Spice

{{Short description|Food flavoring}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Multiple image
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| caption1          = Spices at a central market in [[Agadir]], Morocco
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| caption2          = A group of [[Indian spices|Indian herbs and spices]] in bowls
| image3            = Spices of Saúde flea market, São Paulo, Brazil.jpg
| caption3          = Spices of Saúde flea market, [[São Paulo]], Brazil
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In the [[culinary art]]s, a '''spice''' is any [[seed]], [[fruit]], [[root]], [[Bark (botany)|bark]], or other [[plant]] substance in a form primarily used for [[flavoring]] or [[color]]ing food. Spices are distinguished from [[herb]]s, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for [[flavoring]] or as a [[garnish (food)|garnish]]. Spices are sometimes used in [[medicine]], [[Sacred rite|religious rituals]], [[cosmetics]], or [[perfume]] production. They are usually classified into spices, spice seeds, and herbal categories.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-08 |title=Spice and herb {{!}} Types, Uses, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/spice-food |access-date=2024-04-09 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>For example, [[vanilla]] is commonly used as an ingredient in [[Aroma compound|fragrance]] manufacturing.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00048-3 |chapter=Vanilla |title=Medicinal Plants of South Asia |year=2020 |last1=Ahmad |first1=Hafsa |last2=Khera |first2=Rasheed Ahmad |last3=Hanif |first3=Muhammad Asif |last4=Ayub |first4=Muhammad Adnan |last5=Jilani |first5=Muhammad Idrees |pages=657–669 |isbn=978-0-08-102659-5 |s2cid=241855294 }}</ref> Plant-based [[sweetener]]s such as [[sugar]] are not considered spices. 

Spices may be used fresh and whole, after drying, grating, chopping, crushing, or grinding, or by extraction into a [[tincture]]. Such processing may happen before a spice is offered for sale, while preparing a dish in a kitchen, or after a dish has been presented for consumption (such as peppercorns ground at the table as a [[condiment]]). Some spices such as [[turmeric]] are seldom available either fresh or whole and so must be purchased in ground form. Small seeds such as fennel or mustard may be used either whole or in powdered form.

A whole dried spice has the longest shelf life, so it can be purchased and stored in larger amounts, making it cheaper on a per-serving basis. A fresh spice, such as [[ginger]], is usually more flavorful than its dried form, but fresh spices are more expensive and have a much shorter shelf life. 

There is not enough [[evidence-based medicine|clinical evidence]] to indicate that consuming spices affects human health.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal| display-authors=3|last1=Vázquez-Fresno|first1=Rosa|last2=Rosana | first2=Albert Remus R. | last3=Sajed | first3=Tanvir | last4=Onookome-Okome | first4=Tuviere | last5=Wishart | first5=Noah A. | last6=Wishart | first6=David S.|title=Herbs and Spices - Biomarkers of Intake Based on Human Intervention Studies – A Systematic Review|journal=Genes and Nutrition|volume=14|issue=18|doi=10.1186/s12263-019-0636-8|pmid=31143299|pmc=6532192|date=22 May 2019 |page=18 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[India]] contributes to 75% of global spice production.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} This is reflected culturally through its [[Indian cuisine|cuisine]]. Historically, the [[spice trade]] developed throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] as well as in [[East Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]. Europe's demand for spices was among the economic and cultural factors that encouraged exploration in the [[early modern period]].

==Etymology==
The word ''spice'' originated in [[Middle English]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Definition of SPICE |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/spice |access-date=August 12, 2022 |website=Merriam-Webster |language=en |archive-date=August 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812175037/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/spice |url-status=live }}</ref> from the [[Old French]] words {{Lang|fro|espece}}'', {{Lang|fro|espis(c)e}},'' and {{Lang|fro|espis(c)e}}.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=spice - Middle English Compendium |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED42182 |access-date=August 12, 2022 |website=quod.lib.umich.edu |archive-date=August 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812175035/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/middle-english-dictionary/dictionary/MED42182 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the ''[[Middle English Dictionary]]'', the Old French words came from [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-French]] ''spece'';<ref name=":2" /> according to [[Merriam-Webster|Merriam Webster]], the Old-French words came from Anglo-French ''espece,'' and ''espis''.<ref name=":1" /> Both publications agree that the Anglo-French words are derived from [[Latin]] {{Lang|la|species}}.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> [[Middle English]] {{Lang|enm|spice}} had its first known use as a noun in the 13th century.<ref name=":1" />

==History==
{{Seealso|Spice use in antiquity}}

===Early history===
The [[spice trade]] developed throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]]<ref name="Sidebotham2019">{{cite book|author=Steven E. Sidebotham|title=Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tw6LDwAAQBAJ|date=May 7, 2019|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-30338-6|access-date=April 13, 2019|archive-date=June 30, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630115408/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tw6LDwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Middle East]] by 2000 BCE with [[cinnamon]] and [[black pepper]], and in [[East Asia]] with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for [[ancient Egyptian cuisine|cuisine]] and [[Ancient Egyptian funerary practices|mummification]]. Their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade.

[[Clove]]s were used in [[Mesopotamia]] by 1700&nbsp;BCE.{{refn |group=note |A team of archaeologists led by [[Giorgio Buccellati]] excavating the ruins of a burned-down house at the site of [[Terqa]], in modern-day [[Syria]], found a ceramic pot containing a handful of cloves. The house had burned down around 1720 BC and this was the first evidence of cloves being used in the west before Roman times.<ref>Daniel T. Potts (1997), [https://books.google.com/books?id=O_aFGKPsWwcC&pg=PA269 Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164819/https://books.google.com/books?id=O_aFGKPsWwcC&pg=PA269 |date=March 26, 2023 }} A&C Black publishers, p. 269</ref><ref>Buccellati, G., M. Kelly-Buccellati, Terqa: The First Eight Seasons, Les Annales Archeologiques Arabes Syriennes 33(2), 1983, 47-67</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=O'Connell |first=John |title=The Book of Spice: From Anise to Zedoary |publisher=Pegasus Books |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-68177-152-6|url= }}</ref>}} The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The [[Ebers Papyrus]] from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different [[Herbal medicine|herbal medicinal]] remedies and numerous medicinal procedures.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Food and Culture|last=Woodward|first=Penny|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|year=2003|editor-last=Katz|volume=2|pages=187–195|chapter=Herbs and Spices}}</ref>

By 1000&nbsp;BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in [[China]], [[Korea]], and [[India]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} Early uses were associated with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.<ref name=ABCp14>{{cite book |last=Murdock |first=Linda | title=A Busy Cook's Guide to Spices: How to Introduce New Flavors to Everyday Meals | publisher=Bellwether Books | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-9704285-0-9 | page=14}}</ref>

Indonesian merchants traveled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. [[Arab]] merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian [[Port of Alexandria|port city of Alexandria]] being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the [[monsoon]] winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.<ref name=ABCp14/>

Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the [[Old Testament]]. In [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]], [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[manna]] is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the [[Song of Solomon]], the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices. 

The ancient Indian [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Ramayana]] mentions cloves.

Historians believe that [[nutmeg]], which originates from the [[Banda Islands]] in [[Southeast Asia]], was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burkill |first=I.H. |title=A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula |publisher=Ministry of Agriculture and Co-Operatives |location=Kuala Lumpur |year=1966}}</ref> The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] had cloves in the 1st century CE, as [[Pliny the Elder]] wrote about them.<ref name="Duke 2002 p. 7">{{cite book |last=Duke |first=J.A. |title=CRC Handbook of Medicinal Spices |publisher=CRC Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-4200-4048-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPTLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |access-date=May 9, 2017 |page=7 |archive-date=June 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630115408/https://books.google.com/books?id=vPTLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Middle Ages===
[[File:Le livre des merveilles de Marco Polo-pepper.jpg|thumb|"The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]''.]]
Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]],<sup>[[Spice#cite note-5|[5]]]</sup> the most common being [[black pepper]], [[cinnamon]] (and the cheaper alternative [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]), [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], ginger, and [[cloves]]. Given medieval medicine's main theory of [[humorism]], spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food,<sup>[[Spice#cite note-6|[6]]]</sup> on a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent [[pandemic]]s. In addition to being desired by those using [[Medieval medicine of Western Europe|medieval medicine]], the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise".<ref>{{Cite book |author=Schivelbusch, Wolfgang |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/24702170 |title=Tastes of paradise : a social history of spices, stimulants, and intoxicants |date=1992 |publisher=Pantheon Books |isbn=0-394-57984-4 |oclc=24702170 |access-date=December 4, 2022 |archive-date=June 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630115421/https://worldcat.org/title/24702170 |url-status=live }}</ref> An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the [[King of Aragon]], who invested substantial resources into importing spices to [[Spain]] in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in [[wine]] and was not alone among [[European Monarchs|European monarchs]] at the time to have such a desire for spice.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Freedman|first=Paul|date=June 5, 2015|title=Health, wellness and the allure of spices in the Middle Ages|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|series=Potent Substances: On the Boundaries of Food and Medicine|volume=167|pages=47–53|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.065|pmid=25450779}}</ref>

Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the [[Republic of Venice]] held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighboring Italian [[maritime republics]] and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000&nbsp;tons of other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the [[Late Middle Ages]]. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people.<ref>{{cite book |author=Adamson, Melitta Weiss|title=Food in Medieval Times|url=https://archive.org/details/foodmedievaltime00adam_218|url-access=limited|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport, Conn|year=2004|isbn=978-0-313-32147-4|page= [https://archive.org/details/foodmedievaltime00adam_218/page/n89 65]}}</ref> The most exclusive was [[saffron]], used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include [[Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]], a relative of [[cardamom]] which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, [[long pepper]], [[nutmeg|mace]], [[spikenard]], [[galangal]], and [[cubeb]].<ref name="freedman" />

===Early modern period===
Voyagers from [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] sailed to [[India]] in 1499.<sup>[[Spice#cite note-8|[8]]]</sup> When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much cheaper price than the ones demanded by [[Venice]].<ref name=":0" /> At around the same time, [[Christopher Columbus]] returned from the [[New World]]. He described to [[investor]]s the new spices available there.<ref>Turner, 2004, p. 11</ref>{{Efn|The word "ají" is still used in South American Spanish for chili peppers.}}

Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th centuries was the [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusans]] from the maritime republic of [[Dubrovnik]] in southern Croatia.<ref>Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, p. 453, Gil Marks, John Wiley & Sons, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-470-39130-3}}</ref> The military prowess of [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of [[Socotra]] in the mouth of the [[Red Sea]] and, in 1507, [[Ormuz]] in the [[Persian Gulf]]. Since becoming the [[viceroy]] of the [[Indies]], he took [[Goa]] in India in 1510, and [[Malacca]] on the [[Malay Peninsula]] in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with [[Thailand|Siam]], [[China]], and the [[Maluku Islands]].

With the discovery of the New World came new spices, including [[allspice]], [[chili pepper]]s, [[vanilla]], and [[chocolate]]. This development kept the spice trade, with America as a latecomer with its new seasonings, profitable well into the 19th century.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

==Function==
[[File:Common Indian spices.jpg|thumb|Turmeric powder, mustard seeds, chili powder, cumin seeds|alt=Chili powder, mustard seeds, turmeric powder, cumin seeds]]
Spices are primarily used as food [[flavoring]] or to create variety.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Dennett |first=Carrie |date=January 26, 2017 |title=How a full spice cabinet can keep you healthy |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wellness/spices-and-herbs-do-more-than-add-flavor-to-food--they-are-nutritional-powerhouses/2017/01/25/79dbedb4-e24c-11e6-a453-19ec4b3d09ba_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=August 12, 2022 |archive-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208195529/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wellness/spices-and-herbs-do-more-than-add-flavor-to-food--they-are-nutritional-powerhouses/2017/01/25/79dbedb4-e24c-11e6-a453-19ec4b3d09ba_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> They are also used to perfume [[cosmetics]] and [[incense]]. At various periods, many spices were used in [[herbal medicine]]. Finally, since they can be expensive, rare and exotic commodities, their [[conspicuous consumption]] has often been a symbol of wealth and social class.<ref name="freedman">Paul Freedman, ''Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination'', 2008, {{isbn|9780300151350}}, p. 2-3</ref>

===Preservative claim===
{{quote box|align=right|width=35%|The most popular explanation for the love of spices in the Middle Ages is that they were used to preserve meat from spoiling, or to cover up the taste of meat that had already gone off. This compelling but false idea constitutes something of an urban legend, a story so instinctively attractive that mere fact seems unable to wipe it out... Anyone who could afford spices could easily find meat fresher than what city dwellers today buy in their local supermarket.<ref name="freedman"/>}}
It is often claimed that spices were used either as [[food preservation|food preservatives]] or to mask the taste of [[Meat spoilage|spoiled meat]], especially in the European [[Middle Ages]].<ref name="freedman"/><ref name="ThomasDaoust2012">{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Frédéric |last2=Daoust |first2=Simon P. |last3=Raymond |first3=Michel |title=Can we understand modern humans without considering pathogens?: Human evolution and parasites |journal=Evolutionary Applications |date=June 2012 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=368–379 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-4571.2011.00231.x |pmid=25568057 |pmc=3353360 }}</ref> This is false.<ref>Paul Freedman, "Food Histories of the Middle Ages", in Kyri W. Claflin, Peter Scholliers, ''Writing Food History: A Global Perspective'', {{isbn|1847888097}}, p. 24</ref><ref>[[Andrew Dalby]], ''Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices'', 2000, {{isbn|0520236742}}, p. 156</ref><ref>Andrew Jotischky, ''A Hermit's Cookbook: Monks, Food and Fasting in the Middle Ages'', 2011, {{isbn|1441159916}}, p. 170</ref><ref name="freedman" /> In fact, spices are rather ineffective as preservatives as compared to [[salting (food)|salting]], [[smoking (cooking)|smoking]], [[pickling]], or [[food drying|drying]], and are ineffective in covering the taste of spoiled meat.<ref name="freedman"/> Moreover, spices have always been comparatively expensive: in 15th century Oxford, a whole pig cost about the same as a pound of the cheapest spice, pepper.<ref name="freedman"/> There is also no evidence of such use from contemporary cookbooks: "Old cookbooks make it clear that spices weren't used as a preservative. They typically suggest adding spices toward the end of the cooking process, where they could have no preservative effect whatsoever."<ref name="krondl">Michael Krondl, ''The Taste of Conquest: The Rise and Fall of the Three Great Cities of Spice'', 2007, {{isbn|9780345480835}}, p. 6</ref> Indeed, [[Cristoforo di Messisbugo]] suggested in the 16th century that pepper may speed up spoilage.<ref name="krondl"/>

Though some spices have [[antimicrobial]] properties in vitro,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shelef |first1=L.A. |title=Antimicrobial Effects of Spices |journal=Journal of Food Safety |volume=6 |issue=1 |year=1984 |pages=29–44 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-4565.1984.tb00477.x}}</ref> pepper—by far the most common spice—is relatively ineffective, and in any case, salt, which is far cheaper, is also far more effective.<ref name="krondl"/>
{{clear}}

==Classification and types==
{{see also|Outline of herbs and spices}}
[[File:Indian spices with labels (garam masala components) (49684333301).jpg|thumb|A plate of [[Indian spices|Indian herbs and spices]]]]

===Culinary herbs and spices===
{{main|List of culinary herbs and spices}}

===Botanical basis===
{{Div col|colwidth=28em}}
* [[Seed]]s, such as [[fennel]], [[Mustard seeds|mustard]], [[nutmeg]], and [[black pepper]]
* [[Fruit]]s, such as [[Cayenne pepper]] and [[Chimayo pepper]]
* [[Aril]]s, such as [[Mace (spice)|mace]] (part of nutmeg plant fruit)
* [[Bark (botany)|Barks]], such as [[Cinnamomum zeylanicum|True Cinnamon]] and [[Cinnamomum aromaticum|cassia]]
* [[Flower bud]]s, such as [[cloves]]
* [[Stigma (botany)|Stigmas]], such as [[saffron]]
* [[Root]]s and [[rhizome]]s, such as [[turmeric]], [[ginger]] and [[galangal]]
* [[Resin]]s, such as [[asafoetida]]
{{Div col end}}

===Common spice mixtures===
{{main|Spice mix}}
{{Div col|colwidth=28em}}
* [[Advieh]] ([[Iran]])
* [[Baharat]] ([[Arab world]], and the [[Middle East]] in general)
* [[Berbere]] ([[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]] and [[Somalia]])
* [[Bumbu (seasoning)|Bumbu]] ([[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesia]])
* [[Cajun cuisine#Blended|Cajun]] ([[United States]])
* [[Chaat masala]] ([[Indian subcontinent]])
* [[Chili pepper|Chili]] [[Chili powder|powder]] and [[crushed red pepper]] ([[Cayenne pepper|Cayenne]], [[Chipotle]], [[Jalapeño]], [[New Mexico chile|New Mexico]], [[Tabasco pepper|Tabasco]], and [[List of Capsicum cultivars|other cultivars]])
* [[Curry powder]]
* [[Five-spice powder]] ([[China]])
* [[Garam masala]] (Indian subcontinent)
* [[Harissa]] ([[North Africa]])
* [[Hawaij]] ([[Yemen]])
* [[Jamaican jerk spice|Jerk spice]] ([[Jamaica]])
* [[Khmeli suneli]] ([[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], former U.S.S.R.)
* [[Masala (spice)|Masala]] (a generic name for any mix used in the Indian subcontinent)
* [[Mixed spice]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Panch phoron]] (Indian subcontinent)
* [[Pumpkin pie spice]] ([[United States]])
* [[Quatre épices]] ([[France]])
* [[Ras el hanout]] ([[North Africa]])
* [[Sharena sol]] (literally "colorful salt", [[Bulgaria]])
* [[Shichimi|Shichimi tōgarashi]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Speculaas]] ([[Belgium]] and [[Netherlands]])
* Thuna Paha ([[Sri Lanka]])
* [[Podravka#Consumer brands|Vegeta]] ([[Croatia]])
* [[Za'atar]] (Middle East)
{{Div col end}}

==Handling==
[[File:Spice-shelf.jpg|thumb|upright=1.00|A shelf of common spices for a home kitchen in Canada or the United States]]
<!--[[File: Kitchen utensils hanging below a spice rack.jpg|thumb|upright|A spice rack with cooking utensils]]-->

{{Anchor|Ground spices}}

[[File:Peugeot pepper mill.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.50|Pepper mill]]
A [[mortar and pestle]] is the classic set of tools for grinding a whole spice. Less labor-intensive tools are more common now: a [[microplane]] or fine [[grater]] can be used to grind small amounts; a [[blade grinder|coffee grinder]]<ref group=note>Other types of coffee grinders, such as a [[burr mill]], can grind spices just as well as coffee beans.</ref> is useful for larger amounts. A frequently used spice such as black pepper may merit storage in its own hand grinder or [[Burr mill#Manual burr grinders|mill]].

The flavor of a spice is derived in part from compounds (volatile oils) that [[oxidize]] or evaporate when exposed to air. Grinding a spice greatly increases its surface area and so increases the rates of oxidation and evaporation. Thus, the flavor is maximized by storing a spice whole and grinding when needed. The shelf life of a whole dry spice is roughly two years; of a ground spice roughly six months.<ref name=GE714>{{Cite episode |title=Spice Capades |episode-link=List of Good Eats episodes#Season 7 |series=Good Eats |series-link=Good Eats |credits=Host: [[Alton Brown]] |network=Food Network |airdate=January 14, 2004 |season=7 |number=14 |ref=GE714}}</ref> The "flavor life" of a ground spice can be much shorter.<ref group=note>[[Nutmeg]], in particular, suffers from grinding and the flavor will degrade noticeably in a matter of days.</ref> Ground spices are better stored away from light.<ref group=note>Light contributes to oxidation processes.</ref>

Some flavor elements in spices are soluble in water; many are soluble in oil or fat. As a general rule, the flavors from a spice take time to infuse into the food so spices are added early in preparation. This contrasts to [[herb]]s which are usually added late in preparation.<ref name=GE714/>
{{clear}}

===Salmonella contamination===
A study by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007–2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by ''[[Salmonella]]'' bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Van Dorena|first=Jane M.|author2=Daria Kleinmeiera|author3=Thomas S. Hammack|author4=Ann Westerman|title=Prevalence, serotype diversity, and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella in imported shipments of spice offered for entry to the United States, FY2007–FY2009|journal=Food Microbiology|date=June 2013|volume=34|issue=2|pages=239–251|doi=10.1016/j.fm.2012.10.002|pmid=23541190|quote=Shipments of imported spices offered for entry to the United States were sampled during the fiscal years 2007–2009. The mean shipment prevalence for Salmonella was 0.066 (95% CI 0.057–0.076)|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258953|access-date=June 16, 2019|archive-date=June 16, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616194240/https://zenodo.org/record/1258953|url-status=live}}</ref> As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and are present at the table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated.<ref name=NYT82713>{{cite news |title=Salmonella in Spices Prompts Changes in Farming |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/28/world/asia/farmers-change-over-spices-link-to-food-ills.html |access-date=August 28, 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=August 27, 2013 |author=Gardiner Harris |archive-date=August 29, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829170450/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/28/world/asia/farmers-change-over-spices-link-to-food-ills.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Food irradiation]] is said to minimize this risk.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Effects of gamma-irradiation on the free radical and antioxidant contents in nine aromatic herbs and spices.|year = 2003|pmid = 12568551|last1 = Calucci|first1 = L.|last2 = Pinzino|first2 = C.|last3 = Zandomeneghi|first3 = M.|last4 = Capocchi|first4 = A.|last5 = Ghiringhelli|first5 = S.|last6 = Saviozzi|first6 = F.|last7 = Tozzi|first7 = S.|last8 = Galleschi|first8 = L.|journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume = 51|issue = 4|pages = 927–34|doi = 10.1021/jf020739n}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=June 28, 2017 |title=Myths about Food Irradiation |url=https://ccr.ucdavis.edu/food-irradiation/myths-about-food-irradiation |access-date=July 30, 2022 |website=Center for Consumer Research |language=en |archive-date=July 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730162900/https://ccr.ucdavis.edu/food-irradiation/myths-about-food-irradiation |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Production==
[[File:Spices in an Indian market.jpg|thumb|right|Spices and herbs at a shop in [[Goa]], India]]
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="float:left"
|+ Top Spice Producing Countries <br />(in metric tonnes)
!Rank
!Country
!2010
!2011
|-
| 1 || India || 1,474,900 || 1,525,000
|-
| 2 || Bangladesh || 128,517 || 139,775
|-
| 3 || Turkey || 107,000 || 113,783
|-
| 4 || China || 90,000 || 95,890
|-
| 5 || Pakistan || 53,647 || 53,620
|-
| 6 || Iran || 18,028 || 21,307
|-
| 7 || Nepal || 20,360 || 20,905
|-
| 8 || Colombia || 16,998 || 19,378
|-
| 9 || Ethiopia || 27,122 || 17,905
|-
| 10 || Sri Lanka || 8,293 || 8,438
|- bgcolor="#cccccc"
| — || ''[[World]]'' || 1,995,523 || 2,063,472
|-
|colspan=4 | ''Source: [[FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |publisher=[[FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]] |title=Production of Spice by countries |year=2011 |access-date=December 20, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx |archive-date=July 13, 2011 }}</ref>
|}
{{Clear}}

==Standardization==
The [[International Organization for Standardization]] addresses spices and [[condiment]]s, along with related food additives, as part of the [[International Classification for Standards]] 67.220 series.<ref>{{cite web |website=[[International Organization for Standardization]] |title=67.220: Spices and condiments. Food additives |year=2009 |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=67&ICS2=220&development=on |access-date=April 23, 2009 |archive-date=June 6, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606151414/http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=67&ICS2=220&development=on |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Gato negro.jpg|The ''Gato Negro'' café and spice shop ([[Buenos Aires]], Argentina)
File:Spice shop, Mashad, Iran.jpg|A spice shop selling a variety of spices in Iran
File:Night Spice market in Casablanca.JPG|Night spice shop in Casablanca, Morocco
File:Taliparamba Market.jpg|A spice shop in [[Taliparamba]], India
File:Taliparamba grocery.jpg|Spices sold in [[Taliparamba]], India
File:Spice seller, Kashgar market.jpg|Spice seller at a market in [[Kashgar]], China
File:Spice Market, Marakech (2242330035).jpg|Spice market, [[Marrakesh]], Morocco
</gallery>

==See also==
{{portal|Food|Medicine}}
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==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
=== Books ===
* {{cite book |last=Czarra |first=Fred |year=2009 |title=Spices: A Global History|url=https://archive.org/details/spicesglobalhist0000czar |url-access=registration |publisher=Reaktion Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/spicesglobalhist0000czar/page/128 128] |isbn=978-1-86189-426-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Dalby |year=2000 |title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23674-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Freedman |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Freedman |year=2008 |title=Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-21131-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Keay |first=John |author-link=John Keay |year=2006 |title=The Spice Route: A History |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-0-7195-6199-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Krondl |first=Michael |year=2008 |title=The Taste of Conquest: The Rise and Fall of the Three Great Cities of Spice |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-0-345-50982-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=James Innes |year=1969 |title=The spice trade of the Roman Empire, 29 B.C. to A.D. 641 |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon P. |isbn=978-0-19-814264-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Morton |first=Timothy |title=The Poetics of Spice: Romantic Consumerism and the Exotic |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-02666-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Seidemann |first=Johannes |year=2005 |title=World Spice Plants: Economic Usage, Botany, Taxonomy |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-22279-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Turner |first=Jack |author-link=Jack Turner (writer) |year=2004 |title=Spice: The History of a Temptation |publisher=Knopf |isbn=978-0-375-40721-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/spicehistoryofte00turn_0 }}

{{Wikibooks|Cookbook:Spices and herbs}}
{{wiktionary|spice}}
{{Commons}}

{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Cuisine}}
{{Non-timber forest products}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Spices| ]]
[[Category:Plant products]]