Taoism Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Religious and philosophical tradition}} {{About|Taoism as a tradition from China|Taoism as a new religious movement in the West|History of Taoism#Taoism in the West}} {{Cleanup reorganize|date=December 2023}} {{Use American English|date=January 2020}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}} {{Infobox Chinese | pic = Tao.svg | piccap = The Chinese character for the [[Tao]], often translated as 'way', 'path', 'technique', or 'doctrine' | collapse = no | title = Taoism | c = {{linktext|道教}} | l = "Religion of the Way" | p = Dàojiào | w = {{tone superscript|Tao4-chiao4}} | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|d|ao|4|.|j|yao|4}} | gr = Dawjiaw | myr = Dàujyàu | bpmf = ㄉㄠˋ ㄐㄧㄠˋ | showflag = p | wuu = Doh<sup>入</sup> goh<sup>平</sup> | j = dou6 gaau3 | ci = {{IPAc-yue|d|ou|6|-|g|aau|3}} | y = Douhgaau | poj = Tō-kàu | tl = Tō-kàu | hanja = 道敎 | hangul = 도교 | rr = ''do gyo'' | mr = | kanji = 道教 | hiragana = どうきょう | romaji = | qn = Đạo giáo | chuhan = 道教 | mc = dáw kæ̀w | oc-bs = *{{IPA|[kə.l]ˤuʔ s.kˤraw-s}} | t = | s = | altname = | Vietnamname = | Vietnam chu han = | tp = Dào-jiào | katakana = ドウキョウ | revhep = ''Dō kyō'' | kunrei = ''Dô kyô'' }} {{Taoism}} '''Taoism''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=Taoism.wav|ˈ|d|aʊ|.|ɪ|z|əm}}, {{IPAc-en|audio=Taoism-t.wav|ˈ|t|aʊ|.|ɪ|z|əm}}) or '''Daoism''' is a diverse tradition indigenous to China, variously characterized as both a philosophy and a religion. Taoism emphasizes living in harmony with the [[Tao]]—generally understood as being the impersonal, enigmatic process of transformation [[Ultimate reality|ultimately underlying reality]].<ref name="PollardRosenberg2014">{{cite book|author1=Elizabeth Pollard|author2=Clifford Rosenberg|author3=Robert Tignor|title=Worlds Together, Worlds Apart: A History of the World – From the Beginnings of Humankind to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rSjDoQEACAAJ|date=16 December 2014|publisher=W.W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-91847-2|page=164|access-date=21 May 2019|archive-date=1 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901021615/https://books.google.com/books?id=rSjDoQEACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfnp|Creel|1982|p=2}} The concept originates in the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] word {{zh|道|labels=no}} ({{lang-zh|p=dào|w=tao4}}), which has numerous related meanings: possible English translations include 'way', 'road', and 'technique'. Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of [[Taoist meditation|meditation]], [[Chinese astrology|astrology]], [[qigong]], [[feng shui]], and [[Neidan|internal alchemy]]. A common goal of Taoist practice is [[self-cultivation]] resulting in a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and thus a more harmonious existence. There are different formulations of Taoist ethics, but there is generally emphasis on virtues such as ''[[wu wei|effortless action]]'', [[ziran|''naturalness'' or ''spontaneity'']], ''[[pu (Taoism)|simplicity]]'', and the [[Three Treasures (Taoism)|three treasures]] of compassion, frugality, and humility. Many Taoist terms lack simple definitions and have been translated in several different ways. The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early [[Warring States period]], {{circa|the 4th and 5th centuries BCE}}, during which the epigrammatic ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' and the anecdotal ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]''—widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over the following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the ''[[Daozang]]'' canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] state religions, [[School of Naturalists|Naturalism]], [[Mohism]], [[Confucianism]], various [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] theories, as well as the ''[[Book of Changes]]'' and ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]''.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=2-10}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=23–33}}<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 62"/> Later, when [[Buddhism]] was [[History of Buddhism in China|introduced to China]], the two systems began influencing one another, with long-running discourses shared between Taoists and Buddhists; the distinct [[Mahayana]] tradition of [[Zen]] that emerged during the [[Tang dynasty]] incorporates many ideas from Taoism. Though Taoism often lacks the motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as a foundation for theories of politics and warfare, and Taoist organizations with diverse agendas have existed throughout Chinese history. During the late Han dynasty, Taoist secret societies precipitated the [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]], attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist [[theocracy]]. Many denominations of Taoism [[Taoist theology|recognize deities]], often those present in other traditions, where they are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. The [[syncretic]] nature of the tradition presents particular difficulties in attempting to characterize its practice. Since Taoist thought has been deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear whether one should be considered a "Taoist". The status of ''[[daoshi]]'', or 'Taoist master', is traditionally attributed only to clergy in Taoist organizations; these figures usually distinguish between their traditions and others throughout [[Chinese folk religion]].The gods and immortals（神仙） believed in by Taoism can be roughly divided into two categories, namely "gods" and "[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]". "Gods" refers to [[Deity|deities]], of which there are many kinds. "Xian" were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, although the word was also used as a descriptor for a principled and moral person.<ref name="道教神仙分类">{{cite web |last1=武当山道教协会 |first1=武当山道教协会 |title=道教神仙分类 |url=http://www.wdsdjxh.com/detail.php?id=51 |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126153241/http://www.wdsdjxh.com/detail.php?id=51 }}</ref> Today, Taoism is one of [[Religion in China|five religious doctrines]] officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Religion in China |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/religion-china |website=Council on Foreign Relations |date=11 October 2018 |access-date=17 June 2020 |archive-date=14 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014222036/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/religion-china |url-status=live }}</ref> It is considered a [[religion in Taiwan|major religion]] in [[Taiwan]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Taiwan 2017 International Religious Freedom Report |url=https://www.ait.org.tw/taiwan-2017-international-religious-freedom-report/ |website=American Institute on Taiwan |publisher=US Federal Government |date=29 May 2018 |access-date=17 June 2020 |archive-date=18 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618074139/https://www.ait.org.tw/taiwan-2017-international-religious-freedom-report/ }}</ref> and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has [[History of Taoism#Taoism in the West|taken on diverse forms]], both those hewing to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as [[new religious movements]]. ==Terminology== [[File:Birth Places of Chinese Philosophers.png|upright=1.35|thumb|The birthplaces of notable Chinese philosophers from the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] in the [[Zhou Dynasty]]. Philosophers of Taoism are marked by triangles in dark green.]] ===Spelling and pronunciation=== "Taoism" and "Daoism" are alternate spellings of the same word. "Tao" is in the [[Wade-Giles]] system of [[romanization]], which until the late 20th century was predominant in English-speaking countries and remains in use for certain terms with strongly established spellings. "Dao" is the spelling in the [[Hanyu Pinyin]] system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles. The Standard Chinese pronunciation of both romanizations of the character "Dao" is the same, that is, {{IPA|/daʊ/}}, much like the English "dow". One authority calls the pronunciation with a <t> as in "tie" to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade-Giles system," which misled most readers.<ref>{{harvp|Carr|1990|pp=58, 60, 62, 68}}</ref> ===Classification=== {{see also|Taoist philosophy}} The word ''Taoism'' is used to translate two related but distinct Chinese terms.{{sfnp|Pregadio|2008|loc=Vol. 1, p. xvi}} # Firstly, a term encompassing a family of organized religious movements that share concepts and terminology from Taoist philosophy—what can be specifically translated as 'the teachings of the Tao', ({{zh|labels=no|c=道教|p=dàojiào|}}), often interpreted as the Taoist "religion proper", or the "mystical" or "liturgical" aspects of Taoism.{{sfnp|Pregadio|2008|loc=Vol. 1, p. 327, "Taoshih"}}{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=xxix}} The [[Celestial Masters]] school is a well-known early example of this sense. # The other, referring to the [[philosophy|philosophical doctrines]] largely based on core Taoist texts themselves—a term that can be translated as 'the philosophical school of the Tao' or 'Taology' ({{zh|labels=no|c=道家|p=dàojiā|l=school of the Tao}}, or sometimes {{zh|labels=no||t=道學|p=dàoxué|l=study of the Tao}}). This was considered one of the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] during the Warring States period. The earliest recorded use of the word 'Tao' to reference such a philosophical school is found in the works of [[Han dynasty|Han-era]] historians:{{sfnp|Kohn|2000|p=44}}<ref name="Stanford Taoism2">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Taoism|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, [[Stanford University]]|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/|access-date=2008-10-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624092211/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/|archive-date=24 June 2013|author=Chad Hansen|url-status=live}}</ref> such as the ''[[Zuo Zhuan|Commentary of Zhuo]]'' ({{zh|c=左传|hp=Zuǒzhuàn|labels=no}}) by [[Zuo Qiuming]], and in the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]''. This particular usage precedes the emergence of the Celestial Masters and associated later religions. It is unlikely that [[Zhuang Zhou]], author of the [[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]], was familiar with the text of the ''Tao Te Ching'',<ref name="Stanford Taoism2"/><ref name="Graham 1989 p. 170–171">{{harvp|Graham|1989|pp=170–171}}</ref> and Zhuangzi himself may have died before the term was in use.<ref name="Graham 1989 p. 170–171"/> The distinction between Taoist ''philosophy'' and Taoist ''religion'' is an ancient, deeply-rooted one. Taoism is a positive philosophy that aims for the holistic unification of an individual's reality with everything that is not only real but also valuable, encompassing both the natural world and society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xiong |first1=Qinjing |last2=Ju |first2=Yucui |date=2023-03-21 |title=Taoism and teaching without words |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00131857.2022.2112031 |journal=Educational Philosophy and Theory |language=en |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=496–507 |doi=10.1080/00131857.2022.2112031 |s2cid=251688453 |issn=0013-1857}}</ref> The earliest references to 'the Tao' per se are largely devoid of liturgical or explicitly supernatural character, used in contexts either of abstract metaphysics or of the ordinary conditions required for human flourishing. This distinction is still understood in everyday contexts among Chinese people, and has been echoed by modern scholars of Chinese history and philosophy such as [[Feng Youlan]] and [[Wing-tsit Chan]]. Use of the term ''daojia'' dates to the Western Han {{circa|100 BCE}}, referring to the purported authors of the emerging Taoist canon, such as [[Lao Dan]] and [[Zhuang Zhou]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Daoist Philosophy {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|url=https://iep.utm.edu/daoism/|access-date=2022-01-27|language=en-US|archive-date=11 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211053946/https://iep.utm.edu/daoism/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Hansen|first=Chad|title=Daoism|date=2020|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/daoism/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Spring 2020|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2022-01-27|archive-date=1 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901021617/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/daoism/|url-status=live}}</ref> Neither the ''Tao Te Ching'' and ''Zhuangzi'' themselves, nor the early secondary sources written about them, put forward any particular supernatural ontology. Nonetheless, that religious Taoism emerged from a synthesis of folk religion with philosophical Taoist precepts is clear. The earlier, naturalistic was employed by pre-Han and Han thinkers, and continued to be used well into the Song, including among those who explicitly rejected cults, both private and state-sanctioned, that were often either labeled or self-identified as Taoist. However, this distinction has been challenged or rejected by some scholars of religion, often those from a Western or Japanese background, who often use distinct interpretive models and techniques.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=3}}; {{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=xi}}</ref> This point of view characterizes the religious and philosophical characteristics of the Taoist tradition as being inseparable. [[Sinology|Sinologists]] such as Isabelle Robinet and [[Livia Kohn]] state that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." The distinction is fraught with hermeneutic difficulties when attempting to categorize different schools, sects, and movements.{{sfnp|Mair|2001|p=174}} Russell Kirkland writes that "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and in the West" have abandoned this "simplistic dichotomy".{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=2}} Louis Komjathy writes that this is an untenable misconception because "the association of ''daojia'' with "thought" (''sixiang'') and of ''daojiao'' with "religion" (''zongjiao'') is a modern Chinese construction largely rooted in earlier Chinese literati, European colonialist, and Protestant missionary interpretations." Contemporaneous Neo-Confucianists, for example, often self-identify as Taoist without partaking in any rituals.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=2}} In contrast, Komjathy characterizes Taoism as "a unified religious tradition characterized by complexity and diversity.", arguing that historically, none of these terms were understood according to a bifurcated 'philosophy' versus 'religion' model. ''Daojia'' was a taxonomical category for Taoist texts, that was eventually applied to Taoist movements and priests in the early medieval period. {{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=4}} Meanwhile, ''daojiao'' was originally used to specifically distinguish Taoist tradition from Buddhism. Thus, ''daojiao'' included ''daojia''.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=4}} Komjathy notes that the earliest Taoist texts also "reveal a religious community composed of master-disciple lineages", and therefore, that "Taoism was a religious tradition from the beginning."{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=4}} Philosopher [[Chung-ying Cheng]] likewise views Taoism as a [[religion]] embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom".<ref name="Routledge">{{cite book|editor-last1=Meister |editor-first1=Chad |editor-last2=Copan |editor-first2=Paul |title=The Routledge companion to philosophy of religion |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-415-43553-6}}</ref> Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of 'heaven' mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of [the Tao] can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature".<ref name="Routledge"/> Taoism is generally not understood as a variant of [[Chinese folk religion]] per se: while the two umbrella terms have considerable cultural overlap, core themes of both also diverge considerably from one another.<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 103">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=103}}</ref> ===Adherents=== Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western [[sinology]], is traditionally used to translate ''[[daoshi]]/taoshih'' ({{lang|zh-hant|道士}}, "master of the Tao"), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a community.{{sfnp|Pregadio|2008|loc=Vol. 1, p. 326, "Taoshih"}} This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "[[liturgy|liturgical]] framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate [[Kristofer Schipper]] in ''The Taoist Body'' (1986).{{sfnp|Wu|2014|pp=105–106}} ''Taoshi'' are comparable to the non-Taoist ritual masters({{lang|zh|法師}}) of vernacular traditions (the so-called [[Chinese ritual mastery traditions|Faism]]) within Chinese religion.{{sfnp|Wu|2014|pp=105–106}} The term {{transliteration|zh|dàojiàotú}} ({{zhi|t=道敎徒|l=follower of Dao|s=|p=}}), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion. == History == {{Main|History of Taoism}} [[File:Zhang Lu-Laozi Riding an Ox.jpg|upright|thumb|''Laozi Riding an Ox'' by [[Zhang Lu (painter)|Zhang Lu]] ({{circa|1464}}–1538)]] [[File:Zhuangzi fishes.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration of "The Debate on the Joy of Fish" from the [[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]]] === Classical Taoism and its sources === Scholars like Harold Roth argue that early Taoism was a series of "inner-cultivation lineages" of master-disciple communities. According to Roth, these practitioners emphasized a contentless and nonconceptual [[Apophatic theology|apophatic]] meditation as a way of achieving union with the Tao.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=8, 24}} According to Louis Komjathy, their worldview "emphasized the Dao as sacred, and the universe and each individual being as a manifestation of the Dao."{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=24}} These communities were also closely related to and intermixed with the [[fangshi]] (method master) communities.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=8}} Other scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that before the Han dynasty, there were no real "Taoists" or "Taoism". Instead, there were various sets of behaviors, practices, and interpretative frameworks (like the ideas of the ''[[I Ching|Yijing]]'', [[School of Naturalists|yin-yang thought]], as well as [[Mohism|Mohist]], "[[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]]", and "[[Confucianism|Confucian]]" ideas), which were eventually synthesized in the [[Medieval China|medieval era]] into the first forms of "Taoism".{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=20-33, 75}} Some of the main early Taoist sources include: the ''[[Neiye]]'', the [[Zhuangzi (book)|''Zhuangzi'']], and the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]''.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=23–33}} The ''Tao Te Ching'', attributed to [[Laozi]], is dated by scholars to sometime between the 4th and 6th century BCE.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=61}}<ref name="Bellingham-1992">{{Cite book |last1=Bellingham |first1=David |title=Myths and Legends |last2=Whittaker |first2=Clio |last3=Grant |first3=John |publisher=Wellfleet Press |year=1992 |isbn=1-55521-812-1 |location=Secaucus, New Jersey |page=124 |oclc=27192394}}</ref> A common tradition holds that Laozi founded Taoism.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Grim |first2=Brian J. |date=2012-12-18 |title=Other Religions |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-other/ |access-date=2023-05-20 |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |series=The Global Religious Landscape |language=en-US |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901021622/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-other/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Laozi's historicity is disputed, with many scholars seeing him as a legendary founding figure.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=25}}{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=62}} While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim that the [[Yellow Emperor]] formulated many of their precepts,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Windridge |first=Charles |title=Tong Sing: The Book of Wisdom: Based on the Ancient Chinese Almanac |publisher=[[Barnes & Noble Books]] |others=Consulting work done by Cheng Kam Fong |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7607-4535-9 |edition=Revised and Updated |location=New York |pages=59, 107 |oclc=54439373}}</ref> including the quest for "long life".<ref name="Salamone-2004">{{Cite book |last=Salamone |first=Frank A. |title=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-94180-6 |editor-last=Levinson |editor-first=David |location=New York |page=431}}</ref> Traditionally, the Yellow Emperor's founding of Taoism was said to have been because he "dreamed of an ideal kingdom whose tranquil inhabitants lived in harmonious accord with the natural law and possessed virtues remarkably like those espoused by early Taoism. On waking from his dream, Huangdi sought to" bring about "these [[virtue]]s in his own kingdom, to ensure order and prosperity among the inhabitants".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Huangdi |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Huangdi |access-date=2023-05-22 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=4 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104135049/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Huangdi |url-status=live }}</ref> Early Taoism drew on the ideas found in the religion of the [[Shang dynasty]] and the [[Zhou dynasty]], such as their use of [[divination]], [[Ancestor veneration in China|ancestor worship]], and the idea of Heaven ([[Tian]]) and its relationship to humanity.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=23–33}} According to modern scholars of Taoism, such as Kirkland and [[Livia Kohn]], Taoist philosophy also developed by drawing on numerous schools of thought from the [[Warring States period]] (4th to 3rd centuries BCE), including [[Mohism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] theorists (like [[Shen Buhai]] and [[Han Fei]], which speak of ''[[wu wei]]''), the [[School of Naturalists]] (from which Taoism draws its main cosmological ideas, [[yin and yang]] and the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|five phases]]), and the [[Chinese classics]], especially the ''[[I Ching]]'' and the ''[[Lüshi Chunqiu]]''.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=2-10}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=23–33}}<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 62">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=6}}</ref> Meanwhile, Isabelle Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: the teachings found in the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' and ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]],'' techniques for achieving ecstasy, practices for achieving longevity and becoming an immortal ([[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]), and practices for [[exorcism]].{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=25}} Robinet states that some elements of Taoism may be traced to [[prehistoric]] folk religions in China.<ref>{{harvp|Demerath|2003|p=149}}; {{harvp|Hucker|1995|pp=203–204}}</ref> In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring States era phenomena of the ''[[Wu (shaman)|wu]]'' ([[Chinese shamanism|Chinese shamans]]) and the ''[[fangshi]]'' ("method masters", which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity").<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 36">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=36}}</ref> Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "...magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism.<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 36" /> The ''fangshi'' were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists and relied greatly on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=39}} Female shamans played an important role in the early Taoist tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of [[Chu (state)|Chu]]. Early Taoist movements developed their own tradition in contrast to shamanism while also absorbing shamanic elements.<ref>{{harvc|author=Catherine Despeux|c=Women in Taoism|in=Kohn|year=2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXVk1tr6lEYC&q=shamanism|access-date=13 September 2016|pp=403–404}}</ref> During the early period, some Taoists lived as [[hermit]]s or recluses who did not participate in political life, while others sought to establish a harmonious society based on Taoist principles.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=24}} [[Zhuang Zhou]] (c. 370–290 BCE) was the most influential of the Taoist hermits. Some scholars holds that since he lived in the south, he may have been influenced by [[Chinese shamanism]].{{sfnp|Nadeau|2012|p=42}} [[Zhuang Zhou]] and his followers insisted they were the heirs of ancient traditions and the ways of life of by-then legendary kingdoms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cleary |first=Thomas F. |title=The Essential Tao: An Initiation Into the Heart of Taoism Through the Authentic Tao Te Ching and the Inner Teachings of Chuang-Tzu |date=1998 |publisher=Castle Books |isbn=0-7858-0905-8 |location=Edison, New Jersey |page=161 |oclc=39243466 |author-link=Thomas Cleary}}</ref> Pre-Taoist philosophers and mystics whose activities may have influenced Taoism included shamans, naturalists skilled in understanding the properties of plants and [[geology]], [[diviners]], early [[environmentalist]]s, tribal chieftains, court scribes and commoner members of governments, members of the nobility in Chinese states, and the descendants of refugee communities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cleary |first=Thomas F. |title=The Essential Tao: An Initiation Into the Heart of Taoism Through the Authentic Tao Te Ching and the Inner Teachings of Chuang-Tzu |date=1998 |publisher=Castle Books |isbn=0-7858-0905-8 |location=Edison, New Jersey |pages=123–124 |oclc=39243466 |author-link=Thomas Cleary}}</ref> Significant movements in early Taoism disregarded the existence of gods, and many who believed in gods thought they were subject to the natural law of the Tao, in a similar nature to all other life.<ref name="Harari-2015">{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |publisher=Penguin Random House UK |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-09-959008-8 |location=London |page=249 |translator-last=Harari |translator-first=Yuval Noah |oclc=910498369 |author-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-last2=Purcell |translator-first2=John |translator-last3=Watzman |translator-first3=Haim |translator-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-link3=Haim Watzman}}</ref><ref name="Sanders-1980">{{Cite book |last=Sanders |first=Tao Tao Liu |title=Dragons, Gods & Spirits from Chinese Mythology |publisher=[[Peter Bedrick Books]] |year=1980 |isbn=0-87226-922-1 |location=New York |page=73}}</ref> Roughly contemporaneously to the ''Tao Te Ching'', some believed the Tao was a force that was the "basis of all existence" and more powerful than the gods, while being a god-like being that was an [[Ancestor veneration in China|ancestor]] and a [[mother goddess]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Armstrong |first=Karen |title=A Short History of Myth |publisher=[[Canongate Books]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84195-716-6 |edition=First American |location=Broadway, New York |pages=90–91 |author-link=Karen Armstrong}}</ref> Early Taoists studied the natural world in attempts to find what they thought were supernatural laws that governed existence.<ref name="Bellingham-1992" /> Taoists created scientific principles that were the first of their kind in China, and the belief system has been known to merge scientific, philosophical, and religious conceits from close to its beginning.<ref name="Bellingham-1992" /> === Early organized Taoism === [[File:Chinese Fulu talisman han dynasty 乌程汉简浙江出土.jpg|left|thumb|Han dynasty [[Fulu|Chinese talisman]], part of the {{ill|Wucheng Bamboo-slips|zh|乌程汉简}}]] [[File:Zhang_Daoling.jpg|thumb|[[Zhang Daoling]], the first Celestial Master]] By the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of ritualists in the state of [[Shu Han|Shu]] (modern [[Sichuan]]).{{sfnp|Nadeau|2012|p=42}} One of the earliest forms of Taoism was the Han era ([[2nd century BC|2nd century BCE]]) ''[[Huang–Lao]]'' movement, which was an influential school of thought at this time.<ref>Eno, Robert (2010). [https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/23472/4.8-Huang-Lao-2010.pdf "4.8 Huang-Lao Ideology".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210134106/https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/23472/4.8-Huang-Lao-2010.pdf |date=10 February 2023 }} Indiana University, History G380.</ref> The ''[[Huainanzi]]'' and the ''[[Taipingjing]]'' are important sources from this period.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=76-81}} An unorganized form of Taoism was popular in the Han dynasty that syncretized many preexisting forms in multiple ways for different groups existed during a rough span of time throughout the 2nd century BCE.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Stark |first=Rodney |title=Discovering God: The Origins of the Great Religions and the Evolution of Belief |publisher=[[HarperOne]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-06-117389-9 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=402–403 |author-link=Rodney Stark}}</ref> Also during the Han, the earliest extant commentaries on the ''Tao Te Ching'' were written: the [[Heshang Gong]] commentary and the [[Xiang'er]] commentary.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kohn|year=2000|p=6}}</ref>{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=82}} The first organized form of Taoism was the [[Way of the Celestial Masters]], which developed from the [[Five Pecks of Rice]] movement at the end of the 2nd century CE. The latter had been founded by [[Zhang Daoling]], who was said to have had a vision of Laozi in 142 CE and claimed that the world was coming to an end.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=54}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=65}} Zhang sought to teach people to repent and prepare for the coming cataclysm, after which they would become the seeds of a new era of great peace. It was a mass movement in which men and women could act as libationers and tend to the commoners.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=83}} A related movement arose in [[Shandong]] called the "[[Way of the Taiping|Way of Great Peace]]", seeking to create a new world by replacing the Han dynasty. This movement led to the [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]], and after years of bloody war, they were crushed.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=65}} The Celestial Masters movement survived this period and did not take part in attempting to replace the Han. As such, they grew and became an influential religion during the [[Three Kingdoms]] period, focusing on ritual confession and petition, as well as developing a well-organized religious structure.<ref>[[James Legge|Legge, James]] (1911). "Lâo-Tsze". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 194.</ref> The Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by the warlord [[Cao Cao]] in 215 CE, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=1}} Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=50}} Another important early Taoist movement was Taiqing (Great Clarity), which was a tradition of external alchemy (weidan) that sought immortality through the concoction of elixirs, often using toxic elements like [[cinnabar]], [[lead]], [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], and [[realgar]], as well as ritual and purificatory practices.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=26-27}} After this point, Taoism did not have nearly as significant an effect on the passing of law as the syncretic [[Confucianism|Confucian]]-[[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] tradition.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} === Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties eras === [[File:Lingbao Talisman.PNG|thumb|A Taoist talisman from one of the Lingbao Scriptures.]] The [[Three Kingdoms Period]] saw the rise of the [[Xuanxue]] (Mysterious Learning or Deep Wisdom) tradition, which focused on philosophical inquiry and integrated Confucian teachings with Taoist thought. The movement included scholars like [[Wang Bi]] (226–249), [[He Yan]] (d. 249), [[Xiang Xiu]] (223?–300), [[Guo Xiang]] (d. 312), and [[Pei Wei (Jin dynasty)|Pei Wei]] (267–300).<ref name="Chan-2023">Chan, Alan. [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neo-daoism/ "Neo-Taoism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305221227/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neo-daoism/ |date=5 March 2023 }}, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.</ref> Another later influential figure was the 4th century alchemist [[Ge Hong]], who wrote a key Taoist work on inner cultivation, the ''[[Baopuzi]]'' (''Master Embracing Simplicity'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Robinet|1997|p=78}}</ref> The [[Six Dynasties]] (316–589) era saw the rise of two new Taoist traditions, the [[Shangqing School|Shangqing]] and [[Lingbao School|Lingbao]] schools. Shangqing was based on a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi between 364 and 370. As [[Livia Kohn]] writes, these revelations included detailed descriptions of the heavens as well as "specific methods of [[Astral projection|shamanic travels]] or ecstatic excursions, visualizations, and alchemical concoctions."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=67}} The Shangqing revelations also introduced many new Taoist scriptures.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=115}}</ref> Similarly, between 397 and 402, [[Ge Chaofu]] compiled a series of scriptures that later served as the foundation of the [[Lingbao School|Lingbao school]], which was most influential during the later [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279) and focused on scriptural recitation and the use of talismans for harmony and longevity.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=86-87}}{{sfnmp|Kohn|2008|1p=68|Robinet|1997|2p=xvi|Robinet|1997|3p=150}} The Lingbao school practiced purification rituals called "purgations" in which talismans were empowered. Lingbao also adopted [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhist]] elements. According to Kohn, they "integrated aspects of [[Buddhist cosmology]], worldview, scriptures, and practices, and created a vast new collection of Taoist texts in close imitation of [[Buddhist texts|Buddhist sutras]]."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=69}} Louis Komjathy also notes that they adopted the Mahayana Buddhist [[universalism]] in its promotion of "universal salvation" (pudu).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=28-29}} During this period, [[Louguantai|Louguan]], the first Taoist monastic institution (influenced by [[Buddhist monasticism]]) was established in the [[Zhongnan Mountains|Zhongnan mountains]] by a local Taoist master named Yin Tong. This tradition was called the [[Northern Celestial Masters|Northern Celestial masters]], and their main scripture was the ''[[Xishengjing|Xisheng jing]]'' (''Scripture of Western Ascension'').{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=69-70}} During the sixth century, Taoists attempted to unify the various traditions into one integrated Taoism that could compete with Buddhism and Confucianism. To do this they adopted the schema known as the "three caverns", first developed by the scholar [[Lu Xiujing|Lu Xiujing (406–477)]] based on the "[[Yana (Buddhism)|three vehicles]]" of Buddhism. The three caverns were: Perfection (Dongzhen), associated with the [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors|Three Sovereigns]]; Mystery (Dongxuan), associated with Lingbao; and Spirit (Dongshen), associated with the Supreme Clarity tradition.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=71-72}} Lu Xiujing also used this schema to arrange the Taoist scriptures and Taoist deities. Lu Xiujing worked to compile the first edition of the ''[[Daozang]]'' (the Taoist Canon), which was published at the behest of the [[Emperor of China|Chinese emperor]]. Thus, according to Russell Kirkland, "in several important senses, it was really Lu Hsiu-ching who founded Taoism, for it was he who first gained community acceptance for a common canon of texts, which established the boundaries, and contents, of 'the teachings of the Tao' (Tao-chiao). Lu also reconfigured the ritual activities of the tradition, and formulated a new set of liturgies, which continue to influence Taoist practice to the present day."{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=87}} This period also saw the development of the [[Three Pure Ones]], which merged the high deities from different Taoist traditions into a common trinity that has remained influential until today.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=71-72}} === Later Imperial Dynasties === [[File:Wudangshan 2003 10.jpg|thumb|A temple in the [[Wudang Mountains|Wudangshan]], a sacred space in Taoism.]] The new Integrated Taoism, now with a united Taoist identity, gained official status in China during the [[Tang dynasty]]. This tradition was termed ''daojiao'' (the teaching of the Tao).{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=90}} The Tang was the height of Taoist influence, during which Taoism, led by the Patriarch of Supreme Clarity, was the dominant religion in China.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=184}}</ref>{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=74}}{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=90}} According to Russell Kirkland, this new Taoist synthesis had its main foundation in the [[Lingbao School|Lingbao]] school's teachings, which was appealing to all classes of society and drew on [[Mahayana]] Buddhism.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=91}} Perhaps the most important figure of the Tang was the court Taoist and writer [[Du Guangting]] (850–933). Du wrote numerous works about Taoist rituals, history, myth, and biography. He also reorganized and edited the ''[[Taotsang]]'' after a period of war and loss.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=94}} During the Tang, several emperors became patrons of Taoism, inviting priests to court to conduct rituals and enhance the prestige of the sovereign.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=163}} The [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Gaozong Emperor]] even decreed that the ''Tao Te Ching'' was to be a topic in the imperial examinations.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=185}}</ref> During the reign of the 7th century [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Emperor Taizong]], the Five Dragons Temple (the first temple at the [[Wudang Mountains]]) was constructed.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Ancient Building Complex in the Wudang Mountains |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/705 |website=whc.unesco.org |access-date=10 February 2023 |archive-date=23 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223085753/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/705 |url-status=live }}</ref> Wudang would eventually become a major center for Taoism and a home for Taoist martial arts ([[Wudang quan]]). [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]] (r. 712–755) was also a devoted Taoist who wrote various Taoist works, and according to [[Livia Kohn]], "had frequent meetings with senior masters, ritual specialists, Taoist poets, and official patriarchs, such as [[Sima Chengzhen]]."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=75}} He reorganized imperial rituals based on Taoist forms, sponsored Taoist shrines and monasteries, and introduced a separate examination system based on Taoism.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=75}} Another important Taoist figure of the Tang dynasty was [[Lü Dongbin|Lu Dongbin]], who is considered the founder of the jindan meditation tradition and an influential figure in the development of [[neidan]] (internal alchemy) practice. Likewise, several [[Song dynasty]] emperors, most notably [[Emperor Huizong of Song|Huizong]], were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts, and publishing updated editions of the ''[[Daozang]].''<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=213}}</ref> The Song era saw new scriptures and new movements of ritualists and Taoist rites, the most popular of which were the Thunder Rites (leifa). The Thunder rites were protection and exorcism rites that evoked the celestial department of thunder, and they became central to the new Heavenly Heart (Tianxin) tradition as well as for the Youthful Incipience (Tongchu) school.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=153}} [[File:Guo Xu album dated 1503 (4).jpg|thumb|''Qiu Chuji'' (1503) by Guo Xu]] In the [[12th century]], the [[Quanzhen School|Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) School]] was founded in [[Shandong]] by the sage [[Wang Chongyang]] (1113–1170) to compete with religious Taoist traditions that worshipped "[[Ghosts in Chinese culture|ghosts]] and [[Shen (Chinese religion)|gods]]" and largely displaced them.<ref name="Wang-2022">{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Wei |date=2022-08-16 |title=On the Historical Background and Ideological Resources of the Confluence of Islam and Confucianism |journal=Religions |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |page=13 |doi=10.3390/rel13080748 |issn=2077-1444 |via=[[MDPI]] |doi-access=free}}</ref> The school focused on inner transformation,<ref name="Wang-2022" /> [[mystical experience]],<ref name="Wang-2022" /> [[monasticism]], and [[asceticism]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=154}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=29}} Quanzhen flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the [[Yuan dynasty]]. The Quanzhen school was syncretic, combining elements from Buddhism and Confucianism with Taoist tradition. According to Wang Chongyang, the "[[Three Teachings|three teachings]]" (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism), "when investigated, prove to be but one school".<ref name="littlejohn">Littlejohn, Ronnie (n.d.). "Taoist Philosophy". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 2161-0002.</ref> Quanzhen became the largest and most important Taoist school in China when master [[Qiu Chuji]] met with [[Genghis Khan]] who ended up making him the leader of all Chinese religions as well as exempting Quanzhen institutions from taxation.{{sfnp|Eskildsen|2004|p=17}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=155}} Another important Quanzhen figure was Zhang Boduan, author of the ''[[Wuzhen pian]]'', a classic of internal alchemy, and the founder of the southern branch of Quanzhen. During the Song era, the [[Zhengyi Dao]] tradition properly developed in Southern China among Taoists of the Chang clan.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=103-104}} This liturgically focused tradition would continue to be supported by later emperors and survives to this day.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=105}} In the Yuan dynasty, Taoism in [[Northern China]] took inspiration from [[Tibetan culture|Tibetan cultural]] practices, [[Chinese folk religion]] (often from the western parts of the Yuan dynasty's land), and [[Tibetan Buddhism]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Wood |first=Michael |title=The Story of China: The Epic History of a World Power from the Middle Kingdom to Mao and the China Dream |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-250-20257-4 |edition=First U.S. |location=New York |page=363 |author-link=Michael Wood (historian)}}</ref> Under the [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644), aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and [[East Asian Buddhism]] were consciously synthesized in the [[Neo-Confucian]] school, which eventually became Imperial [[orthodoxy]] for state bureaucratic purposes.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=xvii}}</ref> Taoist ideas also influenced Neo-Confucian thinkers like [[Wang Yangming]] and [[Zhan Ruoshui]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=178}} During the Ming, the legends of the [[Eight Immortals]] (the most important of which is [[Lü Dongbin]]) rose to prominence, being part of local plays and folk culture.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=163}} Ming emperors like the [[Hongwu Emperor]] continued to invite Taoists to court and hold Taoist rituals that were believed to enhance the power of the throne. The most important of these were connected with the Taoist deity [[Xuanwu (god)|Xuanwu]] ("Perfect Warrior"), which was the main dynastic protector deity of the Ming.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=163}} The Ming era saw the rise of the Jingming ("Pure Illumination") school to prominence, which merged Taoism with Buddhist and Confucian teachings and focused on "purity, clarity, loyalty and [[filial piety]]".<ref name="Mou-2003">Zhongjian Mou (2003). ''A Brief History of the Relationship Between Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism'', p. 389. Springer Nature.</ref> {{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=108-109, 165}} The school derided internal and external alchemy, fasting ([[Bigu (grain avoidance)|bigu]]), and breathwork. Instead, the school focused on using mental cultivation to return to the mind's original purity and clarity (which could become obscured by desires and emotions).<ref name="Mou-2003" /> Key figures of this school include Xu Xun, Liu Yu, Huang Yuanji, Xu Yi, and Liu Yuanran. Some of these figures taught at the imperial capital and were awarded titles.<ref name="Mou-2003" /> Their emphasis on practical ethics and self-cultivation in everyday life (rather than ritual or monasticism) made it very popular among the literati class.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=165}} The [[Qing dynasty]] (1644–1912) mainly promoted Buddhism as well as [[Neo-Confucianism]].{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=165}} Thus, during this period, the status and influence of Taoism declined. During the 18th century, the Qing imperial library excluded virtually all Taoist books.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|1993|p=19}}</ref> The Qing era also saw the birth of the [[Longmen Taoism|Longmen]] ("Dragon Gate" {{lang|zh|龍門}}) school of Wang Kunyang (1552–1641), a branch of Quanzhen from southern China that became established at the [[White Cloud Temple]].{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=110}}<ref name="esposito">{{harvp|Esposito|2001}}{{pages needed|date=June 2020}}</ref> Longmen authors like [[Liu Yiming]] (1734–1821) and Min Yide (1758–1836) worked to promote and preserve Taoist inner alchemy practices through books like ''[[The Secret of the Golden Flower]]''.<ref>{{harvp|Kirkland|2004|p=112}}</ref> The Longmen school synthesized the Quanzhen and neidan teachings with the Chan Buddhist and Neo-Confucian elements that the Jingming tradition had developed, making it widely appealing to the literati class.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=168}} === Early modern Taoism === [[File:万寿八仙宫.jpg|thumb|Taoist clergy of {{ill|Baxian Temple|zh|八仙宫}}, [[Xi'an]], 1910–1911.]] [[file:Yang-single (restoration).jpg|thumb|[[Yang Chengfu]] practicing [[Tai chi]]]] During the 19th and 20th centuries, Taoism suffered much destruction as a result of religious persecution and numerous wars and conflicts that beset China in the so-called [[century of humiliation]]. This period of persecution was caused by numerous factors including Confucian prejudices, anti-traditional Chinese [[Modernism|modernist]] ideologies, European and Japanese [[colonialism]], and [[Christian mission]]ization.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=202-203}} By the 20th century, only one complete copy of the [[Tao Tsang]] survived intact, stored at the [[White Cloud Monastery]] in [[Beijing]].<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|1993|p=220}}</ref> A key Taoist figure during this period was Chen Yingning (1880–1969). He was a key member of the early Chinese Taoist Association and wrote numerous books promoting Taoist practice. {{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=185}} During the [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–1976), many Taoist priests were laicized and sent to work camps, and many Taoist sites and temples were destroyed or converted to secular use.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=184}}<ref>Dean, Kenneth (1993). ''Taoist Ritual and Popular Cults of Southeast China'', p. 40. Princeton: Princeton University.</ref> This period saw an exodus of Taoists out of China. They immigrated to Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and to Europe and North America. Thus, the communist repression had the consequence of making Taoism a world religion by disseminating Taoists throughout the world.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=205}} In the 1910s, Taoist doctrine about [[Xian (Taoism)|immortals]] and waiting until after death to live in "the dwelling of the immortals" was one of the faith's most popular and influential beliefs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Reid |first=Gilbert |date=February 1917 |title=Taoism, an Appreciation |journal=[[The Biblical World]] |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |volume=49 |issue=2 |page=87 |doi=10.1086/475692 |jstor=3136462 |s2cid=145738732 |issn=0190-3578 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The 20th century was also a creative period for Taoism despite its many setbacks. The Taoist influenced practice of [[Tai chi|Tai Chi]] developed during this time, led by figures like [[Yang Chengfu]] and [[Sun Lutang]].<ref name="Wile1995">{{cite book |last=Wile |first=Douglas |title=Lost T'ai-chi Classics from the Late Ch'ing Dynasty (Chinese Philosophy and Culture) |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7914-2654-8}}{{page needed|date=May 2013}}</ref> Early proponents of Tai Chi Quan, like Sun Lutang, claimed that Tai Chi was a Taoist internal practice created by the Taoist immortal [[Zhang Sanfeng]] (though modern scholars note that this claim lacks credible historical evidence).<ref>Wile, Douglas. ''[http://blackmoonharbor.com/uploads/1/1/5/3/115363763/taijiquan_and_daoism_.pdf Taijiquan and Daoism: From Religion to Martial Art and Martial Art to Religion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210144032/http://blackmoonharbor.com/uploads/1/1/5/3/115363763/taijiquan_and_daoism_.pdf |date=10 February 2023 }}''. Journal of Asian Martial Arts (Vol. 16, Issue 4).</ref> === Late modern Taoism === [[file:Wong Tai Sin Temple Night view 202103.jpg|thumb|[[Wong Tai Sin Temple (Hong Kong)|Wong Tai Sin Temple]], one of the most important Taoist temples in [[Hong Kong]]]] [[File:Taoist ceremony at Xiao ancestral temple in Chaoyang, Shantou, Guangdong (daoshi) (1).jpg|thumb|Taoist ceremony at Xiao Ancestral Temple in [[Chaoyang]], Shantou, [[Guangdong]].]] Taoism began to recover during the [[Reform and opening up|Reform and Opening up period]] (beginning in 1979) after which it experienced increased religious freedom in mainland China.<ref>Dean, Kenneth (1993). ''Taoist Ritual and Popular Cults of Southeast China'', p. 41. Princeton: Princeton University.</ref> This led to the restoration of many temples and communities, the publishing of Taoist literature and the preservation of Taoist material culture.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=211}} Several Chinese intellectuals, like Hu Fuchen (Chinese Academy of Social Studies) and Liu Xiaogan (Chinese University of Hong Kong) have worked to developed a "New Daojia" (''xin daojia''), which parallels the rise of [[New Confucianism]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=212}} During the 1980s and 1990s, China experienced the so-called [[Qigong fever]], which saw a surge in the popularity of Qigong practice throughout China. During this period many new Taoist and Taoist influenced religions sprung up, the most popular being those associated with Qigong, such as Zangmigong ([[Tantra|Tantric]] Qigong influenced by [[Tibetan Buddhism]]), [[Zhong Gong|Zhonggong]] (Central Qigong), and [[Falun Gong|Falungong]] (which came to be outlawed and repressed by the [[Chinese Communist Party]] [CCP]).{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=185}} Today, Taoism is one of five official recognized religions in the [[China|People's Republic of China]]. In mainland China, the government regulates its activities through the [[Chinese Taoist Association]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Human Rights Without Frontiers "Religious Freedom in China in 2006" |url=http://www.hrwf.net/advocacy/ext/religious_freedom_china.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327075017/http://www.hrwf.net/advocacy/ext/religious_freedom_china.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2009}} {{small|(30.6 KB)}} An address given to the Delegation EU–China of the European Parliament.</ref> Regarding the status of Taoism in mainland China, [[Livia Kohn]] writes: <blockquote>Taoist institutions are state-owned, monastics are paid by the government, several bureaus compete for revenues and administrative power, and training centers require courses in Marxism as preparation for full ordination. Still, temple compounds are growing on the five sacred mountains, on Taoist mountains, and in all major cities.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=183}}</blockquote> [[White Cloud Temple|The White Cloud Temple]] at Beijing remains the most important center for the training of Taoist monastics on the mainland, while the [[Sacred Mountains of China|five sacred mountains of China]] also contain influential Taoist centers. Other key sites include: [[Wudang Mountains|Wudangshan]], [[Mount Longhu]], [[Mount Qiyun]], [[Mount Qingcheng]], [[Mount Tai]], [[Zhongnan Mountains|Zhongnan mountains]], [[Mount Mao]], and [[Mount Lao]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=185-187}} Meanwhile, Taoism is also practiced much more freely in [[Religion in Taiwan|Taiwan]] and [[Hong Kong]], where it is a major religion and retains unique features and movements that differ from mainland Taoism.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=215-216}} Taoism is also practiced throughout the wider [[East Asian cultural sphere]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=201}} [[File:西塞2017·神舟前的道士.jpg|thumb|Taoist priest at [[Dragon Boat Festival|Xisai Sacred Boat Rally]], [[Hubei]], 2017.]] [[file:Weaverville, April 2020-2070.jpg|thumb|The [[Weaverville Joss House State Historic Park]], the oldest Chinese temple in [[California]] and an active Taoist center.]] Outside of China, many traditionally Taoist practices have spread, especially through [[Chinese emigration]] as well as conversion by non-Chinese.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=201}} Taoist influenced practices, like [[Tai chi]] and [[qigong]], are also popular around the world.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=219}} As such, Taoism is now a diverse world religion with a global distribution.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=201}} Taoism has been traditionally associated with [[Northern China]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Wallechinsky |first1=David |title=The People's Almanac #2 |title-link=The People's Almanac |last2=Wallace |first2=Irving |publisher=[[William Morrow and Company]] |year=1978 |editor-last=Orsag |editor-first=Carol |location=New York |pages=1157–1158 |author-link=David Wallechinsky |author-link2=Irving Wallace |editor-last2=Kempthorne |editor-first2=Elizebethe |editor-last3=Willis |editor-first3=Cathy |editor-last4=Fadness |editor-first4=Fern Bryant |editor-last5=Overman |editor-first5=Laurel |editor-last6=Chase |editor-first6=Linda |editor-last7=Lawson |editor-first7=Wayne |editor-last8=Beadle |editor-first8=Jeremy |editor-last9=Knipe |editor-first9=Judy}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> [[Southern China]],<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |last=Dean |first=Kenneth |title=Taoist Ritual and Popular Cults of Southeast China |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-691-07417-7 |editor-last=Laznovsky |editor-first=Bill |edition= |series= |location=Princeton, New Jersey |pages=24, 26 |author-link=Kenneth Dean (academic)}}</ref> and [[Western China]].<ref name=":0" /> During the late 20th century, Taoism began to spread to the [[Western world]], leading to various forms of Taoist communities in the West, with Taoist publications, websites, meditation and [[Tai chi]] centers, and translations of Taoist texts by western scholars as well as non-specialists.<ref>Herman, Jonathan R. (2001), "Taoist Environmentalism in the West: Ursula K. Le Guin's Reception and Transmission of Taoism," in ''Taoism and Ecology'', ed. by N. J. Girardot et al., Harvard University Press, 391, 392.</ref> Taoist classics like the ''Tao Te Ching'' have also became popular in the [[New Age|New Age movement]] and in "popular Western Taoism", a kind of popularized hybrid spirituality.<ref>Komjathy, Louis (2004), [http://www.daoistcenter.org/novareligio.pdf Tracing the Contours of Daoism in North America] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111226091433/http://www.daoistcenter.org/novareligio.pdf|date=2011-12-26}}, ''Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions'', 8.2, 6.</ref> According to Louis Komjathy, this "popular Western Taoism" is associated with popular translations and interpretations of the ''Tao Te Ching'' and the work of popular figures like [[James Legge]], [[Alan Watts]], [[John Blofeld]], [[Gia-Fu Feng|Gia-fu Feng]], and [[Bruce Lee]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=207-208}} This popular spirituality also draws on [[Chinese martial arts]] (which are often unrelated to Taoism proper), [[Transcendentalism|American Transcendentalism]], [[Counterculture of the 1960s|1960s counterculture]], [[New Age Spirituality|New Age spirituality]], the [[perennial philosophy]], and [[alternative medicine]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=208}} On the other hand, traditionally minded Taoists in the West are often either ethnically Chinese or generally assume some level of [[sinicization]], especially the adoption of [[Chinese language]] and culture. This is because, for most traditional Taoists, the religion is not seen as separate from Chinese ethnicity and culture. As such, most Western convert Taoist groups are led either by Chinese teachers or by teachers who studied with Chinese teachers.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=220}} Some prominent Western Taoist associations include: Associacion de Taoism de España, Association Francaise Daoiste, British Daoist Association, Daoist Foundation (San Diego, California), American Taoist and Buddhist Association (New York), Ching Chung Taoist Association (San Francisco), Universal Society of the Integral Way (Ni Hua-Ching), and Sociedade Taoista do Brasil.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=222-224}} Particularly popular in the West are groups that focus on internal martial arts like Taijiquan, as well as qigong and meditation. A smaller set of groups also focus around internal alchemy, such as [[Mantak Chia]]'s Healing Tao.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=210}} While traditional Taoism initially arrived in the West through Chinese immigrants, more recently, Western run Taoist temples have also appeared, such as the Taoist Sanctuary in San Diego and the Dayuan Circle in San Francisco. Kohn notes that all of these centers "combine traditional ritual services with ''Tao Te Ching'' and ''Yijing'' philosophy as well as with various health practices, such as breathing, diet, meditation, qigong, and soft martial arts."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=208}} ==Teachings== {{Main|Taoist philosophy|Five precepts (Taoism)}} === Tao === {{Main|Tao}} [[File:道-bronze.svg|thumb|[[Bronze script]] for ''tao'' {{lang|zh|道}}]] ''Tao'' (or ''Dao'') can mean way, road, channel, path, doctrine, or line.{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1996|p=113}} [[Livia Kohn]] describes the Tao as "the underlying cosmic power which creates the universe, supports culture and the state, saves the good and punishes the wicked. Literally 'the way', Tao refers to the way things develop naturally, the way nature moves along and living beings grow and decline in accordance with cosmic laws."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}} The Tao is ultimately indescribable and transcends all analysis and definition. Thus, the ''Tao Te Ching'' begins with: "The Tao that can be told is not eternal Tao."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}} Likewise, Louis Komjathy writes that the Tao has been described by Taoists as "dark" (xuan), "indistinct" (hu), "obscure" (huang), and "silent" (mo).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=2}} According to Komjathy, the Tao has four primary characteristics: "(1) Source of all existence; (2) Unnamable mystery; (3) All-pervading sacred presence; and (4) Universe as cosmological process."{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=95}} As such, Taoist thought can be seen as [[Monism|monistic]] (the Tao is one reality), panenhenic (seeing nature as sacred), and [[Panentheism|panentheistic]] (the Tao is both the sacred world and what is beyond it, immanent and transcendent).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=98}} Similarly, [[Wing-tsit Chan|Wing-Tsit Chan]] describes the Tao as an "ontological ground" and as "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course."{{sfnp|Chan|1963|p=136}}<ref>A. Chan, cited in {{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=20}}</ref> The Tao is thus an "organic order", which is not a willful or self-conscious creator, but an infinite and boundless natural pattern.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}} Furthermore, the Tao is something that individuals can find [[immanent]] in themselves, as well as in natural and social patterns.{{sfnp|LaFargue|1994|p=283}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}} Thus, the Tao is also the "innate nature" (''xing'') of all people, a nature which is seen by Taoists as being ultimately good.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=83}} In a naturalistic sense, the Tao as visible pattern, "the Tao that can be told", that is, the rhythmic processes and patterns of the natural world that can be observed and described.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}} Thus, Kohn writes that Tao can be explained as twofold: the transcendent, ineffable, mysterious Tao and the natural, visible, and tangible Tao.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=20}} Throughout Taoist history, Taoists have developed different [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] views regarding the Tao. For example, while the [[Xuanxue]] thinker [[Wang Bi]] described Tao as [[Mu (negative)|wú]] (nothingness, negativity, not-being), [[Guo Xiang]] rejected wú as the source and held that instead the true source was spontaneous "self-production" (zìshēng 自生) and "self-transformation" (zìhuà 自化).<ref>Chan, Alan, [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neo-daoism/ "Neo-Taoism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305221227/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neo-daoism/ |date=5 March 2023 }}, ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Summer 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</ref> Another school, the [[Chongxuan School|Chóngxuán]] (Twofold Mystery), developed a metaphysics influenced by Buddhist [[East Asian Mādhyamaka|Madhyamaka]] philosophy.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Assandri |author-first=Friederike |title=Chán Buddhism in Dūnhuáng and Beyond: A Study of Manuscripts, Texts, and Contexts in Memory of John R. McRae |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-90-04-43191-1 |editor1-last=Anderl |editor1-first=Christoph |series=Numen Book Series |volume=165 |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |pages=363–390 |chapter=Buddhist–Daoist Interaction as Creative Dialogue: The Mind and Dào in Twofold Mystery Teaching |doi=10.1163/9789004439245_009 |s2cid=242842933 |issn=0169-8834 |editor2-last=Wittern |editor2-first=Christian}}</ref> === De === {{Main|De (Chinese)}} The active expression of Tao is called ''De'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=德|p=dé}}; also spelled,''Te'' or ''Teh''; often translated with virtue or power),<ref>{{harvp|Sharot|2001|pp=77–78, 88}}</ref> in a sense that De results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.<ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p=32}}</ref> The term ''De'' can be used to refer to ethical [[virtue]] in the conventional [[Confucianism|Confucian]] sense, as well as to a higher spontaneous kind of sagely virtue or power that comes from following the Tao and practicing wu-wei. Thus, it is a natural expression of the Tao's power and not anything like conventional [[morality]].<ref>Watson, Burton. ''The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu.'' p. 25. Columbia University Press. 1968. {{ISBN|978-0-231-03147-9}}</ref> Louis Komjathy describes De as the manifestation of one's connection to the Tao, which is a beneficial influence of one's cosmological attunement.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=108}} === Ziran === [[file:Zhangzi in front of waterfalls.jpg|thumb|[[Zhuang Zhou]] in front of a waterfall. The natural downward flow of water is a common metaphor for naturalness in Taoism.]] {{Main|Ziran}} ''Ziran'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=自然|p=zìrán|w=tzu-jan}}; lit. "self-so", "[[self-organization]]"<ref name="Zai 2015"/>) is regarded as a central concept and value in Taoism and as a way of flowing with the Tao.{{sfnp|Fowler|2005 |p=122}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=21}} It describes the "primordial state" of all things{{sfnp|Slingerland|2003|p=97}} as well as a basic character of the Tao,{{sfnp|Girardot|1988 |p=56}} and is usually associated with [[Spontaneous process|spontaneity]] and creativity.{{sfnmp|1a1=Fowler|1y=2005 |1p=121|2a1=Girardot|2y=1988 |2p=56}} According to Kohn, in the ''Zhuangzi'', ''ziran'' refers to the fact that "there is thus no ultimate cause to make things what they are. The universe exists by itself and of itself; it is existence just as it is. Nothing can be added or substracted from it; it is entirely sufficient upon itself."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=30}} To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao and flow with its natural rhythms as expressed in oneself.{{sfnp|Girardot|1988 |p=56}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=21, 39}} This involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity.{{sfnp|Fowler|2005 |p=122}} It also involves understanding one's nature and living in accordance with it, without trying to be something one is not or [[Analysis paralysis|overthinking]] one's experience.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=39}} One way of cultivating ''ziran'' found in the ''Zhuangzi'' is to practice the "fasting of the mind", a kind of [[Taoist meditation]] in which one empties the mind. It is held that this can also activate [[qi]] (vital energy).{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=40}} In some passages found in the ''Zhuangzi'' and in the ''Tao Te Ching'', naturalness is also associated with rejection of the state ([[anarchism]]) and a desire to return to simpler pre-technological times ([[Anarcho-primitivism|primitivism]]).{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=37}} An often cited metaphor for naturalness is ''[[Pu (Taoism)|pu]]'' ({{zh|labels=no|t={{linktext|樸}}|p=pǔ, pú|w=p'u|c=}}; lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved log", which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual.{{sfnp|Kraemer|1986|p=286}} It is usually referred to as a state one may return to.{{sfnp|Girardot|1988 |p=70}} === ''Wu wei'' === {{main|Wu wei}} [[file:Butcher Zhuangzi.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the parable of the adept butcher Ding from the [[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]. Butcher Ding was so expert at butchering a carcass, that he barely had to use any force to cut the meat.]] The term ''wu wei'' constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism.<ref name=voorst170>{{harvp|Van Voorst |2005 |p=170}}</ref> ''Wei'' refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while ''wu'' carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are nonaction, effortless action, action without intent, noninterference and nonintervention.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=85}}<ref name=voorst170/> The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": action without action.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=60}} Kohn writes that ''wuwei'' refers to "letting go of egoistic concerns" and "to abstain from forceful and interfering measures that cause tensions and disruption in favor of gentleness, adaptation, and ease."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=21}} In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature and the effortless way it flows around obstacles.{{sfn|Oldmeadow|2007|p=109}} Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the ''[[I Ching]]'', proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that harmony and [[unintended consequences]] may more likely result rather than the willed outcome.{{sfnp|Fasching|deChant|2001|p=35}} Thus the ''Tao Te Ching'' says: "act of things and you will ruin them. Grasp for things and you will lose them. Therefore the sage acts with inaction and has no ruin, lets go of grasping and has no loss."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=21}} Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural way of the universe.{{sfnp|Fasching|deChant|2001|p=35}} Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly.{{sfnp|Chan|1963|p=137}}<ref>Living in the Tao: The Effortless Path of Self-Discovery, Mantak Chia</ref> "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."<ref name=voorst170/> ===Aspects of self (xing, xin, and ming)=== The Taoist view of the self is a holistic one that rejects the idea of a separate individualized [[self]]. As Russell Kirkland writes, Taoists "generally assume that one's 'self' cannot be understood or fulfilled without reference to other persons, and to the broader set of realities in which all persons are naturally and properly embedded."{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=190}} In Taoism, one's innate or fundamental nature (xing) is ultimately the Tao expressing or manifesting itself as an embodied person. Innate nature is connected with one's heartmind (xin), which refers to consciousness, the heart, and one's spirit.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=108}} The focus of Taoist psychology is the [[Xin (heart-mind)|heartmind (xin)]], the intellectual and emotional center (zhong) of a person. It is associated with the chest cavity, the physical heart as well as with emotions, thoughts, consciousness, and the storehouse of spirit (shen).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=115}} When the heartmind is unstable and separated from the Tao, it is called the ordinary heartmind (suxin). On the other hand, the original heartmind (benxin) pervades Tao and is constant and peaceful.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=116}} The ''Neiye'' (ch.14) calls this pure original heartmind the "inner heartmind", "an awareness that precedes language", and "a lodging place of the [[numinous]]".{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=116-117}} Later Taoist sources also refer to it by other terms like "awakened nature" (wuxing), "original nature" (benxing), "original spirit" (yuanshen), and "scarlet palace".{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=117}} This pure heartmind is seen as being characterized by clarity and stillness (qingjing), purity, pure yang, spiritual insight, and emptiness.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=117}} Taoists see life (sheng) as an expression of the Tao. The Tao is seen as granting each person a ''[[Ming yun|ming]]'' (life destiny), which is one's corporeal existence, one's body and vitality.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=108}} Generally speaking, Taoist cultivation seeks a holistic [[Psychosomatic medicine|psychosomatic]] form of training that is described as "dual cultivation of innate nature and life-destiny" (''xingming shuanxiu'').{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=108}} Taoism believes in a "pervasive spirit world that is both interlocked with and separate from the world of humans."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salamone |first=Frank A. |title=Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-94180-6 |editor-last=Levinson |editor-first=David |location=New York |page=430}}</ref> The cultivation of innate nature is often associated with the practice of stillness (jinggong) or quiet meditation, while the cultivation of life-destiny generally revolves around movement based practices (dongong) like [[daoyin]] and health and longevity practices ([[Yangsheng (Daoism)|yangsheng]]).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=109}} === The Taoist body === [[file:NeijingTu1.jpg|thumb|The [[Neijing Tu]], a diagram which illustrates the complex Taoist schema of the body as a way to aid practitioners of inner cultivation.]] {{See also|Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)}} Many Taoist practices work with ancient Chinese understandings of the body, its organs and parts, "elixir fields" ([[Dantian|dantien]]), inner substances (such as "essence" or jing), animating forces (like the [[hun and po]]), and [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] ([[qi]] channels). The complex Taoist schema of the body and its [[subtle body]] components contains many parallels with [[Traditional Chinese medicine]] and is used for health practices as well as for somatic and spiritual transformation (through [[neidan]] – "psychosomatic transmutation" or "internal alchemy").{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=110-111, 122–125}} Taoist physical cultivation rely on purfying and transforming the body's qi (vital breath, energy) in various ways such as dieting and meditation.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=50}} According to Livia Kohn, qi is "the cosmic energy that pervades all. The concrete aspect of Tao, qi is the material force of the universe, the basic stuff of nature."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=51}} According to the ''Zhuangzi,'' "human life is the accumulation of qi; death is its dispersal."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=51}} Everyone has some amount of qi and can gain and lose qi in various ways. Therefore, Taoists hold that through various qi cultivation methods they can harmonize their qi, and thus improve health and [[longevity]], and even attain magic powers, [[Harmonious Society|social harmony]], and immortality.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=50}} The ''[[Neiye]]'' (Inward Training) is one of the earliest texts that teach qi cultivation methods.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=53}} Qi is one of the [[Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)|Three Treasures]], which is a specifically Taoist schema of the main elements in Taoist physical practices like [[qigong]] and [[neidan]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=112}} The three are: [[Jing (Chinese medicine)|jing]] (精, essence, the foundation for one's vitality), [[traditional Chinese medicine#Qi|qi]] and [[Shen (Chinese religion)|shén]] (神, spirit, subtle consciousness, a capacity to connect with the subtle spiritual reality).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=112}}<ref name="Blofeld-2000">Blofeld, John. ''Taoism''. Shambhala, 2000.</ref>''<ref name="Gurdon-2002e">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=397 |oclc=46661540}}</ref>'' These three are further associated with the three "elixir fields" ([[Dantian|dantien]]) and the organs in different ways.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=125}}''<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" />'' The body in Taoist [[political philosophy]] was important and their differing views on it and humanity's place in the universe were a point of distinction from Confucian [[politician]]s, [[writer]]s, and [[Pundit|political commentators]].<ref name="Pearson-2021">{{Cite book |last1=Pearson |first1=Patricia O'Connell |title=World History: Our Human Story |last2=Holdren |first2=John |date=May 2021 |publisher=Sheridan Kentucky |isbn=978-1-60153-123-0 |location=Versailles, Kentucky |pages=102–103}}</ref> Some Taoists viewed ancestors as merely corpses that were improperly revered and respect for the dead as irrelevant and others within groups that followed these beliefs viewed almost all traditions as worthless.<ref name="Pearson-2021" /> ===Ethics=== [[file:Fishing Zhuangzi.png|thumb|Illustration of the tortoise in the mud parable from the ''Zhuangzi''. When some officials came to offer Zhuang zhou a job at court, he replied he preferred to continue to live a life of solitary simplicity, like a turtle who prefers to live in the mud than to be displayed at court.]] {{Main|Three Treasures (Taoism)}} Daoist ethics tends to emphasize various themes from the Taoist classics, such as naturalness (''pu''), spontaneity (''ziran''), [[simplicity]], [[detachment (philosophy)|detachment from desires]], and most important of all, ''[[wu wei]]''.{{sfnp|Chan|1963}} The classic Daoist view is that humans are originally and naturally aligned with Tao, thus their original nature is inherently good. However, one can fall away from this due to personal habits, desires, and social conditions. Returning to one's nature requires active attunement through Daoist practice and ethical cultivation.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=147}} Some popular Daoist beliefs, such as the early [[Shangqing School|Shangqing school]], do not believe this and believe that some people are irredeemably evil and destined to be so.<ref name="Carrasco-1999">{{Cite book |last1=Carrasco |first1=David |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Warmind |first2=Morten |last3=Hawley |first3=John Stratton |last4=Reynolds |first4=Frank |last5=Giarardot |first5=Norman |last6=Neusner |first6=Jacob |last7=Pelikan |first7=Jaroslav |last8=Campo |first8=Juan |last9=Penner |first9=Hans |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |editor=[[Wendy Doniger]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=691 |language=en |author-link=David Carrasco |author-link4=Frank Reynolds (academic) |author-link6=Jacob Neusner |author-link7=Jaroslav Pelikan}}</ref> Many Taoist movements from around the time [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] elements started being syncretized with Daoism had an extremely negative view of foreigners, referring to them as ''[[Hua–Yi distinction|yi]]'' or "barbarians", and some of these thought of foreigners as people who do not feel "human feelings" and who never live out the correct norms of conduct until they became Taoist.<ref name="Zurcher-1980">{{Cite journal |last=Zürcher |first=Erik |date=1980 |title=Buddhist Influence on Early Taoism: A Survey of Scriptural Evidence |journal=T'oung Pao |volume=66 |issue=1/3 |page=108 |doi=10.1163/156853280X00039 |jstor=4528195 |issn=0082-5433}}</ref> At this time, [[China]] was widely viewed by Taoists as a holy land because of influence from the Chinese public that viewed being born in China as a privilege and that outsiders were enemies.<ref name="Zurcher-1980" /> Preserving a sense of "Chineseness" in the country and rewarding [[Nativism (politics)|nativist]] policies such as the building of the [[Great Wall of China]] was important to many Taoist groups.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Spectacular China |publisher=Könemann |year=1999 |isbn=978-3-8290-1077-1 |editor-last=Guangwei |editor-first=He |location=Cologne |page=22 |translator-last=Wusun |translator-first=Lin |editor-last2=Hualing |editor-first2=Tong |editor-last3=Wenzhen |editor-first3=Yang |editor-last4=Zhenguo |editor-first4=Chang |editor-last5=Zeru |editor-first5=Li |editor-last6=Ruicheng |editor-first6=Dong |editor-last7=Weijan |editor-first7=Gong |translator-last2=Zhongping |translator-first2=Wu}}</ref> Foreigners who joined these Taoist sects were made to repent for their sins in another life that caused them to be born "in the frontier wilds" because of Buddhist ideas of reincarnation coming into their [[doctrine]]s.<ref name="Zurcher-1980" /> Some Daoist movements viewed [[human nature]] neutrally.<ref name="Stefon-2016" /> However, some of the movements that were dour or skeptical about human nature did not believe that evil is permanent and believed that evil people can become good. Korean Daoists tended to think extremely positively of human nature.<ref name="Carrasco-1999a">{{Cite book |last1=Carrasco |first1=David |title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions |last2=Warmind |first2=Morten |last3=Hawley |first3=John Stratton |last4=Reynolds |first4=Frank |last5=Giarardot |first5=Norman |last6=Neusner |first6=Jacob |last7=Pelikan |first7=Jaroslav |last8=Campo |first8=Juan |last9=Penner |first9=Hans |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]] |editor=[[Wendy Doniger]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |page=1058 |language=en |author-link=David Carrasco |author-link4=Frank Reynolds (academic) |author-link6=Jacob Neusner |author-link7=Jaroslav Pelikan}}</ref> Some of the most important virtues in Taoism are the ''Three Treasures'' or ''Three Jewels'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=三寶|p=sānbǎo|c=}}). These are: ''ci'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=慈|p=cí}}, usually translated as ''[[compassion]]''), ''jian'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=儉|p=jiǎn|s=|t=}}, usually translated as ''[[moderation]]''), and ''bugan wei tianxia xian'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=不敢爲天下先|p=bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān|lit=|s=}}, literally "not daring to act as first under the heavens", but usually translated as ''[[humility]]''). [[Arthur Waley]], applying them to the [[Political sociology|socio-political]] sphere, translated them as: "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".<ref>{{harvp|Waley|1958|p=225}}</ref> Taoism also adopted the Buddhist doctrines of [[karma]] and [[reincarnation]] into its religious ethical system.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=123}} Medieval Taoist thought developed the idea that ethics was overseen by a celestial administration that kept records of people's actions and their fate, as well as handed out rewards and punishments through particular celestial administrators.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=99}} ===Soteriology and religious goals=== [[file:White Cloud Temple (9868245123).jpg|thumb|Illustrations of Taoist immortals at the White Cloud Temple]] [[File:The Daoist immortal Lü Dongbin crossing Lake Dongting.jpeg|thumb|''The Taoist immortal [[Lü Dongbin]] crossing Lake Dongting'', dated to the [[Song dynasty]].]] Taoists have diverse religious goals that include Taoist conceptions of sagehood (''[[zhenren]]''), spiritual self-cultivation, a happy afterlife, and/or longevity and some form of [[immortality]] ([[Xian (Taoism)|''xian'']], variously understood as a kind of transcendent post-mortem state of the spirit).{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=175-183}}<ref name="Gurdon-2002a">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=395 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> Taoists' views about what happens in the afterlife tend to include the soul becoming a part of the cosmos<ref name="NatGeo-2023" /> (which was often thought of as an illusionary place where ''[[qi]]'' and physical matter were thought of as being the same in a way held together by the microcosm of the spirits of the human body and the macrocosm of the universe itself, represented and embodied by the [[Three Pure Ones]]),<ref name="Gurdon-2002a" /> somehow aiding the spiritual functions of nature or ''[[Tian]]'' after death, and/or being [[Salvation|saved]] by either achieving spiritual immortality in an afterlife or becoming a ''xian'' who can appear in the human world at will,<ref name="Gurdon-2002c">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=392, 395 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> but normally lives in another plane. "[S]acred forests and[/or] mountains"<ref name="Gurdon-2002d">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=396 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> or a [[Yin and yang|yin-yang]],<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2017-11-16 |title=青山王的秘書長－陰陽司公 {{!}} 保庇網 |url=https://www.nownews.com/news/5622536 |access-date=2023-05-09 |website=NOWnews今日新聞 |language=zh-Hant-TW |archive-date=9 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509131835/https://www.nownews.com/news/5622536 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wilkinson-1999">{{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Philip |title=Illustrated Dictionary of Religions |publisher=[[DK (publisher)|DK]] |year=1999 |isbn=0-7894-4711-8 |editor-last=Spilling |editor-first=Michael |edition=First American |location=New York |pages=67–68, 70 |author-link=Philip Wilkinson (author) |editor-last2=Williams |editor-first2=Sophie |editor-last3=Dent |editor-first3=Marion}}</ref> yin, yang, or [[Tao]] realm<ref name="Wilkinson-1999" /> inconceivable and incomprehensible by normal humans and even the virtuous Confucius and [[Confucianism|Confucianists]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts |publisher=[[Paragon House|Paragon House Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55778-723-1 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Andrew |edition=1st paperback |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |pages=467–468}}</ref> such as the mental realm sometimes called "the [[Tian|Heavens]]" where higher, spiritual versions of Daoists such as Laozi were thought to exist when they were alive and absorb "the purest Yin and Yang"<ref name="Minford-2018">{{Cite book |last=Minford |first=John |title=Tao Te Ching: The Essential Translation of the Ancient Chinese Book of the Tao |publisher=[[Viking Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-670-02498-8 |location=New York |pages=ix-x |language=en-US |author-link=John Minford}}</ref> were all possibilities for a potential ''xian'' to be reborn in. These spiritual versions were thought to be abstract beings that can manifest in that world as mythical beings such as ''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]'' [[Chinese dragon|dragons]] who eat yin and yang energy and ride [[cloud]]s and their ''[[qi]]''.<ref name="Minford-2018" /> More specifically, possibilities for "the spirit of the body" include "join[ing] the universe after death",<ref name="NatGeo-2023">{{Cite web |date=January 30, 2023 |title=Taoism |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/taoism |access-date=2023-04-30 |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |archive-date=26 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426232309/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/taoism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> exploring<ref name="EB-2023" /> or serving various functions in parts of ''tiān<ref name="Chua-2007">{{Cite book |last=Chua |first=Amy |title=Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance–and Why They Fall |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-385-51284-8 |edition=1st |location=New York |page=65 |oclc=123079516}}</ref>'' or other spiritual worlds,<ref name="EB-2023" /><ref name="Lagerwey-2018">{{Cite web |last=Lagerwey |first=John |date=2018-05-21 |title=Xian |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/places/asia/chinese-political-geography/xian |access-date=2023-04-30 |website=[[Encyclopedia.com]]}}</ref> or becoming a ''xian'' who can do one or more of those things.<ref name="EB-2023" /><ref name="Chua-2007" /> Taoist ''xian'' are often seen as being [[Eternal youth|eternally young]] because "of their life being totally at one with the Tao of [[nature]]."<ref>{{Cite book |title=World Scripture: A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts |publisher=[[Paragon House|Paragon House Publishers]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-55778-723-1 |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=Andrew |edition=1st paperback |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |page=20}}</ref> They are also often seen as being made up of "pure breath and light" and as being able to [[Shapeshifting|shapeshift]], and some Taoists believed their afterlife natural "paradises" were palaces of heaven.<ref name="Murrell-2017">{{Cite journal |last=Murrell |first=Jasmyn |date=January 2017 |title=Virtuous Life, Honored Afterlife and the Evolution of Confucianism |url=https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1031&context=history-in-the-making |journal=History in the Making |publisher=[[California State University]] |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=89, 97 |access-date=3 June 2023 |archive-date=3 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603143550/https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1031&context=history-in-the-making |url-status=live }}</ref> Taoists who sought to become one of the many different types of immortals, such as ''xian'' or ''zhenren'', wanted to "ensure complete physical and spiritual immortality".<ref name="Salamone-2004" /> In the [[Quanzhen School|Quanzhen]] school of [[Wang Chongyang]], the goal is to become a sage, which he equates with being a "spiritual immortal" (''shen xien'') and with the attainment of "clarity and stillness" (''qingjing'') through the integration of "inner nature" (xing) and "worldly reality" (ming).{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=183}} Those who know the Tao, who flow with the natural way of the Tao and thus embody the patterns of the Tao are called sages or "perfected persons" ([[zhenren]]).{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=23}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=80}} This is what is often considered salvation in Taoist [[soteriology]].<ref name="EB-2023" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=zhenren |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/zhenren |access-date=2023-04-23 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lagerway |first=John |date=2005 |title=Zhenren |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/zhenren |access-date=2023-04-23 |website=[[Encyclopedia.com]]}}</ref> They often are depicted as living simple lives, as craftsmen or [[hermit]]s. In other cases, they are depicted as the ideal rulers which practice ruling through non-intervention and under which nations prosper peacefully.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=23}} Sages are the highest humans, mediators between heaven and earth and the best guides on the Taoist path. They act naturally and simply, with a pure mind and with wuwei. They may have supernatural powers and bring good fortune and peace.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=23-24}} Some sages are also considered to have become one of the [[Xian (Taoism)|immortals (xian)]] through their mastery of the Tao. After shedding their mortal form, spiritual immortals may have many superhuman abilities like flight<ref name="Lagerwey-2018" /> and are often said to live in heavenly realms.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=184}}<ref name="EB-2023" /> The sages as thus because they have attained the primary goal of Taoism: a union with the Tao and harmonization or alignment with its patterns and flows.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=162-163}} This experience is one of being attuned to the Tao and to our own original nature, which already has a natural capacity for resonance ([[ganying]]) with Tao.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=163}} This is the main goal that all Daoist practices are aiming towards and can be felt in various ways, such as a sense of psychosomatic vitality and aliveness as well as stillness and a "true joy" (zhenle) or "celestial joy" that remains unaffected by mundane concerns like gain and loss.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=163-166}} The Taoist quest for immortality was inspired by Confucian emphasis on [[filial piety]] and how [[Ancestor veneration in China|worshipped ancestors]] were thought to exist after death.<ref name="Murrell-2017" /> Becoming an immortal through the power of yin-yang and heaven, but also specifically Taoist interpretations of the Tao, was sometimes thought of as possible in [[Chinese folk religion]],<ref name="Wilkinson-1999" /> and Taoist thoughts on immortality were sometimes drawn from Confucian views on heaven and its status as an afterlife that permeates the mortal world as well. === Cosmology === {{Further|School of Naturalists|Qi|Taoism and death}} [[File:ZhoushiTaijitu.png|thumb|[[Zhou Dunyi]]'s (1017–1073 CE) cosmological ''[[Taijitu]]'' diagram. The red circle is the formless [[Wuji (philosophy)|Wuji]] which gives birth to "the two" – yin and yang (i.e. [[Taiji (philosophy)|taiji]]).]] Taoist cosmology is [[Cyclic model|cyclic]]—the universe is seen as being in constant change, with various forces and energies (qi) affecting each other in different complex patterns.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=80}}<ref name="harvp|Robinet|1997|p=7">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=7}}</ref><ref name="Zai 2015">Dr Zai, J. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-WzMCQAAQBAJ ''Taoism and Science: Cosmology, Evolution, Morality, Health and more''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417051124/https://books.google.com/books?id=-WzMCQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover1 |date=17 April 2016 }}. Ultravisum, 2015.</ref> Taoist cosmology shares similar views with the [[School of Naturalists]].<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 62"/> Taoist cosmology focuses on the impersonal transformations (zaohua) of the universe, which are spontaneous and unguided.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=87}} [[Livia Kohn]] explains the basic Taoist cosmological theory as:{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=22}} <blockquote>the root of creation Tao rested in deep chaos (ch. 42). Next, it evolved into the One, a concentrated state cosmic unity that is full of creative potential and often described in ''[[I Ching]]'' terms as the [[Taiji (philosophy)|taiji]]. The One then brought forth "the Two", the two energies yin and yang, which in turn merged in harmony to create the next level of existence, "the Three" (yin-yang combined), from which the myriad beings came forth. From original oneness, the world thus continued to move into ever greater states of distinction and differentiation.</blockquote> The main distinction in Taoist cosmology is that between ''[[yin and yang]]'', which applies to various sets of complementary ideas: bright – dark, light – heavy, soft – hard, strong – weak, above – below, ruler – minister, male – female, and so on.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=81}} Cosmically, these two forces exist in mutual harmony and interdependence.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=82}} Yin and yang are further divided into five phases ([[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Wu Xing]], or five materials): minor yang, major yang, yin/yang, minor yin, major yin. Each of these correlates with a specific substance: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water respectively.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=83}} This schema is used in many different ways in Taoist thought and practice, from nourishing life ([[Yangsheng (Daoism)|yangsheng]]) and medicine to astrology and divination.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=85}} Taoists also generally see all things as being animated and constituted by ''[[qi]]'' (vital air, subtle breath), which is seen as a force that circulates throughout the universe and throughout human bodies (as both air in the lungs and as a subtle breath throughout the body's [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] and organs).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=94}} Qi is in constant transformation between its condensed state (life) and diluted state (potential).<ref name="Robinet 1997, pp. 7-8">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=8}}</ref> These two different states of qi are embodiments of yin and yang,<ref name="Robinet 1997, pp. 7-8" /> two complementary forces that constantly play against and with each other and where one cannot exist without the other.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=9}} Taoist texts present various creation stories and [[Cosmogony|cosmogonies]]. Classic cosmogonies are [[Nontheism|nontheistic]], presenting a natural undirected process in which an apophatic undifferentiated potentiality (called wuwuji, "without non-differentiation") naturally unfolds into [[Wuji (philosophy)|wuji]] (primordial oneness, "non-differentiation"), which then evolves into yin-yang ([[Taijitu|taiji]]) and then into the myriad beings, as in the ''Tao Te Ching''.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=115}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=88}} Later medieval models included the idea of a [[Creator deity|creator God]] (mainly seen as Lord Lao), representing order and creativity.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=115}} Taoist cosmology influences Taoist soteriology, which holds that one can "return to the root" (guigen) of the universe (and of ourselves), which is also the Tao—the impersonal source (yuan) of all things.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=90}} In Taoism, human beings are seen as a [[Macrocosm and microcosm|microcosm]] of the universe,<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 103"/> and thus the cosmological forces, like the five phases, are also present in the form of the [[zang-fu]] organs.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=825}}</ref> Another common belief is that there are various gods that reside in human bodies.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=128}} As a consequence, it is believed that a deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.{{sfnp|Occhiogrosso|1994|p=171}} Another important element of Taoist cosmology is the use of [[Chinese astrology]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=80}} ===Theology=== [[File:Portraits of Jade Emperor and the Heavenly Kings.JPG|thumb|Chinese painting of the [[Jade Emperor]] and [[Four Heavenly Kings|the Heavenly Kings]].]] [[file:Yu Zhiding - Xi Wangmu (The Queen Mother of the West).jpg|thumb|[[Queen Mother of the West|Xi Wangmu]] (The Queen Mother of the West).]] {{Main|Taoist theology}} {{See also|Xian (Taoism)|Li Hong (Taoist eschatology)}} Taoist [[theology]] can be defined as [[Apophatic theology|apophatic]], given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness and unknowable nature of the Tao, and the primacy of the "Way" rather than [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] concepts of [[God]]. Nearly all the sects share this core belief.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=1}} Arguments do exist the [[monotheistic]] concepts in Taoism.<ref>White, R.J. Teaching the Dao: monotheism, transcendence, and intercultural philosophy. Int. Commun. Chin. Cult 8, 271–287 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40636-021-00225-1</ref> However, Taoism does include many deities and spirits and thus can also be considered [[Animism|animistic]] and [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] in a secondary sense (since they are considered to be emanations from the impersonal and nameless ultimate principle).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=99-100}} Some Taoist theology presents the [[Three Pure Ones]] at the top of the [[Pantheon (religion)|pantheon]] of deities, which was a hierarchy emanating from the Tao.<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> [[Laozi]] is considered the incarnation of one of the three and worshiped as the ancestral founder of Taoism.{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=63}}<ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p= 41}}</ref> The gods and immortals(神仙) believed in by Taoism can be roughly divided into two categories, namely "gods" and "xian". "Gods" refers to [[Deity|deities]] and there are many kinds: heaven gods/celestials(天神); earth spirits(地祇); wuling(物灵,animism,the spirit of all things); netherworld gods(地府神灵); gods of the human body(人体之神); gods of the human ghost(人鬼之神)etc. "Xian" are those who have acquired perfect cultivation of the Tao, persons with vast supernatural powers, unpredictable changes and immortality.<ref name="道教神仙分类"/> Different branches of Taoism often have differing pantheons of lesser deities, where these deities reflect different notions of cosmology.<ref>{{harvp|Segal|2006|p=50}}</ref> Lesser deities also may be promoted or demoted for their activity.<ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p=92}}</ref> Some varieties of popular Chinese religion incorporate the [[Jade Emperor]] ([[Yü-Huang]] or [[Yü-Di]]), one of the Three Pure Ones, as the highest God. Historical Taoist figures, and people who are considered to have become immortals (''[[xian (Taoism)|xian]]''), are also venerated as well by both clergy and laypeople.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vuong|first1=Quan-Hoang|date=2018|title=Cultural additivity: behavioural insights from the interaction of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in folktales |journal=Palgrave Communications|volume=4|issue=1|page=143|doi=10.1057/s41599-018-0189-2|s2cid=54444540 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Despite these hierarchies of deities, most conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western sense of [[theism]].{{Explain|reason=I have found quite a bit of information on Taoist gods, although this appears to be correct as well. It just needs a bit of expanding.|date=May 2023}} Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example, the Hindu theistic sense.{{sfnp|Martinson|1987|pp=168–169}}{{sfnp|Fasching|deChant|2001|p=35}} == Practices == [[file:Shi Rui-Xuan Yuan Inquires of the Dao.jpg|thumb|290px|''Xuan Yuan [Yellow Emperor] Inquires of the Tao'', [[National Palace Museum]], [[Taipei]], Early Ming Dynasty (1368–1644). This silk scroll painting is based on the story that the Yellow Emperor went out to the [[Kongtong Mountains]] to meet with the famous Taoist sage [[Guang Chengzi|Guangchengzi]]]] Some key elements of Taoist practice include a commitment to self-cultivation, wu wei, and attunement to the patterns of the Tao.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=131}} Most Taoists throughout history have agreed on the importance of self cultivation through various practices, which were seen as ways to transform oneself and integrate oneself to the deepest realities.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=74}} Communal rituals are important in most Taoist traditions, as are methods of self-cultivation. Taoist self-cultivation practices tend to focus on the transformation of the heartmind together with bodily substances and energies (like ''jing'' and ''qi'') and their connection to natural and universal forces, patterns, and powers.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=191-93}} Despite the detachment from reality and dissent from Confucian humanism that the ''Tao Te Ching'' teaches, Taoists were and are generally not [[Misanthropy|misanthropes]] or [[Nihilism|nihilists]] and see humans as an important class of things in the world.<ref name="Stefon-2016">{{Cite web |last=Stefon |first=Matt |date=2016-12-05 |title=ren |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/ren |access-date=2023-04-23 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=23 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423145308/https://www.britannica.com/topic/ren |url-status=live }}</ref> However, in most Taoist views humans were not held to be especially important in comparison to other aspects of the world and Taoist metaphysics that were seen as equally or more special.<ref name="Stefon-2016" /> Similarly, some Taoists had similar views on their gods or the gods of other religions.<ref name="Harari-2015" /> According to Louis Komjathy, Taoist practice is a diverse and complex subject that can include "aesthetics, art, dietetics, ethics, health and longevity practice, meditation, ritual, seasonal attunement, scripture study, and so forth."{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=131}} Throughout the history of Taoism, mountains have occupied a special place for Taoist practice. They are seen as sacred spaces and as the ideal places for Taoist cultivation and Taoist monastic or eremitic life, which may include "cloud wandering" (yunyou) in the mountains and dwelling in mountain [[Hermitage (religious retreat)|hermitages]] (an) or [[grotto]]es (dong).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=182-92}} Tao can serve as a life energy instead of [[qi]] in some Taoist belief systems.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} === The nine practices === One of the earliest schemas for Taoist practice was the "nine practices" or "nine virtues" (jiǔxíng 九行), which were taught in the Celestial Masters school. These were drawn from classic Taoist sources, mainly the ''Tao Te Ching'', and are presented in the ''Laojun jinglu'' (''Scriptural Statutes of Lord Lao''; DZ 786).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=85-86}} The nine practices are:{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=86}} #Nonaction ([[wu wei|wúwéi]] 無為) #Softness and weakness (róuruò 柔弱) #Guarding the feminine (shǒucí 行守) #Being nameless (wúmíng 無名) #Clarity and stillness (qīngjìng 清靜) #Being adept (zhūshàn 諸善) #Being desireless (wúyù 無欲) #Knowing how to stop and be content (zhī zhǐzú 知止足) #Yielding and withdrawing (tuīràng 推讓) === Rituals === [[File:青羊宫法事.jpg|thumb|A Taoist ritual at the Gray Goat Temple (Qingyang Gong, 青羊宫) in [[Chengdu]], [[Sichuan]].]] [[File:02.20 總統出席「松山慈祐宮護國禳瘟清醮法會」 (49559117058).jpg|thumb|Taoist ritual specialists in a procession, Taiwan.]] Ancient [[Religion in China|Chinese religion]] made much use of [[sacrifice]]s to gods and ancestors, which could include slaughtered animals (such as pigs and ducks) or fruit. The Taoist [[List of Celestial Masters|Celestial Master]] [[Zhang Daoling]] rejected food and [[animal sacrifice]]s to the gods. Today, many [[Taoist temple]]s reject animal sacrifice.<ref>[[David "Race" Bannon]], "Chinese Medicine: From Temples to Taoism," T'ai Chi, Vol. 20, No. 3 (1996): 28–33.</ref> Sacrifices to the deities remains a key element of Taoist rituals however. There are various kinds of Taoist rituals, which may include presenting offerings, scripture reading, sacrifices, incantations, purification rites, confession, petitions and announcements to the gods, observing the ethical precepts, memorials, chanting, lectures, and communal feasts.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=145}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=143}} On particular holidays, such as the [[Qingming Festival|Qingming/Ching Ming festival]], street parades take place. These are lively affairs that involve firecrackers, the burning of [[hell money]], and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include [[lion dance]]s and [[dragon dance]]s, human-occupied puppets (often of the [[Heibai Wuchang|"Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"]]), [[Kungfu|gongfu]], and [[palanquin]]s carrying images of deities. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|1993|pp=28–29}}</ref> === Ethical precepts === Taking up and living by sets of ethical precepts is another important practice in Taoism. By the [[Tang dynasty]], Taoism had created a system of lay discipleship in which one took a set of [[Ten precepts (Taoism)]]. The [[Five precepts (Taoism)]] are identical to the Buddhist [[five precepts]] (which are to avoid: killing [both human and non-human animals], theft, sexual misconduct, lying, and [[Psychoactive drug|intoxicants]] like [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]].) The other five were a set of five injunctions:{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=74}}<blockquote> (6) I will maintain harmony with my ancestors and family and never disregard my kin; (7) When I see someone do good, I will support him with joy and delight; (8) When I see someone unfortunate, I will support him with dignity to recover good fortune; (9) When someone comes to do me harm, I will not harbor thoughts of revenge; (10) As long as all beings have not attained the Dao, I will not expect to do so myself.</blockquote>Apart from these common ethical precepts, Taoist traditions also have larger sets of precepts that are often reserved for ordained priests or monastics. === Divination and magic === A key part of many Taoist traditions is the practice of [[divination]]. There are many methods used by Chinese Taoists including [[I Ching]] divination, [[Chinese astrology|Chinese astrological]] divination, [[feng shui]] ([[Geomancy|geomantic]] divination), and the interpretation of various [[omen]]s.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=133-142}}<ref name="harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=129–132">{{harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=129–132}}</ref> [[Mediumship]] and [[exorcism]] is a key element of some Taoist traditions. These can include ''[[Tongji (spirit medium)|tongji]]'' mediumship and the practice of [[Fuji (planchette writing)|planchette writing]] or spirit writing.<ref name="harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=129–132"/> === Longevity practices === [[File:Chinese_woodcut,_Famous_medical_figures;_Sun_Simiao_Wellcome_L0039324.jpg|thumb|Sun Simiao as depicted by Gan Bozong, [[Woodblock printing|woodblock print]], Tang dynasty (618–907)]] [[File:Daoyin_tu_-_chart_for_leading_and_guiding_people_in_exercise_Wellcome_L0036007.jpg|thumb|Reconstructed drawings of guiding and pulling (Daoyin) exercises from the [[Mawangdui Silk Texts]].]] Taoist longevity methods are closely related to ancient [[Chinese medicine]]. Many of these methods date back to Tang dynasty figures like alchemist [[Sun Simiao]] (582–683) and the Highest Clarity Patriarch [[Sima Chengzhen]] (647–735).{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=131}} The goal of these methods range from better health and longevity to immortality. Key elements of these "nourishing life" ([[Yangsheng (Daoism)|yangsheng]]) methods include: [[moderation]] in all things (drink, food, etc.), adapting to the cycles of the [[season]]s by following injunctions regarding healing exercises ([[daoyin]]), and [[Breathwork (New Age)|breathwork]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=132-135}} A number of physical practices, like modern forms of [[qigong]], as well as modern internal martial arts ([[neijia]]) like [[Tai chi|Taijiquan]], [[Baguazhang]], [[Xing Yi Quan|Xingyiquan]], and [[Liuhebafa]], are practiced by Taoists as methods of cultivating health and longevity as well as eliciting internal alchemical transformations.<ref>{{harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=135–137}}</ref>{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=174}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133}} However, these methods are not specifically Taoist and are often practiced outside of Taoist contexts.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=150-51}} Another key longevity method is "ingestion", which focuses on what one absorbs or consumes from one's environment and is seen as affecting what one becomes.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=138-39}} Diatectics, closely influenced by Chinese medicine, is a key element of ingestion practice, and there are numerous Taoist diet regimens for different effects (such as ascetic diets, monastic diets, therapeutic diets, and alchemical diets that use herbs and minerals).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=139}} One common practice is the [[Bigu (grain avoidance)|avoidance of grains (bigu)]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=140}} In certain cases, practices like [[vegetarianism]] and true fasting is also adopted (which may also be termed ''bigu'').{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=142-43}} "Qi ingestion" (fu qi) is a special practice that entails the absorption of environmental qi and the light of the sun, moon, stars and other astral effulgences and cosmic ethers as a way to enhance health and longevity.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=145}} Some Taoists thought of the human body as a spiritual nexus with thousands of ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|shen]]''<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" /> (often 36,000),<ref name="Stevenson-2000">{{Cite book |last=Stevenson |first=Jay |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy |publisher=[[Alpha Books]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-02-863820-1 |location=Indianapolis |page=226 |language=en-US}}</ref> gods who were likely thought of as at least somewhat mental in nature because of the word's other meaning of consciousness, that could be communed with by doing various methods to manipulate the [[yin and yang]] of the body, as well as its qi.<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" /> These Taoists also thought of the human body as a metaphorical existence where three "[[cinnabar]] fields"<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" /> that represented a higher level of reality and/or a spiritual kind of cinnabar that does not exist in normal reality. A method of meditation used by these Taoists was "visualizing light" that was thought to be ''qi'' or another kind of life energy a Taoist substituted for ''qi<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" />'' or believed in the existence of instead. The light was then channeled through the three cinnabar fields, forming a "microcosmic orbit" or through the hands and feet for a "macrocosmic orbit".<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" /> The 36,000 ''shen'' regulated the body and bodily functions through a bureaucratic system "modeled after the Chinese system of government".<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> Death occurs only when these gods leave, but life can be extended by meditating while visualizing them, doing good deeds, and avoiding [[meat]] and [[wine]].<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> === Meditation === [[file:Stage1.gif|thumb|Illustration of Taoist meditation.]] There are many methods of Taoist meditation (often referred to as "stillness practice", ''jinggong''), some of which were strongly influenced by [[Buddhist meditation|Buddhist methods]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=131}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133}} Some of the key forms of Taoist meditation are:{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=136-140}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133}} * [[Apophatic theology|Apophatic]] or quietistic meditation, which was the main method of classical Taoism and can be found in classic texts like the'' Zhuangzi'', where it is termed "fasting the heartmind" (xinzhai).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133-134}} This practice is also variously termed "embracing the one" (baoyi), "guarding the one" (shouyi), "quiet sitting" (jingzuo), and "sitting forgetfulness" ([[zuowang]]).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=134}} According to Louis Komjathy, this type of meditation "emphasizes emptiness and stillness; it is contentless, non-conceptual, and non-dualistic. One simply empties the heart-mind of all emotional and intellectual content."{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=134}} The texts of classical Taoism state that this meditation leads to the dissolution of the self and any sense of separate dualistic identity.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=135}} Sima Chengzhen's ''[[Zuowanglun|Zuowang lun]]'' is a key text that outlines this method.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=135}} The practice is also closely connected with the virtue of wuwei (inaction).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=137}} * Concentration meditation, focusing the mind on one theme, like the breath, a sound, a part of the body (like one of the dantiens), a diagram or mental image, a deity etc. A subset of this is called "guarding the one", which is interpreted in different ways. * Observation (guan)—according to [[Livia Kohn]], this method "encourages openness to all sorts of stimuli and leads to a sense of free-flowing awareness. It often begins with the recognition of physical sensations and subtle events in the body but may also involve paying attention to outside occurrences."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=137}} Guan is associated with deep listening and energetic sensitivity.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=132}} The term most often refers to "inner observation" (neiguan), a practice that developed through Buddhist influence (see: [[Vipaśyanā]]).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133}} Neiguan entails developing introspection of one's body and mind, which includes being aware of the various parts of the body as well as the various deities residing in the body.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=136-140}} * [[Zhan zhuang]] ("post standing")—standing meditation in various postures. * Visualization (cunxiang) of various mental images, including deities, cosmic patterns, the lives of saints, various lights in the bodies organs, etc. This method is associated with the Supreme Clarity school, which first developed it.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133}} === Alchemy === [[file:Chinese woodcut; Daoist internal alchemy (4) Wellcome L0038974.jpg|thumb|Illustration of Taoist neidan from the {{Lang|zh-latn|[[Xingming guizhi]]}} (''Pointers on Spiritual Nature and Bodily Life''), {{Circa|1615}} ([[Wanli Emperor|Wanli era]]).]] {{See also|Taoist alchemy|Neidan}} A key element of many schools of Taoism are [[Alchemy|alchemical]] practices, which include rituals, meditations, exercises, and the creation of various alchemical substances. The goals of alchemy include physical and spiritual transformation, aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, improving physical health, extending one's life, and even becoming an immortal ([[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]).<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=672}}; {{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=228 & 103}}</ref> Taoist alchemy can be found in early Taoist scriptures like the ''[[Taiping Jing]]'' and the ''[[Baopuzi]]''.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|pp=70–71}}; {{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=73}}</ref> There are two main kinds of alchemy, internal alchemy ([[neidan]]) and external alchemy ([[waidan]]). Internal alchemy (neidan, literally: "internal elixir"), which focuses on the transformation and increase of qi in the body, developed during the late imperial period (especially during the Tang) and is found in almost all Taoist schools today, though it is most closely associated with the [[Quanzhen School]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=170}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=133-136}} There are many systems of internal alchemy with different methods such as visualization and breathwork.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=170}} In the late Imperial period, neidan developed into complex systems that drew on numerous elements, including: classic Taoist texts and meditations, [[Yangsheng (Daoism)|yangsheng]], [[I Ching]] symbology, Taoist cosmology, external alchemy concepts and terms, [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese medicine]], and Buddhist influences.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=136}} Neidan systems tend to be passed on through oral master-disciple lineages that are often to be secret.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=137}} Livia Kohn writes that the main goal of internal alchemy is generally understood as a set of three transformations: "from essence (jing) to energy ([[qi]]), from energy to spirit (shen), and from spirit to Dao."{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=171}} Common methods for this include engaging the subtle body and activating the [[microcosmic orbit]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=171}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=137}}<ref name="Gurdon-2002e" /> Louis Komjathy adds that neidan seeks to create a transcendent spirit, usually called the "immortal embryo" (xiantai) or "yang spirit" (yangshen).{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=136}} ==Texts== [[File:Mawangdui LaoTsu Ms2.JPG|thumb|upright|A part of a [[Taoist]] manuscript, ink on silk, 2nd century BCE, Han dynasty, unearthed from [[Mawangdui]] tomb 3rd]] Some religious Taoist movements view traditional texts as scriptures that are considered sacred, authoritative, binding, and divinely inspired or revealed.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=31}}<ref name="Gurdon-2002b">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=392, 394 |oclc=46661540}}</ref><ref name="Stefon-2023">{{Cite web |last=Stefon |first=Matt |date=2023-04-02 |title=Scripture |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/scripture |access-date=2023-05-22 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=8 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508204435/https://www.britannica.com/topic/scripture |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the ''Tao Te Ching'' was originally viewed as "human wisdom" and "written by humans for humans."<ref name="Stefon-2023" /> It and other important texts "acquired authority...that caused them to be regarded...as sacred."<ref name="Stefon-2023" /> Perhaps the most influential texts are the ''Tao Te Ching'' and the ''Zhuangzi''.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=31-32}}<ref>{{harvp|Miller|2003|p=ix}}</ref> ===''Tao Te Ching''=== {{Main|Tao Te Ching}} [[File:DaoDeJingWangBi.jpg|thumb|upright|1770 ''Wang Bi'' edition of the ''Tao Te Ching'']] Throughout the history of Taoism, the ''Tao Te Ching'' has been a central text, used for ritual, self-cultivation, and philosophical purposes.{{sfnp|Kohn|LaFargue|1998|p=158}}{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=32}} According to legend, the ''Tao Te Ching'' (also known as the ''Laozi'') was written by [[Laozi]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism.html |title=Taoism: Overview |website=Patheos |access-date=2011-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016124951/http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism.html |archive-date=16 October 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> Authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate{{sfnp|Eliade|1984|p=26}} and will probably never be known with certainty.{{sfnp|Watts|1975|p=xxiii}} The earliest manuscripts of this work (written on [[Guodian Chu Slips|bamboo tablets]]) date back to the late 4th century BCE, and these contain significant differences from the later received edition (of [[Wang Bi]] {{Circa|226}}–249).{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=53-}}<ref name=stanford>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/ |chapter=Laozi |title=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |quote=The discovery of two ''Laozi'' silk manuscripts at Mawangdui, near Changsha, Hunan province in 1973 marks an important milestone in modern ''Laozi'' research. The manuscripts, identified simply as "A" (jia) and "B" (yi), were found in a tomb that was sealed in 168 B.C. The texts themselves can be dated earlier, the "A" manuscript being the older of the two, copied in all likelihood before 195 B.C.<br />Until recently, the Mawangdui manuscripts have held the pride of place as the oldest extant manuscripts of the ''Laozi''. In late 1993, the excavation of a tomb (identified as M1) in Guodian, Jingmen city, Hubei province, has yielded among other things some 800 bamboo slips, of which 730 are inscribed, containing over 13,000 Chinese characters. Some of these, amounting to about 2,000 characters, match the ''Laozi''. The tomb...is dated around 300 B.C. |year=2018 |access-date=18 September 2011 |archive-date=28 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428185936/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Apart from the Guodian text and the Wang Bi edition, another alternative version exists, the Mawangdui Tao Te Chings.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=53-55}} Louis Komjathy writes that the ''Tao Te Ching'' is "actually a multi-vocal anthology consisting of a variety of historical and textual layers; in certain respects, it is a collection of oral teachings of various members of the inner cultivation lineages."{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=32}} Meanwhile, Russell Kirkland argues that the text arose out of "various traditions of oral wisdom" from the [[Chu (state)|state of Chu]] that were written, circulated, edited, and rewritten by different hands. He also suggests that authors from the [[Jixia Academy|Jixia academy]] may have been involved in the editing process.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=65-66}} The ''Tao Te Ching ''is not organized in any clear fashion and is a collection of different sayings on various themes.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=54}} The leading themes of the Tao Te Ching revolve around the nature of Tao, how to attain it and De, the inner power of Tao, as well as the idea of [[Wu wei|wei wu-wei]].{{sfnp|Van Voorst|2005 |p=165}}{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=59}} Tao is said to be ineffable and accomplishes great things through small, lowly, effortless, and "feminine" (yin) ways (which are compared to the behavior of water).{{sfnp|Van Voorst|2005 |p=165}}{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=59}} Ancient commentaries on the ''Tao Te Ching'' are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the ''[[Heshang Gong]]'' commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|p=73}}</ref> Other important commentaries include the one from [[Wang Bi]] and the [[Xiang'er]] commentary.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|pp=74–77}}</ref> ===''Zhuangzi''=== {{Main|Zhuangzi (book)}} The [[Zhuangzi (book)|''Zhuangzi'']] (''Book of Master Zhuang'', {{zh|labels=no|t=莊子}}), named after its supposed author [[Zhuang Zhou]], is a highly influential composite text of multi-vocal writings from various sources and historical periods.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=90}} The commentator and editor [[Guo Xiang]] (c. CE 300) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist thought. One traditional view is that a sage called Zhuang Zhou wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters"), and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the outer and miscellaneous chapters). However, some modern scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that [[Guo Xiang]] is actually the creator of the 33-chapter Zhuangzi text and that there is no solid historical data for the existence of Zhuang Zhou himself (other than the sparse and unreliable mentions in [[Sima Qian]]).{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=34-35}} The ''Zhuangzi'' uses anecdotes, parables, and dialogues to express one of its main themes—avoiding cultural constructs and instead living in a spontaneous way aligned with the natural world.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=34-37}}<ref name="Ware-2023" /> This way of living might be perceived as "useless" by most people who follow their own "common sense" and social and political rules, but this uselessness is actually a wiser alternative, since it is more in accord with reality.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=37-38}} ===Chinese classics=== [[File:Anonymous - Zhenwu with the Eight Trigrams, the Northern Dipper, and Talismans - 1999.566 - Art Institute of Chicago.jpg|thumb|Daoist deity [[Xuanwu (god)|Zhenwu]] with the Eight Trigrams ([[bagua]]) from the ''Yijing'' and the Northern Dipper, surrounded by Taoist talismans.]] Taoism draws on numerous [[Chinese classics]] that are not themselves "Taoist" texts but that remain important sources for Taoists. Perhaps the most important of these is the ancient divination text called the ''[[I Ching|Yijing]]'' (circa 1150 BCE).<ref>Pittman, Allen. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HG-fUg2TqRQC&pg=PA21 ''Walking the I Ching''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018093755/https://books.google.com/books?id=HG-fUg2TqRQC&pg=PA21 |date=18 October 2015 }}. Blue Snake Books, 2008. p. 21</ref> The divination method in the ''Yijing'' and its associated concepts of yin and yang mapped into 64 "[[Hexagram (I Ching)|hexagrams]]"—combinations of the [[Bagua|8 trigrams]]—has influenced Taoism from its inception until today.<ref>Wing, R. L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mw-KtYRQHhoC&pg=PA15 ''The I Ching Workbook''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017045900/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mw-KtYRQHhoC&pg=PA15 |date=17 October 2015 }} Doubleday, 1979. pp. 15, 20.</ref><ref name="ClearyTIC">e.g. Cleary, Thomas, tr. [https://books.google.com/books?id=w9NFEyUKfQkC&pg=PT17 ''The Taoist I Ching''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151101080655/https://books.google.com/books?id=w9NFEyUKfQkC&pg=PT17 |date=1 November 2015 }}. Shambhala, 1986. p. 6.</ref> Taoism also drew on other non-Taoist Chinese classic texts including:{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=2-10}}{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=23–33}}<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 62"/> * The ''[[Mozi]]'', which was later adopted as a Taoist text by Taoists (who also saw master Mo – Mozi – as a Taoist immortal and included the ''Mozi'' into the Taoist canon).{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=26}} * The ''[[Han Feizi]]'' (''Writings of Master [[Han Fei]]''), a Legalist work that also contains key Taoist themes, such as wu-wei. * ([[Confucianism|Confucian]]) classics like the ''[[Analects]]'' and the ''[[Mencius (book)|Mengzi]]''. * ''[[Lüshi Chunqiu]]'', which is widely quoted in early Taoist sources. * ''[[Huangdi Neijing]]'' ''(The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor),'' an ancient Chinense medical text that was influential on Taoist inner cultivation theory. * ''[[Huainanzi]]'' ({{circa|139 BCE}}), an ancient source that includes [[Taoist]], [[Confucianist]], and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]] ideas. * ''[[Guanzi (text)|Guanzi]]'', which discusses Taoist ideas in several chapters. === Other important Taoist texts === There are many other important Taoist texts, including: * ''[[Liezi]]'', a 4th century BCE classic Taoist work, which during the Tang was seen as the third great Taoist work alongside the ''Tao Te Ching'' and ''Zhuangzi''.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=90}} * ''[[Neiye]]'', a 4th-century BCE text that describes self-cultivation, meditation, how to work with qi', and how to train one's heart-mind (xin) as well as one's body.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=41-46}} The ideas found in this text influenced later Taoist conceptions of internal alchemy.{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=44-46}} * ''[[Wenzi]]''; attributed to a Disciple of Laozi but which likely dates to the [[Han dynasty]]. * ''[[Huahujing]]'' (''Classic on converting the barbarians''), an old text (5th–6th century BCE) that claims that Laozi traveled to China and is thus the source of [[Buddhism]]. * The ''[[Taipingjing]]'' (''Great Peace Scripture''), a key source for Han dynasty Taoism. * ''[[Liexian Zhuan]] (Biographies of Immortals),'' a Han dynasty text that is the earliest Taoist [[hagiography]] of Taoist immortals. * The ''[[Baopuzi]] neipian'', attributed to [[Ge Hong]], also known as Baopu (''Master who embraces simplicity''). This text is a major source for the [[Shangqing School]] and its inner-cultivation practices.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=19}} *The ''Dadong zhenjing'' (''Perfect Scripture of the Great Cavern'') and the ''Lingshu ziwen'' (''Purple Texts Inscribed by the Spirits''), the two most influential Supreme Clarity scriptures.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=35}} * ''[[Cantong qi|Cāntóng qì]]'' (''Kinship of the Three'')—one of the earliest sources on Taoist internal alchemy (neidan). * ''[[Yellow Court Classic|The Yellow Court Classic]]'' (''Huang Ting Jing'', 黄庭经) is a work on Taoist meditation revealed by Lady [[Wei Huacun]] of the [[Shangqing School|Shangqing school]] in the 288 CE. It remained an influential Shangqin text and was important for [[Lü Dongbin|Lu Dongbin]]. * ''[[Wupian zhenwen]]'' (''Perfect Writings in Five Sections''), the first of the [[Lingbao School|Lingbao]] scriptures.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=20}} * ''Ling Bao Bi Fai'' (''Complete Methods of the Numinous Treasure''), a manual of longevity practices and neidan. * ''[[Zuowanglun]]'' (坐忘論 ), a work on [[Zuowang|zuòwàng]] ("sitting forgetting") meditation by [[Sima Chengzhen]] (647–735 CE), which is influenced by Buddhism.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=36}} * ''[[Huangdi Yinfujing|Huángdì Yǐnfújīng]]'' (黃帝陰符經, c. 8th century CE), a text on internal alchemy and astrology. * ''[[Huashu|Huàshū]]'' (化書), a 10th-century CE classic on internal alchemy. * ''[[Qingjing Jing|Qīngjìng Jīng]]'' (清静经, ''Classic of Clarity and Stillness''), Taoist teachings from the ''Tao Te Ching'' with [[Mahayana]] Buddhist ideas. The text was adopted as one of the key scriptures of the [[Quanzhen School|Quanzhen school]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=37}} * ''[[Huangdi Yinfujing|Yinfu jing]]'' (''Scripture on the Inner Talisman''), a 6th-century CE text that was adopted by Quanzen school as one of their key scriptures.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=37}} * ''[[Wuzhen pian|Wùzhēn piān]]'' (悟真篇, ''Folios on Awakening to Reality'') is a work on internal alchemy written by [[Wuzhen pian|Zhang Boduan]] (張伯端; 987?–1082), a Song era scholar of the three teachings. * The ''Lijiao shiwu lun'' (''Fifteen discourses to Establish the Teachings'') of [[Wang Chongyang]], the founder of Quanzhen.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=37}} * ''[[The Book of Balance and Harmony]]'' (''Zhong he ji'', 中和集) a 13th-century [[anthology]] by Daochun Li that outlines the teachings and practices of the [[Quanzhen School]]. * ''[[Treatise On the Response of the Tao|Taishang Ganying Pian]]'' (''Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution'', C. 12th century) discusses sin and [[ethic]]s and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jordan: The Taoist Canon |url=http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanondaw-u.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216160701/http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanondaw-u.html |archive-date=16 February 2007 |access-date=2011-05-16 |publisher=Weber.ucsd.edu}}</ref> It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened lives.{{sfnp|Van Voorst |2005 |p=165}} * ''[[The Secret of the Golden Flower]]'' (太乙金華宗旨; ''Tàiyǐ Jīnhuá Zōngzhǐ''), an influential neidan text from the late 17th century. * The key texts of the [[Dragon Gate Taoism|Dragon Gate School]] (Longmen Pai), composed by the founder Wang Changyue (1622?–80), focus on Daoist monasticism: ''Chuzhen jie'' (''Precepts for Novices''), ''Zhongji jie'' (''Precepts of the Central Pole''), ''Tianxian jie'' (''Precepts for Celestial Immortals''), and ''Longmen xinfa'' (''Central Teachings of Dragon Gate'').{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=22-23}} ===''The Taoist Canon''=== {{Main|Daozang}} The Taoist Canon ({{lang|zh-hant|道藏}}, ''Treasury of Tao'') is also referred to as the ''Daozang''. It was originally compiled during the [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Jin]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties. The extant version was published during the [[Ming dynasty]].<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|pp= 1, 30}}</ref> The Ming ''Daozang'' includes almost 1,500 [[sacred text|texts]].<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|p=36}}</ref> Following the example of the Buddhist [[Tripiṭaka]], it is divided into three ''dong'' ({{lang|zh|洞}}, "caves" or "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|p=15}}; {{harvp|Little|Eichman|2000|p=46}}</ref> # The ''[[Reality|Zhen]]'' ("real" or "truth" {{lang|zh-hant|眞}}) grotto, which includes the [[Shangqing School|Shangqing]] texts. # The ''Xuan'' ("mystery" {{lang|zh-hant|玄}}) grotto, which includes the [[Lingbao School|Lingbao]] scriptures. # The ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|Shen]]'' ("divine" {{lang|zh-hant|神}}) grotto, which includes texts predating the Maoshan ({{lang|zh-hant|茅山}}) revelations. ''Taoist'' generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose or inherit texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|p=44}}</ref> The [[Shangqing School]] has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=132}}</ref> ==Symbols and images== [[file:文光塔-二层藻井.JPG|thumb|A [[caisson (Asian architecture)|''spider web ceiling'']] depicting a ''[[taijitu]]'' surrounded by the ''[[Bagua]]'']] [[file:2016 Kuala Lumpur, Świątynia taoistyczna Guan Di (15).jpg|thumb|[[Chinese dragon]] at Guan Di Taoist Temple, [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]].]] [[file:Daoist Priest's Robe (China), 19th century (CH 18464275).jpg|thumb|Chinese Taoist Priest's Robe, 19th century. Aside from Taoist symbols like the dragon, it also adopts the [[Ashtamangala|eight auspicious symbols]] from Buddhism.]] The ''[[taijitu]]'', commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol" or simply the "yin-yang", and the ''[[bagua]]'' are important symbols in Taoism because they represent key elements of Taoist cosmology (see above).<ref>{{harvp|Little|Eichman|2000| p=131–139}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Feuchtwang|first1=Stephan|title=Religions in the Modern World|date=2016|publisher=Routhledge|location=New York|page=150|edition=Third}}</ref> Many Taoist (as well as non-Taoist) organizations make use of these symbols, and they may appear on flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. What has become the standardised yin-yang taijitu originated as a Taoist symbol in the 10th century CE during the early [[Song dynasty]].<ref name="Little 2000, p. 131"> {{cite book |last1 = Little |first1 = Stephen |editor-last1 = Ebrey |editor-first1 = Patricia Buckley |editor-link1 = Patricia Buckley Ebrey |date = 1 January 2000 |chapter = The Formation of the Taoist Tradition |title = Taoism and the Arts of China |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5ame4Rl1RXMC |location = Berkeley |publisher = University of California Press |page = 131 |isbn = 978-0-520-22785-9 |access-date = 26 February 2024 |quote = The taiji diagram (taiji tu) first appeared in a Taoist context at the beginning of the Song dynasty (960-1279). Several Song sources state that it originated with the Taoist Chen Tuan (c. 906-989), although Isabelle Robinet has shown that an antecedent for the diagram appeared in the work of the Tang dynasty Buddhist monk Zongmi (780-841). [...] Prior to this, ''yin'' and ''yang'' were symbolized by the tiger and dragon, and this symbolism has continued through the history of later Taoism. }} </ref> The tiger and [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] are more ancient symbols for yin and yang respectively, and these two animals are still widely used in Taoist art.<ref name="Little 2000, p. 131" /> Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature [[Chinese dragon|dragons]], tigers, and [[fenghuang|phoenixes]] (with the phoenix also standing for yin) made from multicolored ceramic tiles. In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture lacks universal features that distinguish it from other structures.{{sfnp|Little|Eichman|2000|p=74}} Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing, talismans, or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, bringing good fortune, increasing life span, etc.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2004|p=116}}</ref> Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2004|p=119}}</ref> Drawings of the [[Big Dipper]] (also called the Bushel) are also important symbols.<ref name="Patheos-2023">{{Cite web |title=Taoism Ritual, Worship, Devotion, Symbolism, Taoism Symbolism |url=https://www.patheos.com/library/taoism/ritual-worship-devotion-symbolism/symbolism |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=www.patheos.com |language=en |archive-date=20 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230220141024/https://www.patheos.com/library/taoism/ritual-worship-devotion-symbolism/symbolism |url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[Shang Dynasty]] of the 2nd millennium BCE, Chinese thought regarded the Big Dipper as a deity, while, in later periods, it came to symbolize [[Taijitu|Taiji]].{{sfnp|Little|Eichman|2000|p=128}}<ref name="Patheos-2023" /> A related symbol is the flaming pearl, which stands for the [[pole star]] and may be seen on such roofs between two dragons as well as on the hairpin of a [[List of Celestial Masters|Celestial Master]].{{sfnp|Schipper|1993|p=21}}<ref name="Patheos-2023" /> Some Taoists saw the stars as "knots in the 'net of Heaven'" that connected everything in "heaven and earth".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carlson |first1=Kathie |title=The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images |last2=Flanagin |first2=Michael N. |last3=Martin |first3=Kathleen |last4=Martin |first4=Mary E. |last5=Mendelsohn |first5=John |last6=Rodgers |first6=Priscilla Young |last7=Ronnberg |first7=Ami |last8=Salman |first8=Sherry |last9=Wesley |first9=Deborah A. |publisher=[[Taschen]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-8365-1448-4 |editor-last=Arm |editor-first=Karen |location=Köln |page=518 |editor-last2=Ueda |editor-first2=Kako |editor-last3=Thulin |editor-first3=Anne |editor-last4=Langerak |editor-first4=Allison |editor-last5=Kiley |editor-first5=Timothy Gus |editor-last6=Wolff |editor-first6=Mary}}</ref> Many Taoists saw the Tao as "the [metaphorical] pearl of the sage" and a "conjunction between yin...[and] yang."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carlson |first1=Kathie |title=The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images |last2=Flanagin |first2=Michael N. |last3=Martin |first3=Kathleen |last4=Martin |first4=Mary E. |last5=Mendelsohn |first5=John |last6=Rodgers |first6=Priscilla Young |last7=Ronnberg |first7=Ami |last8=Salman |first8=Sherry |last9=Wesley |first9=Deborah A. |publisher=[[Taschen]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-8365-1448-4 |editor-last=Arm |editor-first=Karen |location=Köln |pages=784–785 |editor-last2=Ueda |editor-first2=Kako |editor-last3=Thulin |editor-first3=Anne |editor-last4=Langerak |editor-first4=Allison |editor-last5=Kiley |editor-first5=Timothy Gus |editor-last6=Wolff |editor-first6=Mary}}</ref> Taoists also revered pearls more generally, seeing [[Chinese dragon|''lung'' dragon]] celestials as emerging from the glint of light off of a pearl that existed "in the mists of chaos" and trapped in an endless cycle where they continually retrieve the pearl that makes them out of the mists.<ref name="Carlson-2010">{{Cite book |last1=Carlson |first1=Kathie |title=The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images |last2=Flanagin |first2=Michael N. |last3=Martin |first3=Kathleen |last4=Martin |first4=Mary E. |last5=Mendelsohn |first5=John |last6=Rodgers |first6=Priscilla Young |last7=Ronnberg |first7=Ami |last8=Salman |first8=Sherry |last9=Wesley |first9=Deborah A. |publisher=[[Taschen]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-8365-1448-4 |editor-last=Arm |editor-first=Karen |location=Köln |page=784 |editor-last2=Ueda |editor-first2=Kako |editor-last3=Thulin |editor-first3=Anne |editor-last4=Langerak |editor-first4=Allison |editor-last5=Kiley |editor-first5=Timothy Gus |editor-last6=Wolff |editor-first6=Mary}}</ref> Some Internal Alchemy Taoists worshipped mercury as "divine water" and an embodiment of consciousness that was a "flowing pearl".<ref name="Carlson-2010" /> In the later [[Qing dynasty]], Taoists and intellectuals who leaned towards Taoism used the ''wuxing'' as symbols of leadership and good governance, using old [[religious text]]s and various historiographies made in prior dynasties to assign a phase from the five ''wuxing'' to different Chinese dynasties.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Dun J. |title=The Ageless Chinese: A History |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |year=1965 |location=New York |pages=333–334}}</ref> Symbols that represent longevity and immortality are particularly popular, and these include: [[Crane in Chinese mythology|cranes]], pine trees, and the [[peaches of immortality]] (associated with the [[Queen Mother of the West]]).<ref name="Patheos-2023" /> Natural symbols are also common, and include gourds, caves, clouds, mountains, and the animals of the Chinese zodiac.<ref name="Patheos-2023" /> Other symbols used by Taoists include: the [[Yellow River Map]], the [[Luoshu Square]], I Ching coins, Taoist talismans ([[fulu]]), the [[Four Symbols|Four Symbols (mythical creatures)]], and various Chinese characters (such as the character for Tao and the ''[[Shou (character)|shou]]'' ('longevity') character). Taoist priests also wear distinctive robes, such as the [[Daojiao fushi]] and Taoist versions of the [[Daopao]], which symbolize their status and school affiliation. ==Society== [[file:Luoyang laojunshan.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Laojun (Henan)|Laojun Mountain]] temple of Laozi]] [[File:WhiteCloudTemplepic9.jpg|thumb|The [[White Cloud Temple]] in Beijing]] [[File:Weihai-Xianguting-Temple.jpg|thumb|Xianguting Temple, a ''[[Taoist temple|Taoguan]]'' in [[Weihai]], [[Shandong]], China]] Taoist communities can include a wide variety of people and groups, including daoshi, hermits, monastics, teachers, householders, ascetics, family lineages, teacher-disciple lineages, urban associations, temples, and monasteries.{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=41-43}} According to Russell Kirkland, throughout most of its history, most Taoist traditions "were founded and maintained by [[Chinese nobility|aristocrats]] or by members of the later well-to-do '[[Landed gentry in China|gentry]]' class".{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=81}} The only real exception is the [[Way of the Celestial Masters|Celestial Masters]] movement, which had a strong basis in the lower classes (though even this movement had a hereditary leadership made up of figures of the Chang clan for generations).{{sfnp|Kirkland|2004|p=81}} ===Adherents=== The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors, including defining Taoism. According to a survey of [[religion in China]] in 2010, the number of people practicing some form of [[Chinese folk religion]] is near to 950 million, which is 70% of Chinese.<ref name="CSLS2010">2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Data reported in {{harvp|Wenzel-Teuber|Strait|2012|p=29–54}}</ref> Among these, 173 million (13%) claim an affiliation with Taoist practices.<ref name="CSLS2010"/> 12 million people stated that they were "Taoists", a term traditionally used exclusively for initiates, priests, and experts of Taoist rituals and methods.<ref name="CSLS2010"/> Since the creation of the People's Republic of China, the government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in codified settings. In 1956, the [[Chinese Taoist Association]] was formed to administer the activities of all registered Taoist orders, and received official approval in 1957.<ref name="Taoism: Modern Age">{{cite web |title=Taoism: Modern Age |website=Patheos |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism/Historical-Development/Modern-Age.html|access-date=16 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115093751/http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism/Historical-Development/Modern-Age.html|archive-date=15 November 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> It was disbanded during the [[Cultural Revolution]] under [[Mao Zedong]], but was reestablished in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the ''Baiyunguan'', or [[White Cloud Temple]] of [[Beijing]], belonging to the [[Longmen Taoism|Longmen]] branch of the [[Quanzhen School|Quanzhen]] tradition.<ref name="Taoism: Modern Age"/> Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, both belonging to the [[Zhengyi Dao|Zhengyi]] or Quanzhen schools, and clergy [[ordination]] has been resumed. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of [[Taoism in Korea|Korea]], [[Taoism in Japan|Japan]], and [[Taoism in Vietnam|Vietnam]]. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan, 7.5 million people, 33% of the population, identify themselves as Taoists.<ref name="moi">{{cite web|title=Taiwan Yearbook 2006|publisher=Taiwan Government Information Office, Department of Civil Affairs, Ministry of the Interior|year=2006 |url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070708213510/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm |archive-date=8 July 2007}}</ref> Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of [[Hong Kong]]<ref>{{cite web|title=2010 Yearbook – Religion |publisher=Hong Kong Government |url=http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2010/en/pdf/E18.pdf|access-date=20 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630094849/http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2010/en/pdf/E18.pdf|archive-date=30 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Singapore]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion |publisher=Singapore Department of Statistics |url=http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf |date=12 January 2011 |archive-date=3 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303155259/http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf }}</ref> show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists. Followers of Daoism are present in Chinese émigré communities outside Asia. It has attracted followers with no Chinese heritage. For example, in Brazil there are Daoist temples in [[São Paulo]] and Rio de Janeiro that are affiliated with the Taoist Society of China. Membership of these temples is entirely of non-Chinese ancestry.<ref>Murray, Daniel M. & Miller, James. "The Taoist Society of Brazil and the Globalization of Orthodox Unity Taoism." Journal of Taoist Studies, vol. 6, 2013, pp. 93–114. {{doi|10.1353/Tao.2013.0003}}; Murray, Daniel M., and James Miller. "TRADUÇAO: A Sociedade Taoísta do Brasil e a globalizaçao do Taoismo da Ortodoxia Unitária." Religare: Revista Do Programa De Pós Graduaç Ao Em Ciências Das Religi Oes Da Ufpb 12 (2016): 315–43.</ref> ===Art and poetry=== {{Further|Taoist art}} [[File:清中期 碧玉山子-Boulder with Daoist paradise MET DP223608.jpg|thumb|Carved Jade boulder with a Taoist paradise.]] [[File:Album of 18 Daoist Paintings - 7.jpg|thumb|A 16th century painting of the immortal [[Liezi]] by [[Zhang Lu (painter)|Zhang Lu]] (1464–1538).]] Throughout Chinese history, there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoism.<ref name="Bellingham-1992" /> Notable painters influenced by Taoism include [[Wu Wei (painter)|Wu Wei]], [[Huang Gongwang]], [[Mi Fu]], [[Muqi Fachang]], [[Shitao]], [[Ni Zan]], Tang Mi, and Wang Zengzu.{{sfnp|Chang|1968}} Taoist arts and [[belles-lettres]] represents the diverse regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy; however, scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Augustin|first1=Birgitta|title=Taoism and Taoist Art|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/Taoi/hd_Taoi.htm|access-date=16 July 2014|archive-date=12 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812074059/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/Taoi/hd_Taoi.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Political aspects=== Taoism never had a unified political theory. While [[Huang–Lao]] positions justified a strong emperor as the legitimate ruler,{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|pp=224–226, 370–374}} the Taoist "primitivists" (of chapters 8–11 of the ''Zhuangzi'') argued for a kind of [[anarchism]]. A more moderate position is presented in the Inner Chapters of the [[Zhuangzi (book)|''Zhuangzi'']] in which the political life is presented with disdain and some kind of pluralism or perspectivism is preferred.{{sfnp|Graham|1989|pp=172, 306–311}} The syncretist position found in texts like the ''[[Huainanzi]]'' and some of the Outer Chapters of the ''Zhuangzi'' blend Taoist positions with Confucian views.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roth|first=Harold D.|title=Dao Companion to Daoist Philosophy |chapter=Huainanzi: The Pinnacle of Classical Daoist Syncretism |date=2014-09-27|pages=341–365|publisher=Springer Netherlands|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-2927-0_15|isbn=978-90-481-2926-3|series=Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy |volume=6 }}</ref> ===Relations with other traditions=== {{See also|Three teachings}} [[file:Huxisanxiaotu.jpg|thumb|A painting in the ''litang style'' portraying "[[Three laughs at Tiger Brook|three laughs at tiger brook]]" which illustrates the unity of the [[three teachings]], 12th century, [[Song dynasty]].]] [[File:Hunyuan Xuankong Si 2013.08.30 09-02-11.jpg|thumb|The [[Hanging Temple]], a temple which contains elements from all three teachings]] Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to [[Confucianism]].{{sfnp|Fisher|1997|p=167}} The philosophical terms ''Tao'' and ''De'' are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism.{{sfnp|Markham|Ruparell|2001|p=254}} [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]] explicitly criticized Confucian and [[Mohist]] tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucian emphasis on [[li (Confucian)|rituals]], hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors "naturalness", spontaneity, and individualism instead.{{sfnp|Maspero|1981|p=39}} The entry of [[Chinese Buddhism|Buddhism]] into China was marked by significant interaction and [[syncretism]] with Taoism.{{sfnp|Maspero|1981|p=46}} Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Toism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.{{sfnp|Prebish|1975|p=192}} Representatives of early [[Chinese Buddhism]], like [[Sengzhao]] and [[Tao Sheng]], knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.{{sfnp|Dumoulin|Heisig|Knitter|2005|pp=70, 74}} Taoism especially shaped the development of [[Chinese Chan|Chan Buddhism]],{{sfnp|Mollier|2008}}<ref name="Ware-2023">{{Cite web |last=Ware |first=James Hamilton |title=Zhuangzi |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zhuangzi |access-date=2023-04-29 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=1 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401032712/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zhuangzi |url-status=live }}</ref> introducing elements like the concept of ''naturalness'', distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment".{{sfnp|Dumoulin|Heisig|Knitter|2005|pp=68, 70–73, 167–168}} Zhuangzi's statements that the Tao was omnipresent and that creation escorts animals and humans to death influenced [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] practitioners and scholars, especially Chan Buddhists.<ref name="Ware-2023" /> On the other hand, Taoism also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang dynasty. Examples of such influence include monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organization in certain sects.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another.{{sfnp|Markham|Ruparell|2001|pp=248–249}} For example, [[Wang Bi]], one of the most influential philosophical commentators on ''Laozi'' (and the ''[[I Ching]]''), was a Confucian.{{sfnp|Schipper|1993|p=192}} The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a [[humanism|humanist]] philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.<ref name="window">[http://www.asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html Windows on Asia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220182953/http://www.asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html |date=2009-02-20 }} Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University.</ref> This became institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] school.{{sfnp|Moore|1967|pp=133, 147}} [[Christianity|Christian]] and Taoist contact often took place in the Tang dynasty,<ref name="Chua-2007a">{{Cite book |last=Chua |first=Amy |title=Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance–and Why They Fall |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-385-51284-8 |edition=1st |location=New York |page=71 |oclc=123079516}}</ref> and some scholars believe that the [[Church of the East]] influenced Taoist thought on the [[Three Pure Ones]].<ref name="Gurdon-2002">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=393 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Emperor Taizong]] encouraged this, and Taoists who agreed with him and his laws incorporated elements of Christianity, [[Islam]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Judaism]], [[Confucianism]], and [[Buddhism]] into their faith.<ref name="Chua-2007a" /> === Comparisons with other religions === Comparisons between Taoism and [[Epicureanism]] have focused on the absence of a creator or gods controlling the forces of nature in both.<ref>[https://societyofepicurus.com/contemplations-on-the-tao-series] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008084805/https://societyofepicurus.com/contemplations-on-the-tao-series/|date=8 October 2022}} Contemplations on the Tao Series</ref> Lucretius' poem ''[[De rerum natura]]'' describes a naturalist cosmology where there are only atoms and void (a primal duality which mirrors [[yin-yang]] in its dance of assertion/yielding), and where nature takes its course with no gods or masters. Other parallels include the similarities between Daoist "wu wei" (effortless action) and Epicurean "lathe biosas" (live unknown), focus on naturalness (ziran) as opposed to conventional virtues, and the prominence of the Epicurus-like Chinese sage Yang Chu in the foundational Taoist writings. Some authors have undertaken [[comparative religion|comparative studies]] of Taoism and Christianity. This has been of interest for students of the [[history of religion]] such as [[J. J. M. de Groot]],{{sfnp|Werblowsky|2002 |p=25}} among others. A comparison of the teachings of Laozi and [[Jesus of Nazareth]] has been made by several authors, such as Martin Aronson,{{sfnp|Aronson|2002|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}} and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that there are parallels that should not be ignored.{{sfnp|Toropov|Hansen|2002|pp=169–181}} In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto, the main difference is that Christianity preaches a [[personal God]] while Daoism does not.{{sfnp|Yamamoto|1998|pp=69–70}} Yet, a number of authors, including [[Lin Yutang]],{{sfnp|Ruokanen|Zhanzhu Huang|2010|p=137}} have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of the religions are similar.{{sfnp|Zhiming|2010|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}{{sfnp|Chung|2001|p=141–145}} In neighboring [[Taoism in Vietnam|Vietnam]], Taoist values have been shown to adapt to social norms and formed emerging sociocultural beliefs together with Confucianism.{{sfnp|Napier|Pham|Nguyen|Nguyen|2018}} ==Varieties== [[file:Chart of Daoist Talismans, 1553, woodblock print, Honolulu Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|Chart of [[Fulu|Taoist Talismans]], [[Japan]], [[Muromachi period|Muromachi perio]]d, 1553, anonymous woodblock print, James Michener Collection, [[Honolulu Museum of Art]]]] Today, there are various living Taoist traditions, the largest and most influential are the [[Quanzhen School]], particularly the [[Dragon Gate Taoism|Dragon Gate]] sect, and [[Zhengyi Dao]].{{sfnp|Chan|2005|p=93}} Quanzhen lineages are mainly monastic and ascetic tradition, based on meditation and internal cultivation, while the Orthodox Unity tradition is based on a lay priests (daoshi) who are expected to master an extensive ritual repertoire.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=149}} These two traditions developed during the Song dynasty and grew to become recognized by the imperial government during late imperial China.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=149}} "Some sects are concerned with the ritual control of spirits and the cosmic currents of yin and yang; others specialize in inner disciplines of meditation or breath control and mind-body exercise regimes."<ref name="Bowker-2021">{{Cite book |last=Bowker |first=John |title=World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |publisher=[[DK (publisher)|DK]] |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-7440-3475-2 |location=New York |page=169 |author-link=John Bowker (theologian)}}</ref> There are also various smaller Taoist groups and traditions of practice.<ref name=":1" /> Eva Wong divides the major "systems" of Taoism into the following categories: Magical Taoism, Divinational Taoism, Ceremonial Taoism, Internal-Alchemical Taoism and Action and Karma Taoism.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=99-198}} === Magical Taoism === [[Magic (supernatural)|Magical]] Taoism is one of the oldest systems of Taoism and its practices are similar to the shamans and sorcerers of ancient China.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=99}} Magical Taoism believes there are various natural powers, deities and spirits (benevolent and malevolent) in the universe that can be made use of by specialists who know the right methods.<ref name="EB-2023" /><ref name="Lagerwey-2018" /> Their magic can include [[rainmaking]], protection, [[exorcism]], healing, traveling to the underworld to help the dead and [[mediumship]].{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=99}} Protection magic can include the use of [[amulet]]s and [[fulu]], as well as specific rites.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=103}} Protection rites often include ritual petitions to the celestial deities of the northern bushel.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=105-106}} [[Divination]] is also a widespread practice. A commonly used method of divination in magical Taoism is [[Fuji (planchette writing)|sandwriting]] ([[planchette]] writing).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=107}} According to Eva Wong, the main sects of magical Taoism today are the Maoshan sect (a very secretive sect, not to be confused with [[Shangqing School|Shangqing]]), the [[Way of the Celestial Masters|Celestial Masters]] and the Kun-Lun sect (which is strongly influenced by Tibetan magic and make use of Taoist and [[Buddhist deities]]).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=115-117}} === Divinational Taoism === [[file:Threevarious-Luopans-singapore-march28-2017.jpg|thumb|Three [[luopan]]s (geomantic compasses) used in [[feng shui]].]] Divinational Taoism focuses on various [[divination]] techniques to help one predict the future and live accordingly. This practice can also carry deeper spiritual significance, since it can help one appreciate the flux of the Tao.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=119}} This form of Taoism owes much to the ancient [[Fangshi|fang-shih]], the [[Yin and yang]] school of thought and often relies on the classic Chinese divination text, the [[I Ching|Yijing]].{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=115-121}} This tradition also relies on the cosmology of [[Wuji (philosophy)|Wuji]] and [[Taijitu|Taiji]], along with the teachings of yin and yang, the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|five elements]] and the [[Chinese calendar]].{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=124-131}} There many forms of Daoist divination, they include: celestial divination (which include various systems of [[Chinese astrology]], like Tzu-wei tu-su), terrestrial divination ([[feng shui]]), the casting of incense sticks with [[Hexagram (I Ching)|hexagrams]] on them and the interpretation of [[omen]]s.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=133-142}} Contemporary divinational Taoism is practiced in temples and monasteries by various individuals and may not be sect specific (it is even practiced by non-daoists).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=123}} This Taoist practice can be found in the Mao-shan sorcerers, the Celestial Masters sect and the [[Dragon Gate Taoism]] and [[Wudang Mountains]] sects.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=123}} There are also many lay practitioners that are not affiliated with any specific sect. These lay Taoist practitioners are called "kui-shih".{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=124}} === Ceremonial Taoism === [[file:小門震義宮 (20)正殿.jpg|thumb|Interior of the Xiaomen Zhengyi Temple]] Ceremonial Taoism focuses on [[ritual]] and devotion towards various celestial deities and spirits. The basic belief of ceremonial Taoism is that through various rites, human beings can honor the deities and these deities may then grant them with power, protection and blessings.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=145}} Rituals and festivals can include chanting, offerings, and the reading of scripture.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=145}} These rites are mostly performed by ritual masters who have trained extensively for this role and who may, through their mastery of ritual, intercede on behalf of laypersons.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=146}} There are various kinds of festivals in Ceremonial Taoism, including "Great Services" (chai-chiao) and Ritual Gatherings (fa-hui) that can last for days and can focus on repentance, rainmaking, disaster aversion or petitioning.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=163}} There are feast days which honor specific deities. 164 Funerals and birthday blessings are a common service.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=164}} There is a complex and large pantheon in Taoism. It includes various deities classified into various ranks within an administrative structure, at the top of which are the celestial lords (t'ien-tsun). These include judges, heralds, officers, generals, clerks and messengers.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=146, 159}} The main division is between "earlier heaven" deities, who have existed since the beginning of time and "later heaven" deities, mortals who later became immortal.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=147-154}} 146 Key earlier heaven deities include the [[Three Pure Ones]], the [[Jade Emperor]], the [[Queen Mother of the West]], the [[Doumu|Mother of the Bushel of Stars]], the Seven Star Lords of the Northern Bushel and the [[Three Great Emperor-Officials|Three Officials]] (Celestial, Earth, and Water).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=147-154}} Some key later heaven deities include: Immortal [[Lü Dongbin|Lu Tung-pin]], and [[Guan Yu|Emperor Kuan (Kuan-yu)]].{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=155-157}} Taoists may also honor local spirits and deities, as well Buddhist deities (like [[Guanyin]], [[Amitābha|Amitabha]], etc.).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=159}} The largest and most prominent sect of Ceremonial Taoism is the Way of the Celestial Masters, also known as [[Zhengyi Dao]].{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=164}} The patriarch of this sect resides in Taiwan and this tradition performs numerous ceremonies which are often sponsored by the Taiwanese government.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=164}} The training for Zhengyi priesthood, who are not celibate, focuses mainly on learning extensive rituals and liturgy, so that they can perform them flawlessly.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=169}} Ceremonies are practiced, to a lesser extent, in the Longmen (Dragon Gate) sect of the [[Quanzhen School]] and in the [[Xiantiandao]] sect, though these schools understand ritual as mainly a way to develop internal alchemy.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=169}} During the Song dynasty, a popular form of ceremonial Taoism was the Thunder Rites (leifa), which focused on exorcism and protection.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=153}} === Internal alchemy === [[File:Changchun-Temple-Master-and-disciples-painting-0316.jpg|thumb|[[Wang Chongyang]], the founder of the Quanzhen School, and his seven disciples, depicted in [[Changchun Temple]], [[Wuhan]].]] Internal Alchemy Taoism or Transformation Taoism focuses on internal transformation through the use of various self-cultivation techniques like [[qigong]], [[neidan]] (internal alchemy), [[Yangsheng (Daoism)|Yangsheng]] and so forth.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=172-173}} The basic worldview of this Taoist tradition is that all beings are born with certain forms of energy (mainly the [[Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)|three treasures]] of jing, qi and shen), which become dissipated, weak and lost as we age.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=173}} To prevent this and to increase our inner vital energies, one must practice various methods of "internal alchemy" (neidan) to harmonize the internal energy in one's body and refine the "golden elixir" (jindan) inside the body. These meditative inner alchemical practices are believed to lead to greater longevity and even immortality (union with the Tao at death).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=173-174}} Another worldview is that beings must "harmonize ''yin'' and ''yang'' forces internally to achieve immortality."<ref name="Bowker-2021" /> {{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=183}} A term used by some Taoists that sums up traditions that do not use these practices is "singular path".{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=183}} Most traditions follow the "singular path". These include the Longmen ([[Dragon Gate Taoism|Dragon Gate]]) sect of the [[Quanzhen School]], the [[Xiantiandao]] (Earlier Heaven Way) sect, the [[Wuliupai]] sect, and the [[Wudang quan]] sect.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=184}} The [[Quanzhen School]] was founded by [[Wang Chongyang]] (1112–1170), a hermit in the [[Zhongnan Mountains|Zhongnan mountains]] who was said in legends to have met and learned secret methods from two immortals: [[Lü Dongbin|Lu Dongbin]] and [[Zhongli Quan]].{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=154}} He then moved to [[Shandong]] and preached his teachings, founding various religious communities.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=154}} His school popularized Internal Alchemy Taoism and the usage of the term.<ref name="Wang-2022" /> One of his "seven perfected" disciples, [[Qiu Chuji]] (1148–1227), founded the [[Dragon Gate Taoism|Dragon Gate]] lineage. Chuji was also made the leader of all religions in China by [[Genghis Khan]], making his tradition the most powerful in all of China, and contributing to Longmen's lasting influence.{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=155}} Another important Quanzhen lineage is the Qingjing pai, founded by the nun [[Sun Bu'er]] (1119–1182), the only female member of the "seven perfected".{{sfnp|Kohn|2008|p=155}} Today, Quanzhen is mainly made up of celibate monastics who practice [[vegetarianism]], [[sobriety]], internal alchemy and recite daily liturgies. The largest lineage is [[Dragon Gate Taoism]].{{sfnp|Komjathy|2014|p=30}} Much like Taoists who see writings made by influential members of their faith as having a divine nature, some Taoists view self-cultivation as a way for emotions and self to partake in divinity,<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> and a smaller subset of these{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}} view some [[Legendary creature|mythological]] [[Hero|beings]] such as [[Xian (Taoism)|''xian'']] as being divine.<ref name="EB-2023">{{Cite web |title=xian |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/xian-Daoism |access-date=2023-02-21 |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221214931/https://www.britannica.com/topic/xian-Daoism |url-status=live }}</ref> Xian were viewed in many lights and as completely different types of beings over different times and in different places. They were sometimes viewed as [[Deity|deities]], parts of the celestial hierarchy, metaphorical ideals that people should strive to be like, reclusive Taoist masters who know how to control and harness spiritual energies, and/or shamans.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} ==== Hygiene Taoism ==== Hygiene Taoism is a Taoist tradition meant to increase life and "physical and mental harmony".<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> Some Taoists from the "Hygiene School" believed that they could survive only on their own breath and saliva to purify their bodies.<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> Much of Taoism in general is about cleanliness in some way and involves free thinking,<ref>{{Cite book |date=June 19, 2022 |title=Daoism and medicine 1 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9780203740262-32/daoism-medicine-1-michael-stanley-baker?context=ubx&refId=d89dd299-3707-4770-87ad-e12cc7ddbdb9 |publisher=[[Routledge]]|doi=10.4324/9780203740262-32 |last1=Stanley-Baker |first1=Michael |pages=401–416 |isbn=978-0-203-74026-2 }}</ref> as well as rejecting the gratification of the senses, in order to purify oneself to make the mind like "the sky", "sun", and nature in general.<ref name=":1" /> === Karmic Taoism === Karmic Taoism, or "Action and Karma Taoism", according to Wong, focuses on ethics and is grounded in the idea that the sacred celestial powers aid and reward those who do good and punish those who do evil.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=190}} This tradition can be traced back to Song dynasty Taoist Li Ying-chang and his Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao (T'ai-shang kan-ying p'ien).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=190}} Li sparked a popular movement which focused on the everyday life of ordinary persons instead of on temples, monasteries and sages.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=190}} At the core of this tradition is living in harmony with the Tao and with the Way of Heaven, which means acting with benevolence, kindness and compassion.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=191}} Doing evil is considered a transgression against the way and this evil will be punished by deities, celestial ministers and judges.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=191}} These ideas are quite ancient, the Taiping Jing (Scripture of Great Peace) states: "accumulate good deeds, and prosperity will come to you from the Tao".{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=191}} Besides wealth and prosperity, Karmic Taoism also believes that doing good increases longevity, while doing evil decreases it.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=192}} Another common idea in this group of Taoist traditions is that there deities, like the Kitchen Lord, who monitor our actions and report to Heaven and the Jade Emperor (who tallies them and metes out punishment and reward).{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=193}} Karmic Taoism is a nonsectarian tradition adopted by many Taoist sects. The Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao is studied in Quanzhen Taoism, Hsien-t'ien Tao and in the Wu-Liu sect.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=194}} All major schools of Taoism view ethics as the foundation for spirituality.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=194}} Furthermore, there are those who are not affiliated with a Taoist sect who may still follow Karmic Taoism in daily life.{{sfnp|Wong|2011|p=194}} === Other divisions of Taoism === Taoism has traditionally been divided into religious Taoism and philosophical Taoism (Dàojiào and Dàojiā), respectively. ==== Religious Taoism ==== Some Taoist sects are expressly religious in the Western sense.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} "Lord Heaven" and "[[Jade Emperor]]" were terms for a Taoist supreme deity also used in [[Confucianism]] and [[Chinese folk religion]],<ref name="Gurdon-2002f">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |pages=326, 393, 401 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> and some conceptions of this deity thought of the two names as synonymous. The Taoist Jade Emperor in the [[1st millennium|first millennium AD]] was a primary deity among polytheists who had a [[Tian|heaven]] that contained numerous ministries and officials and which was "modelled on...the earthly [[Emperor of China|emperor]]['s rule]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Storm |first=Rachel |title=Myths & Legends of India, Egypt, China & Japan |publisher=Lorenz Books |year=2011 |editor-last=Sudell |editor-first=Helen |edition=2nd |location=Wigston, Leicestershire |page=176}}</ref> [[Polytheist]] Taoists venerated one or more of these kinds of spiritual entities:<ref name="Cleary-1998">{{Cite book |last=Cleary |first=Thomas F. |title=The Essential Tao: An Initiation Into the Heart of Taoism Through the Authentic Tao Te Ching and the Inner Teachings of Chuang-Tzu |date=1998 |publisher=Castle Books |isbn=0-7858-0905-8 |location=Edison, New Jersey |page=166 |oclc=39243466 |author-link=Thomas Cleary}}</ref><ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> "deified heroes...forces of nature"<ref name="Gurdon-2002g">{{Cite book |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor=Willard Gurdon Oxtoby |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-541521-3 |edition=2nd |location=Don Mills, Ontario |page=392 |oclc=46661540}}</ref> and "[[nature spirits]]",<ref name="Cleary-1998" /> ''[[Xian (Taoism)|xian]]'',<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> spirits,<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> [[Deity|gods]],<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> [[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]] and other celestial beings from [[Chinese Buddhism]], Indian Buddhism, and [[Chinese folk religion]],<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /><ref name="Bellingham-1992a">{{Cite book |last1=Bellingham |first1=David |title=Myths and Legends |last2=Whittaker |first2=Clio |last3=Grant |first3=John |publisher=Wellfleet Press |year=1992 |isbn=1-55521-812-1 |location=Secaucus, New Jersey |page=126 |oclc=27192394}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zürcher |first=Erik |date=1980 |title=Buddhist Influence on Early Taoism: A Survey of Scriptural Evidence |journal=T'oung Pao |volume=66 |issue=1/3 |pages=125–126 |doi=10.1163/156853280X00039 |jstor=4528195 |issn=0082-5433}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stevens |first=Keith |date=1998 |title=Images of Sinicised Vedic Deities on Chinese Altars |journal=[[Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch|Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |volume=38 |pages=62, 77–78, 85 |issn=0085-5774 |jstor=23889810}}</ref><ref name="Chua-2007" /> various kinds of beings occupying [[Tian|heaven]],<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> members of the [[Chinese theology|celestial bureaucracy]],<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> [[ghost]]s,<ref name="Wang-2022" /> "mythical emperors",<ref name="Szostak-2020">{{Cite book |last=Szostak |first=Rick |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-mono/10.4324/9781003013518/making-sense-world-history-rick-szostak |title=Making Sense of World History |date=2020-10-22 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-003-01351-8 |location=London |page=466 |doi=10.4324/9781003013518 |s2cid=224902752 |access-date=15 May 2023 |archive-date=15 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515125530/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-mono/10.4324/9781003013518/making-sense-world-history-rick-szostak |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Laozi]],<ref name="Szostak-2020" /> a trinity of high gods that varied in how it was thought of,<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> and the [[Three Pure Ones]].<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> Some Taoists chose not to worship beings they saw as gods,<ref name="Harari-2015" /> and only worshipped guardian spirits<ref name="Sanders-1980" /> or "celestials",<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> such as devas, various kinds of beings occupying heaven, members of the celestial bureaucracy, and ''xian''.<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> In some Taoist sects, the Tao was the primary thing that was venerated and beings that would be gods in other sects were merely treated as supernatural beings similar to gods who could only act in accordance with the Tao's wishes.<ref name="Szostak-2020" /> When the ''Tao Te Ching'' was written, many Taoists told stories and legends about heroes "whose bodies had been rendered invulnerable".<ref name="Mackenzie-1986" /> This could be achieved by making contact with "dragon's blood" or a river in the afterlife, or drinking the "waters of the 'Well of Life' and eating the 'fungus of immortality'".<ref name="Mackenzie-1986">{{Cite book |last=Mackenzie |first=Donald Alexander |title=China & Japan (Myths and Legends) |publisher=Avenel Books |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-517-60446-5 |location=New York |pages=317–318 |author-link=Donald Alexander Mackenzie}}</ref> Ordinary Chinese in the early [[Tang dynasty]] often worshipped local gods, Buddhist gods and devas, and Taoist gods simultaneously,<ref name="Chua-2007" /> and this population included a significant amount of the Taoists who have ever worshipped devas throughout history.{{Explain|reason=Better tensing and more explanation because I can't think of how to phrase this|date=May 2023}} The trinity is thought by scholars to have evolved into the Three Pure Ones.<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> It was thought of in the early [[Han dynasty]] as the three gods Tianyi, Diyi, and "the Taiyi".<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> These beings were varyingly interpreted as relatively simple heavenly, earthly, and all-purpose gods respectively,{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} the "supreme deity" (an intangible god that represented the mind of the Tao), "his disciple", the Lord Tao (a more physical god representing the Tao), and Lord Lao (Laozi "deified"),<ref name="Gurdon-2002g" /> or an emanation of the Tao that was ultimately singular in nature. An unrelated trinity was the [[Three Great Emperor-Officials]], three of the highest [[Shen (Chinese religion)|''shen'']] in some branches of religious Taoism thought to be able to pardon sins.<ref name="EB-2010">{{Cite web |date=2010-02-03 |title=Sanguan |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanguan |access-date=2023-04-30 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en |archive-date=6 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506181816/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanguan |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Tao]] was not worshipped alone,<ref name="NatGeo-2023" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-11-12 |title=Gods and spirits |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/beliefs/gods.shtml |access-date=2023-05-04 |website= |publisher=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB |archive-date=4 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504172443/https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/beliefs/gods.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> although gods do exist that anthropomorphize it in various ways. Laozi was sometimes thought to be a god or "the image of the Tao".<ref name="NatGeo-2023" /> "Some Taoist adepts" worshipped thousands of gods that were thought to exist in the body.<ref name="Stevenson-2000" /> == See also == === Schools and organizations === {{see also|Taoist schools}} {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Hong Kong Taoist Association]] * [[Yao Taoism]] * [[Zhengyi Taoism]] {{div col end}} === Concepts and objects === {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Ten precepts (Taoism)|Ten precepts]] * [[Pu (Taoism)|Pu]] * [[Taoist coin charm]] * [[Zhizha]] {{div col end}} === Practice === {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Taoist diet]] * [[Taoist music]] * [[Taoist Tai Chi]] {{div col end}} === Deities === {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Three Pure Ones]] * [[Four heavenly ministers]] * [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors]] {{div col end}} === Texts === {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * [[Taozang]] * [[Qingjing Jing]] {{div col end}} === Regional Taoism === {{div col|colwidth=22em}} ==== China ==== * [[Chinese culture]] * [[Chinese gods and immortals]] * [[Chinese ritual mastery traditions]] * [[Chinese spiritual world concepts]] * [[Taoism and Confucianism]] * [[Taoism in Hong Kong]] ==== Japan ==== * [[Onmyōdō]] ==== Southeast Asia ==== * [[Taoism in Malaysia]] * [[Taoism in Singapore]] * [[Taoism in Vietnam]] ==== Europe ==== * [[Taoist Church of Italy]] {{div col end}} ==References== ===Citations=== {{Reflist|22em}} ===General sources=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Aronson |first=Martin |year=2002 |title=Jesus and Lao Tzu: The Parallel Sayings |publisher=Ulysses Press |isbn=978-1-56975-319-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf1D3KH_5FUC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124153501/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf1D3KH_5FUC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |archive-date=24 November 2015 }} * {{cite book |translator-last=Balfour |translator-first=Frederic Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zhkNAAAAYAAJ |title=The Divine Classic of Nan-Hua; Being the Works of Chuang Tsze, Taoist Philosopher |publisher=Kelly & Walsh |year=1881 }} * {{cite book|editor-last=Bishop|editor-first=Donald H.|year=1995|title=Chinese Thought: An Introduction|isbn=978-81-208-1139-3|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-E5LZeR7QKwC|access-date=21 August 2017|archive-date=1 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901024853/https://books.google.com/books?id=-E5LZeR7QKwC|url-status=live}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Michael |date=1990 |title=Whence the Pronunciation of ''Taoism''? |journal=Dictionaries |volume=12 |pages=55–74 |doi=10.1353/dic.1990.0004 |s2cid=201790095 }} * {{cite book |last=Chan |first=Wing-tsit |title=A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinchin00chan |url-access=registration |publisher=Princeton |year=1963 |isbn=0-691-01964-9 }} * {{cite journal | last = Chan | first = Kim-Kwong | title = Religion in China in the Twenty-first Century: Some Scenarios | journal = Religion, State & Society | volume = 33 | pages = 87–119 | number = 2 | date = 2005 | doi = 10.1080/09637490500118570 | s2cid = 73530576 }} * {{Cite book |last=Chang |first=Chung-yuan |year=1968 |title=Creativity and Taoism, A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, and Poetry |publisher=Harper Torchbooks |location=New York |isbn=978-0-06-131968-6 }} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Ching|editor1-first=Julia|editor1-link=Julia Ching|editor2-last=Guisso|editor2-first=R. W. L.|title=Sages and Filial Sons: Mythology and Archaeology in Ancient China|publisher=Chinese University Press|year=1991|isbn=978-962-201-469-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynfrlFZcUG8C|access-date=21 August 2017|archive-date=1 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025356/https://books.google.com/books?id=ynfrlFZcUG8C|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Chung |first=David |year=2001 |title=Syncretism: The Religious Context of Christian Beginnings in Korea |publisher=SUNY Press}} * {{cite book |last=Creel |first=Herrlee Glessner |orig-date=1970 |year=1982 |title=What Is Taoism?: And Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C&pg=PA48 |isbn=978-0-226-12047-8 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |access-date=21 August 2017 |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025357/https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C&pg=PA48 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |editor-last=DeFrancis |editor-first=John |year=1996 |title=ABC (Alphabetically Based Computerized) Chinese-English Dictionary |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=0-8248-1744-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Demerath |first=Nicholas J. |title=Crossing the Gods: World Religions and Worldly Politics |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-8135-3207-8 }} * {{cite book |last1=Dumoulin |first1=Heinrich |last2=Heisig |first2=James W. |last3=Knitter |first3=Paul |title=Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) |publisher=World Wisdom |year=2005 |isbn=0-941532-89-5 }} * {{cite book |last=Eliade |first=Mircea |title=A History of Religious Ideas, Volume 2 |translator-first=Willard R. |translator-last=Trask |location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1984}} * {{cite book|last=Eskildsen|first=Stephen|year=2004|title=The Teachings and Practices of the Early Quanzhen Taoist Masters|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-6045-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFBy3cvteTQC&q=quanzhen|access-date=5 October 2020|archive-date=1 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025858/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFBy3cvteTQC&q=quanzhen|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Fasching |first1=Darrell J. |last2=deChant |first2=Dell |title=Comparative Religious Ethics: a narrative approach |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=0-631-20125-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/comparativerelig0000fasc |url-access=registration }} * {{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Mary Pat |title=Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=1997 |isbn=1-86064-148-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wi-ZDdmaqEC&pg=PA122 |title=An Introduction To The Philosophy And Religion Of Taoism |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84519-086-6 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book |last=Girardot |first=Norman J. |title=Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Themes of Chaos (Hun-Tun) |publisher=University of California Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-520-06460-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UhmCyjTKmaMC&pg=PA56 |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025859/https://books.google.com/books?id=UhmCyjTKmaMC&pg=PA56 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Graham |first=Angus |title=Disputers of the Tao |publisher=Open Court |year=1989 |isbn=0-8126-9087-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/disputersoftaoph0000grah |url-access=registration }} * {{cite book |last=Hansen |first=Chad D. |title=A Taoist Theory of Chinese Thought: A Philosophical Interpretation |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-19-513419-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Hucker |first=Charles O. |title=China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-8047-2353-2 }} * {{cite book |last1=Idema |first1=Wilt |author-link=Wilt Idema |last2=Haft |first2=Lloyd |title=A Guide to Chinese Literature |year=1997 |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan |isbn=978-0-89264-123-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Kim |first=Ha Poong |year=2003 |title=Reading Lao Tzu: A Companion to the Tao Te Ching With a New Translation |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |isbn=1-4010-8316-1}}{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}} * {{cite book |last=Kirkland |first=Russell |title=Taoism: The Enduring Tradition |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-415-26321-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Kohn |first=Livia |title= Introducing Daoism|location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2008}} * {{cite book |last=Kohn |first=Livia |title=The Taoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the <u>FengTao Kejie</u> |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Kohn |editor-first=Livia |year=2000 |title=Taoism Handbook |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-11208-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXVk1tr6lEYC }} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Kohn |editor-first1=Livia |editor-last2=LaFargue |editor-first2=Michael |title=Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-7914-3599-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Komjathy |first=Louis |year=2014 |title=Daoism: A guide for the Perplexed|publisher=Bloomsbury}} * {{cite book |last=Komjathy |first=Louis |year=2013 |title=The Daoist Tradition: An Introduction|publisher=Bloomsbury}} * {{cite book |last=Kraemer |first=Kenneth |title=World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions|publisher=Paulist Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8 }} * {{cite book |last=LaFargue |first=Michael |title=Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-7914-1601-1 }} * {{cite book |author-link1=Stephen Little |last1=Little |first1=Stephen |first2=Shawn |last2=Eichman |title=Taoism and the Arts of China |location=Chicago |publisher=[[Art Institute of Chicago]] |year=2000 |isbn=0-520-22784-0 }} * {{cite book |author-link=Victor H. Mair |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |title=The Columbia History of Chinese Literature |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=0-231-10984-9 }} * {{cite book |last1=Markham |first1=Ian S. |last2=Ruparell |first2=Tinu |title=Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=0-631-20674-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Martinson |first=Paul Varo |title=A theology of world religions: Interpreting God, self, and world in Semitic, Indian, and Chinese thought |url=https://archive.org/details/theologyofworldr0000mart |url-access=registration |publisher=Augsburg Publishing House |year=1987 |isbn=0-8066-2253-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Maspero |first=Henri |translator-first=Frank A. Jr. |translator-last=Kierman |title=Taoism and Chinese Religion |publisher=University of Massachusetts Press |year=1981 |isbn=0-87023-308-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/taoismchineserel00henr }} * {{cite book |last=Miller |first=James |title=Taoism: A Short Introduction |location=Oxford |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2003 |isbn=1-85168-315-1 }} * {{cite book |last=Mollier |first=Christine |title=Buddhism and Taoism Face to Face: Scripture, Ritual, and Iconographic Exchange in Medieval China |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8248-3169-1 }} * {{cite book |last=Moore |first=Charles Alexander |title=The Chinese Mind: Essentials of Chinese Philosophy and Culture |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1967 |isbn=0-8248-0075-3 }} * {{cite book | first = Randal L. | last = Nadeau | title = The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions | publisher = Blackwell | location = Malden, MA | date = 2012 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yQnFKpTepo8C | isbn = 978-1-4443-6143-8 }} * {{cite ssrn |last1=Napier |first1=Nancy K. |last2=Pham |first2=Hiep-Hung |last3=Nguyen |first3=Ha |last4=Nguyen |first4=Hong Kong |last5=Ho |first5=Manh-Toan |last6=Vuong |first6=Thu-Trang |last7=Cuong |first7=Nghiem Phu Kien |last8=Bui |first8=Quang-Khiem |last9=Nhue |first9=Dam |last10=La |first10=Viet-Phuong |last11=Ho |first11=Tung |last12=Vuong |first12=Quan Hoang |title='Cultural additivity' and how the values and norms of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism co-exist, interact, and influence Vietnamese society: A Bayesian analysis of long-standing folktales, using R and Stan |date=4 March 2018 |ssrn=3134541}} * {{cite book |last=Occhiogrosso |first=Peter |title=The Joy of Sects |publisher=Doubleday |year=1994 |isbn=0-385-42564-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/joyofsects00pete }} * {{cite book |last=Oldmeadow |first=Harry |author-link=Harry Oldmeadow |year=2007 |title=Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West |location=Indiana |publisher=World Wisdom |isbn=978-1-933316-22-2 }} * {{cite book |last=Prebish |first=Charles |title=Buddhism: A Modern Perspective |publisher=Penn State Press |year=1975 |isbn=0-271-01195-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhismamodernp0000preb }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Pregadio |editor-first=Fabrizio |title=The Encyclopedia of Taoism |series=2 volume set |location=London |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7007-1200-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Robinet |first=Isabelle |title=Taoism: Growth of a Religion |location=Stanford |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1997 |orig-date=1992 |isbn=0-8047-2839-9 }} * {{cite book |last1=Ruokanen |first1=Miikka |last2=Zhanzhu Huang |first2=Paulos |year=2010 |title=Christianity and Chinese Culture |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing}} * {{cite book |last=Segal |first=Robert Alan |title=The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion' |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=0-631-23216-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Schipper |first=Kristopher |title=The Taoist Body |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |orig-date=1982 }} * {{cite book |last1=Schipper |first1=Kristopher |first2=Franciscus |last2=Verellen |title=The Taoist Canon: A Historical Companion to the Taotsang |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2004 }} * {{cite book |last=Sharot |first=Stephen |title=A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion |location=New York |publisher=NYU Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-8147-9805-5 }} * {{cite book |last=Silvers |first=Brock |title=The Taoist Manual |location=Honolulu |publisher=Sacred Mountain Press |year=2005 }} * {{cite book |last=Slingerland |first=Edward Gilman |title=Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-513899-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PR4 |access-date=18 October 2015 |archive-date=1 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025859/https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PR4 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Toropov |first1=Brandon |last2=Hansen |first2=Chadwick |year=2002 |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Taoism |chapter=Chapter 15: The Tao and the Judeo-Christian Tradition |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1-44-069573-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRdmQzAJdxsC |access-date=22 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164807/https://books.google.com/books?id=BRdmQzAJdxsC |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Van Voorst |first=Robert E. |author-link=Robert E. Van Voorst |title=Anthology of World Scriptures |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-534-52099-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/anthologyofworld00vanv }} * {{cite book |last=Waley |first=Arthur |title=The Way and Its Power: A Study of the Tao Te Ching and Its Place in Chinese Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/wayitspowerstudy00laoz |url-access=registration |publisher=Grove Press |year=1958 |isbn=0-8021-5085-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Watts |first=Alan |title=Tao: The Watercourse Way |location=New York |publisher=Pantheon |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-394-73311-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/taowatercoursewa00watt_0 }} * {{cite book |last=Werblowsky |first=Raphael Jehudah Zwi |year=2002 |title=The Beaten Track of Science: The Life and Work of J.J.M. de Groot |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag}} * {{cite journal |last1=Wenzel-Teuber |first1=Katharina |last2=Strait |first2=David |year=2012 |title=People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011 |journal=Religions & Christianity in Today's China |volume=II |number=3 |issn=2192-9289 |url=http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2012-3/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427151725/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2012-3/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf |archive-date=27 April 2017 }} * {{cite book |last=Wong |first=Eva |year=2011 |title=Taoism: An Essential Guide |publisher=Shambhala |isbn=978-1-59030-882-0}} * {{cite journal |last=Wu |first=Nengchang |date=2014 |title=Religion and Society. A Summary of French Studies on Chinese Religion |journal=Review of Religion and Chinese Society |volume=1 |pages=104–127 |doi=10.1163/22143955-04102008 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6919287 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827012653/http://www.academia.edu/6919287/2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion |archive-date=27 August 2017 }} * {{cite book |last=Yamamoto |first=J. Isamu |year=1998 |title=Buddhism, Taoism, and Other Far Eastern Religions |publisher=Zondervan}} * {{cite book |last=Zhiming |first=Yuan |year=2010 |title=Lao Tzu and the Bible |publisher=AuthorHous |isbn=978-1-4490-9110-1}} {{refend}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin|colwidth=40em}} * {{cite book |last=Barrett |first=Rick |title=Taijiquan: Through the Western Gate |publisher=Blue Snake Books |year=2006 |isbn=1-58394-139-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Bertschinger |first=Richard |title=The Secret of Everlasting Life: The first translation of the ancient Chinese text on immortality |publisher=Singing Dragon |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-84819-048-1 }} * {{cite book |last1=Carr |first1=David T. |last2=Zhang |first2=Canhui |title=Space, Time, and Culture |publisher=Springer |year=2004 |isbn=1-4020-2823-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Chang |first=Stephen T. |title=The Great Tao |publisher=Tao Longevity LLC |year=1985 |isbn=0-942196-01-5 }} * {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Richard H. |title=Mysticism and Morality: a new look at old questions |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2004 |isbn=0-7391-0784-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Keller |first=Catherine |title=The Face of the Deep: A Theology of Becoming |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0-415-25648-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Klaus |first=Hilmar |title=The Tao of Wisdom. Laozi – Taodejing |language=zh, en, de |location=Aachen |publisher=Hochschulverlag |year=2009 |isbn=978-3-8107-0055-1 }} * {{cite book |last=Kohn |first=Livia |title=The Taoist Experience: An Anthology |location=Albany |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1579-5 }} * {{cite book |last=Komjathy |first=Louis |title=The Taoist Tradition: An Introduction |location=London and New York |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4411-6873-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Mair |first=Victor H |title=Experimental Essays on Chuang-tzu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-8248-4700-5}} * {{cite book |last=Martin |first=William |title=A Path And A Practice: Using Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching as a Guide to an Awakened Spiritual Life |publisher=Marlowe & Company |year=2005 |isbn=1-56924-390-5 }} * {{cite book |last1=Pas |first1=Julian F. |last2=Leung |first2=Man Kam |title=Historical Dictionary of Taoism |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-8108-3369-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Robinet |first=Isabelle |title=Taoist Meditation: The Mao-shan Tradition of Great Purity |location=Albany |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1993 |orig-date=1989 }} * {{cite book |last=Saso |first=Michael R. |title=Taoism and the Rite of Cosmic Renewal |edition=2nd |location=Pullman |publisher=Washington State University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-87422-054-4 }} * [https://www.shambhala.com/thomas-clearys-taoist-translations/ The Taoist Translations of Thomas Cleary: A Reader's Guide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627055740/https://www.shambhala.com/thomas-clearys-taoist-translations/ |date=27 June 2021 }}. Shambala Publications. * {{cite book |last=Sivin |first=Nathan |title=Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies |location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-674-12150-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Sommer |first=Deborah |title=Chinese Religion: An Anthology of Sources |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-508895-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Tian |first=Chenshan |title=Chinese Dialectics: From Yijing To Marxism |location=Lanham |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2005 |isbn=0-7391-0922-7 }} * {{cite book |last1=Welch |first1=H. |last2=Seidel |first2=A. |title=Facets of Taoism |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1979 |isbn=0-300-01695-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Zhuangzi |title=Gesamttext und Materialien |editor-link=Viktor Kalinke |editor-last=Kalinke |editor-first=Viktor |language=zh, de |location=Leipzig |publisher=Leipziger Literaturverlag |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-86660-222-9}}—with Pinyin transcription, interlinear and literary translation, contains a complete dictionary of the book Zhuangzi and a concordance to Laozi. ===Popular (nonacademic) interpretations of Taoism=== * {{cite book |author-link=Wayne Dyer |last=Dyer |first=Wayne |title=Change Your Thoughts, Change Your Life: Living the Wisdom of the Tao |publisher=[[Hay House]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4019-1750-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/changeyourthough00dyer_0 }} * {{cite book |author-link=Ansgar Gerstner |last=Gerstner |first=Ansgar |title=The Tao of Business |publisher=Earnshaw Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-988-18-1547-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Goodspeed |first=Bennett W. |title=The Tao Jones Averages: A Guide to Whole-Brained Investing |publisher=E.P. Dutton |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-525-24201-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/taojonesaverages00goodrich |url-access=registration }} * {{cite book |author-link=Benjamin Hoff |last=Hoff |first=Benjamin |title=[[The Tao of Pooh]] |publisher=Penguin |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-14-006747-7 }} * {{cite book |author-link=Stuart Wilde |last=Wilde |first=Stuart |title=Infinite Self: 33 Steps to Reclaiming Your Inner Power |publisher=Hay House |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-56170-349-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/infiniteself33st00wild }} * The Tao of Steve, a 2000 film directed by Jenniphr Goodman and starring Donal Logue. {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/ BBC religions – Taoism] * {{In Our Time|Taoism|b00wlgbg|Taoism}} * {{cite IEP |url-id=Taoism |title=Taoist philosophy}} * [https://ctext.org/daoism Early Taoist texts] – [[Chinese Text Project]] * [http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism.html Patheos Library – Taoism] * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/index.htm Taoist Texts] at the [[Internet Sacred Text Archive]] * [https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23944 Collection: "Daoism/Taoism"] from the [[University of Michigan Museum of Art]] {{navboxes|list= {{Taoism footer}} {{Religion in China}} {{Religion topics}} {{Philosophy topics}} {{Chinese philosophy}} }} {{Portal bar|China|Philosophy}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Taoism]] [[Category:Chinese astrology]] [[Category:Chinese folk religion]] [[Category:Classical Chinese philosophy]] [[Category:Dualism in cosmology]] [[Category:East Asian religions]] [[Category:Three teachings]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Templates used on this page: Taoism (edit) Template:About (edit) Template:Ambox (edit) Template:Authority control (edit) Template:Catalog lookup link (edit) Template:Category handler (edit) Template:Chinese philosophy (edit) Template:Circa (edit) Template:Citation (edit) Template:Citation needed (edit) Template:Cite IEP (edit) Template:Cite SSRN (edit) Template:Cite book (edit) Template:Cite encyclopedia (edit) Template:Cite journal (edit) Template:Cite ssrn (edit) Template:Cite web (edit) Template:Cleanup reorganize (edit) Template:DMCA (edit) Template:Dead link (edit) Template:Delink (edit) Template:Div col (edit) Template:Div col/styles.css (edit) Template:Div col end (edit) Template:Documentation (edit) Template:Doi (edit) Template:Explain (edit) Template:Fix (edit) Template:Further (edit) Template:Harvard citation no brackets (edit) Template:Harvard citation year brackets (edit) Template:Harvc (edit) Template:Harvnb (edit) Template:Harvp (edit) Template:IPA (edit) Template:IPA audio link (edit) Template:IPAc-en (edit) Template:ISBN (edit) Template:Ifeq (edit) Template:Ill (edit) Template:In Our Time (edit) Template:Infobox Chinese (edit) Template:Interlanguage link (edit) Template:Lang (edit) Template:Lang-zh (edit) Template:Main (edit) Template:Main other (edit) Template:Navbox (edit) Template:Navbox with collapsible groups (edit) Template:Navboxes (edit) Template:Page needed (edit) Template:Pages needed (edit) Template:Philosophy topics (edit) Template:Portal bar (edit) Template:Refbegin (edit) Template:Refbegin/styles.css (edit) Template:Refend (edit) Template:Reflist (edit) Template:Reflist/styles.css (edit) Template:Religion in China (edit) Template:Religion topics (edit) Template:See also (edit) Template:Self-published inline (edit) Template:Separated entries (edit) Template:Sfn (edit) Template:Sfnmp (edit) Template:Sfnp (edit) Template:Short description (edit) Template:Sidebar with collapsible lists (edit) Template:Sister project links (edit) Template:Small (edit) Template:Taoism (edit) Template:Taoism footer (edit) Template:Transliteration (edit) Template:Trim (edit) Template:Use American English (edit) Template:Use dmy dates (edit) Template:Webarchive (edit) Template:Yesno (edit) Template:Yesno-no (edit) Template:Yesno-yes (edit) Template:Zh (edit) Template:Zhi (edit) Module:Arguments (edit) Module:Catalog lookup link (edit) Module:Category handler (edit) Module:Category handler/data (view source) Module:Check for unknown parameters (edit) Module:Check isxn (edit) Module:Citation/CS1 (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/COinS (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css (edit) Module:Delink (view source) Module:Footnotes (edit) Module:Footnotes/anchor id list (edit) Module:Footnotes/anchor id list/data (edit) Module:Footnotes/whitelist (edit) Module:Format link (edit) Module:Hatnote (edit) Module:Hatnote/styles.css (edit) Module:Hatnote list (edit) Module:IPAc-en (edit) Module:IPAc-en/data (edit) Module:IPAc-en/phonemes (edit) Module:IPAc-en/pronunciation (edit) Module:Infobox (edit) Module:Infobox/styles.css (edit) Module:Infobox multi-lingual name (view source) Module:Labelled list hatnote (edit) Module:Portal bar (view source) Module:String (edit) Module:String2 (view source) Module:Unsubst (edit) Module:Yesno (edit) Discuss this page