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Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Ethno-cultural region in Asia}} {{About|the historical ethno-cultural region of Tibet|the current Chinese administrative division|Tibet Autonomous Region|other uses}} {{Cleanup images|date=June 2022}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move}} {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2011}} {{Infobox dependency | image_flag = | flag_size = | flag_link = | image_seal = | seal_size = 85px | seal_type = | seal_link = | coordinates = {{Coord|31|N|89|E|region:CN_dim:1000000|display=inline,title}} | image_map = Tibetischer Kulturraum Karte.png | mapsize = 250px | subdivision_type = [[Sovereign state]] | subdivision_name = {{flag|China}} | capital = [[Lhasa]] | established_title = | established_date = | languages_type = [[Regional language]]s | languages = | languages_sub = | area_km2 = 2,500,000 | area_footnote = | area_rank = <!-- Area rank should match [[List of countries and dependencies by area]]; (should not be any here as it is listed with a dash) --> | area_sq_mi = | percent_water = | elevation_max_m = | elevation_max_point = [[Alto de Coloane]] | population_estimate = 7,000,000 ([[Tibetan people]]) | population_census = | population_estimate_year = 2023 | population_estimate_rank = | population_census_year = | population_density_km2 = | population_density_rank = | GDP_PPP = | GDP_PPP_year = | GDP_PPP_rank = }} [[File:Greater Tibet locator map.svg|thumb|right|350px|Map of [[Greater Tibet]] consist of [[Ü-Tsang]], [[Kham]] and [[Amdo]]. Modern states consist of [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] + Parts of [[Qinghai]], [[Sichuan]] and [[Yunnan]]. Also, a large part of present-day [[East Turkestan|Uyghuristan]] and parts of [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], [[Myanmar]] and [[Bangladesh]] were part of the [[Tibetan Empire]] in the past.]] {| class="infobox" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="clear:right; width:360px; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%; background:#eee;" |- | style="height:3px;" colspan="10"| |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan="6" | <div cellpadding="0"> [[File:Tibet-claims.jpg|360px|Cultural/historical, (highlighted) depicted with various competing territorial claims]]<br /> {| |- | style="height:3px;" colspan="22"| |- style="text-align:left;" | style="width:3px;;" rowspan="6"| | style="height:15px; width:10px; background:#ff4040;"| | style="width:10px; background:#ff9f40;"| | style="width:10px; background:#ffff40;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | Greater Tibet as claimed by Tibetan exile groups | style="width:3px;;" rowspan="6"| |- | style="width:10px; height:15px;"| | style="width:10px; background:#ff9f40;"| | style="width:10px; background:#ffff40;"| | style="width:10px; background:lightgreen;"| | style="width:10px; background:#40ffff;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | <small>[[Autonomous administrative divisions of China|Tibetan autonomous areas]], as designated by China</small> |- | style="width:10px; height:15px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px; background:#ffff40;"| | style="width:10px; background:lightgreen;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | [[Tibet Autonomous Region]], within China |- | style="width:10px; height:15px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px; background:lightgreen;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | <small>Chinese-controlled, claimed by [[India]] as part of [[Ladakh]]</small> |- | style="width:10px; height:15px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px; background:#40ffff;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | <small>Indian-controlled, parts claimed by China as [[South Tibet]]</small> |- | style="width:10px; height:15px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px;"| | style="width:10px; background:#4040ff;"| | style="width:10px;"| | <small>Other areas historically within the Tibetan cultural sphere</small> |}</div> |} {{Infobox Chinese | pic = Tibet-bo-zh.svg | piccap = "Tibet" in the Tibetan (top) and Chinese (bottom) scripts | picupright = 0.4 | c = 西藏 | l = "Western [[Ü-Tsang|Tsang]]" | p = Xīzàng | w = {{tone superscript|Hsi1-tsang4}} | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|x|i|1|.|z|ang|4}} | j = sai1 zong6 | y = Sāi-johng | ci = {{IPAc-yue|s|ai|1|-|z|ong|6}} | poj = Se-chōng | buc = Să̤-câung | teo = Sai-tsăng | h = Sî-tshông | mc = Sei-dzang | tib = {{bo-textonly|བོད}} | wylie = Bod | zwpy = Poi | t = | s = | altname = | bpmf = ㄒㄧ ㄗㄤˋ | tp = Sizàng }} {{SpecialChars | image = Standard Tibetan name.svg | special = [[Tibetan alphabet]] | fix = Help:Multilingual support (Indic) | characters = Tibetan characters | error = [[mojibake|question marks, boxes, or other symbols]] }} '''Tibet''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Tibet.ogg|t|ᵻ|ˈ|b|ɛ|t}}; {{bo|t=བོད|l=pʰøːʔ˨˧˩|p=Bod}} ''Böd''; {{zh|s=西藏||p=Xīzàng}}), or '''Greater Tibet''', is a region in the central part of [[East Asia]], covering much of the [[Tibetan Plateau]] and spanning about {{convert|2500000|km2|abbr=on}}. It is the homeland of the [[Tibetan people]]. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as the [[Monpa people|Monpa]], [[Tamang people|Tamang]], [[Qiang people|Qiang]], [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]] and [[Lhoba people]]s and, since the 20th century, considerable numbers of [[Han Chinese]] and [[Hui people|Hui]] settlers. Since the [[annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China]] in 1951, the entire plateau has been under the administration of the [[People's Republic of China]]. Tibet is divided administratively into the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]], and parts of the [[Qinghai]] and [[Sichuan]] provinces. Tibet is also constitutionally claimed by the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] as the [[Tibet Area (administrative division)|Tibet Area]] since 1912. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an average elevation of {{convert|4380|m|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Altitude sickness may hinder ethnic integration in the world's highest places |url=https://www.princeton.edu/news/2013/07/01/altitude-sickness-may-hinder-ethnic-integration-worlds-highest-places |publisher=Princeton University |date=1 July 2013 |access-date=March 6, 2021 |archive-date=March 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318150542/https://www.princeton.edu/news/2013/07/01/altitude-sickness-may-hinder-ethnic-integration-worlds-highest-places |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://oak.ucc.nau.edu/wittke/Tibet/Plateau.html|title=Geology of the Tibetan Plateau|last=Wittke|first=J.H.|date=24 February 2010|access-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190523070800/http://oak.ucc.nau.edu/wittke/Tibet/Plateau.html|archive-date=May 23, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Located in the [[Himalayas]], the highest elevation in Tibet is [[Mount Everest]], Earth's highest mountain, rising 8,848.86 m (29,032 ft) above sea level.<ref>{{Cite web|last=US Department of Commerce|first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|title=What is the highest point on Earth as measured from Earth's center?|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/highestpoint.html#:~:text=Mount%20Everest,%20located%20in%20Nepal,But%20the%20summit%20of%20Mt.|access-date=2021-11-12|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|archive-date=May 28, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528130315/https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/highestpoint.html#:~:text=Mount%20Everest,%20located%20in%20Nepal,But%20the%20summit%20of%20Mt.|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Tibetan Empire]] emerged in the 7th century. At its height in the 9th century, the [[Tibetan Empire]] extended far beyond the Tibetan Plateau, from the [[Tarim Basin]] and [[Pamirs]] in the west, to [[Yunnan]] and [[Bengal]] in the southeast. It then divided into a variety of territories. The bulk of western and central Tibet ([[Ü-Tsang]]) was often at least nominally unified under a series of Tibetan governments in [[Lhasa (prefecture-level city)|Lhasa]], [[Shigatse]], or nearby locations. The eastern regions of [[Kham]] and [[Amdo]] often maintained a more decentralized indigenous political structure, being divided among a number of small principalities and tribal groups, while also often falling under Chinese rule; most of this area was eventually annexed into the Chinese provinces of Sichuan and Qinghai. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century.<ref>Goldstein, Melvyn, C.,'' Change, Conflict and Continuity among a Community of Nomadic Pastoralist: A Case Study from Western Tibet, 1950–1990'', 1994: "What is Tibet? – Fact and Fancy", pp. 76–87</ref> Following the [[Xinhai Revolution]] against the [[Qing dynasty]] in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of the [[Tibet Area (administrative division)|Tibet Area]] (Ü-Tsang). The region subsequently [[:Wikisource: Proclamation of Independence of Tibet|declared its independence]] in 1913, although this was not recognised by the subsequent [[Government of the Republic of China|Chinese Republican government]].<ref>Clark, Gregory, "''In fear of China''", 1969, saying: ' ''Tibet, although enjoying independence at certain periods of its history, had never been recognized by any single foreign power as an independent state. The closest it has ever come to such recognition was the British formula of 1943: [[suzerainty]], combined with [[autonomy]] and the right to enter into diplomatic relations.'' '</ref> Later, Lhasa took control of the western part of [[Xikang]]. The region maintained its autonomy until 1951 when, following the [[Battle of Chamdo]], Tibet was occupied and annexed by the People's Republic of China. The Tibetan government was abolished after the failure of the [[1959 Tibetan uprising]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-14533879|title=Q&A: China and the Tibetans|date=2011-08-15|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-05-17|language=en-GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716034707/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-14533879|archive-date=July 16, 2018|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Today, China governs western and central Tibet as the Tibet Autonomous Region while the eastern areas are now mostly [[autonomous prefecture]]s within Sichuan, Qinghai and other neighbouring provinces. The [[Tibetan independence movement]]<ref name="lee">{{cite web |url= http://sites.google.com/site/tibetanpoliticalreview/articles/tibetsonlyhopelieswithin |title= Tibet's only hope lies within |first= Peter |last= Lee |author-link = |date= 2011-05-07 |publisher= The Asia Times |access-date = 2011-05-10 |quote= Robin [alias of a young Tibetan in Qinghai] described the region as a cauldron of tension. [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] still were infuriated by numerous arrests in the wake of the 2008 protests. But local Tibetans had not organized themselves. 'They are very angry at the Chinese government and the Chinese people,' Robin said. 'But they have no idea what to do. There is no leader. When a leader appears and somebody helps out they will all join.' We ... heard tale after tale of civil disobedience in outlying [[hamlet (place)|hamlets]]. In one village, Tibetans burned their Chinese flags and hoisted the banned Tibetan Snow Lion flag instead. Authorities ... detained nine villagers ... One nomad ... said 'After I die ... my sons and grandsons will remember. They will hate the government.' |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111228180221/http://sites.google.com/site/tibetanpoliticalreview/articles/tibetsonlyhopelieswithin |archive-date = December 28, 2011 |url-status = live |df= mdy-all}}</ref> is principally led by the [[Tibetan diaspora]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/4152353.stm | work=BBC News | title=Regions and territories: Tibet | date=2010-12-11 | access-date=April 22, 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422064415/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/4152353.stm | archive-date=April 22, 2011 | url-status=live | df=mdy-all }}</ref> Human rights groups have accused the Chinese government of abuses of [[human rights in Tibet]], including [[torture]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/19/world/asia/19tibet.html|title=China Adds to Security Forces in Tibet Amid Calls for a Boycott|last=Wong|first=Edward|date=2009-02-18|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-05-17|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170616034115/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/19/world/asia/19tibet.html|archive-date=June 16, 2017|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/03/19/china-tibetan-detainees-serious-risk-torture-and-mistreatment|title=China: Tibetan Detainees at Serious Risk of Torture and Mistreatment|date=March 19, 2008|access-date=March 7, 2023|archive-date=March 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307190141/https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/03/19/china-tibetan-detainees-serious-risk-torture-and-mistreatment|url-status=live}}</ref> The dominant [[religion in Tibet]] is [[Tibetan Buddhism]]; other religions include [[Bon|Bön]], an [[indigenous religion]] similar to Tibetan Buddhism,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.religionfacts.com/bon|title=Bon|work=ReligionFacts|access-date=2017-05-17|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170509140454/http://www.religionfacts.com/bon|archive-date=May 9, 2017|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> [[Tibetan Muslims|Islam]], and [[Christianity in Tibet|Christianity]]. Tibetan Buddhism is a primary influence on the [[Tibetan art|art]], [[Music of Tibet|music]], and [[Tibetan festivals|festivals]] of the region. [[Tibetan architecture]] reflects [[Chinese architecture|Chinese]] and [[Architecture of India|Indian]] influences. [[Tibetan cuisine|Staple foods in Tibet]] are roasted [[barley]], [[yak]] meat, and [[butter tea]]. With the growth of tourism in recent years, the service sector has become the largest sector in Tibet, accounting for 50.1% of the local GDP in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2020年西藏自治区国民经济和社会发展统计公报 |url=https://www.neac.gov.cn/seac/xxgk/202108/1150390.shtml |website=State Ethnic Affairs Commission |access-date=April 24, 2022 |archive-date=March 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320025534/https://www.neac.gov.cn/seac/xxgk/202108/1150390.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Names and etymologies == [[File:Tibet provinces.png|thumb|Map of the approximate extent of the three provinces, Ü-Tsang, Amdo, and Kham, of the [[Tibetan Empire]] (8th century) overlaid on a map of modern borders]] {{Main|Etymology of Tibet}} The [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]] name for their land, ''Bod'' ({{Bo-textonly|བོད་}}), means 'Tibet' or '[[Tibetan Plateau]]', although it originally meant the central region around [[Lhasa (prefecture-level city)|Lhasa]], now known in Tibetan as [[Ü (region)|''Ü'']] ({{Bo-textonly|དབུས}}).{{Citation needed|reason=Please, provide a source for this statement|date=June 2017}} The [[Standard Tibetan]] pronunciation of ''Bod'' ({{IPA-bo|pʰøʔ˨˧˨|}}) is transcribed as: ''Bhö'' in [[Tournadre Phonetic Transcription]]; ''Bö'' in the [[THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription]]; and ''Poi'' in [[Tibetan pinyin]]. Some scholars believe the first written reference to ''Bod'' ('Tibet') was the ancient Bautai people recorded in the Egyptian-Greek works ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' (1st century CE) and ''[[Geographia]]'' ([[Ptolemy]], 2nd century CE),<ref>Beckwith (1987), pg. 7</ref> itself from the [[Sanskrit]] form ''Bhauṭṭa'' of the Indian geographical tradition.<ref>Étienne de la Vaissière, "The Triple System of Orography in Ptolemy's Xinjiang", ''Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrif in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams'', eds. Werner Sundermann, Almut Hintze & François de Blois (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2009), 532.</ref> The modern [[Standard Chinese]] [[exonym]] for the ethnic Tibetan region is ''Zangqu'' ({{zh|s={{linktext|藏区}} |hp=Zàngqū|links=no}}), which derives by [[metonymy]] from the [[Ü-Tsang|Tsang]] region around [[Shigatse]] plus the addition of a Chinese suffix {{transliteration|zh|qū}} ({{linktext|lang=zh-Hans|区}}), which means 'area, district, region, ward'. Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as ''Zang'' ({{zh|c={{linktext|藏}} |hp=Zàng|links=no}}), although the geographical term {{transliteration|zh|Xīzàng}} is often limited to the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]]. The term ''Xīzàng'' was coined during the [[Qing dynasty]] in the reign of the [[Jiaqing Emperor]] (1796–1820) through the addition of the prefix {{transliteration|zh|xī}} ({{linktext|lang=zh|西}}, 'west') to ''Zang''.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}} The best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is ''Tubo'' ({{zh|s={{linktext|吐蕃}}|links=no}}; or {{zh|hp=Tǔbō|links=no|c=|s=|t=|labels=no}}, {{linktext|lang=zh|土蕃}} or {{lang|zh|Tǔfān}}, {{linktext|lang=zh|土番}}). This name first appears [[Transliteration into Chinese characters|in Chinese characters]] as {{lang|zh-hans-CN|土番}} in the 7th century ([[Li Tai]]) and as {{lang|zh-hans-CN|吐蕃}} in the 10th century (''[[Old Book of Tang]]'', describing 608–609 emissaries from Tibetan King [[Namri Songtsen]] to [[Emperor Yang of Sui]]). In the [[Middle Chinese]] language spoken during that period, as reconstructed by [[William H. Baxter]], {{lang|zh-hans-CN|土番}} was pronounced ''thu{{Smallcaps|x}}-phjon'', and {{lang|zh-hans-CN|吐蕃}} was pronounced ''thu{{Smallcaps|x}}-pjon'' (with the ''{{Smallcaps|x}}'' representing a ''[[Four tones (Middle Chinese)|shang]]'' [[phonemic tone|tone]]).<ref name="Baxter">{{cite web|url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~wbaxter/etymdict.html |title=An Etymological Dictionary of Common Chinese Characters |last1=Baxter |first1=William H. |date=2001-03-30 |access-date=2011-04-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110411153909/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~wbaxter/etymdict.html |archive-date=April 11, 2011 }}</ref> Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include: * ''Wusiguo'' ({{zh|s=烏斯國|hp=Wūsīguó|links=no}}; [[cf.]] Tibetan: ''dbus'', [[Ü (region)|Ü]], {{IPA-bo|wyʔ˨˧˨|}}); * ''Wusizang'' ({{zh|s=烏斯藏|hp=wūsīzàng|links=no}}, cf. Tibetan: ''dbus-gtsang'', [[Ü-Tsang]]); * ''Tubote'' ({{zh|s=圖伯特|hp=Túbótè|links=no}}); and * ''Tanggute'' ({{zh|s=唐古忒|hp=Tánggǔtè|links=no}}, cf. [[Tangut people|Tangut]]). American [[Tibetology|Tibetologist]] [[Elliot Sperling]] has argued in favor of a recent tendency by some authors writing in Chinese to revive the term ''Tubote'' ({{zh|s=图伯特|t=圖伯特|hp=Túbótè|links=no}}) for modern use in place of ''Xizang'', on the grounds that ''Tubote'' more clearly includes the entire [[Tibetan Plateau|Tibetan plateau]] rather than simply the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://sites.google.com/site/tibetanpoliticalreview/articles/tubotetibetandthepowerofnaming | title=Tubote, Tibet, and the Power of Naming | website=Tibetan Political Review | author=Elliot Sperling | access-date=July 31, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328133904/https://sites.google.com/site/tibetanpoliticalreview/articles/tubotetibetandthepowerofnaming | archive-date=March 28, 2016 | url-status=live | df=mdy-all }}</ref> The English word ''Tibet'' or ''Thibet'' dates back to the 18th century.<ref>The word ''Tibet'' was used in the context of the first British mission to this country under [[George Bogle (diplomat)|George Bogle]] in 1774. See [[Clements Markham|Markham, Clements R.]], ed. [1876] 1971. ''Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet and the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa''. New Delhi: Manjushri Publishing House.</ref> [[Historical linguistics|Historical linguists]] generally agree that "Tibet" names in European languages are [[loanword]]s from [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] {{transliteration|ar|ALA|Ṭībat}} or {{transliteration|ar|ALA|Tūbātt}} ({{lang-ar|طيبة، توبات}}; {{lang-he|טובּה, טובּת}}), itself deriving from [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] ''{{lang|trk|Töbäd}}'' (plural of {{lang|trk|töbän}}), literally 'The Heights'.<ref>Behr, Wolfgang, 1994. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20151016045150/https://books.google.com/books?id=NHN6KTAVR28C&pg=PA559&dq=t%C3%B6p%C3%BCt&lr=&hl=tr&sig=x1RLRVdRn9zBxkX84i5X45GZh84 Stephan V. Beyer 'The Classical Tibetan Language' (book review)]." Pp. 558–59 in ''Oriens'' 34, edited by R. Sellheim. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Archived from the [https://books.google.com/books?id=NHN6KTAVR28C&dq=t%C3%B6p%C3%BCt&pg=PA559 original] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=NHN6KTAVR28C&dq=t%C3%83%C2%B6p%C3%83%C2%BCt&pg=PA559 |date=March 26, 2023 }} on October 16, 2015.</ref> == Language == {{Main|Standard Tibetan}} [[File:"TIBETO-BURMAN" GROUPS 1967 map with group key, "COMMUNIST CHINA ETHNOLINGUISTIC GROUPS" by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, Office of Basic Geographic Intelligence, 1967 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Ethnolinguistic map of Tibet (1967)]] Linguists generally classify the [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan language]] as a [[Tibeto-Burman]] language of the [[Sino-Tibetan language]] family although the boundaries between 'Tibetan' and certain other [[Himalaya]]n languages can be unclear. According to [[Matthew Kapstein]]:<blockquote> From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles [[Burmese language|Burmese]] among the major languages of Asia. Grouping these two together with other apparently related languages spoken in the [[Himalaya]]n lands, as well as in the highlands of Southeast Asia and the Sino-Tibetan frontier regions, linguists have generally concluded that there exists a Tibeto-Burman family of languages. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is itself part of a larger language family, called [[Sino-Tibetan language family|Sino-Tibetan]], and that through it Tibetan and Burmese are distant cousins of Chinese.<ref>Kapstein 2006, pg. 19</ref> </blockquote> [[File:People of Tibet46.jpg|thumb|Tibetan family in [[Kham]] attending a horse festival]] The language has numerous regional dialects which are generally not mutually intelligible. It is employed throughout the Tibetan plateau and [[Bhutan]] and is also spoken in parts of [[Nepal]] and northern India, such as [[Sikkim]]. In general, the dialects of central Tibet (including Lhasa), [[Kham]], [[Amdo]] and some smaller nearby areas are considered Tibetan dialects. Other forms, particularly [[Dzongkha]], [[Sikkimese language|Sikkimese]], [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]], and [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]], are considered by their speakers, largely for political reasons, to be separate languages. However, if the latter group of Tibetan-type languages are included in the calculation, then 'greater Tibetan' is spoken by approximately 6 million people across the Tibetan Plateau. Tibetan is also spoken by approximately 150,000 exile speakers who have fled from modern-day Tibet to India and other countries.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} Although spoken Tibetan varies according to the region, the written language, based on [[Classical Tibetan]], is consistent throughout. This is probably due to the long-standing influence of the Tibetan empire, whose rule embraced (and extended at times far beyond) the present Tibetan linguistic area, which runs from [[Gilgit Baltistan]] in the west to [[Yunnan]] and [[Sichuan]] in the east, and from north of [[Qinghai Lake]] south as far as Bhutan. The Tibetan language has its [[Tibetan script|own script]] which it shares with [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]] and [[Dzongkha language|Dzongkha]], and which is derived from the ancient Indian [[Brāhmī script]].<ref>Kapstein 2006, p. 22.</ref> Starting in 2001, the local [[deaf sign language]]s of Tibet were standardized, and [[Tibetan Sign Language]] is now being promoted across the country. The first Tibetan-English dictionary and grammar book was written by [[Sándor Kőrösi Csoma|Alexander Csoma de Kőrös]] in 1834.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=a78IAAAAQAAJ&q=csoma Essay towards a Dictionary, Tibetan and English. Prepared, with assistance of Bandé Sangs-rgyas Phuntshogs ... by Alexander Csoma de Kőrös, etc., Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1834] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=a78IAAAAQAAJ&q=csoma |date=March 26, 2023 }}.</ref> == History == {{Main|History of Tibet}} {{Further|History of European exploration in Tibet|Foreign relations of Tibet}} <!-- PLEASE CROSS CHECK CHANGES HERE WITH TEXT AT [[History of Tibet]] -->=== Early history === {{Main|Neolithic Tibet|Zhangzhung|Pre-Imperial Tibet}} [[File:Madhya pradesh, epoca candella, tirthankara rishabhanatha, x-xi sec.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Rishabhanatha]], the first [[Tirthankara]] of [[Jainism]], is considered to have attained [[nirvana]] near [[Mount Kailash]] in Tibet in Jain tradition.<ref>{{Cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y4aVRLGhf-8C&q=Rishabhdev+Tibet&pg=RA1-PA273| title=Faith & Philosophy of Jainism| isbn=978-81-7835-723-2| last1=Jain| first1=Arun Kumar| year=2009| publisher=Gyan Publishing House| access-date=October 18, 2020| archive-date=April 14, 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414142806/https://books.google.com/books?id=y4aVRLGhf-8C&q=Rishabhdev+Tibet&pg=RA1-PA273| url-status=live}}</ref>]] [[File:Songstengampo.jpg|thumb|upright|King [[Songtsän Gampo|Songtsen Gampo]]]]Humans inhabited the Tibetan Plateau at least 21,000 years ago.<ref name="Zhao">{{cite journal | last1 = Zhao | first1 = M | last2 = Kong | first2 = QP | last3 = Wang | first3 = HW | last4 = Peng | first4 = MS | last5 = Xie | first5 = XD | last6 = Wang | first6 = WZ | last7 = Jiayang | first7 = Duan JG | last8 = Cai | first8 = MC | last9 = Zhao | first9 = SN | last10 = Cidanpingcuo | first10 = Tu YQ | last11 = Wu | first11 = SF | last12 = Yao | first12 = YG | last13 = Bandelt | first13 = HJ | last14 = Zhang | first14 = YP | year = 2009 | title = Mitochondrial genome evidence reveals successful Late Paleolithic settlement on the Tibetan Plateau | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 106 | issue = 50| pages = 21230–21235 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0907844106 | pmid = 19955425 | pmc=2795552| bibcode = 2009PNAS..10621230Z | doi-access = free }}</ref> This population was largely replaced around 3,000 [[Before Present|BP]] by [[Neolithic]] immigrants from northern China, but there is a partial genetic continuity between the Paleolithic inhabitants and contemporary Tibetan populations.<ref name="Zhao" /> The earliest Tibetan historical texts identify the [[Zhang Zhung culture]] as a people who migrated from the Amdo region into what is now the region of [[Guge]] in western Tibet.<ref name="Norbu">Norbu 1989, pp. 127–128</ref> Zhang Zhung is considered to be the original home of the [[Bön]] religion.<ref name="Hoffman">Helmut Hoffman in McKay 2003 vol. 1, pp. 45–68</ref> By the 1st century BCE, a neighboring kingdom arose in the [[Yarlung Valley|Yarlung valley]], and the Yarlung king, [[Drigum Tsenpo]], attempted to remove the influence of the Zhang Zhung by expelling the Zhang's Bön priests from Yarlung.<ref name="Karmay">{{cite book |last1=Karmay |first1=Samten Gyaltsen |title=The Treasury of Good Sayings: A Tibetan History of Bon |date=2005 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-2943-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhetCgcQReIC&pg=PA66 |language=en |pages=66ff |access-date=December 3, 2022 |archive-date=December 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203202548/https://books.google.com/books?id=vhetCgcQReIC&pg=PA66 |url-status=live }}</ref> He was assassinated and Zhang Zhung continued its dominance of the region until it was annexed by Songtsen Gampo in the 7th century. Prior to [[Songtsen Gampo]], the kings of Tibet were more mythological than factual, and there is insufficient evidence of their existence.<ref>[[Erik Haarh|Haarh, Erik]]: ''Extract from "The Yar Lun Dynasty"'', in: ''The History of Tibet'', ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 147; Richardson, Hugh: ''The Origin of the Tibetan Kingdom'', in: ''The History of Tibet'', ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 159 (and list of kings p. 166-167).</ref> === Tibetan Empire === {{main|Tibetan Empire}} [[File:Tibetan empire greatest extent 780s-790s CE.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the Tibetan Empire at its greatest extent between the 780s and the 790s CE]] The history of a unified Tibet begins with the rule of [[Songtsen Gampo]] (604–650{{nbsp}}CE), who united parts of the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River (Tibet)|Yarlung River]] Valley and founded the Tibetan Empire. He also brought in many reforms, and Tibetan power spread rapidly, creating a large and powerful empire. It is traditionally considered that his first wife was the Princess of Nepal, [[Bhrikuti]], and that she played a great role in the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. In 640, he married [[Princess Wencheng]], the niece of the Chinese emperor [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Taizong of Tang China]].<ref>Forbes, Andrew ; Henley, David (2011). 'The First Tibetan Empire' in: ''China's Ancient Tea Horse Road''. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B005DQV7Q2</ref> Under the next few Tibetan kings, Buddhism became established as the state religion and Tibetan power increased even further over large areas of [[Central Asia]], while major inroads were made into Chinese territory, even reaching the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]]'s capital [[Chang'an]] (modern [[Xi'an]]) in late 763.<ref>Beckwith 1987, pg. 146</ref> However, the Tibetan occupation of Chang'an only lasted for fifteen days, after which they were defeated by Tang and its ally, the Turkic [[Uyghur Khaganate]]. [[File:Miran Fort BLP466 PHOTO1187 2 60.jpg|thumb|[[Miran fort]]]] The [[Kingdom of Nanzhao]] (in [[Yunnan]] and neighbouring regions) remained under Tibetan control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.<ref>Marks, Thomas A. (1978). "Nanchao and Tibet in South-western China and Central Asia." ''The Tibet Journal''. Vol. 3, No. 4. Winter 1978, pp. 13–16.</ref> In 747, the hold of Tibet was loosened by the campaign of general [[Gao Xianzhi]], who tried to re-open the direct communications between Central Asia and [[Kashmir]]. By 750, the Tibetans had lost almost all of their central Asian possessions to the [[Tang dynasty|Chinese]]. However, after Gao Xianzhi's defeat by the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Arabs]] and [[Karluks|Qarluqs]] at the [[Battle of Talas]] (751) and the subsequent [[civil war]] known as the [[An Lushan Rebellion]] (755), Chinese influence decreased rapidly and Tibetan influence resumed. At its height in the 780s to 790s, the Tibetan Empire reached its highest glory when it ruled and controlled a territory stretching from modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan. In 821/822{{nbsp}}CE, Tibet and China signed a peace treaty. A bilingual account of this treaty, including details of the borders between the two countries, is inscribed on a stone pillar which stands outside the [[Jokhang]] temple in Lhasa.<ref>''A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions''. H. E. Richardson. Royal Asiatic Society (1985), pp. 106–43. {{ISBN|0-947593-00-4}}.</ref> Tibet continued as a Central Asian empire until the mid-9th century, when a civil war over succession led to the collapse of imperial Tibet. The period that followed is known traditionally as the ''[[Era of Fragmentation]]'', when political control over Tibet became divided between regional warlords and tribes with no dominant centralized authority. An [[Tibetan Expedition of Islamic Bengal|Islamic invasion]] from Bengal took place in 1206. === Yuan dynasty === {{main|Mongol conquest of Tibet|Tibet under Yuan rule}} [[File:Yuen Dynasty 1294 - Goryeo as vassal.png|thumb|upright=1.35|The Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]], c. 1294]] The Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]], through the [[Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs]], or Xuanzheng Yuan, ruled Tibet through a top-level administrative department. One of the department's purposes was to select a ''[[dpon-chen]]'' ("great administrator"), usually appointed by the lama and confirmed by the Mongol emperor in Beijing.<ref name="China's Tibet Policy">Dawa Norbu. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kD8gTL6IIDYC&dq=Xuanzheng+Yuan&pg=PA139 China's Tibet Policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414142810/https://books.google.com/books?id=kD8gTL6IIDYC&dq=Xuanzheng+Yuan&pg=PA139 |date=April 14, 2023 }}'', p. 139. Psychology Press.</ref> The [[Sakya (tribe)|Sakya]] lama retained a degree of autonomy, acting as the political authority of the region, while the ''dpon-chen'' held administrative and military power. Mongol rule of Tibet remained separate from the main provinces of China, but the region existed [[Tibet under Yuan rule|under the administration of the Yuan dynasty]]. If the Sakya lama ever came into conflict with the ''dpon-chen'', the ''dpon-chen'' had the authority to send Chinese troops into the region.<ref name="China's Tibet Policy"/> Tibet retained nominal power over religious and regional political affairs, while the Mongols managed a structural and administrative<ref>Wylie. p.104: 'To counterbalance the political power of the lama, Khubilai appointed civil administrators at the Sa-skya to supervise the mongol regency.'</ref> rule over the region, reinforced by the rare military intervention. This existed as a "[[diarchy|diarchic]] structure" under the Yuan emperor, with power primarily in favor of the Mongols.<ref name="China's Tibet Policy"/> Mongolian prince [[Khuden]] gained temporal power in Tibet in the 1240s and sponsored [[Sakya Pandita]], whose seat became the capital of Tibet. [[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa]], Sakya Pandita's nephew became [[Imperial Preceptor]] of [[Kublai Khan]], founder of the Yuan dynasty. Yuan control over the region ended with the Ming overthrow of the Yuan and [[Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen]]'s revolt against the Mongols.<ref name="Rossabi194">Rossabi 1983, p. 194</ref> Following the uprising, Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen founded the [[Phagmodrupa dynasty]], and sought to reduce Yuan influences over Tibetan culture and politics.<ref>Norbu, Dawa (2001) p. 57</ref> === Phagmodrupa, Rinpungpa and Tsangpa dynasties === {{main|Phagmodrupa dynasty|Rinpungpa|Tsangpa}} {{further|Sino-Tibetan relations during the Ming dynasty}} [[File:Gyantse Dzong4.jpg|thumb|[[Gyantse Fortress]]]] Between 1346 and 1354, Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen toppled the Sakya and founded the Phagmodrupa dynasty. The following 80 years saw the founding of the [[Gelug]] school (also known as Yellow Hats) by the disciples of [[Je Tsongkhapa]], and the founding of the important [[Ganden Monastery|Ganden]], [[Drepung Monastery|Drepung]] and [[Sera Monastery|Sera]] monasteries near Lhasa. However, internal strife within the dynasty and the strong localism of the various fiefs and political-religious factions led to a long series of internal conflicts. The minister family [[Rinpungpa]], based in [[Ü-Tsang|Tsang]] (West Central Tibet), dominated politics after 1435. In 1565 they were overthrown by the [[Tsangpa]] dynasty of [[Shigatse]] which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in the following decades and favoured the [[Karma Kagyu]] sect. {{Multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 300 | image1 = Khoshut Khanate.png | caption1 = The [[Khoshut Khanate]], 1642–1717 | image2 = Carte la plus generale et qui comprend la Chine, la Tartarie Chinoise, et le Thibet (1734).jpg | caption2 = Tibet in 1734. ''Royaume de Thibet'' ("Kingdom of Tibet") in ''la Chine, la Tartarie Chinoise, et le Thibet'' ("China, Chinese [[Tartary]], and Tibet") on a 1734 map by [[Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville]], based on earlier Jesuit maps. | image3 = Qing china.jpg | caption3 = Tibet in 1892 during the [[Qing dynasty]] }} === Rise of Ganden Phodrang and Buddhist Gelug school === {{Main|Ganden Phodrang}} In 1578, [[Altan Khan]] of the [[Tümed]] Mongols gave [[3rd Dalai Lama|Sonam Gyatso]], a high lama of the Gelugpa school, the name ''[[Dalai Lama]]'', ''Dalai'' being the Mongolian translation of the Tibetan name ''Gyatso'' "Ocean".<ref>Laird 2006, pp. 142–143.</ref> The [[5th Dalai Lama]] (1617-1682) is known for unifying the Tibetan heartland under the control of the [[Gelug]] school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], after defeating the rival [[Kagyu]] and [[Jonang]] sects and the secular ruler, the [[Tsangpa]] prince, in a prolonged civil war. His efforts were successful in part because of aid from [[Güshi Khan]], the [[Oirats|Oirat]] leader of the [[Khoshut Khanate]]. With Güshi Khan as a largely uninvolved overlord, the 5th Dalai Lama and his intimates established a civil administration which is referred to by historians as the ''Lhasa state''. This Tibetan regime or government is also referred to as the [[Ganden Phodrang]]. === Qing dynasty === {{main|Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)|Tibet under Qing rule}} [[File:布达拉宫.jpg|thumb|[[Potala Palace]]]] [[Qing dynasty]] rule in Tibet began with their [[Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)|1720 expedition to the country]] when they expelled the invading [[Dzungar Khanate|Dzungars]]. [[Amdo]] came under Qing control in 1724, and eastern [[Kham]] was incorporated into neighbouring Chinese provinces in 1728.<ref name="Wang 162-6">Wang Jiawei, "[[The Historical Status of China's Tibet]]", 2000, pp. 162–6.</ref> Meanwhile, the Qing government sent resident commissioners called ''[[Amban]]s'' to Lhasa. In 1750, the Ambans and the majority of the [[Han Chinese]] and [[Manchus]] living in Lhasa were killed in [[Lhasa riot of 1750|a riot]], and Qing troops arrived quickly and suppressed the rebels in the next year. Like the preceding Yuan dynasty, the Manchus of the Qing dynasty exerted military and administrative control of the region, while granting it a degree of political autonomy. The Qing commander publicly executed a number of supporters of the rebels and, as in 1723 and 1728, made changes in the political structure and drew up a formal organization plan. The Qing now restored the Dalai Lama as ruler, leading the governing council called ''[[Kashag]]'',<ref>Kychanov, E.I. and Melnichenko, B.I. Istoriya Tibeta s drevneishikh vremen do nashikh dnei [History of Tibet since Ancient Times to Present]. Moscow: Russian Acad. Sci. Publ., p.89-92</ref> but elevated the role of ''Ambans'' to include more direct involvement in Tibetan internal affairs. At the same time, the Qing took steps to counterbalance the power of the aristocracy by adding officials recruited from the clergy to key posts.<ref>Goldstein 1997, pg. 18</ref> For several decades, peace reigned in Tibet, but in 1792, the Qing [[Qianlong Emperor]] sent [[Sino-Nepalese War|a large Chinese army into Tibet]] to push the invading [[Nepal]]ese out. This prompted yet another Qing reorganization of the Tibetan government, this time through a written plan called the "Twenty-Nine Regulations for Better Government in Tibet". Qing military garrisons staffed with Qing troops were now also established near the Nepalese border.<ref>Goldstein 1997, pg. 19</ref> Tibet was dominated by the Manchus in various stages in the 18th century, and the years immediately following the 1792 regulations were the peak of the Qing imperial commissioners' authority; but there was no attempt to make Tibet a Chinese province.<ref>Goldstein 1997, pg. 20</ref> In 1834, the [[Sikh Empire]] invaded and annexed [[Ladakh]], a culturally Tibetan region that was an independent kingdom at the time. Seven years later, a Sikh army led by [[General Zorawar Singh]] invaded western Tibet from Ladakh, starting the [[Sino-Sikh War]]. A Qing-Tibetan army repelled the invaders but was in turn defeated when it chased the Sikhs into Ladakh. The war ended with the signing of the [[Treaty of Chushul]] between the Chinese and Sikh empires.<ref>The Sino-Indian Border Disputes, by Alfred P. Rubin, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 9, No. 1. (Jan., 1960), pp. 96–125.</ref> [[File:Putuo Zongcheng Temple.jpg|thumb|left|[[Putuo Zongcheng Temple]], a Buddhist temple complex in [[Chengde]], Hebei, built between 1767 and 1771. The temple was modeled after the [[Potala Palace]].]] As the Qing dynasty weakened, its authority over Tibet also gradually declined, and by the mid-19th century, its influence was minuscule. Qing authority over Tibet had become more symbolic than real by the late 19th century,<ref>Goldstein 1989, pg. 44</ref><ref>Goldstein 1997, pg. 22</ref><ref>Brunnert, H. S. and Hagelstrom, V. V. _Present Day Political Organization of China_, Shanghai, 1912. p. 467.</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Stas Bekman: stas (at) stason.org |url=http://stason.org/TULARC/travel/tibet/B6-What-was-Tibet-s-status-during-China-s-Qing-dynasty-164.html |title=What was Tibet's status during China's Qing dynasty (1644–1912)? |publisher=Stason.org |access-date=2012-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407223734/http://stason.org/TULARC/travel/tibet/B6-What-was-Tibet-s-status-during-China-s-Qing-dynasty-164.html |archive-date=April 7, 2008 |url-status=live |df=mdy-all }}</ref> although in the 1860s, the Tibetans still chose for reasons of their own to emphasize the empire's symbolic authority and make it seem substantial.<ref>The Cambridge History of China, vol. 10, p. 407.</ref> In 1774, a [[Scottish people|Scottish]] [[Peerage of Scotland|nobleman]], [[George Bogle (diplomat)|George Bogle]], travelled to [[Shigatse]] to investigate prospects of trade for the [[East India Company]]. His efforts, while largely unsuccessful, established permanent contact between Tibet and the [[Western world]].<ref>Teltscher 2006, pg. 57</ref> However, in the 19th century, tensions between foreign powers and Tibet increased. The [[British Empire]] was expanding its [[British Raj|territories in India]] into the [[Himalayas]], while the [[Emirate of Afghanistan]] and the [[Russian Empire]] were both doing likewise in [[Central Asia]].{{citation needed|date=October 2022}} In 1904, a [[British expedition to Tibet]], spurred in part by a fear that [[Russian Empire|Russia]] was extending its power into Tibet as part of [[the Great Game]], was launched. Although the expedition initially set out with the stated purpose of resolving border disputes between Tibet and [[Sikkim]], it quickly turned into a military invasion. The British expeditionary force, consisting of [[British Indian Army|mostly Indian troops]], quickly invaded and captured Lhasa, with the [[13th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]] fleeing to the countryside.<ref name="smith154-6">Smith 1996, pp. 154–6</ref> Afterwards, the leader of the expedition, [[Francis Younghusband|Sir Francis Younghusband]], negotiated the [[Treaty of Lhasa|Convention Between Great Britain and Tibet]] with the Tibetans, which guaranteed the British great economic influence but ensured the region [[Tibet under Qing rule|remained under Chinese control]]. The Qing imperial resident, known as the [[Amban]], publicly repudiated the treaty, while the British government, eager for friendly relations with China, negotiated a new treaty two years later known as the [[Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet]]. The British agreed not to annex or interfere in Tibet in return for an indemnity from the Chinese government, while China agreed not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet.<ref name="smith154-6"/> In 1910, the Qing government sent [[Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)|a military expedition of its own]] under [[Zhao Erfeng]] to establish direct Manchu-Chinese rule and, in an imperial edict, deposed the Dalai Lama, who fled to British India. Zhao Erfeng defeated the Tibetan military conclusively and expelled the Dalai Lama's forces from the province. His actions were unpopular, and there was much animosity against him for his mistreatment of civilians and disregard for local culture.{{citation needed|date=October 2022}} === Post-Qing period === {{Main|Tibet (1912–1951)}} [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 135-KB-17-040, Tibetexpedition, Geer mit Argali.jpg|thumb|Edmund Geer during the [[1938–1939 German expedition to Tibet]]]] [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 135-S-12-50-09, Tibetexpedition, Ragyapas, Geier.jpg|thumb|[[Rogyapas]], an [[Social classes of Tibet|outcast group]], early 20th century. Their hereditary occupation included disposal of corpses and leather work.]] After the [[Xinhai Revolution]] (1911–1912) toppled the Qing dynasty and the last Qing troops were escorted out of Tibet, the new [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]] apologized for the actions of the Qing and offered to restore the Dalai Lama's title.<ref>Mayhew, Bradley and Michael Kohn. (2005). ''Tibet'', p. 32. Lonely Planet Publications. {{ISBN|1-74059-523-8}}.</ref> The Dalai Lama refused any Chinese title and declared himself ruler of an [[Tibet (1912–51)|independent Tibet]].<ref name="shakya5">Shakya 1999, pg. 5</ref> In 1913, Tibet and [[Mongolia (1911–24)|Mongolia]] concluded [[Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet|a treaty of mutual recognition]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ww38.ltwa.net/library/index.php?option=com_multicategories&view=article&id=170&catid=30:news&Itemid=12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030061528/http://www.ltwa.net/library/index.php?option=com_multicategories&view=article&id=170&catid=30%3Anews&Itemid=12 |url-status=dead |title=ltwa.net|archive-date=October 30, 2012|website=ww38.ltwa.net}}</ref> For the next 36 years, the 13th Dalai Lama and the [[politics in Tibet|regents who succeeded him]] governed Tibet. During this time, Tibet fought Chinese warlords for control of the ethnically Tibetan areas in [[Xikang]] and [[Qinghai]] (parts of Kham and Amdo) along the upper reaches of the [[Yangtze River]].<ref name="Wang 150">Wang Jiawei, "The Historical Status of China's Tibet", 2000, p. 150.</ref> In 1914, the Tibetan government signed the [[Simla Convention]] with Britain, which recognized Chinese suzerainty over Tibet in return for a border settlement. China refused to sign the convention and lost its suzerain rights.<ref>{{citation |last1=Fisher |first1=Margaret W. |last2=Rose |first2=Leo E. |last3=Huttenback |first3=Robert A. |title=Himalayan Battleground: Sino-Indian Rivalry in Ladakh |date=1963 |publisher=Praeger |url=https://archive.org/details/himalayanbattleg0000unse/mode/2up |via=archive.org |pages=77–78 |quote=By refusing to sign it, however, the Chinese lost an opportunity to become the acknowledged suzerain of Tibet. The Tibetans were therefore free to make their own agreement with the British.}}</ref> When in the 1930s and 1940s the regents displayed negligence in affairs, the Kuomintang Government of the Republic of China took advantage of this to expand its reach into the territory.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIJFuD-cH_IC&q=dalai+lama+kuomintang+brief+civil+war |title=The Search for the Panchen Lama |author=Isabel Hilton |year=2001 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |page=112 |isbn=978-0-393-32167-8 |access-date=2010-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610000748/https://books.google.com/books?id=WIJFuD-cH_IC&dq=ma+bufang+taiwan&q=dalai+lama+kuomintang+brief+civil+war#v=snippet&q=dalai%20lama%20kuomintang%20brief%20civil%20war&f=false |archive-date=June 10, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> On December 20, 1941, Kuomintang leader [[Chiang Kai-shek|Chiang Kai-Shek]] noted in his diary that Tibet would be among the territories which he would demand as restitution for China following the conclusion of World War II.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mitter |first=Rana |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1141442704 |title=China's good war : how World War II is shaping a new nationalism |date=2020 |publisher=The Belknap Press of [[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-98426-4 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=45 |oclc=1141442704 |access-date=October 15, 2022 |archive-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402121743/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1141442704 |url-status=live }}</ref> === From 1950 to present === {{Main|History of Tibet (1950–present)}} [[File:Thank you India. 50 Years in Exile. Manali. 2010.jpg|thumb|A poster saying "Thank you India. 50 years in Exile." [[Manali, Himachal Pradesh|Manali]], 2010.]] Emerging with control over most of [[mainland China]] after the [[Chinese Civil War]], the [[People's Republic of China]] [[Incorporation of Tibet into the People's Republic of China|annexed Tibet]] in 1950 and negotiated the [[Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet|Seventeen Point Agreement]] with the newly enthroned [[14th Dalai Lama]]'s government, affirming the People's Republic of China's sovereignty but granting the area autonomy. Subsequently, on his journey into exile, the 14th Dalai Lama completely repudiated the agreement, which he has repeated on many occasions.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110928101214/http://www.tibet.net/en/index.php?id=183&rmenuid=11 "The 17-Point Agreement" The full story as revealed by the Tibetans and Chinese who were involved] Archived on 28 September 2011.</ref><ref>[[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]], ''[[Freedom in Exile]]'' Harper San Francisco, 1991</ref> According to the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], the Chinese used the Dalai Lama to gain control of the military's training and actions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP82-00457R009600210006-1.pdf |title=1.Chinese Communist Troops in Tibet, 2. Chinese Communist Program for Tibet |access-date=February 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123133521/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP82-00457R009600210006-1.pdf |archive-date=January 23, 2017 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The Dalai Lama had a strong following as many people from Tibet looked at him not just as their political leader, but as their spiritual leader.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP82R00025R000100060024-3.pdf |title=Notes for DCI briefing of Senate Foreign Relations Committee on 28 April 1959 |access-date=February 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123081300/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP82R00025R000100060024-3.pdf |archive-date=January 23, 2017 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> After the Dalai Lama's government fled to [[Dharamsala, Himachal Pradesh|Dharamsala]], India, during the [[1959 Tibetan Rebellion]], it established a [[Central Tibetan Administration|rival government-in-exile]]. Afterwards, the [[Central People's Government]] in Beijing renounced the agreement and began implementation of the halted social and political reforms.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Governing China's Multiethnic Frontiers |page=197 |first=Morris|last=Rossabi |chapter=An Overview of Sino-Tibetan Relations |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |year=2005}}</ref> During the [[Great Leap Forward]], between 200,000 and 1,000,000 Tibetans may have died<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d3dc.html |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – China : Tibetans |publisher=Minority Rights Group International |date=July 2008 |access-date=2014-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101012043/http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d3dc.html |archive-date=November 1, 2014 |url-status=live |df=mdy-all }}</ref> and approximately 6,000 monasteries were destroyed during the [[Cultural Revolution]]—destroying the vast majority of historic Tibetan architecture.<ref name="Kevin">{{Cite book|title=Freedom of religion and belief: a world report|first1=Kevin|last1=Boyle|first2=Juliet|last2=Sheen|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=978-0-415-15977-7}}</ref> In 1980, General Secretary and reformist [[Hu Yaobang]] visited Tibet and ushered in a period of social, political, and [[economic liberalization]].<ref name="Bank"/> At the end of the decade, however, before the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], monks in the [[Drepung Monastery|Drepung]] and [[Sera Monastery|Sera]] monasteries started protesting for independence. The government halted reforms and started an anti-[[separatist]] campaign.<ref name="Bank">{{cite magazine |title=As Tibet Goes... |first1=David|last1=Bank |first2=Peter|last2=Leyden |magazine=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]] |date=January 1990 |volume=15|issue=1 |issn=0362-8841}}</ref> Human rights organisations have been critical of the Beijing and Lhasa governments' approach to [[Human rights in Tibet|human rights in the region]] when cracking down on separatist convulsions that have occurred around monasteries and cities, most recently in the [[2008 Tibetan unrest]]. The central region of Tibet is now an [[Autonomous administrative divisions of China|autonomous region]] within China, the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]]. The Tibet Autonomous Region is a province-level entity of the People's Republic of China. It is governed by a People's Government, led by a chairman. In practice, however, the chairman is subordinate to the branch secretary of the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP). In 2010 it was reported that, as a matter of convention, the chairman had almost always been an ethnic Tibetan, while the party secretary had always been ethnically non-Tibetan.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-01-15 |title=Leadership shake-up in China's Tibet: state media |publisher=[[France 24]] |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |location=France |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20100115-leadership-shake-chinas-tibet-state-media |url-status=dead |access-date=2010-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100118095132/http://www.france24.com/en/20100115-leadership-shake-chinas-tibet-state-media |archive-date=January 18, 2010}}</ref> == Geography == {{Main|Geography of Tibet}} [[File:Tibet and surrounding areas topographic map 3.png|thumb|[[Tibetan Plateau]] and surrounding areas above 1600 m – [[topography]].<ref name="GLOBE" /><ref name="ETOPO1" /> Tibet is often called the "roof of the world".]] [[File:拷贝 (70097727).jpeg|thumb|Himalayas, on the southern rim of the Tibetan plateau]] All of modern China, including Tibet, is considered a part of [[East Asia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/plateaus-article.html|title=plateaus|access-date=May 16, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401160422/http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/plateaus-article.html|archive-date=April 1, 2009|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Historically, some European sources also considered parts of Tibet to lie in [[Central Asia]]. Tibet is west of the [[Central Plain (China)|Central China plain]]. In China, Tibet is regarded as part of {{lang|zh|西部}} ({{transliteration|zh|Xībù}}), a term usually translated by Chinese media as "the Western section", meaning "Western China". === Mountains and rivers === [[File:View over Lhasa. 1993.jpg|thumb|View over Lhasa, 1993]] [[File:IMG 0839 Yarlong Tsangpo.jpg|thumb|[[Yarlung Tsangpo River (Tibet)|Yarlung Tsangpo River]]]] Tibet has some of the world's tallest mountains, with several of them making the top ten list. [[Mount Everest]], located on the border with [[Nepal]], is, at {{convert|8848.86|m|ft|0}}, the [[List of highest mountains|highest mountain]] on earth. Several major rivers have their source in the [[Tibetan Plateau]] (mostly in present-day Qinghai Province). These include the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]], [[Yellow River]], [[Indus River]], [[Mekong]], [[Ganges]], [[Salween River|Salween]] and the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River]] ([[Brahmaputra River]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/world/china-tibet-and-the-strategic-power-of-water/ |title=Circle of Blue, 8 May 2008 China, Tibet, and the strategic power of water |publisher=Circleofblue.org |date=2008-05-08 |access-date=2010-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080702122515/http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/world/china-tibet-and-the-strategic-power-of-water/ |archive-date=July 2, 2008 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The [[Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon]], along the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River]], is among the deepest and longest canyons in the world. Tibet has been called the "Water Tower" of Asia, and China is investing heavily in water projects in Tibet.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.futurewater.nl/uk/projects/tibet/ |title=The Water Tower Function of the Tibetan Autonomous Region. |publisher=Futurewater.nl |access-date=2012-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425233325/http://www.futurewater.nl/uk/projects/tibet/ |archive-date=April 25, 2012 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.people.com.cn/90780/91344/7571032.html |title=China to spend record amount on Tibetan water projects. |publisher=English.people.com.cn |date=2011-08-16 |access-date=2012-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227231909/http://english.people.com.cn/90780/91344/7571032.html |archive-date=December 27, 2011 |url-status=live |df=mdy-all }}</ref> [[File:Yamdrok Lake (37228713076).jpg|thumb|[[Yamdrok Lake]]]] The Indus and Brahmaputra rivers originate from the vicinities of Lake [[Mapam Yumco]] in Western Tibet, near [[Mount Kailash]]. The mountain is a holy pilgrimage site for both [[Hindu]]s and Tibetans. The Hindus consider the mountain to be the abode of [[Lord Shiva]]. The Tibetan name for Mount Kailash is Khang Rinpoche. Tibet has numerous high-altitude lakes referred to in Tibetan as ''tso'' or ''co''. These include [[Qinghai Lake]], [[Lake Manasarovar]], [[Namtso]], [[Pangong Tso]], [[Yamdrok Lake]], [[Siling Co]], [[Lhamo La-tso]], [[Lumajangdong Co]], [[Lake Puma Yumco]], [[Lake Paiku]], [[Como Chamling]], [[Lake Rakshastal]], [[Dagze Co]] and [[Dong Co]]. The Qinghai Lake (Koko Nor) is the largest lake in the People's Republic of China. === Climate === The climate is severely dry nine months of the year, and average annual snowfall is only {{convert|46|cm|inch|abbr=in}}, due to the [[rain shadow|rain shadow effect]]. Western passes receive small amounts of fresh snow each year but remain traversible all year round. Low temperatures are prevalent throughout these western regions, where bleak desolation is unrelieved by any vegetation bigger than a low bush, and where the wind sweeps unchecked across vast expanses of arid plain. The Indian [[monsoon]] exerts some influence on eastern Tibet. Northern Tibet is subject to high temperatures in the summer and intense cold in the winter. {{Weather box |location = Lhasa (1986−2015 normals, extremes 1951−2022) |metric first = Y |single line = Y |Jan high C = 8.4 |Feb high C = 10.1 |Mar high C = 13.3 |Apr high C = 16.3 |May high C = 20.5 |Jun high C = 24.0 |Jul high C = 23.3 |Aug high C = 22.0 |Sep high C = 20.7 |Oct high C = 17.5 |Nov high C = 12.9 |Dec high C = 9.3 | Jan mean C = −0.3 | Feb mean C = 2.3 | Mar mean C = 5.9 | Apr mean C = 9.0 | May mean C = 13.1 | Jun mean C = 16.7 | Jul mean C = 16.5 | Aug mean C = 15.4 | Sep mean C = 13.8 | Oct mean C = 9.4 | Nov mean C = 3.8 | Dec mean C = −0.1 |Jan low C = −7.4 |Feb low C = −4.7 |Mar low C = −0.8 |Apr low C = 2.7 |May low C = 6.8 |Jun low C = 10.9 |Jul low C = 11.4 |Aug low C = 10.7 |Sep low C = 8.9 |Oct low C = 3.1 |Nov low C = −3.0 |Dec low C = −6.8 |Jan record high C = 20.5 |Feb record high C = 21.3 |Mar record high C = 25.1 |Apr record high C = 25.9 |May record high C = 29.4 |Jun record high C = 30.8 |Jul record high C = 30.4 |Aug record high C = 27.2 |Sep record high C = 26.5 |Oct record high C = 24.8 |Nov record high C = 22.8 |Dec record high C = 20.1 |Jan record low C = −16.5 |Feb record low C = −15.4 |Mar record low C = −13.6 |Apr record low C = −8.1 |May record low C = −2.7 |Jun record low C = 2.0 |Jul record low C = 4.5 |Aug record low C = 3.3 |Sep record low C = 0.3 |Oct record low C = −7.2 |Nov record low C = −11.2 |Dec record low C = −16.1 |precipitation colour = green |Jan precipitation mm = 0.9 |Feb precipitation mm = 1.8 |Mar precipitation mm = 2.9 |Apr precipitation mm = 8.6 |May precipitation mm = 28.4 |Jun precipitation mm = 75.9 |Jul precipitation mm = 129.6 |Aug precipitation mm = 133.5 |Sep precipitation mm = 66.7 |Oct precipitation mm = 8.8 |Nov precipitation mm = 0.9 |Dec precipitation mm = 0.3 |Jan humidity = 26 |Feb humidity = 25 |Mar humidity = 27 |Apr humidity = 36 |May humidity = 41 |Jun humidity = 48 |Jul humidity = 59 |Aug humidity = 63 |Sep humidity = 59 |Oct humidity = 45 |Nov humidity = 34 |Dec humidity = 29 |unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm |Jan precipitation days = 0.6 |Feb precipitation days = 1.2 |Mar precipitation days = 2.1 |Apr precipitation days = 5.4 |May precipitation days = 9.0 |Jun precipitation days = 14.0 |Jul precipitation days = 19.4 |Aug precipitation days = 19.9 |Sep precipitation days = 14.6 |Oct precipitation days = 4.1 |Nov precipitation days = 0.6 |Dec precipitation days = 0.4 |Jan sun = 250.9 |Jan percentsun = 78 |Feb sun = 231.2 |Feb percentsun = 72 |Mar sun = 253.2 |Mar percentsun = 66 |Apr sun = 248.8 |Apr percentsun = 65 |May sun = 280.4 |May percentsun = 66 |Jun sun = 260.7 |Jun percentsun = 61 |Jul sun = 227.0 |Jul percentsun = 53 |Aug sun = 214.3 |Aug percentsun = 54 |Sep sun = 232.7 |Sep percentsun = 62 |Oct sun = 280.3 |Oct percentsun = 80 |Nov sun = 267.1 |Nov percentsun = 84 |Dec sun = 257.2 |Dec percentsun = 82 |year percentsun = 67<!--automatically calculated value of 68.6 gives maximum possible daily sun hrs less than 12--> |source 1 = China Meteorological Administration,<ref name= CMA >{{cite web | url = http://old-cdc.cma.gov.cn/shuju/search1.jsp?dsid=SURF_CLI_CHN_MUL_MMON_19712000_CES&tpcat=SURF&type=table&pageid=3 | script-title = zh:中国地面国际交换站气候标准值月值数据集（1971－2000年） | access-date = 2010-05-04 | publisher = [[China Meteorological Administration]] | language = zh | archive-date = October 16, 2013 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131016192548/http://old-cdc.cma.gov.cn/shuju/search1.jsp?dsid=SURF_CLI_CHN_MUL_MMON_19712000_CES&tpcat=SURF&type=table&pageid=3 | url-status = dead }}</ref> all-time extreme temperature<ref name = Mherrera>{{cite web |url= http://www.mherrera.org/temp.htm |title= Extreme Temperatures Around the World |access-date= 2013-02-21 |archive-date= June 22, 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130622141215/http://www.mherrera.org/temp.htm |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://ogimet.com/cgi-bin/gsynres?ind=55591&ano=2022&mes=3&day=29&hora=18&min=0&ndays=30|title= 55591: Lhasa (China)|author= <!--Not stated-->|date= 28 March 2022|website= ogimet.com|publisher= OGIMET|access-date= 29 March 2022|quote= |archive-date= March 29, 2022|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220329195147/https://ogimet.com/cgi-bin/gsynres?ind=55591&ano=2022&mes=3&day=29&hora=18&min=0&ndays=30|url-status= live}}</ref> |source 2 =[http://cdc.cma.gov.cn/dataSetLogger.do?changeFlag=pageid=3 China Meteorological Administration National Meteorological Information Center] }} {{Weather box |location=Leh (1951–1980) |metric first=Yes |single line=Yes |Jan record high C=8.3 |Feb record high C=12.8 |Mar record high C=19.4 |Apr record high C=23.9 |May record high C=28.9 |Jun record high C=34.8 |Jul record high C=34.0 |Aug record high C=34.2 |Sep record high C=30.6 |Oct record high C=25.6 |Nov record high C=20.0 |Dec record high C=12.8 |year record high C=34.8 |Jan high C=-2.0 |Feb high C=1.5 |Mar high C=6.5 |Apr high C=12.3 |May high C=16.2 |Jun high C=21.8 |Jul high C=25.0 |Aug high C=25.3 |Sep high C=21.7 |Oct high C=14.6 |Nov high C=7.9 |Dec high C=2.3 |year high C=12.8 |Jan low C=-14.4 |Feb low C=-11.0 |Mar low C=-5.9 |Apr low C=-1.1 |May low C=3.2 |Jun low C=7.4 |Jul low C=10.5 |Aug low C=10.0 |Sep low C=5.8 |Oct low C=-1.0 |Nov low C=-6.7 |Dec low C=-11.8 |year low C=-1.3 |Jan record low C=-28.3 |Feb record low C=-26.4 |Mar record low C=-19.4 |Apr record low C=-12.8 |May record low C=-4.4 |Jun record low C=-1.1 |Jul record low C=0.6 |Aug record low C=1.5 |Sep record low C=-4.4 |Oct record low C=-8.5 |Nov record low C=-17.5 |Dec record low C=-25.6 |year record low C=-28.3 |rain colour=green |Jan rain mm=9.5 |Feb rain mm=8.1 |Mar rain mm=11.0 |Apr rain mm=9.1 |May rain mm=9.0 |Jun rain mm=3.5 |Jul rain mm=15.2 |Aug rain mm=15.4 |Sep rain mm=9.0 |Oct rain mm=7.5 |Nov rain mm=3.6 |Dec rain mm=4.6 |year rain mm=105.5 |Jan rain days=1.3 |Feb rain days=1.1 |Mar rain days=1.3 |Apr rain days=1.0 |May rain days=1.1 |Jun rain days=0.4 |Jul rain days=2.1 |Aug rain days=1.9 |Sep rain days=1.2 |Oct rain days=0.4 |Nov rain days=0.5 |Dec rain days=0.7 |year rain days=13.0 |time day=17:30 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]] |Jan humidity=51 |Feb humidity=51 |Mar humidity=46 |Apr humidity=36 |May humidity=30 |Jun humidity=26 |Jul humidity=33 |Aug humidity=34 |Sep humidity=31 |Oct humidity=27 |Nov humidity=40 |Dec humidity=46 |year humidity= |source 1=[[India Meteorological Department]]<ref name=IMD >{{cite web |url=http://www.imd.gov.in/section/climate/extreme/leh2.htm |title=Leh Climatological Table Period: 1951–1980 |publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |access-date=April 11, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225132218/http://www.imd.gov.in/section/climate/extreme/leh2.htm |archive-date=25 February 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=IMD2>{{cite web |url=http://www.mausam.gov.in/WEBIMD/ClimatologicalAction.do?function=getStationDetails&actionParam=1¶m=2&station=Leh |title=Leh Climatological Table Period: 1951–1980 |publisher=India Meteorological Department |access-date=April 4, 2020 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721172646/http://www.mausam.gov.in/WEBIMD/ClimatologicalAction.do?function=getStationDetails&actionParam=1¶m=2&station=Leh |archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> }} === Wildlife === ''[[Sus scrofa]]'' expanded from its origin in southeast Asia into the Plateau, acquiring and [[fixation (population genetics)|fixing]] adaptive alleles for the high-altitude environment.<ref name="Frantz-et-al-2016">{{cite journal | last1=Frantz | first1=Laurent | last2=Meijaard | first2=Erik | last3=Gongora | first3=Jaime | last4=Haile | first4=James | last5=Groenen | first5=Martien A.M. | last6=Larson | first6=Greger | title=The Evolution of Suidae | journal=[[Annual Review of Animal Biosciences]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=4 | issue=1 | date=2016-02-15 | issn=2165-8102 | doi=10.1146/annurev-animal-021815-111155 | pages=61–85| pmid=26526544 }}</ref> The forests of Tibet are home to black bears, red pandas, musk deer, barking deer, and squirrels. Monkeys such as [[rhesus macaque]]s and [[Colobinae|langurs]] live in the warmer forest zones. Tibetan antelopes, gazelles, and kiangs gaze on the grasslands of the Tibetan plateau. There are more than 500 bird species in Tibet. Because of the high altitude and harsh climate, there are few insects in Tibet.<ref name=":0" /> Snow leopards are hunted for their fur and the eggs of black-necked cranes have been collected as a delicacy food. === Regions === [[File:Gongbo'gyamda, Nyingchi, Tibet, China - panoramio (19).jpg|thumb|[[Basum Tso]] in [[Gongbo'gyamda County]], eastern Tibet]] Cultural Tibet consists of several regions. These include Amdo (''A mdo'') in the northeast, which is administratively part of the provinces of Qinghai, Gansu, and Sichuan. Kham (''Khams'') in the southeast encompasses parts of western Sichuan, northern [[Yunnan]], southern Qinghai, and the eastern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region. [[Ü-Tsang]] (''dBus gTsang'') (Ü in the center, Tsang in the center-west, and Ngari (''mNga' ris'') in the far west) covered the central and western portion of Tibet Autonomous Region.<ref>Petech, L., [https://books.google.com/books?id=V1GkmBOQLkAC ''China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century: History of the Establishment of Chinese Protectorate in Tibet''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101191608/https://books.google.com/books?id=V1GkmBOQLkAC&printsec=frontcover&sig=6eAnf2zWcz7L113XKhOc8cCv8MI |date=January 1, 2016 }}, p51 & p98</ref> Tibetan cultural influences extend to the neighboring states of [[Bhutan]], Nepal, regions of India such as [[Sikkim]], [[Ladakh]], [[Lahaul]], and [[Spiti]], Northern Pakistan [[Baltistan]] or [[Balti-yul]] in addition to designated Tibetan [[autonomous area]]s in adjacent Chinese provinces. === Cities, towns and villages === {{Further|List of populated places in the Tibet Autonomous Region}} [[File:Jokhang Temple Lhasa Tibet China 西藏 拉萨 大昭寺 - panoramio (6).jpg|thumb|Looking across the square at [[Jokhang]] temple, [[Chengguan District, Lhasa|Lhasa]]]] There are over 800 settlements in Tibet. [[Lhasa]] is Tibet's traditional capital and the capital of Tibet Autonomous Region.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Heinrichs|first=Ann|title=Enchantment of the World: Tibet|publisher=[[Children's Press]]|year=1996|isbn=0-516-20155-7|pages=19–20, 62, 143|language=English}}</ref> It contains two world heritage sites – the [[Potala Palace]] and [[Norbulingka]], which were the residences of the Dalai Lama. Lhasa contains a number of significant temples and monasteries, including [[Jokhang]] and [[Ramoche Temple]]. [[Shigatse]] is the second largest city in the Tibet AR, west of Lhasa. [[Gyantse]] and [[Qamdo]] are also amongst the largest. Other cities and towns in cultural Tibet include [[Shiquanhe]] (Gar), [[Nagchu Town|Nagchu]], [[Bamda]], [[Rutog Town|Rutog]], [[Nyingchi]], [[Shannan, Tibet|Nedong]], [[Coqên (village)|Coqên]], [[Barkam Town|Barkam]], [[Sagya]], [[Gêrzê County|Gertse]], [[Pelbar]], [[Lhatse]], and [[Tingri Town|Tingri]]; in Sichuan, [[Kangding]] (Dartsedo); in Qinghai, [[Jyekundo]] (Yushu), [[Maqên County|Machen]], and [[Golmud]]; in India, [[Tawang]], [[Leh]], and [[Gangtok]], and in Pakistan, [[Skardu]], [[Kharmang Valley|Kharmang]], and [[Khaplu]]. == Economy == {{Update section|date=October 2021}}{{Main|Economy of Tibet}}<!-- Please provide more non-PRC sources --> [[File:Bos grunniens at Yundrok Yumtso Lake.jpg|thumb|left|The Tibetan [[yak]] is an integral part of Tibetan life.]] The Tibetan economy is dominated by [[subsistence agriculture]]. Due to limited arable land, the primary occupation of the Tibetan Plateau is raising livestock, such as [[Domestic sheep|sheep]], cattle, [[Domestic goat|goats]], [[camel]]s, [[yak]]s, [[dzo]], and [[horse]]s. The main crops grown are [[barley]], wheat, [[buckwheat]], [[rye]], potatoes, and assorted fruits and vegetables. Tibet is ranked the lowest among China's 31 provinces<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tibetjustice.org/reports/enviro/globalization.pdf |title=Globalization To Tibet |last=Tsering |first=Tashi |website=[[Tibet Justice Center]] |page=9 |access-date=2013-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320160524/http://www.tibetjustice.org/reports/enviro/globalization.pdf |archive-date=March 20, 2012 |url-status=live |df=mdy-all }}</ref> on the Human Development Index according to UN Development Programme data.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tew.org/development/devel.tibet.update.html |title=Tibet Environmental Watch – Development |publisher=Tew.org |access-date=2010-03-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608141028/http://www.tew.org/development/devel.tibet.update.html |archive-date=June 8, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> In recent years, due to increased interest in Tibetan Buddhism, tourism has become an increasingly important sector, and is actively promoted by the authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.xzta.gov.cn/yww/ |title=China TIBET Tourism Bureau |access-date=2009-03-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090831193021/http://www.xzta.gov.cn/yww/ |archive-date=August 31, 2009 }}</ref> Tourism brings in the most income from the sale of handicrafts. These include Tibetan hats, jewelry (silver and gold), wooden items, clothing, quilts, fabrics, [[Tibetan rug]]s and carpets. The Central People's Government exempts Tibet from all taxation and provides 90% of Tibet's government expenditures.<ref>Grunfeld 1996, p. 224.</ref><ref>Xu Mingxu, "''Intrugues and Devoutness''", Brampton, p. 134, {{ISBN|1-896745-95-4}}</ref><ref>The 14th Dalai Lama affirmed that Tibetans within the TAR have never paid taxes to the Central People's Government, ''see'' [[:fr:Pierre-Antoine Donnet|Donnet, Pierre-Antoine]], "''Tibet mort ou vif''", 1994, p104 [Taiwan edition], {{ISBN|957-13-1040-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Tibet's economy depends on Beijing|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6083766|date=2002-08-26|publisher=NPR News|access-date=2006-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226130442/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6083766|archive-date=December 26, 2017|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref> However, most of this investment goes to pay migrant workers who do not settle in Tibet and send much of their income home to other provinces.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/how-xi-can-solve-the-tibet-problem/ |title=How Xi Can Solve The Tibet Problem |last1=Brown |first1=Kerry |date=11 January 2014 |website=thediplomat.com |publisher=The Diplomat |access-date=10 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111025432/https://thediplomat.com/2014/01/how-xi-can-solve-the-tibet-problem/ |archive-date=January 11, 2014 |url-status=live |df=mdy-all }}</ref> [[File:Farmer namtso.jpg|thumb|Pastoral [[nomad]]s constitute about 40% of the ethnic [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] population.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/06/asia_pac_tibetan_nomads/html/1.stm In pictures: Tibetan nomads] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719114044/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/06/asia_pac_tibetan_nomads/html/1.stm |date=July 19, 2018 }} BBC News</ref>]] Forty percent of the rural cash income in the Tibet Autonomous Region is derived from the harvesting of the fungus ''[[Ophiocordyceps sinensis]]'' (formerly ''Cordyceps sinensis''); contributing at least 1.8 billion yuan, (US$225 million) to the region's GDP.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Yartsa Gunbu (Cordyceps sinensis) and the Fungal Commodification of Tibet's Rural Economy|author=Daniel Winkler|journal=Economic Botany|date=November 2008|volume=62|issue=3|pages=291–305|doi=10.1007/s12231-008-9038-3|s2cid=29381859}}</ref> [[File:Tromzikhang 2018 01.jpg|thumb|[[Tromzikhang]] market in Lhasa]] The [[Qingzang railway]] linking the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] to [[Qinghai|Qinghai Province]] was opened in 2006, but it was controversial.<ref>{{cite news|title=China opens world's highest railway |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200607/s1676433.htm |date=2005-07-01 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=2006-07-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060706191619/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200607/s1676433.htm |archive-date=July 6, 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=China completes railway to Tibet |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4345494.stm |date=2005-10-15 |work=BBC News |access-date=2006-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823211433/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4345494.stm |archive-date=August 23, 2006 |url-status=live |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Dalai Lama Urges 'Wait And See' On Tibet Railway |url=http://www.tibetlink.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=329&Itemid=2 |date=2006-06-30 |publisher=Deutsche Presse Agentur |access-date=2006-07-04 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522174107/http://www.tibetlink.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=329&Itemid=2 |archive-date=May 22, 2016 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref> In January 2007, the Chinese government issued a report outlining the discovery of a large mineral deposit under the [[Tibetan Plateau]].<ref name=Tibet12345>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/25/business/worldbusiness/25iht-mine.4345769.html|title=Valuable mineral deposits found along Tibet railroad route|newspaper=New York Times|date=2007-01-25|access-date=2014-01-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160724080417/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/25/business/worldbusiness/25iht-mine.4345769.html|archive-date=July 24, 2016|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The deposit has an estimated value of $128 billion and may double Chinese reserves of zinc, copper, and lead. The Chinese government sees this as a way to alleviate the nation's dependence on foreign mineral imports for its growing economy. However, critics worry that mining these vast resources will harm Tibet's fragile ecosystem and undermine Tibetan culture.<ref name=Tibet12345/> On January 15, 2009, China announced the construction of Tibet's first expressway, the [[Lhasa Airport Expressway]], a {{convert|37.9|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} stretch of [[controlled-access highway]] in southwestern Lhasa. The project will cost 1.55 billion [[Chinese yuan|yuan]] (US$227 million).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080&sid=a_Tg57.MXpcY&refer=asia|title=China Says 'Sabotage' by Dalai Lama Supporters Set Back Tibet|last=Peng|first=James|website=[[Bloomberg News]]|date=2009-01-16|access-date=2009-02-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014072312/http://bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080|archive-date=October 14, 2007|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref> From January 18–20, 2010, a national conference on Tibet and areas inhabited by Tibetans in Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu and Qinghai was held in China and a plan to improve development of the areas was announced. The conference was attended by General secretary [[Hu Jintao]], [[Wu Bangguo]], [[Wen Jiabao]], [[Jia Qinglin]], [[Li Changchun]], [[Xi Jinping]], [[Li Keqiang]], [[He Guoqiang]] and [[Zhou Yongkang]], all members of [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party]]. The plan called for improvement of rural Tibetan income to national standards by 2020 and free education for all rural Tibetan children. China has invested 310 billion yuan (about 45.6 billion U.S. dollars) in Tibet since 2001.<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-01/22/c_13147500.htm "China to achieve leapfrog development, lasting stability in Tibet"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127211201/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2010-01/22/c_13147500.htm |date=January 27, 2010 }} news.xinhuanet.com/english</ref>{{Better source needed|date=October 2021}} === Development zone === The State Council approved Tibet Lhasa Economic and Technological Development Zone as a state-level development zone in 2001. It is located in the western suburbs of Lhasa, the capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region. It is {{convert|50|km|mi|abbr=off}} away from the [[Gonggar Airport]], and {{convert|2|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} away from Lhasa Railway Station and {{convert|2|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} away from 318 national highway. The zone has a planned area of {{convert|5.46|km2|2|abbr=on}} and is divided into two zones. Zone A developed a land area of {{convert|2.51|km2|2|abbr=on}} for construction purposes. It is a flat zone, and has the natural conditions for good drainage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/lasa-economic-technology-development-zone/ |title=Lhasa Economic & Technology Development Zone |publisher=RightSite.asia |access-date=2010-12-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706085318/http://rightsite.asia/en/industrial-zone/lasa-economic-technology-development-zone |archive-date=July 6, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> == Demographics == {{See also|History of Tibet (1950–present)|Tibet Autonomous Region#Demographics{{!}}Demographics of Tibet Autonomous Region}} [[File:Flag of Tibet.svg|thumb|The [[Flag of Tibet]], also known as the "[[Snow Lion]] flag" (''gangs seng dar cha''), was used by the [[De facto|''de facto'']] independent [[Tibet (1912–1951)|state of Tibet]] as the national flag. It continues to be used by the [[Central Tibetan Administration|Tibetan government-in-exile]] and by supporters of the [[Tibetan independence movement]].]] [[File:Tibetan "Lamanis".jpg|thumb|Tibetan Lamanis, {{circa|1905}}]] [[File:IMG 0996 Lhasa Barkhor.jpg|thumb|right|An elderly Tibetan woman in Lhasa]] Historically, the population of Tibet consisted of primarily ethnic [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] and some other ethnic groups. According to tradition the original ancestors of the Tibetan people, as represented by the six red bands in the [[Tibetan flag]], are: the Se, Mu, Dong, Tong, Dru and Ra. Other traditional ethnic groups with significant population or with the majority of the ethnic group residing in Tibet (excluding a [[Sino-Indian War|disputed area with India]]) include [[Bai people]], [[Blang people|Blang]], [[Bonans|Bonan]], [[Dongxiang people|Dongxiang]], [[Han Chinese|Han]], [[Hui people]], [[Lhoba]], [[Lisu people]], [[Miao people|Miao]], [[Mongols]], [[Monguor people|Monguor (Tu people)]], [[Monpa people|Menba (Monpa)]], [[Mosuo]], [[Nakhi]], [[Qiang people|Qiang]], [[Nu people]], [[Pumi people|Pumi]], [[Salar people|Salar]], and [[Yi people]]. The proportion of the non-Tibetan population in Tibet is disputed. On the one hand, the Central Tibetan Administration of the Dalai Lama accuses China of actively swamping Tibet with [[Chinese settlements in Tibet|migrants]] in order to alter Tibet's demographic makeup.<ref name="fifth">{{cite web |url=http://www.tibet.net/en/print.php?id=236&articletype=articale |publisher=[[Central Tibetan Administration]] |title=Population Transfer Programmes |year=2003 |access-date=2010-07-29 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20100730030042/http://www.tibet.net/en/print.php?id=236&articletype=articale |archive-date=July 30, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On the other hand, according to the [[Sixth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China|2010 Chinese census]] ethnic Tibetans comprise 90% of a total population of 3 million in the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-05/04/c_13858686.htm |title=Tibet's population tops 3 million; 90% are Tibetans |publisher=[[Xinhua News Agency]] |date=2011-05-04 |access-date=2011-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513202105/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-05/04/c_13858686.htm |archive-date=May 13, 2011 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=January 2023}} == Culture == {{Main|Tibetan culture}} [[File:Tibetischer Kulturraum Karte.png|thumb|right|Tibetan cultural zone]] === Religion === {{Main|Religion in Tibet}} ==== Buddhism ==== {{Main|Tibetan Buddhism}} [[File:Monkhood in Tibet, Xigatse area, August 2005.jpg|thumb|Monkhood in Tibet, Xigatse area, August 2005]] [[File:Phugtal col.jpg|thumb|upright|220px|The [[Phugtal Monastery]] in south-east [[Zanskar]]]] [[File:Young monks of Drepung.jpg|right|thumb|Buddhist monks practicing debate in [[Drepung]] Monastery]] Religion is extremely important to the Tibetans and has a strong influence over all aspects of their lives. [[Bön]] is the indigenous religion of Tibet, but has been almost eclipsed by Tibetan Buddhism, a distinctive form of [[Mahayana]] and [[Vajrayana]], which was introduced into Tibet from the Sanskrit Buddhist tradition of northern India.<ref>{{cite book |last= Conze |first= Edward |author-link= Edward Conze |title= A Short History of Buddhism |year=1993 |publisher=Oneworld |isbn=978-1-85168-066-5 }}</ref> Tibetan Buddhism is practiced not only in Tibet but also in [[Mongolia]], parts of northern India, the [[Buryat Republic]], the [[Tuva Republic]], and in the [[Republic of Kalmykia]] and some other parts of China. During China's [[Cultural Revolution]], nearly all Tibet's [[List of Tibetan monasteries|monasteries]] were ransacked and destroyed by the [[Red Guards (China)|Red Guards]].<ref name="Tibetan monks: A controlled life">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7307495.stm Tibetan monks: A controlled life] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218083955/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7307495.stm |date=February 18, 2009 }}. BBC News. March 20, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://voyage.typepad.com/china/2007/04/tibet_during_th.html Tibet During the Cultural Revolution] Pictures from a Tibetan People's Liberation Army's officer [http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100505143725/http%3A//voyage%2Etypepad%2Ecom/china/2007/04/tibet_during_th%2Ehtml Archived copy] at the [[Library of Congress]] (May 5, 2010).</ref><ref>[https://archive.today/20090724113809/http://articles.latimes.com/2008/mar/26/opinion/oe-buruma26 The last of the Tibetans] [[Los Angeles Times]]. March 26, 2008.</ref> A few monasteries have begun to rebuild since the 1980s (with limited support from the Chinese government) and greater religious freedom has been granted – although it is still limited. Monks returned to monasteries across Tibet and monastic education resumed even though the number of monks imposed is strictly limited.<ref name="Tibetan monks: A controlled life"/><ref>{{cite web |url-status=live |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE3DB123BF937A25755C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |title=Tibet's Buddhist Monks Endure to Rebuild a Part of the Past |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414142825/https://www.nytimes.com/1987/06/14/weekinreview/tibet-s-buddhist-monks-endure-to-rebuild-a-part-of-the-past.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all |archive-date=April 14, 2023 |website=The New York Times |date=June 14, 1987 |last=Gargan |first=Edward A.}} </ref><ref>Laird 2006, pp. 351, 352</ref> Before the 1950s, between 10 and 20% of males in Tibet were monks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Goldstein|first=Melvyn C.|title=A History of Modern Tibet: Volume 2 The Calm before the Storm, 1951–1955|year=2007|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley, CA}}</ref> Tibetan Buddhism has five main traditions (the suffix ''pa'' is comparable to "er" in English): * '''[[Gelug|Gelug(pa)]]''', ''Way of Virtue'', also known casually as ''Yellow Hat'', whose spiritual head is the [[Ganden Tripa]] and whose temporal head is the [[Dalai Lama]]. Successive Dalai Lamas ruled Tibet from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries. This order was founded in the 14th to 15th centuries by [[Je Tsongkhapa]], based on the foundations of the [[Kadampa]] tradition. Tsongkhapa was renowned for both his scholasticism and his virtue. The Dalai Lama belongs to the Gelugpa school, and is regarded as the embodiment of the Bodhisattva of Compassion.<ref>[[Avalokitesvara]], [[Chenrezig]]</ref> * '''[[Kagyu|Kagyu(pa)]]''', ''Oral Lineage''. This contains one major subsect and one minor subsect. The first, the Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back to [[Gampopa]]. In turn, the Dagpo Kagyu consists of four major sub-sects: the [[Karma Kagyu]], headed by a [[Karmapa]], the Tsalpa Kagyu, the Barom Kagyu, and Pagtru Kagyu. The once-obscure [[Shangpa Kagyu]], which was famously represented by the 20th-century teacher [[Kalu Rinpoche]], traces its history back to the Indian master Niguma, sister of Kagyu lineage holder [[Naropa]]. This is an oral tradition which is very much concerned with the experiential dimension of meditation. Its most famous exponent was Milarepa, an 11th-century mystic. * '''[[Nyingma|Nyingma(pa)]]''', ''The Ancient Ones''. This is the oldest, the original order founded by [[Padmasambhava]]. * '''[[Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)|Sakya(pa)]]''', ''Grey Earth'', headed by the [[Sakya Trizin]], founded by Khon Konchog Gyalpo, a disciple of the great translator Drokmi Lotsawa. [[Sakya Pandita]] 1182–1251 CE was the great-grandson of Khon Konchog Gyalpo. This school emphasizes scholarship. * '''[[Jonang|Jonang(pa)]]''' Its origins in Tibet can be traced to early 12th century master [[Yumo Mikyo Dorje]], but became much wider known with the help of [[Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen]], a monk originally trained in the [[Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)|Sakya]] school. The Jonang school was widely thought to have become extinct in the late 17th century at the hands of the [[5th Dalai Lama]], who forcibly annexed the Jonang monasteries to his [[Gelug]] school, declaring them heretical. Thus, [[Tibetology|Tibetologists]] were astonished when fieldwork turned up several active Jonangpa monasteries, including the main monastery, Tsangwa, located in Zamtang County, Sichuan. Almost 40 monasteries, comprising about 5000 monks, have subsequently been found, including some in the [[Amdo Tibetan]] and [[Qiang people|rGyalgrong]] areas of [[Qinghai]], Sichuan and Tibet. One of the primary supporters of the Jonang lineage in exile has been the [[14th Dalai Lama]] of the Gelugpa lineage. The Jonang tradition has recently officially registered with the [[Central Tibetan Administration|Tibetan Government]] in exile to be recognized as the fifth living Buddhist tradition of [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. The 14th Dalai Lama assigned [[Jebtsundamba Khutuktu]] of Mongolia (who is considered to be an incarnation of Taranatha) as the leader of the Jonang tradition. The Chinese government continued to pursue a strategy of forced assimilation and suppression of Tibetan Buddhism, as demonstrated by the laws designed to control the next reincarnation of the Dalai Lama and those of other Tibetan eminent lamas. Monks and nuns who refused to denounce the Dalai Lama have been expelled from their monasteries, imprisoned, and tortured.<ref>{{cite web |date=April 2020 |title=USCIRF 2020 Annual Report on International Religious Freedoms |url=https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/USCIRF%202020%20Annual%20Report_Final_42920.pdf |access-date=28 August 2021 |publisher=[[United States Commission on International Religious Freedom]] |archive-date=August 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803033034/https://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/USCIRF%202020%20Annual%20Report_Final_42920.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> It was reported in June 2021 that amidst the [[2020–2022 China–India skirmishes]], the [[People's Liberation Army]] had been forming a new unit for Tibetans who would be taken to Buddhist monks for religious blessings after completing their training.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rezaul H Laskar |date=2021-06-22 |title=China raises new militias of Tibetan youth, deploys 1st batch in Chumbi Valley |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/china-raises-new-militias-of-tibetan-youth-deploys-1st-batch-in-chumbi-valley-101624371160233.html |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623100826/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/china-raises-new-militias-of-tibetan-youth-deploys-1st-batch-in-chumbi-valley-101624371160233.html |archive-date=June 23, 2022 |website=[[Hindustan Times]] |language=en |access-date=June 23, 2022 }}</ref> ==== Christianity ==== {{See also|Catholic Church in Tibet}} The first Christians documented to have reached Tibet were the [[Nestorian Christians|Nestorians]], of whom various remains and inscriptions have been found in Tibet. They were also present at the imperial camp of [[Möngke Khan]] at Shira Ordo, where they debated in 1256 with [[Karma Pakshi]] (1204/6-83), head of the [[Karma Kagyu]] order.<ref>Kapstein 2006, pp. 31, 71, 113.</ref><ref>Stein 1972, pp. 36, 77–78.</ref> Desideri, who reached Lhasa in 1716, encountered Armenian and Russian merchants.<ref>Françoise Pommaret, Françoise Pommaret-Imaeda (2003). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=WhzF0N_X5KwC&pg=PA159 Lhasa in the Seventeenth Century: The Capital of the Dalai Lamas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328235314/https://books.google.com/books?id=WhzF0N_X5KwC&pg=PA159&dq&hl=en |date=March 28, 2017 }}''. BRILL. p. 159. {{ISBN|90-04-12866-2}}</ref> Roman Catholic [[Jesuits]] and [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchins]] arrived from Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. Portuguese missionaries Jesuit Father [[António de Andrade]] and Brother Manuel Marques first reached the kingdom of [[Gelu, Nepal|Gelu]] in western Tibet in 1624 and was welcomed by the royal family who allowed them to build a church later on.<ref>Graham Sanderg, The Exploration of Tibet: History and Particulars (Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 1973), pp. 23–26; Thomas Holdich, Tibet, The Mysterious (London: [[Alston Rivers]], 1906), p. 70.</ref><ref>Sir Edward Maclagan, The Jesuits and The Great Mogul (London: Burns, Oates & Washbourne Ltd., 1932), pp. 344–345.</ref> By 1627, there were about a hundred local converts in the Guge kingdom.<ref>Lettera del P. Alano Dos Anjos al Provinciale di Goa, 10 Novembre 1627, quoted from Wu Kunming, Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi (Beijing: Zhongguo Zangxue chubanshe, 1992), p. 163.</ref> Later on, Christianity was introduced to [[Rudok]], [[Ladakh]] and Tsang and was welcomed by the ruler of the [[Ü-Tsang|Tsang kingdom]], where Andrade and his fellows established a Jesuit outpost at Shigatse in 1626.<ref>Extensively using Italian and Portuguese archival materials, Wu's work gives a detailed account of Cacella's activities in Tsang. See Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi, esp. chapter 5.</ref> In 1661 another Jesuit, [[Johann Grueber]], crossed Tibet from [[Sining]] to Lhasa (where he spent a month), before heading on to Nepal.<ref>''Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet, and of the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa'', pp. 295–302. Clements R. Markham. (1876). Reprint Cosmo Publications, New Delhi. 1989.</ref> He was followed by others who actually built a church in Lhasa. These included the Jesuit Father [[Ippolito Desideri]], 1716–1721, who gained a deep knowledge of Tibetan culture, language and Buddhism, and various Capuchins in 1707–1711, 1716–1733 and 1741–1745,<ref name="Stein 1972, p. 85">Stein 1972, p. 85.</ref> Christianity was used by some Tibetan monarchs and their courts and the [[Karmapa]] sect lamas to counterbalance the influence of the [[Gelugpa]] sect in the 17th century until in 1745 when all the missionaries were expelled at the lama's insistence.<ref name="pacificrim.usfca.edu">{{cite web |url = http://www.pacificrim.usfca.edu/research/pacrimreport/pacrimreport36.html |title=When Christianity and Lamaism Met: The Changing Fortunes of Early Western Missionaries in Tibet|author=Hsiao-ting Lin|author1-link=Lin Hsiao-ting |publisher=Pacificrim.usfca.edu |access-date=2010-03-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626095547/http://www.pacificrim.usfca.edu/research/pacrimreport/pacrimreport36.html |archive-date=June 26, 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/6299565.stm|title=BBC News Country Profiles Timeline: Tibet|access-date=2009-03-11|date=2009-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311184520/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/6299565.stm|archive-date=March 11, 2009|url-status=live|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>Lettera del P. Antonio de Andrade. Giovanni de Oliveira. Alano Dos Anjos al Provinciale di Goa, 29 Agosto, 1627, quoted from Wu, Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi, p. 196; Maclagan, The Jesuits and The Great Mogul, pp. 347–348.</ref><ref>Cornelius Wessels, Early Jesuit Travellers in Central Asia, 1603–1721 (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1924), pp. 80–85.</ref><ref>Maclagan, The Jesuits and The Great Mogul, pp. 349–352; [[Filippo De Filippi (explorer)|Filippo De Filippi]] ed., An Account of Tibet, pp. 13–17.</ref><ref>Relação da Missão do Reino de Uçangue Cabeça dos do Potente, Escrita pello P. João Cabral da Comp. de Jesu. fol. 1, quoted from Wu, Zaoqi Chuanjiaoshi jin Zang Huodongshi, pp. 294–297; Wang Yonghong, "Luelun Tianzhujiao zai Xizang di Zaoqi Huodong", Xizang Yanjiu, 1989, No. 3, pp. 62–63.</ref> In 1877, the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[James Cameron (China Inland Mission)|James Cameron]] from the [[China Inland Mission]] walked from [[Chongqing]] to [[Batang County|Batang]] in [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]], Sichuan province, and "brought the Gospel to the Tibetan people." Beginning in the 20th century, in [[Dêqên Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]] in Yunnan, a large number of Lisu people and some Yi and Nu people converted to Christianity. Famous earlier missionaries include [[James O. Fraser]], [[Alfred James Broomhall]] and [[Isobel Kuhn]] of the China Inland Mission, among others who were active in this area.<ref>{{cite web | title=Yunnan Province of China Government Web | url=http://www.eng.yn.gov.cn/yunnanEnglish/145529160029175808/20050623/378813.html | access-date=2008-02-15 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312021316/http://www.eng.yn.gov.cn/yunnanEnglish/145529160029175808/20050623/378813.html | archive-date=March 12, 2009 | df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>Kapstein 2006, pp. 31, 206</ref> [[Proselytising]] has been illegal in China since 1949. But {{As of|2013|lc=y}}, many Christian missionaries were reported to be active in Tibet with the tacit approval of Chinese authorities, who view the missionaries as a counterforce to Tibetan Buddhism or as a boon to the local economy.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/21/going-undercover-christian-evangelists-tibet | title=Going undercover, the evangelists taking Jesus to Tibet | newspaper=The Guardian | date=21 February 2013 | access-date=February 21, 2013 | author=Kaiman, Jonathan | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826064439/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/21/going-undercover-christian-evangelists-tibet | archive-date=August 26, 2013 | url-status=live | df=mdy-all }}</ref> ==== Islam ==== {{Main|Islam in Tibet}} [[File:A new Muslim Mosque in Lhasa.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Lhasa Great Mosque]]]] Muslims have been living in Tibet since as early as the 8th or 9th century. In Tibetan cities, there are small communities of [[Tibetan Muslim|Muslims]], known as Kachee (Kache), who trace their origin to immigrants from three main regions: [[Kashmir]] (Kachee Yul in ancient Tibetan), Ladakh and the Central Asian Turkic countries. Islamic influence in Tibet also came from Persia. A Muslim Sufi [[Ali Hamadani|Syed Ali Hamdani]] preached to the people of [[Baltistan]], then known as little Tibet. After 1959, a group of Tibetan Muslims made a case for Indian nationality based on their historic roots to Kashmir and the Indian government declared all Tibetan Muslims Indian citizens later on that year.<ref>Masood Butt, [http://www.tibet.com/Muslim/tibetan-muslim.html 'Muslims of Tibet'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060910081317/http://www.tibet.com/Muslim/tibetan-muslim.html|date=September 10, 2006}}, [[Government of Tibet in exile]], January/February 1994</ref> Other Muslim ethnic groups who have long inhabited Tibet include [[Hui people|Hui]], [[Salar people|Salar]], [[Dongxiang people|Dongxiang]] and [[Bonans|Bonan]]. There is also a well established Chinese Muslim community (gya kachee), which traces its ancestry back to the [[Hui people|Hui]] ethnic group of China. === Tibetan art === {{Main|Tibetan art}} Tibetan representations of art are intrinsically bound with [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and commonly depict [[deities]] or variations of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in various forms from bronze Buddhist statues and shrines, to highly colorful [[thangka]] paintings and [[mandala]]s.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} Thangkas are Tibet's traditional cloth paintings. Rendered on cotton cloth with a thin rod at the top, they portray Buddhist deities or themes in color and detail.<ref name=":0" /><gallery widths="200" heights="150"> File:Thanka.jpg|A [[thangka]] painting in [[Sikkim]] File:Tibetan - A Ritual Box - Walters 572299 - Reverse.jpg|A [[ritual box]] File:Old Ceremonial Tibetan Apron used by Head Priests - Courtesy the Wovensouls Collection.jpg|A ceremonial priest's yak bone apron </gallery> === Architecture === {{Main|Tibetan culture#Architecture}} Tibetan architecture contains Chinese and Indian influences, and reflects a deeply [[Buddhist]] approach. The [[Dharmacakra|Buddhist wheel]], along with two dragons, can be seen on nearly every [[Gompa]] in Tibet. The design of the Tibetan [[Chörten]]s can vary, from roundish walls in [[Kham]] to squarish, four-sided walls in [[Ladakh]]. The most distinctive feature of Tibetan architecture is that many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are often made out of a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth. Little fuel is available for heat or lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, and multiple windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at 10 degrees as a precaution against the frequent earthquakes in this mountainous area. Standing at {{convert|117|m|ft|abbr=off}} in height and {{convert|360|m|ft|abbr=off}} in width, the [[Potala Palace]] is the most important example of Tibetan architecture. Formerly the residence of the [[Dalai Lama]], it contains over one thousand rooms within thirteen stories, and houses portraits of the past Dalai Lamas and statues of the Buddha. It is divided between the outer White Palace, which serves as the administrative quarters, and the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the Lamas, chapels, 10,000 shrines, and a vast library of Buddhist scriptures. The Potala Palace is a [[World Heritage Site]], as is [[Norbulingka]], the former summer residence of the Dalai Lama. === Music === {{Main|Music of Tibet}} The music of Tibet reflects the cultural heritage of the trans-Himalayan region, centered in Tibet but also known wherever ethnic [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] groups are found in India, [[Bhutan]], Nepal and further abroad. First and foremost Tibetan music is [[religious music]], reflecting the profound influence of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] on the culture. Tibetan music often involves [[chanting]] in [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]] or [[Sanskrit]], as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of [[sacred text]]s or in celebration of various festivals. [[Yin and yang|Yang]] chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant drums and low, sustained syllables. Other styles include those unique to the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, such as the classical music of the popular [[Gelugpa]] school, and the romantic music of the [[Nyingmapa]], [[Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)|Sakyapa]] and [[Kagyupa]] schools.<ref>Crossley-Holland, Peter. (1976). "The Ritual Music of Tibet." ''The Tibet Journal''. Vol. 1, Nos. 3 & 4, Autumn 1976, pp. 47–53.</ref> [[Nangma]] dance music is especially popular in the [[karaoke]] bars of the urban center of Tibet, [[Lhasa (prefecture-level city)|Lhasa]]. Another form of popular music is the classical [[gar (music)|gar]] style, which is performed at rituals and ceremonies. [[Lu (music)|Lu]] are a type of songs that feature glottal vibrations and high pitches. There are also epic bards who sing of [[Gesar]], who is a hero to ethnic Tibetans. === Festivals === {{Main|Tibetan festivals}} [[File:IMG 1016 Lhasa Barkhor.jpg|thumb|The [[Monlam Prayer Festival]]]] Tibet has various festivals, many for worshipping the Buddha,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Chiley Chudza |title=A Brief Introduction of Tibet Seasonal Festival Folklore - CNKI |script-title=zh:西藏岁时节日民俗概述|language=zh|trans-title=A Brief Introduction of Tibet Seasonal Festival Folklore|journal=Journal of Tibet University (Chinese Version)|date=2007|issue=2|pages=26–32|doi=10.16249/j.cnki.1005-5738.2007.02.006}}</ref> that take place throughout the year. [[Losar]] is the Tibetan New Year Festival. Preparations for the festive event are manifested by special offerings to family shrine deities, painted doors with religious symbols, and other painstaking jobs done to prepare for the event. Tibetans eat ''[[Guthuk]]'' (barley noodle soup with filling) on New Year's Eve with their families. The [[Monlam Prayer Festival]] follows it in the first month of the [[Tibetan calendar]], falling between the fourth and the eleventh days of the first Tibetan month. It involves dancing and participating in sports events, as well as sharing picnics. The event was established in 1049 by Tsong Khapa, the founder of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama's order. === Cuisine === {{Main|Tibetan cuisine}} {{see also|List of Tibetan dishes}}[[File:Thupka with Momo - Tibetan Sytle.JPG|thumb|[[Thukpa]] with Momo – Tibetan Style]]The most important crop in Tibet is [[barley]], and dough made from barley flour—called [[tsampa]]—is the [[staple food]] of Tibet. This is either rolled into noodles or made into steamed dumplings called [[momo (food)|momos]]. Meat dishes are likely to be [[yak]], goat, or [[Lamb (food)|mutton]], often dried, or cooked into a spicy [[stew]] with potatoes. [[Mustard seed]] is cultivated in Tibet, and therefore features heavily in its cuisine. Yak [[yogurt]], butter and cheese are frequently eaten, and well-prepared yogurt is considered something of a prestige item. [[Butter tea]] is a very popular drink. === Sports === {{See also|Traditional games of Tibet}}{{Empty section|date=January 2024}} == See also == {{Portal|China|Asia}} * [[Index of Tibet-related articles]] * [[List of Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Tibet]] * [[Outline of Tibet]] * [[Sinicization of Tibet]] * [[Chinese settlements in Tibet|Chinese Settlements in Tibet]] * [[Free Tibet]] == References == === Citations === {{reflist|40em|refs = <ref name="GLOBE">National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1. Hastings, D. and P.K. Dunbar. [http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/gltiles.html National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110210142322/http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/gltiles.html |date=February 10, 2011 }}. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: 2015-03-16]</ref> <ref name="ETOPO1">Amante, C. and B.W. Eakins, 2009. ETOPO1 1 Arc-Minute Global Relief Model: Procedures, Data Sources and Analysis. NOAA Technical Memorandum NESDIS NGDC-24. [http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/global.html National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626132058/http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/global.html |date=June 26, 2015 }}. doi:10.7289/V5C8276M [access date: 2015-03-18].</ref> }} === Sources === {{refbegin|40em}} *[[Christopher I. Beckwith|Beckwith, Christopher I]]. ''The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the Early Middle Ages''' (1987) Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-02469-3}} *[[Melvyn Goldstein|Goldstein, Melvyn C]]. ''[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernt00melv A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State]'' (1989) University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-06140-8}} {{Registration required}} *[[Melvyn Goldstein|Goldstein, Melvyn C]]. ''A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State'' (1989), first Indian edition (1993) Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi, {{ISBN|81-215-0582-8}} Pagination is identical to University of California edition. *Goldstein, Melvyn C. ''The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama'' (1997) University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-21951-1}} *[[A. Tom Grunfeld|Grunfeld, Tom]] (1996). ''The Making of Modern Tibet.'' {{ISBN|1-56324-713-5}}. *[[Peter Hopkirk|Hopkirk, Peter]]. [https://archive.org/details/trespassersonroo0000hopk ''Trespassers on the Roof of the World: The Secret Exploration of Tibet''] (1983) J. P. Tarcher. {{ISBN|0-87477-257-5}} *[[Matthew Kapstein|Kapstein, Matthew T]]. ''The Tibetans'' (2006) Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-631-22574-4}} *Laird, Thomas. ''The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama'' (2006) Grove Press. {{ISBN|0-8021-1827-5}} *[[Glenn H. Mullin|Mullin, Glenn H]].''The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnations'' (2001) Clear Light Publishers. {{ISBN|1-57416-092-3}} *Powers, John. ''History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People's Republic of China'' (2004) Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-517426-7}} *[[Hugh Edward Richardson|Richardson, Hugh E]]. ''Tibet and its History'' Second Edition, Revised and Updated (1984) Shambhala. {{ISBN|0-87773-376-7}} *[[Tsering Shakya|Shakya, Tsering]]. ''The Dragon In The Land Of Snows'' (1999) Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|0-231-11814-7}} *[[Rolf Stein|Stein, R]]. ''Tibetan Civilization'' (1972) Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-0901-7}} *Teltscher, Kate. ''[[The High Road to China (book)|The High Road to China: George Bogle, the Panchen Lama and the First British Expedition to Tibet]]'' (2006) Bloomsbury UK. {{ISBN|0-7475-8484-2}} {{refend}} == Further reading == {{refbegin|40em}} * [[Charles Allen (writer)|Allen, Charles]] (2004). ''Duel in the Snows: The True Story of the Younghusband Mission to Lhasa.'' London: John Murray. {{ISBN|0-7195-5427-6}}. * Bell, Charles (1924). ''Tibet: Past & Present.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Dowman, Keith (1988). ''The Power-Places of Central Tibet: The Pilgrim's Guide.'' Routledge & Kegan Paul. London, {{ISBN|0-7102-1370-0}}. New York, {{ISBN|0-14-019118-6}}. * Feigon, Lee. (1998). ''Demystifying Tibet: unlocking the secrets of the land of the snows.'' Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. {{ISBN|1-56663-196-3}}. 1996 hardback, {{ISBN|1-56663-089-4}} * Gyatso, Palden (1997). ''The Autobiography of a Tibetan Monk.'' Grove Press. NY, NY. {{ISBN|0-8021-3574-9}} * Human Rights in China: ''China, Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions'', London, Minority Rights Group International, 2007 * Le Sueur, Alec (2013). ''[[The Hotel on the Roof of the World]] – Five Years in Tibet.'' Chichester: Summersdale. {{ISBN|978-1-84024-199-0}}. Oakland: RDR Books. {{ISBN|978-1-57143-101-1}} * McKay, Alex (1997). ''Tibet and the British Raj: The Frontier Cadre 1904–1947.'' London: Curzon. {{ISBN|0-7007-0627-5}}. * Norbu, Thubten Jigme; Turnbull, Colin (1968). ''Tibet: Its History, Religion and People.'' Reprint: Penguin Books (1987). * Pachen, Ani; Donnely, Adelaide (2000). ''Sorrow Mountain: The Journey of a Tibetan Warrior Nun.'' Kodansha America, Inc. {{ISBN|1-56836-294-3}}. * Petech, Luciano (1997). ''China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century: History of the Establishment of Chinese Protectorate in Tibet.'' T'oung Pao Monographies, Brill Academic Publishers, {{ISBN|90-04-03442-0}}. * {{cite book|title=Sino-Tibetan Dialogue in the Post-Mao Era: Lessons and Prospectsv|last1=Rabgey|first1=Tashi|last2=Sharlho|first2=Tseten Wangchuk|url=http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS012.pdf|year=2004|publisher=East-West Center|location=Washington|isbn=978-1-932728-22-4|access-date=August 14, 2008|archive-date=July 16, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716184654/http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS012.pdf|url-status=dead}} * Samuel, Geoffrey (1993). ''Civilized Shamans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies.'' Smithsonian {{ISBN|1-56098-231-4}}. * Schell, Orville (2000). ''Virtual Tibet: Searching for Shangri-La from the Himalayas to Hollywood.'' Henry Holt. {{ISBN|0-8050-4381-0}}. * {{cite book |title=History of Tibet: Nationalism and Self-determination |last=Smith |first=Warren W. |year=1996 |publisher=Westview Press |location=Boulder, CO |isbn=978-0-8133-3155-3 }} * {{cite book |title=''China's Policy on Tibetan Autonomy'' – EWC Working Papers No. 2 |last=Smith |first=Warren W. |year=2004 |url=http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/EWCWwp002.pdf |publisher=East-West Center |location=Washington |access-date=August 14, 2008 |archive-date=August 19, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819185425/http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/EWCWwp002.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |title =bChina's Tibet?: Autonomy or Assimilation |last=Smith |first=Warren W. |year=2008|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-0-7425-3989-1}} * {{cite book |title=The Tibet-China Conflict: History and Polemics |last=Sperling |first=Elliot |author-link=Elliot Sperling |url=http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS007.pdf |year=2004 |publisher=East-West Center |location=Washington |isbn=978-1-932728-13-2 |issn=1547-1330 |access-date=August 14, 2008 |archive-date=August 19, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819185422/http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/PS007.pdf |url-status=dead }} – (online version) * Thurman, Robert (2002). ''Robert Thurman on Tibet.'' DVD. ASIN B00005Y722. * Van Walt van Praag, Michael C. (1987). ''The Status of Tibet: History, Rights, and Prospects in International Law.'' Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. * Wilby, Sorrel (1988). ''Journey Across Tibet: A Young Woman's {{convert|1900|mi|km|-1|adj=on}} Trek Across the Rooftop of the World.'' Contemporary Books. {{ISBN|0-8092-4608-2}}. * Wilson, Brandon (2004). ''Yak Butter Blues: A Tibetan Trek of Faith.'' Pilgrim's Tales. {{ISBN|0-9770536-6-0}}, {{ISBN|0-9770536-7-9}}. (second edition 2005) * Wang Jiawei (2000). ''The Historical Status of China's Tibet.'' {{ISBN|7-80113-304-8}}. * [http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1081523 Tibet wasn't always ours, says Chinese scholar] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070517115938/http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1081523 |date=May 17, 2007 }} by Venkatesan Vembu, Daily News & Analysis, February 22, 2007 * Wylie, Turrell V. "The First Mongol Conquest of Tibet Reinterpreted", ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'' (Volume 37, Number 1, June 1977) * {{cite book |title = Tibetanness under Threat? Neo-Integrationism, Minority Education and Career Strategies in Qinghai, P.R. China |last=Zenz |first=Adrian |year=2014 |publisher=Global Oriental |isbn=978-90-04-25796-2}} {{refend}} == External links == {{Sister project links|voy=Tibet}} * [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/eastasian/Tibetan/links.html Tibetan Resources on the Web] from [[Columbia University Libraries]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101013201011/http://tibet.prm.ox.ac.uk/index.php British photographs of Tibet 1920–1950] * [http://dharma-haven.org/tibetan/language.htm The Language of Tibet] * [http://english.people.com.cn/features/tibetpaper/tibet.html White Paper on Tibetan Culture] released by the Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China June 22 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110624075605/http://www4.uwm.edu/libraries/digilib/tibet/ Historical maps and images of Tibet] presented by [[University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Libraries Digital Collections]] * [http://www.thlib.org/ The Tibetan & Himalayan Library (THL)] * {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Tibet |volume= 26 | pages = 916-928 |short=x }} {{Tibet topics}} {{East Asian topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Tibet| ]] [[Category:Former countries in East Asia]] [[Category:Central Asia]] [[Category:East Asia]] [[Category:Inner Asia]] [[Category:Regions of China]] [[Category:Western China]] [[Category:Cultural regions]] [[Category:Historical regions]] [[Category:Proposed countries]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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