "Tassou" tradition used in [[Serer religion]].<ref>Ali Colleen Neff, ''Tassou: the Ancient Spoken Word of African Women''. 2010.</ref> ====Griot artists==== [[File:Bijoutier et joueurs de kora.jpg|thumb|Kora-playing [[griots]] in [[Senegal]], 1900. Both the [[Kora (instrument)|Kora]], a 21-stringed harp-lute, and the griot musical-caste are unique to West Africa.]] [[Griot]] artists and praise-singing is an important musical tradition related to the oral history of West African culture. Traditionally, musical and oral history as conveyed over generations by griots are typical of West African culture in [[Mandé peoples|Mande]], [[Wolof people|Wolof]], [[Songhai people|Songhay]], [[Serer people|Serer]] and, to some extent, [[Fula people|Fula]] areas in the far west. A hereditary caste occupying the fringes of society, the griots were charged with memorizing the histories of local rulers and personages and the caste was further broken down into music-playing griots (similar to [[bard]]s) and non-music-playing griots. Like Praise-singers, the griot's main profession was musical acquisition and prowess, and patrons were the sole means of financial support. Modern griots enjoy higher status in the patronage of rich individuals in places such as [[Mali]], [[Senegal]], [[Mauritania]] and [[Guinea]], and to some extent make up the vast majority of musicians in these countries. Examples of modern popular griot artists include [[Youssou N'Dour]], [[Mamadou Diabate]], [[Sona Jobarteh|Sona Jobareteh]], and [[Toumani Diabate]]. In other areas of West Africa, primarily among the [[Hausa people|Hausa]], [[Mossi people|Mossi]], [[Dagomba people|Dagomba]] and [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] in the area encompassing [[Burkina Faso]], northern [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Niger]], the traditional profession of non-hereditary praise-singers, [[minstrels]], bards and poets play a vital role in extending the public show of power, lineage and prestige of traditional rulers through their exclusive patronage. Like the griot tradition, praise singers are charged with knowing the details of specific historical events and royal lineages, but more importantly need to be capable of poetic improvisation and creativity, with knowledge of traditional songs directed towards showing a patron's financial and political or religious power. Competition between Praise-singing ensembles and artistes are high, and artists responsible for any extraordinarily skilled prose, musical compositions, and panegyric songs are lavishly rewarded with money, clothing, provisions and other luxuries by patrons who are usually politicians, rulers, Islamic clerics and merchants; these successful praise-singers rise to national stardom. Examples include [[Mamman Shata]], [[Souley Konko]], [[Fati Niger]], [[Saadou Bori]] and [[Dan Maraya]]. In the case of Niger, numerous praise songs are composed and shown on television in praise of local rulers, Islamic clerics, and politicians. ===Theatre=== {{See|History of theatre#West African theatre}} ===Film industry=== {{See|Cinema of Africa#West Africa}} [[Nollywood]] of Nigeria, is the main film industry of West Africa. The Nigerian cinema industry is the second largest film industry in terms of number of annual film productions, ahead of the [[Cinema of the United States|American film industry]] in [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]].<ref>{{cite web |access-date=30 September 2009 |url=https://www.un.org/apps//news/story.asp?NewsID=30707&Cr=nigeria&Cr1= |title=Nigeria surpasses Hollywood as world's second-largest film producer – UN |publisher=United Nations |date=5 May 2009}}</ref> [[Cinema of Senegal|Senegal]] and [[Cinema of Ghana|Ghana]] also have long traditions of producing films. The late [[Ousmane Sembène]], the Senegalese film director, producer and writer is from the region, as is the [[Ghanaian]] [[Shirley Frimpong-Manso]]. ==Religion== ===Islam=== {{Further|Islam in Africa|Religion in Africa#Islam}} [[File:Djenné Moschee.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|The 13th-century [[Great Mosque of Djenné]] is a superb example of the indigenous [[Sahelian architecture|Sahelian architectural]] style prevalent in the Savannah and Sahelian interior of West Africa. It is listed an [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]] [[Islam]] is the predominant [[religion]] of the West African interior and the far west coast of the continent (75% of West Africans); and was introduced to the region by traders in the 9th century. Islam is the religion of the region's biggest ethnic groups by population. Islamic rules on livelihood, values, dress and practices had a profound effect on the populations and cultures in their predominant areas, so much so that the concept of tribalism is less observed by Islamized groups like the [[Mandé peoples|Mande]], [[Wolof people|Wolof]], [[Hausa people|Hausa]], [[Fula people|Fula]], [[Songhai people|Songhai]], [[Zarma people|Zarma]] or [[Soninke people|Soninke]], than they are by non-Islamized groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/westAfrica.html|title=The Islamic World to 1600: The Fractured Caliphate and the Regional Dynasties (West Africa)<!-- Bot generated title -->|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131025134820/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/fractured/westAfrica.html|archive-date=2013-10-25}}</ref> Ethnic intermarriage and shared cultural icons are established through a superseded commonality of belief or community, known as [[ummah]].<ref>''Muslim Societies in African History (New Approaches to African History)'', David Robinson, Chapter 1.</ref> Traditional Muslim areas include [[Senegal]], [[Gambia]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Guinea]], [[Niger]]; the upper coast and inland two-thirds of [[Sierra Leone]] and inland [[Liberia]]; the western, northern and far-eastern regions of [[Burkina Faso]]; and the northern halves of the coastal nations of [[Nigeria]], [[Benin]], [[Togo]], [[Ghana]] and [[Ivory Coast]].<ref>''Spread of Islam in West Africa (part 1 of 3): The Empire of Ghana'', Prof. A. Rahman I. Doi, Spread of Islam in West Africa. http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/304/</ref> ===African traditional=== {{Further|Traditional African religion#West Africa|West African Vodun|Religion in Africa#African Traditional Religion}} [[File:Voodo-altar.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|Voodoo altar with several fetishes in [[Abomey]], Benin]] [[Traditional African religion]]s (noting the many different belief systems) are the oldest belief systems among the populations of this region, and include [[Akan religion]], [[Yoruba religion]], [[Odinani]]-[[Igbo people|Igbo]], and [[Serer religion]]. They are [[Spirituality|spiritual]] [[creed]]s that also perform other functions such as preserving the historical and cultural heritage of the people,<ref>John S. Mbiti. ''Introduction to African Religion'', p. 19. East African Publishers, 1992. {{ISBN|9966-46-928-1}}</ref> and "West African tribal groups" blend social and [[religious ritual]]s together to the point where there is usually not "much distinction" between them.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Salamone |first=Frank A. |title=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-94180-6 |editor-last=Levinson |editor-first=David |location=New York |pages=9}}</ref> Although traditional beliefs vary from one place to the next, there are more similarities than differences.<ref>William J. Duiker, Jackson J. Spielvogel. ''World History: To 1800'', p. 224. Cengage Learning, 2006. {{ISBN|0-495-05053-9}}</ref> Most traditional religious organizations "do not have a formal hierarchy of [[priest]]s."<ref name=":02" /> Group rituals are usually overseen by tribal elders who, "within many cultures", "serve as the main religious figures and determine the time, nature, and intricacies of rituals", or [[Shamanism|shaman]] priests who can use magic to heal, control fate, and connect to the spirit world.<ref name=":02" /> ===Christianity=== {{Further|Christianity in Africa|Religion in Africa#Christianity}} [[File:Basilica of the Most Holy Trinity, Onitsha.jpg|thumb|Cathedral [[Basilica]] of the Most [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]], [[Onitsha]], Nigeria]] In 2010, around 20% of West Africans identified as [[Christians]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Todd M. |last2=Zurlo |first2=Gina A. |last3=Hickman |first3=Albert W. |last4=Crossing |first4=Peter F. |title=Christianity 2018: More African Christians and Counting Martyrs |journal=International Bulletin of Mission Research |date=November 2017 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=20–28 |doi=10.1177/2396939317739833 |s2cid=165905763 }}</ref> [[Christianity]] was largely introduced from the late 19th century onward, when missionaries from European countries brought the religion to the region.<ref>Robert O. Collins. ''African History: Western African History'', p. 153. Markus Wiener Publishers, 1990. {{ISBN|1-55876-015-6}}</ref> West African Christians are predominantly [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] or [[Anglicanism|Anglican]]; some [[Evangelical Christianity|Evangelical]] churches have also been established. Christianity has become the predominant religion in the [[Middle Belt|central]] and southern part of [[Religion in Nigeria|Nigeria]], southern [[Ivory Coast]], and the coastal regions stretching from southern [[Ghana]] to coastal parts of [[Sierra Leone]]. Like Islam, elements of traditional African religion are mixed with Christianity.<ref>Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong. ''Themes in West Africa's History'', p. 152. James Currey Publishers, 2006. {{ISBN|0-85255-995-X}}</ref> ==Demographics and languages== {{see|Demographics of Africa|List of ethnic groups of Africa#West Africa|List of African countries by population|African diaspora|Writing systems of Africa#West Africa}} [[File:Recent Language Family map.png|thumb]] West Africans primarily speak [[Niger–Congo languages]], belonging mostly, though not exclusively, to its non-Bantu branches, though some [[Nilo-Saharan]] and [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] speaking groups are also found in West Africa. The Niger–Congo-speaking [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]], [[Igbo people|Igbo]], [[Fulani]], [[Akan people|Akan]] and [[Wolof people|Wolof]] ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sudan/Sahel, [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] or [[Mandé peoples|Mande]] groups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, most prominently including the [[Hausa people|Hausa]], and Nilo-Saharan-speaking communities, such as the [[Songhai people|Songhai]], [[Kanuri people|Kanuri]] and [[Zarma people|Zarma]], are found in the eastern parts of the Sahel bordering [[Central Africa]]. The population of West Africa is estimated at {{#expr:{{replace|{{UN_Population|Western Africa}}|,||}}/1e6 round 0}} million{{UN_Population|ref}} people as of {{UN_Population|Year}}. In [[Mali]], [[Niger]], and [[Burkina Faso]], the nomadic [[Tuareg]] speak the [[Tuareg language]], a Berber language. Colonial languages also play a pivotal cultural and political role, being adopted as the official languages of most countries in the region, as well as ''linguae franca'' in communication between the region's various ethnic groups. For historical reasons, Western European languages such as [[French language|French]], [[English language|English]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] predominate in Southern and Coastal subregions, whilst [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (in its [[Maghrebi Arabic|Maghrebi]] varieties) spreads inland northwards. ==Architecture== ''Further information in the sections of [[Architecture of Africa]]:'' * [[Architecture of Africa#North Africa|Prehistoric West African Architecture]] * [[Architecture of Africa#West Africa|Ancient West African Architecture]] * [[Architecture of Africa#West Africa 2|Medieval West African Architecture]] ==Science and technology== ''Further information in the sections of [[History of science and technology in Africa]]:'' {{Div col|small=yes}} * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa and the Sahel|Education]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa and the Sahel 2|Astronomy]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa and the Sahel 3|Mathematics]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa|Metallurgy]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa and the Sahel 4|Medicine]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa and the Sahel 5|Agriculture]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa and the Sahel 6|Textiles]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa and the Sahel 7|Maritime technology]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa 2|Architecture]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa 3|Communication systems]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa 4|Warfare]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa and the Sahel 8|Commerce]] * [[History of science and technology in Africa#West Africa 5|By country]] {{Div col end}} ==Economic and regional organizations== [[File:Petroleum regions - West Africa map-fr.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|left|Map of [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] within West Africa]] === Economic Community of West Africa === {{Excerpt|Economic Community of West African States}} === West African Monetary Union === The [[West African Monetary Union]] (or UEMOA from its name in French, ''Union économique et monétaire ouest-africaine'') is limited to the eight, mostly Francophone countries that employ the [[CFA franc]] as their common currency. The [[Liptako–Gourma Authority]] of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso seeks to jointly develop the contiguous areas of the three countries. ===Women's peace movement=== Since the adoption of the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325]] in 2000, women have been engaged in rebuilding war-torn Africa. Starting with the [[Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace]] and Women in Peacebuilding Network (WIPNET), the [[peace movement]] has grown to include women across West Africa. Established on May 8, 2006, [[Women Peace and Security Network – Africa]] (WIPSEN-Africa), is a women-focused, women-led [[Pan-African]] non-governmental organization based in [[Ghana]].<ref name="About WIPSEN">{{cite web|url=http://www.wipsen-africa.org/wipsen/about/?lang=en-us|title=WIPSEN|access-date=17 October 2014}}</ref> The organization focuses on empowering women to have a role in political and peace governance in Africa.<ref name="About WIPSEN"/> It has a presence in [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Liberia]] and [[Sierra Leone]]. Regional leaders of [[nonviolent resistance]] include [[Leymah Gbowee]],<ref>{{cite news | title = WIPSEN EMPOWERS WOMEN…To fight for their rights | url = http://todaygh.com/2011/03/14/wipsen-empowers-women-to-fight-for-their-rights/ | date = 11 December 2010 | work = Ghana Media Group | format = article | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110917084605/http://todaygh.com/2011/03/14/wipsen-empowers-women-to-fight-for-their-rights/ | archive-date = 17 September 2011 }}</ref> [[Comfort Freeman]], and [[Aya Virginie Toure]]. ''[[Pray the Devil Back to Hell]]'' is a documentary film about the origin of this peace movement. The film has been used as an advocacy tool in post-conflict zones like [[Sudan]] and [[Zimbabwe]], mobilizing African women to petition for peace and security.<ref>[http://www.mediaglobal.org/article/2009-11-01/pray-the-devil-back-to-hell-documentary-serves-as-advocacy-tool-in-post-conflict-zones/ November 2009 MEDIAGLOBAL] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100710093803/http://www.mediaglobal.org/article/2009-11-01/pray-the-devil-back-to-hell-documentary-serves-as-advocacy-tool-in-post-conflict-zones/ |date=2010-07-10 }}</ref> == Gallery == ===Cityscapes of the largest cities=== {{multiple image | image1= Lagos_Island.jpg | alt1= | width1= 425 | image2= Lagos_1_galleryfull.jpg | alt2= | width2= 360 | image3= | alt3= | width3= 320 | footer= [[Bird's-eye view]] of the West Africa [[City]] of [[Lagos]], [[Lagos State]], [[Nigeria]] | footer_background=#BBDD99 | background color=#BBDD99 | footer_align=center }} {{multiple image | image1= Abuja, Federal Capital Territory 3.jpg | alt1= | width1= 368 | image2= Abuja, Federal Capital Territory 2.jpg | alt2= | width2= 368 | image3= Abuja, Federal Capital Territory.jpg | alt3= | width3= 368 | footer= [[Bird's-eye view]] of the West Africa [[City]] of [[Abuja]], [[Federal Capital Territory (Nigeria)|Federal Capital Territory]], Nigeria | footer_background=#BBDD99 | background color=#BBDD99 | footer_align=center }} {{multiple image | image1= City Of Accra.jpg | alt1= | width1= 335 | image2= City of Accra.jpg | alt2= | width2= 437 | image3= Modern Accra Buildings.jpg | alt3= | width3=335 | footer= [[Bird's-eye view]] of the West Africa [[City]] of [[Accra]], [[Greater Accra Region|Greater Accra]], [[Ghana]] | footer_background=#BBDD99 | background color=#BBDD99 | footer_align=center }} {{multiple image | image1= AbidjanSib.JPG | alt1= | image2= Abidjan-Plateau1.JPG | alt2= | image3= Abidjanpyramid.JPG | alt3= | footer= [[Bird's-eye view]] of the West Africa [[City]] of [[Abidjan]], [[Lagunes Region|Lagunes]], [[Ivory Coast]] | footer_background=#BBDD99 | background color=#BBDD99 | footer_align=center | width=369 }} {{multiple image | image1= Aerial View of Kumasi in 2003.jpg | alt1= | width1= 352 | image2= Ghana Commercial Bank in Kumasi.jpg | alt2= | width2= 352 | image3= Gravity Road, Kumasi.jpg | alt3= | width3= 398 | footer= [[Bird's-eye view]] of the West Africa [[City]] of [[Kumasi]], [[Ashanti Region|Ashanti]], Ghana | footer_background=#BBDD99 | background color=#BBDD99 | footer_align=center }} {{multiple image | image1= | alt1= | width1= 342 | image2= PortHacourt1.jpg | alt2= | width2= 295 | image3= Pitakwa.jpg | alt3= | width3= 465 | footer= [[Bird's-eye view]] of the West Africa [[City]] of [[Port Harcourt]], [[Rivers State]], Nigeria | footer_background=#BBDD99 | background color=#BBDD99 | footer_align=center }} {{clear}} ===Capital cities of West Africa=== <gallery mode="packed" caption="Capital cities of West Africa"> File:Praia coast Cape Verde.jpg|[[Praia]], Cape Verde File:Dakar - Panorama_urbain.jpg|[[Dakar]], Senegal File:Imagelomé20.jpg|[[Lomé]], Togo File:Grande mosquee porto-novo.jpg|[[Porto-Novo]], Benin File:Street scene niamey 2006 002.jpg|[[Niamey]], Niger File:Kwamenkrumah av2.JPG|[[Ouagadougou]], Burkina Faso File:Fort Thornton - Freetown - Sierra Leone.jpg|[[Freetown]], Sierra Leone File:Banjul great mosque.jpg|[[Banjul]], Gambia File:Conakry street (3329204314).jpg|[[Conakry]], Guinea File:Praça Che Guevara, Bissau.jpg|[[Bissau]], Guinea-Bissau File:Monrovia Street.jpg|[[Monrovia]], Liberia File:Place des explorateurs, Koulouba - Bamako.jpg|[[Bamako]], Mali File:Nouakchott.jpg|[[Nouakchott]], Mauritania File:View_of_Abuja_from_Katampe_hill_01.jpg|[[Abuja]], Nigeria File:A_drone_footage_of_Accra_central,_Ghana.jpg|[[Accra]], Ghana File:Quartier_d'Affaires_au_Plateau_à_Abidjan_(29916932210).jpg|[[Abidjan]], Ivory Coast File:Yamoussoukro_downtown.jpg|[[Yamoussoukro]], Ivory Coast File:Overlooking_Jamestown_from_the_south.jpg|[[Jamestown, Saint Helena|Jamestown]], Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha </gallery> ==See also== {{portal|Africa|Geography<!-- |Western Africa -->}} <!-- {{Wikipedia-Books}} --> <!-- {{main|Outline of Western Africa|Index of Western Africa-related articles}} --> <!-- *[[Bibliography of Western Africa]] --> * {{annotated link|African historiography}} * {{annotated link|Agroecology in West Africa}} * {{annotated link|Ajami}} * {{annotated link|Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa}} * {{annotated link|List of regions of Africa}} * {{annotated link|Manillas}}, a form of archaic money unique to West Africa * {{annotated link|N'Ko script}} * {{annotated link|North Africa}} * {{annotated link|Nsibidi|Nsibidi Script}}, an indigenously developed West African writing system * {{annotated link|Sub-Saharan Africa}} ** {{annotated link|Central Africa}} ** {{annotated link|East Africa}} ** {{annotated link|Southern Africa}} * {{annotated link|Vai syllabary}} * {{annotated link|West African Craton}} * {{annotated link|Western Sahara}} ==References== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Further reading== * Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku. ''Themes in West Africa's History'' (2006). * Brydon, Lynne. "Constructing Avatime: questions of history and identity in a West African polity, c. 1690s to the twentieth century." ''Journal of African History'' 49.1 (2008): 23–42. [https://research.birmingham.ac.uk/portal/files/17533525/Brydon_2008_Journal_of_African_History.pdf online] * Collins, Robert O. ''African History: Western African History'' (1990). * Davidson, Basil. ''A History of West Africa, 1000–1800'' (1978), numerous editions * Delavignette, Robert. ''Freedom and Authority in French West Africa'' (Routledge, 2018). * Dueppen, Stephen A. "The archaeology of West Africa, ca. 800 BCE to 1500 CE." ''History Compass'' 14.6 (2016): 247–263. * Edgerton, Robert B. ''The Fall of the Asante Empire: The Hundred-Year War For Africa'S Gold Coast'' (2002). * Fage, J. D. ''A Guide to Original Sources for Precolonial Western Africa Published in European Languages'' (2nd ed. 1994); updated in Stanley B. Alpern, ed. ''Guide to Original Sources for Precolonial Western Africa'' (2006). * Festus, Jacob et al. eds. ''History of West Africa'' (Vol. 1, 1989). * Greene, S. E. ''Sacred Sites and the Colonial Encounter: A History of Meaning and Memory in Ghana'' (2002). * Griswold, Wendy. ''Writing African women: Gender, popular culture and literature in West Africa'' (Zed Books Ltd., 2017). * Ham, Anthony. ''West Africa'' (2013) [https://archive.org/details/westafrica0000hama online]. * Hayward, Derek F., and Julius Oguntoyinbo. ''Climatology of West Africa'' (Routledge, 2019). * Hopkins, Antony Gerald. ''An economic history of West Africa'' (2014) [https://archive.org/details/economichistoryo0000hopk online]. * Huber, Caroline, Lyn Finelli, and Warren Stevens. "The economic and social burden of the 2014 Ebola outbreak in West Africa." ''Journal of infectious diseases 218.Supplement_5'' (2018): S698–S704. * Kane, Ousmane Oumar, ''Beyond Timbuktu: An Intellectual History of Muslim West Africa'' (2016). * {{cite journal |last1=Lavallée |first1=Emmanuelle |last2=Roubaud |first2=François |title=Corruption in the Informal Sector: Evidence from West Africa |journal=The Journal of Development Studies |date=3 June 2019 |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=1067–1080 |doi=10.1080/00220388.2018.1438597 |s2cid=158886041 |url=https://basepub.dauphine.psl.eu/handle/123456789/24991 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Law |first1=Robin |title=Human Sacrifice in Pre-Colonial West Africa |journal=African Affairs |date=1985 |volume=84 |issue=334 |pages=53–87 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097676 |jstor=722523 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Mann |first1=Gregory |title=Locating Colonial Histories: Between France and West Africa |journal=The American Historical Review |date=2005 |volume=110 |issue=2 |pages=409–434 |doi=10.1086/ahr/110.2.409 |jstor=10.1086/531320 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Martinez-Alvarez |first1=Melisa |last2=Jarde |first2=Alexander |last3=Usuf |first3=Effua |last4=Brotherton |first4=Helen |last5=Bittaye |first5=Mustapha |last6=Samateh |first6=Ahmadou L |last7=Antonio |first7=Martin |last8=Vives-Tomas |first8=Joan |last9=D'Alessandro |first9=Umberto |last10=Roca |first10=Anna |title=COVID-19 pandemic in west Africa |journal=The Lancet Global Health |date=May 2020 |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=e631–e632 |doi=10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30123-6 |pmid=32246918 }} * Mazrui, Ali A. ''Islam and the English language in East and West Africa'' (Routledge, 2017). * Meillassoux, Claude, ed. ''The development of indigenous trade and markets in West Africa: studies presented and discussed at the tenth International African seminar at Fourah Bay college, Freetown, December 1969'' (Routledge, 2018). * Mendonsa, Eugene L. ''West Africa: An Introduction to Its History'' (2002) * O'Brien, Donal Cruise, Richard Rathbone, John Dunn, eds. ''Contemporary West African States'' (2002) [https://archive.org/details/contemporarywest00crui online free to borrow] * {{cite journal |last1=Soares |first1=Benjamin |title=The Historiography of Islam in West Africa: An Anthropologist's View |journal=The Journal of African History |date=March 2014 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=27–36 |doi=10.1017/S0021853713000819 |hdl=1887/25369 |s2cid=162823960 }} * Tonkin, Elizabeth. ''Narrating our pasts: The social construction of oral history'' (Cambridge university press, 1995), on West Africa * Westermann, Diedrich, and Margaret Arminel Bryan. ''The Languages of West Africa: Handbook of African Languages'' (Routledge, 2017). ==External links== {{sisterlinks|d=Q4412|c=Category:West Africa|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=West Africa|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} *[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/West.html#tbl ''West Africa by Region and Country''] – African Studies at [[Columbia University]] *[http://www.ouestaf.com/ ouestaf.com] – Ouestaf, a West African online newspaper {{in lang|fr}} *[http://www.loccidental.net/ Loccidental] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060307145452/http://www.loccidental.net/ |date=7 March 2006 }} – An online West African newspaper {{in lang|fr}} *[http://www.westafricareview.com/ West Africa Review] – An e-journal on West Africa research and scholarship {{in lang|en}} *[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/638 The Voyage of the Sieur Le Maire, to the Canary Islands, Cape-Verde, Senegal, and Gambia] is the first published writing about Western Africa, dating from 1695 {{in lang|en}} <!-- Please respect alphabetical order --> {{ECOWAS}} {{Regions of Africa}} {{authority control}} {{coord|12|N|3|E|source:wikidata|display=title}} [[Category:West Africa]] [[Category:Geography of West Africa]] [[Category:Regions of Africa]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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