Symbol

{{short description|Something that represents an idea, a process, or a physical entity}}
{{Redirect|Symbology|other uses|Symbology (disambiguation)|and|Symbol (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Blank stop sign octagon.svg|thumb|upright|A red [[octagon]] symbolizes "stop" even without the word.|alt=Silhouette of a red octagon]]
[[File:White ribbon.svg|thumb|upright|Wearing variously colored [[List of awareness ribbons|ribbons]] is a symbolic action that shows support for certain campaigns.]]

A '''symbol''' is a mark, [[Sign (semiotics)|sign]], or [[word]] that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an [[idea]], [[Object (philosophy)|object]], or [[wikt:relationship|relationship]]. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is [[knowledge|known]] or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different [[concept]]s and [[experience]]s. All [[communication]] (and [[data processing]]) is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, [[gesture]]s, ideas, or visual [[image]]s and are used to convey other ideas and beliefs. For example, a red octagon is a common symbol for "STOP"; on [[map]]s, blue lines often represent rivers; and a red [[rose]] often symbolizes love and compassion. [[Numeral system|Numerals]] are symbols for [[number]]s; [[Letter (alphabet)|letter]]s of an [[alphabet]] may be symbols for certain [[phoneme]]s; and personal [[name]]s are symbols representing individuals.

The academic study of symbols is [[semiotics]]. In [[cartography]], an organized collection of symbols forms a [[map layout|legend]] for a map.

==Etymology==
The word ''symbol'' derives from the late Middle French masculine noun ''symbole'', which appeared around 1380 in a theological sense signifying a formula used in the Roman Catholic Church as a sort of synonym for 'the credo'; by extension in the early Renaissance it came to mean 'a maxim' or 'the external sign of a sacrament'; these meanings were lost in secular contexts.  It was during the Renaissance in the mid-16th century that the word took on the meaning that is dominant today, that of 'a natural fact or object evoking by its form or its nature an association of ideas with something abstract or absent'; this appears, for example, in [[François Rabelais]], ''Le Quart Livre'', in 1552.<ref>Alain Rey et al., eds., ''Dictionnaire historique de la langue française'', new edition, vol. 2 (Paris: Dictionnaires Le Robert, 1995), p. 2082.</ref> This French word derives from Latin, where both the masculine noun ''symbolus'' and the neuter noun ''symbolum'' refer to "a mark or sign as a means of recognition."<ref>Eric Partridge, ''Origins:  A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English'', 2nd ed. (New York:  Macmillan, 1959), p. 688.</ref>  The Latin word derives from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] σύμβολον ''symbolon'', from a verb meaning 'throw together, put together, compare,' alluding to the Classical practice of breaking a piece of ceramic in two and giving one half to the person who would receive a future message, and one half to the person who would send it:  when the two fit perfectly together, the receiver could be sure that the messenger bearing it did indeed also carry a genuine message from the intended person.<ref>Alain Rey et al., eds., ''Dictionnaire historique de la langue française'', new edition, vol. 2 (Paris: Dictionnaires Le Robert, 1995), p. 2082.</ref>  A literary or artistic symbol as an "outward sign" of something else is a metaphorical extension of this notion of a message from a sender to a recipient. In English, the meaning "something which stands for something else" was first recorded in 1590, in [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[Faerie Queene]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=symbol {{!}} Search |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=symbol&searchmode=none |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702162014/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=symbol&searchmode=none |archive-date=Jul 2, 2017 |website=Online Etymology Dictionary}}</ref>

==Concepts and definitions==
Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning.<ref name= "Womack">Womack, Mari. Symbols and Meaning: A Concise Introduction. California: AltaMira Press, 2005.</ref> Symbols are the basis of all human understanding and serve as vehicles of conception for all human knowledge.<ref>Langer, Susanne K.  A Theory of Art, Developed From: Philosophy in a New Key. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1953.</ref> Symbols facilitate understanding of the world in which we live, thus serving as the grounds upon which we make judgments.<ref name="Catherine">Palczewski, Catherine, and Ice, Richard, and Fritch, John. Rhetoric in Civic Life. Pennsylvania: Strata Publishing, Inc., 2012.</ref> In this way, people use symbols not only to make sense of the world around them, but also to [[Identification (psychology)|identify]] and cooperate in society through [[constitutive rhetoric]].

Human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture. Thus, symbols carry meanings that depend upon one's cultural background. As a result, the meaning of a symbol is not inherent in the symbol itself but is culturally learned.<ref name="Womack" />

[[Heinrich Zimmer]] gives a concise overview of the nature, and perennial relevance, of symbols.
{{quote|Concepts and words are symbols, just as visions, rituals, and images are; so too are the manners and customs of daily life. Through all of these a transcendent reality is mirrored. There are so many metaphors reflecting and implying something which, though thus variously expressed, is ineffable, though thus rendered multiform, remains inscrutable. Symbols hold the mind to truth but are not themselves the truth, hence it is delusory to borrow them. Each civilisation, every age, must bring forth its own."<ref>{{cite book|first=Heinrich|last=Zimmer|editor-first=Joseph|editor-last=Campbell|title=Philosophies of India|year=1969|publisher=Princeton Univ. Press|location=Princeton|isbn=0-691-01758-1|pages=1–2|edition=9. paperback print.}}</ref>}}

In the book ''Signs and Symbols'', it is stated that
{{quote|A symbol{{nbsp}}... is a visual image or sign representing an idea – a deeper indicator of universal truth.<ref>Dorling Kindersley Limited. ''Signs and Symbols''. p.6. {{ISBN|978-0-7566-3393-6}}. 2008</ref>}}

==Symbols and semiotics==
[[Semiotics]] is the study of signs, symbols, and signification as communicative behavior. Semiotics studies focus on the relationship of the signifier and the signified, also taking into account the interpretation of visual cues, body language, sound, and other contextual clues. Semiotics is linked with [[linguistics]] and psychology. Semioticians not only study what a symbol implies but also how it got its meaning and how it functions to make meaning in society. For example, symbols can cause confusion in translation when the same symbol mean different things in the source and target languages. A potential error documented in [[Translation#Survey translation|survey translation]] is the symbol of "x" used to denote "yes" when marking a response in the English language surveys, but "x" usually means "no" in the Chinese convention.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pan |first1=Yuling |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780429294914/sociolinguistics-survey-translation-yuling-pan-mandy-sha-hyunjoo-park |title=The Sociolinguistics of Survey Translation |last2=Sha |first2=Mandy |date=2019-07-09 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-29491-4 |location=London |pages=72–75 |doi=10.4324/9780429294914 |s2cid=198632812}}</ref> Symbols allow the human brain continuously to create meaning using sensory input and decode symbols through both [[denotation]] and [[connotation]]. 

==Psychoanalysis, rhetoric, and archetypes==
An alternative definition of ''symbol'', distinguishing it from the term ''[[Sign (linguistics)|sign]]'' was proposed by Swiss psychoanalyst [[Carl Jung]]. In his studies on what is now called [[Jungian archetypes]], a sign stands for something known, as a word stands for its referent. He contrasted a sign with a  ''symbol'': something that is unknown and that cannot be made clear or precise. An example of a symbol in this sense is [[Christ]] as a symbol of the [[archetype]] called ''[[Self in Jungian psychology|self]]''.<ref>''Christ, A symbol of the self'' CW vol 9i Aion RKP 1958</ref>

[[Kenneth Burke]] described ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' as a "[[Definition of man|symbol-using, symbol making, and symbol misusing animal]]" to suggest that a person creates symbols as well as misuses them. One example he uses to indicate what he means by the misuse of symbol is the story of a man who, when told that a particular food item was whale blubber, could barely keep from throwing it up. Later, his friend discovered it was actually just a dumpling. But the man's reaction was a direct consequence of the symbol of "blubber" representing something inedible in his mind. In addition, the symbol of "blubber" was created by the man through various kinds of [[learning]].

Burke goes on to describe symbols as also being derived from [[Sigmund Freud]]'s work on [[Condensation (psychology)|condensation]] and [[Displacement (psychology)|displacement]], further stating that symbols are not just relevant to the [[The Interpretation of Dreams|theory of dreams]] but also to "normal symbol systems". He says they are related through "substitution", where one word, phrase, or symbol is substituted for another in order to change the meaning.{{clarify|date=December 2013}} In other words, if one person does not understand a certain word or phrase, another person may substitute a [[synonym]] or symbol in order to get the meaning across. However, upon learning the new way of interpreting a specific symbol, the person may change his or her already-formed ideas to incorporate the new information.

[[Jean Dalby Clift]] says that people not only add their own interpretations to symbols, they also create personal symbols that represent their own understanding of their lives: what she calls "core images" of the person. Clift argues that symbolic work with these personal symbols or core images can be as useful as working with dream symbols in psychoanalysis or counseling.<ref>Jean Dalby Clift, ''Core Images of the Self: A Symbolic Approach to Healing and Wholeness''. Crossroad, 1992. {{page needed|date=April 2012}}</ref>

William Indick suggests that the symbols that are commonly found in myth, legend, and fantasy fulfill psychological functions and hence are why archetypes such as "the hero", "the princess" and "the witch" have remained popular for centuries.<ref>[https://archive.today/20130629202403/http://www.mcfarlandpub.com/book-2.php?id=978-0-7864-6039-7 Indick, William. Ancient Symbology in Fantasy Literature: A Psychological Study. Jefferson: McFarland &, 2012. Print.]</ref>

==Symbolic value==
Symbols can carry symbolic value in three primary forms: Ideological, comparative, and isomorphic.<ref name='Annals'>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schnackenberg | first1 = Andrew K. | last2 = Bundy | first2 = Jonathan | last3 = Coen | first3 = Corinne | last4 = Westphal | first4 = James | title = Capitalizing on Categories of Social Construction: A Review and Integration of Organizational Research on Symbolic Management Strategies | journal = Academy of Management Annals | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 375–413 | doi = 10.5465/annals.2017.0096 | year = 2019 | s2cid = 150656804 }}</ref> Ideological symbols such as religious and state symbols convey complex sets of beliefs and ideas that indicate "the right thing to do". Comparative symbols such as prestigious office addresses, fine art, and prominent awards indicate answers to questions of "better or worse" and "superior or inferior". Isomorphic symbols blend in with the surrounding cultural environment such that they enable individuals and organizations to conform to their surroundings and evade social and political scrutiny. Examples of symbols with isomorphic value include wearing a professional dress during business meetings, shaking hands to greet others in the West, or [[bowing]] to greet others in the East. A single symbol can carry multiple distinct meanings such that it provides multiple types of symbolic value.<ref name='Annals'/>

==Paul Tillich==
[[Paul Tillich]] argued that, while signs are invented and forgotten, symbols are born and die.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Theology of Culture|url = https://archive.org/details/theologyofcultur0000paul|url-access = registration|last = Tillich|first = Paul|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1964|isbn = 0195007115|pages = [https://archive.org/details/theologyofcultur0000paul/page/58 58]}}</ref> There are, therefore, dead and living symbols. A living symbol can reveal to an individual hidden levels of meaning and transcendent or religious realities.  For Tillich a symbol always "points beyond itself" to something that is unquantifiable and mysterious; symbols open up the "depth dimension of reality itself".<ref>{{Cite book|title = Theology of Culture|url = https://archive.org/details/theologyofcultur0000paul|url-access = registration|last = Tillich|first = Paul|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1964|isbn = 0195007115|pages = [https://archive.org/details/theologyofcultur0000paul/page/59 59]}}</ref>  Symbols are complex, and their meanings can evolve as the individual or culture evolves. When a symbol loses its meaning and power for an individual or culture, it becomes a dead symbol.
When a symbol becomes identified with the deeper reality to which it refers, it becomes idolatrous as the "symbol is taken for reality." The symbol itself is substituted for the deeper meaning it intends to convey. The unique nature of a symbol is that it gives access to deeper layers of reality which are otherwise inaccessible.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Theology of Culture|url = https://archive.org/details/theologyofcultur0000paul|url-access = registration|last = Tillich|first = Paul|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 1964|isbn = 0195007115|pages = [https://archive.org/details/theologyofcultur0000paul/page/54 54]}}</ref>

==Role of context in symbolism==
{{Original research|section|date=January 2010}}
A symbol's [[Meaning (non-linguistic)|meaning]] may be modified by various factors including popular usage, [[history]], and contextual [[intent (law)|intent]].

===Historical meaning===
The history of a symbol is one of many factors in determining a particular symbol's apparent meaning. Consequently, symbols with emotive power carry problems analogous to [[false etymologies]].<ref>
Compare:
{{cite book
 | last1 = Basso
 | first1 = Michele
 | title = Eschatological symbolism in the Vatican Necropolis
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-qovAQAAIAAJ
 | publisher = Tipografia Poliglotta Vaticana
 | date = 1982
 | page = 700
 | access-date = 2019-01-05
 | quote = In a late period the Greeks made [Pan] the incarnation of All (giving a false etymology to his name, which is really connected with the pastures), that is to say, the universe. 
}}
</ref>

===Context===
The context of a symbol may change its meaning.  Similar five-pointed stars might signify a [[Law enforcement agency|law enforcement]] officer or a member of the [[armed services]], depending upon the [[uniform]].

==Symbols in cartography==
{{ main | Map symbol }}

[[File:Cartographic Symbols.jpg|thumb|The three categories of cartographic symbol shapes]]
Symbols are used in cartography to communicate geographical information (generally as point, line, or area features).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Principles of map design |last=Tyner |first=Judith A. |date=2010|publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=9781606235447 |location=New York |oclc=437300476}}</ref> As with other symbols, visual variables such as size, shape, orientation, texture, and pattern provide meaning to the symbol.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Cartography : thematic map design |last1=Dent |first1=Borden D. |last2=Torguson |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Hodler |first3=T. W. |isbn=978-0072943825 |edition=6th |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education |oclc=184827987|date=2008-08-21 }}</ref> According to [[semiotics]], map symbols are "read" by map users when they make a connection between the graphic mark on the map (the ''sign''), a general concept (the ''interpretant''), and a particular feature of the real world (the ''referent''). Map symbols can thus be categorized by how they suggest this connection:<ref>MacEachren, Alan (1995) ''How Maps Work: Representation, visualization, and design'', New York: Guilford Press</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title = Cartography : thematic map design | last = Dent |first=Borden D. |isbn=0697384950 |edition = 5th |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education| year = 1999 }}</ref>

* '''Pictorial symbols''' (also "image", "iconic", or "replicative") appear as the real-world feature, although it is often in a generalized manner; e.g. a tree icon to represent a forest, or green denoting vegetation.
* '''Functional symbols''' (also "representational") directly represent the activity that takes place at the represented feature; e.g. a picture of a skier to represent a ski resort or a tent to represent a campground.
* '''Conceptual symbols''' directly represent a concept related to the represented feature; e.g. a dollar sign to represent an ATM, or a [[Star of David]] to represent a Jewish synagogue.
* '''Conventional symbols''' (also "associative") do not have any intuitive relationship but are so commonly used that map readers eventually learn to recognize them; e.g. a red line to represent a highway or a cross to represent a hospital.
*'''Abstract/geometric symbols''' (also "ad hoc") are arbitrary shapes chosen by the cartographer to represent a certain feature.

==Related terms==
{{Anchor|Symbolic action}}
A '''symbolic action''' is an action that symbolizes or signals what the actor wants or believes.  The action conveys meaning to the viewers. Symbolic action may overlap with [[symbolic speech]], such as the use of [[flag burning]] to express hostility or saluting the flag to express patriotism.<ref name="Bagossy2008">Bagossy, Renate. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=4LyziXxw238C&pg=PA16 The Difficulty of the Amendment Process of the Constitution of the United States of America and Freedom of Speech and its limits]''. GRIN Verlag; 2008-08-11 [cited 5 November 2012]. {{ISBN|9783640129546}}. p. 16–17.</ref> In response to intense public criticism, businesses, organizations, and governments may take symbolic actions rather than, or in addition to, directly addressing the identified problems.<ref name="Bednar2008">Bednar, Michael Kay. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7Fyefq5LV8sC How Symbolic Action Affects the Media as a Governance Mechanism]''. ProQuest; 2008. {{ISBN|9780549738817}}. p. 17.</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=23em}}
* [[Alchemical symbol]]
* [[Astrological symbols]]
* [[Astronomical symbols]]
* [[Emblem]]
* [[Icon]] (religious) and [[secular icon]]
* [[List of symbols]]
* [[Logo]]
* [[National symbol]]
* [[National treasure]]
* [[Pictogram]]
* [[Proto-writing]]
* [[Sign]]
* [[Symbolic interactionism]]
* [[Symbolism (arts)]]
* [[Table of mathematical symbols]]
* [[Traffic sign]]s
* [[Unicode symbols]]
* [[Universal language]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Communication studies|state=expanded}}
{{Sister bar|auto=yes|wikt=symbol}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Concepts]]
[[Category:Notation]]
[[Category:Semiotics]]
[[Category:Symbols| ]]
[[Category:Syntactic entities]]