Soul Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Non-material essence of a living being}} {{distinguish|Seoul}} {{other uses|Soul (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}} [[File:Schiavonetti Soul leaving body 1808.jpg|thumb|Artist’s depiction of a human soul leaving the body]] In many [[Religion|religious]] and [[Philosophy|philosophical]] traditions, the '''soul''' is the [[Spirit (vital essence)|non-material essence]] of a person, which includes one's [[Identity (social science)|identity]], [[personality]], and [[Memory|memories]], an immaterial aspect or essence of a [[living being]] that is believed to be able to survive [[physical death]]. The concept of the soul is generally applied to humans, though it can also be applied to other living or even non-living entities, as in [[animism]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=soul |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/soul-religion-and-philosophy |access-date=June 19, 2022 |website=Britannica}}</ref> ==Etymology== The Modern English noun ''[[:wikt:soul|soul]]'' is derived from [[Old English]] ''sāwol, sāwel''. The earliest attestations reported in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' are from the 8th century. In [[King Alfred]]'s translation of ''[[De Consolatione Philosophiae]]'', it is used to refer to the immaterial, spiritual, or thinking aspect of a person, as contrasted with the person's physical body; in the [[Vespasian Psalter]] 77.50, it means "life" or "animate existence". The Old English word is cognate with other historical [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] terms for the same idea, including [[Old Frisian]] ''sēle, sēl'' (which could also mean "salvation", or "solemn oath"), [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''saiwala'', [[Old High German]] ''sēula, sēla'', [[Old Saxon]] ''sēola'', and [[Old Norse]] ''sāla''. Present-day cognates include Dutch ''ziel'' and German ''Seele''.<ref name="oed">{{cite web |title=soul, n. |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/185083?rskey=HutjgX&result=1 |website=OED Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=23 June 2022}}</ref> ==Religious views== In [[Judaism]] and in some [[Christianity|Christian]] denominations, only human beings have immortal souls (although [[immortality]] is disputed within Judaism and the concept of [[immortality]] was most likely influenced by Plato).<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Immortality of the Soul |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8092-immortality-of-the-soul |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220130344/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8092-immortality-of-the-soul |archive-date=20 December 2016 |access-date=2016-12-14 |website=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> For example, Thomas Aquinas, borrowing directly from Aristotle's ''[[On the Soul]]'', attributed "soul" (''[[wikt:anima|anima]]'') to all organisms but argued that only human souls are immortal.<ref>Peter Eardley and Carl Still, ''Aquinas: A Guide for the Perplexed'' (London: Continuum, 2010), pp. 34–35</ref> Other religions (most notably [[Hinduism]] and [[Jainism]]) believe that all living things from the smallest bacterium to the largest of mammals are the souls themselves ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], [[jiva]]) and have their physical representative (the body) in the world. The actual [[self]] is the soul, while the body is only a mechanism to experience the [[karma]] of that life. Thus if one sees a tiger then there is a self-conscious identity residing in it (the soul), and a physical representative (the whole body of the tiger, which is observable) in the world. Some teach that even non-biological entities (such as rivers and mountains) possess souls. This belief is called [[animism]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080709052029/http://www.bartleby.com/65/so/soul.html "Soul"], ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', Sixth Edition. 2001–07. Retrieved 12 November 2008.</ref> === Ancient Near East === {{Main|Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul|Religions of the ancient Near East}} [[File:Souls of Pe and Nekhen towing at Ramses' Temple in Abydos c.jpg|thumb|right|The [[souls of Pe and Nekhen]] towing the [[royal barge]] on a relief of [[Ramesses II]]'s temple in Abydos]] In the [[ancient Egyptian religion]], an individual was believed to be made up of various elements, some physical and some spiritual. Similar ideas are found in ancient Assyrian and Babylonian religion. The [[Kuttamuwa stele]], a funeral stele for an 8th-century BCE royal official from [[Sam'al]], describes [[Kuttamuwa]] requesting that his mourners commemorate his life and his [[afterlife]] with feasts "for my soul that is in this stele". It is one of the earliest references to a soul as a separate entity from the body. The {{convert|800|lb|adj=on}} [[basalt]] stele is {{convert|3|ft|abbr=on}} tall and {{convert|2|ft|abbr=on}} wide. It was uncovered in the third season of excavations by the Neubauer Expedition of the [[University of Chicago Oriental Institute|Oriental Institute]] in Chicago, Illinois.<ref>{{cite news |title=Found: An Ancient Monument to the Soul |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/18/science/18soul.html?8dpc=&_r=1&pagewanted=all |quote=In a mountainous kingdom in what is now southeastern Turkey, there lived in the eighth century B.C. a royal official, Kuttamuwa, who oversaw the completion of an inscribed stone monument, or stele, to be erected upon his death. The words instructed mourners to commemorate his life and afterlife with feasts "for my soul that is in this stele." |work=The New York Times |date=17 November 2008 |access-date=18 November 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090424210754/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/18/science/18soul.html?8dpc=&_r=1&pagewanted=all |archive-date=24 April 2009}}</ref> ===Baháʼí Faith=== The [[Baháʼí Faith]] affirms that "the soul is a sign of God, a heavenly gem whose reality the most learned of men hath failed to grasp, and whose mystery no mind, however acute, can ever hope to unravel".<ref>{{cite book |author=Bahá'u'lláh |author-link=Bahá'u'lláh |year=1976 |title=Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh |publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois |isbn=978-0-87743-187-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gleaningsfromwri0000baha_w8j0/page/158 158–63] |url=https://archive.org/details/gleaningsfromwri0000baha_w8j0/page/158 |access-date=2016-02-23 }}</ref> [[Bahá'u'lláh]] stated that the soul not only continues to live after the physical death of the human body but is, in fact, immortal.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bahá'u'lláh |author-link=Bahá'u'lláh |year=1976 |title=Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh |publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois |isbn=978-0-87743-187-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gleaningsfromwri0000baha_w8j0/page/155 155–58] |url=https://archive.org/details/gleaningsfromwri0000baha_w8j0/page/155 |access-date=2016-02-23 }}</ref> Heaven can be seen partly as the soul's state of nearness to God; and [[hell]] as a state of remoteness from God. Each state follows as a natural consequence of individual efforts, or the lack thereof, to develop spiritually.<ref name="rob1">{{cite book |author= Taherzadeh, Adib |author-link=Adib Taherzadeh |year= 1976 |title= The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 1 |publisher= George Ronald |location= Oxford |isbn= 978-0-85398-270-8 |url= http://www.peyman.info/cl/Baha%27i/Others/ROB/V1/Contents.html |access-date= 2016-02-23 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191017/http://www.peyman.info/cl/Baha'i/Others/ROB/V1/Contents.html |archive-date= 3 March 2016}}</ref> Bahá'u'lláh taught that individuals have no existence prior to their life here on earth and the soul's evolution is always towards God and away from the material world.<ref name="rob1"/> ===Buddhism=== The traditional doctrine in [[Buddhism]] regarding the soul, self or ego is that it is non-existent as a separate, permanent entity. The non-existence of self ([[anatman]]), the impermanence of all things ([[anitya]]), and the suffering ([[dukkha]]) experienced by living beings due to attachment to ideas of self and permanence are central concepts in almost all [[Schools of Buddhism|Buddhist schools]]. The doctrine of [[Buddha-nature]], while sometimes misinterpreted as referring to a "true self" or "soul" of some kind, actually depends upon acceptance of the concept of [[anatman]] to be properly understood. <ref>{{cite web |title=The Significance Of 'Tathagatagarbha'- A Positive Expression Of 'Sunyata' |url=http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha191.htm |access-date=2023-07-15|author-last=Shih|author-first=Heng-Ching}}</ref> ===Christianity=== {{See also|Soul in the Bible|Christian mortalism|Immortality of the soul|Christian conditionalism|Annihilationism}} [[File:SoulCarriedtoHeaven.jpg|thumb|Depiction of a soul being carried to heaven by two angels by [[William Bouguereau]]]] According to some [[Christian eschatology]], when people die, their souls will be [[particular judgment|judged by God]] and determined to go to [[Heaven (Christianity)|Heaven]] or to [[Christian views on Hades|Hades]] awaiting a [[resurrection]]. The oldest existing branches of Christianity, the [[Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental]] Orthodox churches, adhere to this view, as well as many Protestant denominations. Some Protestant Christians understand the soul as "life," and believe that the dead have no conscious existence until [[General judgment|after the resurrection]] ([[Christian conditionalism]]). Some Protestant Christians believe that the souls and bodies of the unrighteous will be destroyed in [[Christian views on Hell|Hell]] rather than suffering eternally ([[annihilationism]]). Believers will inherit [[eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]] either in Heaven, or in a [[Kingdom of God]] on earth, and enjoy eternal fellowship with God. Other Christians reject the punishment of the soul.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} Paul the Apostle used ψυχή (psychē) and πνεῦμα (pneuma) specifically to distinguish between the Jewish notions of נפש (nephesh) and רוח ruah (spirit)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Αρχιμ. Βλάχος |first1=Ιερόθεος |title=Ορθόδοξη Ψυχοθεραπεία |date=30 September 1985 |location=Εδεσσα |publisher=Ιερά Μονή Τιμίου Σταυρού |page=Τι είναι η ψυχή |url=https://www.oodegr.com/oode/dogma/psyxi1.htm |access-date=25 January 2023 |chapter-url=https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/THEOL160/%CE%9A%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B1%20%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B1%20%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%89%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%20%CE%B8%CE%B5%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%20%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B7/%CE%9F%CE%A1%CE%98%CE%9F%CE%94%CE%9F%CE%9E%CE%97%20%CE%A8%CE%A5%CE%A7%CE%9F%CE%98%CE%95%CE%A1%CE%91%CE%A0%CE%95%CE%99%CE%91.pdf |language=Greek |chapter=Κεφάλαιο Γ'}}</ref> (also in the Septuagint, e.g. Genesis 1:2 רוּחַ אֱלֹהִים = πνεῦμα θεοῦ = spiritus Dei = "the Spirit of God"). Christians generally believe in the existence and eternal, infinite nature of the soul.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval N. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/951507538 |title=Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow |publisher=[[Harper (publisher)|Harper]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-06-246431-6 |edition=1st US |location=New York |pages=92 |oclc=951507538}}</ref> ====Origin of the soul==== The "origin of the soul" has provided a vexing question in Christianity. The major theories put forward include [[creationism (soul)|soul creationism]], [[traducianism]], and [[pre-existence]]. According to soul creationism, God creates each individual soul directly, either at the moment of conception or at some later time. According to traducianism, the soul comes from the parents by natural generation. According to the preexistence theory, the soul exists before the moment of conception. There have been differing thoughts regarding whether human [[embryo]]s have souls from conception, or whether there is a point between conception and birth where the [[fetus]] [[ensoulment|acquires a soul]], [[consciousness]], and/or [[personhood]]. Stances in this question might play a role in judgements on the [[Christianity and abortion|morality of abortion]].<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/medical_ethics/me0116.htm |title= "Do Embryos Have Souls?", Father Tadeusz Pacholczyk, PhD, Catholic Education Resource Center |publisher= Catholiceducation.org |access-date= 13 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110629203818/http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/medical_ethics/me0116.htm |archive-date= 29 June 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= Matthew Syed |date= 12 May 2008 |url= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article3912708.ece |title= Embryos have souls? What nonsense |work= [[The Times]] |location= UK |access-date= 13 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110918113735/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article3912708.ece |archive-date= 18 September 2011}}</ref><ref>"The Soul of the Embryo: An Enquiry into the Status of the Human Embryo in the Christian Tradition", by David Albert Jones, Continuum Press, 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-8264-6296-1}}</ref> ====Trichotomy of the soul==== [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] (354-430), one of Western Christianity's most influential early Christian thinkers, described the soul as "a special substance, endowed with reason, adapted to rule the body". Some Christians espouse a [[trichotomy (philosophy)|trichotomic]] view of humans, which characterizes humans as consisting of a body (''soma''), soul (''psyche''), and spirit (''pneuma'').<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14153a.htm |title= Soul |publisher= newadvent.org |date= 1 July 1912 |access-date= 13 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111128201145/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14153a.htm |archive-date= 28 November 2011| quote = In St. Paul we find a more technical phraseology employed with great consistency. Psyche is now appropriated to the purely natural life; pneuma to the life of supernatural religion, the principle of which is the Holy Spirit, dwelling and operating in the heart. The opposition of flesh and spirit is accentuated afresh (Romans 1:18, etc.). This Pauline system, presented to a world already prepossessed in favour of a quasi-Platonic Dualism, occasioned one of the earliest widespread forms of error among Christian writers – the doctrine of the Trichotomy. According to this, man, perfect man (teleios) consists of three parts: body, soul and spirit (soma, psyche, pneuma).}}</ref> However, the majority of modern Bible scholars point out how the concepts of "spirit" and of "soul" are used interchangeably in many biblical passages, and so hold to dichotomy: the view that each human comprises a body and a soul. Paul said that the "body wars against" the soul, "For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing as far as the division of soul and spirit" (Heb 4:12 NASB), and that "I buffet my body", to keep it under control. ====''Tota in toto corpore''==== According to Saint [[Thomas Aquinas]], the soul is ''«tota in toto corpore»''.<ref>Thomas Aquinas, ''Quaestiones disputatae De Anima'', ''[https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lspost13/ThomasAquinas/tho_an10.html Quaestio decima: Vtrum anima sit in toto corpore et in qualibet parte eius?]''</ref><ref>''[[Summa Theologiae|ST]]'' I-I quaestio 76. See also [[Christian Klein]], ''An anima sit tota in toto corpore, et tota in qualibet parte, disquisitio philosophica'' {{inlang|la}}, Goetschius, 1655. {{OCLC|253546381}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | jstor=43065579 | title=Recenti Studii Su la Metafisica dell'anima | last1=Pepe | first1=Giovanni | journal=Rivista di Filosofia Neo-Scolastica | date=19 November 2023 | volume=11 | issue=2 | pages=167–194 }}</ref> This means that the soul is ''entirely'' contained in ''every single part'' of the human body, and therefore ubiquitous and cannot be placed in a single organ (heart or brain, etc.), nor it is separable from the body (except after the body's death). In the fourth book of ''[[De Trinitate]]'', also Augustine of Hippo states that the soul is all in the whole body and all in any part of it.<ref>{{cite book|quote=Augustinus dixit, in ''VI [[De Trinitate]]'', quod anima est tota in toto corpore, et tota in qualibet parte eius.|author=Thomas Aquinas|title=Quaestiones disputatae De Anima|chapter=quaestio 10|url=https://aquinas.cc/la/en/~QDeAn.Q10.Obj16}}</ref> ====Views of various denominations==== ; Roman Catholicism The present [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] states that the term soul : "refers to the innermost aspect of [persons], that which is of greatest value in [them], that by which [they are] most especially in God's image: ‘soul’ signifies the spiritual principle in [humanity]".<ref>{{cite book |title= Catechism of the Catholic Church |section=paragraph 363 |section-url= https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P1B.HTM |via= Vatican.va |access-date= 1 March 2023 }}</ref> All souls living and dead will be judged by Jesus Christ when [[Second Coming|he comes back to earth]]. The Catholic Church teaches that the existence of each individual soul is dependent wholly upon God: : "The doctrine of the faith affirms that the spiritual and immortal soul is created immediately by God."<ref>{{cite book |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church |section=paragraph 382 |via= Vatican.va |section-url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p6.htm |access-date= 13 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111116203545/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p6.htm |archive-date= 16 November 2011}}</ref> [[File:Dutch Church Sleepy Hollow 24.JPG|thumb|Depiction of the soul on a 17th century tombstone at the cemetery of the [[Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow]] ]] ;Protestantism Protestants generally believe in the soul's existence and immortality, but fall into two major camps about what this means in terms of an [[afterlife]]. Some, following [[John Calvin]], believe that the [[immortality of the soul|soul persists]] as consciousness after death.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Helm |author-link=Paul Helm |year=2006 |title=John Calvin's Ideas |page=129 |quote=The Immortality of the Soul: As we saw when discussing Calvin's Christology, Calvin is a substance dualist.}}</ref> Others, following [[Martin Luther]], believe that the [[mortality of the soul|soul dies with the body]], and is unconscious ("sleeps") until the [[resurrection of the dead]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Anthony |last1=Grafton |author1-link=Anthony Grafton |last2=Most |first2=Glenn W. |author2-link=Glenn W. Most |last3=Settis |first3=Salvatore |author3-link=Salvatore Settis |title=The Classical Tradition |year=2010 |page=480 |quote=On several occasions, Luther mentioned contemptuously that the ''Council Fathers'' had decreed the soul immortal.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Marius |author-link=Richard Marius |title=Martin Luther: The Christian between God and death |year=1999 |page=429 |quote=Luther, believing in soul sleep at death, held here that in the moment of resurrection ... the righteous will rise to meet Christ in the air, the ungodly will remain on earth for judgment, ...}}</ref> ;Adventism: Various [[new religious movement]]s deriving from [[Adventism]] — including [[Christadelphians]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith |url=http://www.christadelphia.org/basf.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140216144622/http://www.christadelphia.org/basf.htm |archive-date=16 February 2014 }}</ref> [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-03 |title=Soul Sleep {{!}} Adventist Review |url=https://adventistreview.org/magazine-article/2009-24/ |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=adventistreview.org |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=beckettj |title=What Is Your Soul, According to the Bible? |url=https://www.adventist.org/death-and-resurrection/what-is-your-soul-according-to-the-bible/ |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=Adventist.org |language=en-US}}</ref> and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]<ref>{{cite periodical |title= Do you have an immortal soul? |date= 15 July 2007 |periodical=[[The Watchtower]] |page=3 |url=http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2007520 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231082848/http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2007520 |archive-date=31 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=What Does the Bible Really Teach? |page=211}}</ref> — similarly believe that the dead do not possess a soul separate from the body and are unconscious until the resurrection. ;Latter-day Saints ('Mormonism'): [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] teaches that the spirit and body together constitute the Soul of Man (Mankind). "The spirit and the body are the soul of man."<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Doctrine and Covenants]] |section=88:15 |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |place=Salt Lake City, UT |section-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Err_Jdbuu84C |via=Google Books |quote=And the spirit and the body is the soul of man.}}</ref> Latter-day Saints believe that the soul is the union of a pre-existing, God-made spirit<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Book of Moses|Moses]] |section=6:51 |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |place=Salt Lake City, UT |section-url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/moses/6.51?lang=eng |access-date= 2016-02-23 |via=churchofjesuschrist.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= Hebrews |section=12:9 |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |place=Salt Lake City, UT |section-url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/nt/heb/12.9?lang=eng |access-date= 2016-02-23 |via=churchofjesuschrist.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Doctrine and Covenants |section=131:7–8 |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |place=Salt Lake City, UT |section-url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/131.7-8?lang=eng |via=churchofjesuschrist.org |quote=Joseph Smith goes so far as to say that these spirits are made of a finer matter that we cannot see in our current state}}</ref> and a temporal body, which is formed by physical conception on earth. After death, the spirit continues to live and progress in the [[Spirit world (Latter Day Saints)|Spirit world]] until the [[resurrection]], when it is reunited with the body that once housed it. This reuniting of body and spirit results in a perfect soul that is immortal, and eternal, and capable of receiving a fulness of joy.<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Book of Mormon]] |chapter=Alma |at=5:15; 11:43–45; 40:23; 41:2 |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |place=Salt Lake City, UT}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Doctrine and Covenants |section=93:33–34 |section-url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/93.33-34?lang=eng |via=churchofjesuschrist.org}}</ref> Latter-day Saint cosmology also describes "intelligences" as the essence of consciousness or agency. These are co-eternal with God, and animate the spirits.<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Doctrine and Covenants]] |section=93:29–30 |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |place=Salt Lake City, UT |section-url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/93.29-30?lang=eng |via=churchofjesuschrist.org}}</ref> The union of a newly-created spirit body with an eternally-existing intelligence constitutes a "spirit birth"{{Citation needed |date= April 2014}} and justifies God's title "Father of our spirits".<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Teachings of Presidents of the Church]] |year=2011 |section=Chapter 37: Joseph F. Smith |pages=331–338 |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |place=Salt Lake City, UT |section-url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/teachings-joseph-f-smith/chapter-37?lang=eng}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Spirit |series=Guide to the Scriptures |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |place=Salt Lake City, UT |url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/gs/spirit?lang=eng |access-date= 2014-04-07 |via=churchofjesuschrist.org }} </ref><ref> {{cite book |title=[[Gospel Principles]] |section=Chapter 41: The Postmortal Spirit World |publisher=[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] |place=Salt Lake City, UT |section-url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-principles/chapter-41-the-postmortal-spirit-world?lang=eng |access-date= 2016-02-23 |via= churchofjesuschrist.org }} </ref> === Confucianism === {{Main|Hun and po}} {{See also|Soul dualism}} Some Confucian traditions contrast a spiritual soul with a corporeal soul.<ref> {{cite book | last1 = Boot | first1 = W.J. | chapter = 3: Spirits, Gods and Heaven in Confucian thought | editor1-last = Huang | editor1-first = Chun-chieh | editor2-last = Tucker | editor2-first = John Allen | title = Dao Companion to Japanese Confucian Philosophy | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-jJwBAAAQBAJ | series = Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy | volume = 5 | location = Dordrecht | publisher = Springer | date = 2014 | page = 83 | isbn = 9789048129218 | access-date = 27 April 2019 | quote = [...] Confucius combines ''qi'' with the divine and the essential, and the corporeal soul with ghosts, opposes the two (as ''yang'' against ''yin'', spiritual soul against corporal soul) and explains that after death the first will rise up, and the second will return to the earth, while the flesh and bones will disintegrate. }} </ref> ===Hinduism=== {{Main|Ātman (Hinduism)|Jiva}} ''Ātman'' is a [[Sanskrit]] word that means inner [[self]] or soul.<ref>'''[a]''' [http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/atman Atman] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223074014/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/atman |date=23 December 2015 }}, Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), '''Quote''': "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul";<br>'''[b]''' John Bowker (2000), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-280094-7}}, See entry for Atman;<br>'''[c]''' WJ Johnson (2009), A Dictionary of Hinduism, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-861025-0}}, See entry for Atman (self).</ref><ref name="davidlorenzenatman">[[David Lorenzen]] (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-21527-7}}, pp. 208–09, '''Quote''': "Advaita and nirguni movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of being (brahman) or to find god within himself".</ref><ref>Chad Meister (2010), The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-534013-6}}, p. 63; '''Quote''': "Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of Atman ("soul") and Brahman, Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu."</ref> In [[Hindu philosophy]], especially in the [[Vedanta]] school of [[Hinduism]], Ātman is the [[first principle]],<ref>Deussen, Paul and Geden, A.S. The Philosophy of the Upanishads. Cosimo Classics (1 June 2010). p. 86. {{ISBN|1-61640-240-7}}.</ref> the ''true'' self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. In order to attain [[Moksha|liberation (moksha)]], a human being must acquire self-knowledge (atma [[jnana]]), which is to realize that one's true self (Ātman) is identical with the transcendent self [[Brahman]] according to [[Advaita Vedanta]].<ref name=davidlorenzenatman/><ref>Richard King (1995), ''Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2513-8}}, p. 64, '''Quote:''' "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman".</ref> The [[Hindu philosophy|six orthodox schools of Hinduism]] believe that there is Ātman (self, essence) in every being.<ref name="4sources">[[K. N. Jayatilleke]] (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0619-1}}, pp. 246–49, from note 385 onwards; Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2217-5}}, p. 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|Shankara's Introduction|page=2}} to ''Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad'', pp. 2–4; Katie Javanaud (2013), [https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana Is The Buddhist ‘No-Self’ Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206211126/https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana |date=6 February 2015 }}, Philosophy Now</ref> In [[Hinduism]] and [[Jainism]], a ''jiva'' ({{lang-sa|जीव}}, {{IAST|jīva}}, alternative spelling ''jiwa''; {{lang-hi|जीव}}, {{IAST|jīv}}, alternative spelling ''jeev'') is a living being, or any entity imbued with a life force.<ref>{{cite book|author=Matthew Hall|title=Plants as Persons: A Philosophical Botany|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SqzkqnETEVYC|year=2011|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-3430-8|page=76}}</ref> The concept of ''jiva'' in Jainism is similar to ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|atman]]'' in Hinduism. However, some Hindu traditions differentiate between the two concepts, with ''jiva'' considered as individual self, while atman as that which is universal unchanging self that is present in all living beings and everything else as the metaphysical [[Brahman]].<ref name="varenne46">{{cite book |author=Jean Varenne |author-link=Jean Varenne |title=Yoga and the Hindu Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=meUWxDDqzuAC&pg=PA46 |year=1989 |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |isbn=978-81-208-0543-9 |pages=45–47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Myers|title=Brahman: A Comparative Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfvaAAAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-83565-0|pages=140–43}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kO8-980xGk8C&dq=hiranyagarba&pg=PA32 |title=''The Philosophy of Person: Solidarity and Cultural Creativity'', Jozef Tischner and George McClean, 1994, p. 32 |isbn=9780819169266 |last1=McLean |first1=George F. |author1-link=George F. McLean |last2=Meynell |first2=Hugo Anthony |author2-link=Hugo Anthony Meynell |year=1988}}</ref> The latter is sometimes referred to as ''jiva-atman'' (a soul in a living body).<ref name=varenne46/> ===Islam=== {{Main|Rūḥ|Nafs}} The [[Quran]], the holy book of [[Islam]], uses two words to refer to the soul: ''[[rūḥ]]'' (translated as spirit, consciousness, pneuma or "soul") and ''[[nafs]]'' (translated as self, ego, psyche or "soul"),<ref name="Talib">{{cite journal |last1 = Deuraseh |first1 = Nurdeen |last2 = Abu Talib |first2 = Mansor |year = 2005 |title = Mental health in Islamic medical tradition |journal = The International Medical Journal |volume = 4 |issue = 2 |pages = 76–79}}</ref><ref name="brag">{{cite journal |last1 = Bragazzi |first1 = NL |last2 = Khabbache |first2 = H |display-authors=etal |year = 2018 |title = Neurotheology of Islam and Higher Consciousness States |url = http://cosmosandhistory.org/index.php/journal/article/viewFile/742/1296 |journal = Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy |volume = 14 |issue = 2 |pages = 315–21}}</ref> cognates of the Hebrew ''ruach'' and ''nefesh''. The two terms are frequently used interchangeably, though ''rūḥ'' is more often used to denote the divine spirit or "the breath of life", while ''nafs'' designates one's disposition or characteristics.<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]] |volume=5 |editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |year=2006 |publisher=Brill |chapter=Soul |author=[[Th. Emil Homerin]]}}</ref> In Islamic philosophy, the immortal rūḥ "drives" the mortal nafs, which comprises temporal desires and perceptions necessary for living.<ref name=":1" /> Several verses of the Quran that mention the rûh occur in chapters 17 ("The Night Journey") and 39 ("The Troops"): {{blockquote|And they ask you, [O Muhammad], about the Rûh. Say, "The Rûh is of the affair of my Lord. And mankind has not been given of knowledge except a little.|[[Quran 17:85]]}} {{blockquote|And remember your Rabb inside your-self |[[Quran 7:206]]}} {{blockquote|Allah takes the souls at the time of their death, and those that do not die [He takes] during their sleep. Then He keeps those for which He has decreed death and releases the others for a specified term. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought..|[[Quran 39:42]]}} ===Jainism=== {{Main|Jīva (Jainism)|Vitalism (Jainism)}} {{Further|Jain philosophy|Jainism and non-creationism}} In Jainism, every living being, from plant or bacterium to human, has a soul and the concept forms the very basis of Jainism. According to Jainism, there is no beginning or end to the existence of soul. It is eternal in nature and changes its form until it attains liberation. In Jainism, ''jiva'' is the immortal essence or soul of a living organism (human, animal, fish or plant etc.) which survives physical death.<ref name=jajinixxii/> The concept of ''Ajiva'' in Jainism means "not soul", and represents matter (including body), time, space, non-motion and motion.<ref name="jajinixxii">{{cite book|author=J Jaini|title=Outlines of Jainism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=54A9AAAAIAAJ|year=1940|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=xxii–xxiii}}</ref> In Jainism, a ''Jiva'' is either ''samsari'' (mundane, caught in cycle of rebirths) or ''mukta'' (liberated).<ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qN82XwAACAAJ|title=Gommatsara Jiva-kanda|first1=Jagmandar-lāl|last1=Jaini|year=1927|page=54}} [https://archive.org/download/sacredbooksofthe029558mbp Alt URL]</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Buddhism and Jainism |date=2017 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-024-0851-5 |editor-last=Sarao |editor-first=K.T.S. |editor-link=K. T. S. Sarao |series=Encyclopedia of Indian Religions |page=594 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-024-0852-2_100397 |editor-last2=Long |editor-first2=Jeffery D. |editor2-link=Jeffery D. Long |chapter=Jiva }}</ref> According to this belief until the time the soul is liberated from the ''[[Saṃsāra (Jainism)|saṃsāra]]'' (cycle of repeated birth and death), it gets attached to one of these bodies based on the [[Karma in Jainism|karma]] (actions) of the individual soul. Irrespective of which state the soul is in, it has got the same attributes and qualities. The difference between the liberated and non-liberated souls is that the qualities and attributes are manifested completely in case of ''[[siddha]]'' (liberated soul) as they have overcome all the karmic bondages whereas in case of non-liberated souls they are partially exhibited. Souls who rise victorious over wicked emotions while still remaining within physical bodies are referred to as [[Arihant (Jainism)|arihants]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Sangave |first=Vilas Adinath |author-link=Vilas Adinath Sangave |title=Aspects of Jaina religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I8RUPwAACAAJ |edition=3 |publisher=Bharatiya Jnanpith |year=2001 |pages=15–16 |isbn=81-263-0626-2}}</ref> Concerning the Jain view of the soul, [[Virchand Gandhi]] said {{blockquote|the soul lives its own life, not for the purpose of the body, but the body lives for the purpose of the soul. If we believe that the soul is to be controlled by the body then soul misses its power.<ref>{{cite web|title=Forgotten Gandhi, Virchand Gandhi (1864–1901) – Advocate of Universal Brotherhood |url=http://www.all-famous-quotes.com/Virchand_Gandhi_quotes.html |publisher=All Famous Quotes |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921112719/http://www.all-famous-quotes.com/Virchand_Gandhi_quotes.html |archive-date=21 September 2013}}</ref>}} ===Judaism=== {{Primary sources section|find=soul|find2=in Judaism|date=October 2019}} The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] terms {{Script/Hebrew|נפש}} ''[[nephesh|nefesh]]'' (literally "living being"), {{Script/Hebrew|רוח}} ''[[ruach]]'' (literally "wind"), {{Script/Hebrew|נשמה}} ''neshamah'' (literally "breath"), {{Script/Hebrew|חיה}} ''chayah'' (literally "life") and {{Script/Hebrew|יחידה}} ''yechidah'' (literally "singularity") are used to describe the soul or spirit.<ref>''Zohar'', ''Rayah Mehemna'', ''Terumah'' 158b. See Leibowitz, Aryeh (2018). ''The Neshamah: A Study of the Human Soul''. Feldheim Publishers. pp. 27, 110. {{ISBN|1-68025-338-7}}</ref> In [[Judaism]], there was originally little to no concept of a soul. As seen in the [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], the divine breath simply animated bodies. {{blockquote|Then Yahweh God formed man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and so the man became a living being. :—[https://biblehub.com/lexicon/genesis/2-7.htm Genesis 2:7]}} Judaism relates the quality of one's soul to one's performance of the commandments (''[[mitzvot]])'' and reaching higher levels of understanding, and thus closeness to God. A person with such closeness is called a ''[[tzadik]]''. Therefore, Judaism embraces the commemoration of the day of one's death, ''[[Yartzeit|nahala]]''/''Yahrtzeit'' and not the [[birthday]]<ref>The only person mentioned in the [[Torah]] celebrating birthday (party) is the wicked [[pharaoh]] of Egypt {{Bibleverse|Genesis|40:20–22|JPS}}.</ref> as a festivity of remembrance, for only toward the end of life's struggles, tests and challenges could human souls be judged and credited for righteousness.<ref name="aish birthday">{{cite web|title=About Jewish Birthdays|url=http://www.aish.com/jl/l/ms/47139952.html|work=Judaism 101|publisher=Aish.com|access-date=11 July 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822100333/http://www.aish.com/jl/l/ms/47139952.html|archive-date=22 August 2013}}</ref> Judaism places great importance on the study of the souls.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13933-soul|title=Soul|publisher=jewishencyclopedia.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308035611/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13933-soul|archive-date=8 March 2016}}</ref> [[Kabbalah]] and other mystic traditions go into greater detail into the nature of the soul. Kabbalah separates the soul into five elements, corresponding to the [[five worlds]]:<ref>{{cite web |title=Nurturing The Human Soul—From Cradle To Grave |url=https://www.chizukshaya.com/2013/01/the-five-levels-of-mans-soul.html |website=Chizuk Shaya: Dvar Torah Resource |access-date=10 June 2022 |date=6 January 2013}}</ref> # [[Nephesh|Nefesh]], related to natural instinct. # [[Ruach]], related to intellect and the awareness of God. # Neshamah, related to emotion and morality. # Chayah, considered a part of God, as it were. # Yechidah. This aspect is essentially one with God. Kabbalah also proposed a concept of reincarnation, the ''[[gilgul]]'' (see also: ''[[nefesh habehamit]]'' – the "animal soul").{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} Some Jewish traditions assert that the soul is housed in the ''[[Luz (bone)|luz]]'' bone, though traditions disagree as to whether it is the [[Atlas (anatomy)|atlas]] at the top of the spine, or the [[sacrum]] at bottom of the spine.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} ===Scientology=== {{Main articles|Thetan}} The [[Scientology]] view is that a person does not have a soul, it is a soul. It is the belief of the religion that they do not have the power to force adherents' conclusions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date= |title=Views on Heaven or Hell, Individuals as Eternal Spiritual Beings: Official Church of Scientology |url=https://www.scientology.org.au/faq/scientology-beliefs/does-scientology-have-doctrines.html |access-date=2022-03-25 |publisher=Official Church of Scientology: What is Scientology? |language=en-AU}}</ref> Therefore, a person is immortal, and may be reincarnated if they wish. Scientologists view that one's future happiness and immortality, as guided by their spirituality, is influenced by how they live and act during their time on earth.<ref name=":0" /> Scientology's term for the soul is "[[thetan]]", derived from the Greek word "theta", symbolizing thought. Scientology counselling (called [[Auditing (Scientology)|auditing]]) addresses the soul to improve abilities, both worldly and spiritual. The ideologies surrounding this understanding align with those of the five major world religions.<ref name=":0" /> ===Shamanism=== {{See also|Soul dualism}} [[File:Manunggul Jar.jpg|thumb|The [[Neolithic]] [[Manunggul Jar|Manunggul burial jar]] from the [[Tabon Caves]], [[Palawan]], [[Philippines]], depicts a soul and a [[psychopomp]] journeying to the spirit world in a boat ({{circa}} 890–710 [[BCE]]).]] [[Soul dualism]] (also called "multiple souls" or "dualistic pluralism") is a common belief in [[Shamanism]],<ref name="Sumegi">{{cite book |last1=Sumegi |first1=Angela |title=Dreamworlds of Shamanism and Tibetan Buddhism: The Third Place |date=2008 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=9780791478264 |page=16 |url=https://www.academia.edu/20048672 }}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Bock">{{cite thesis |last=Bock |first=Nona J.T. |date= 2005|title=Shamanic techniques: their use and effectiveness in the practice of psychotherapy |type=MSc |publisher= University of Wisconsin-Stout |url= http://www2.uwstout.edu/content/lib/thesis/2005/2005bockn.pdf}}</ref><ref name="jackson"/> and is essential in the universal and central concept of "soul flight" (also called "soul journey", "[[out-of-body experience]]", "[[Religious ecstasy|ecstasy]]", or "[[astral projection]]").<ref name="Hoppal2007">{{cite book |last1=Hoppál |first1=Mihály |title=Shamans and Traditions |date=2007 |publisher=[[Akadémiai Kiadó]] |location=Budapest |isbn=978-963-05-8521-7 |pages=17–26}}</ref><ref name="jackson">{{cite book|first1=Ulf|last1=Drobin|editor1-first=Peter|editor1-last=Jackson|title =Horizons of Shamanism|chapter =Introduction|publisher =Stockholm University Press|year =2016|pages=xiv-xvii|isbn =978-91-7635-024-9|url =https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/32054/619233.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref><ref name="Winkelman2"/><ref name="Winkelman"/><ref name=Hop-Nat/> It is the belief that humans have two or more souls, generally termed the "body soul" (or "life soul") and the "free soul". The former is linked to bodily functions and awareness when awake, while the latter can freely wander during sleep or trance states.<ref name="Bock"/><ref name="Winkelman2">{{cite book|first1=Michael James|last1=Winkelman|editor1-first=Kasumi-Clements|editor1-last=Niki |title =Religion: Mental Religion|chapter =Shamanism and the Brain|publisher =Macmillan Reference USA|year =2016|pages=355–372|isbn =9780028663609|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323547873}}</ref><ref name="Winkelman">{{cite journal |last1=Winkelman |first1=Michael |title=Shamanic universals and evolutionary psychology |journal=Journal of Ritual Studies |date=2002 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=63–76 |jstor=44364143 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44364143}}</ref><ref name=Hop-Nat>{{cite web |last=Hoppál |first=Mihály |url=http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm |title=Nature worship in Siberian shamanism}}</ref><ref name=EncBr-GrBas>{{cite encyclopedia |entry=Great Basin Indian |year=2007 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=March 28, 2007 |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-57681 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In some cases, there are a plethora of soul types with different functions.<ref name="Merkur"/><ref name=Kul-ConSl>{{cite web |url=http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hing.htm |title=Conceptions of soul in old-Estonian religion |volume=4 |last=Kulmar |first=Tarmo |author-link=:et:Tarmo Kulmar}}</ref> Soul dualism and multiple souls are prominent in the traditional animistic beliefs of the [[Austronesian peoples]],<ref name="tan">{{cite book |first=Michael L. |last=Tan |title=Revisiting Usog, Pasma, Kulam |publisher=University of the Philippines Press |year=2008 |isbn=9789715425704 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EktzHrfup1UC}}</ref><ref name="sather2018">{{cite book |author=Clifford Sather |editor=James J. Fox |title=Expressions of Austronesian Thought and Emotions |chapter=A work of love: Awareness and expressions of emotion in a Borneo healing ritual |publisher=ANU Press |year =2018 |pages=57–63 |isbn=9781760461928 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wAxfDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> the [[Hun and po|Chinese]] people ([[Hun and po|''hún'' and ''pò'']]),<ref name="Harrell">{{cite journal |last1=Harrell |first1=Stevan |title=The Concept of Soul in Chinese Folk Religion |journal=[[The Journal of Asian Studies]] |date=1979 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=519–528 |doi=10.2307/2053785|jstor=2053785 |s2cid=162507447 |doi-access=free }}</ref> the [[Tibetan people]],<ref name="Sumegi"/> most [[Ethnic groups of Africa|African]] peoples,<ref name="McClelland"/> most [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas#North America|Native North Americans]],<ref name="McClelland">{{cite book |last1=McClelland |first1=Norman C. |title=Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma |date=2010 |publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc. |isbn=978-0-7864-4851-7 |pages=251, 258}}</ref><ref name="Merkur">{{cite book |last1=Merkur |first1=Daniel |title=Becoming Half Hidden / Shamanism and Initiation among the Inuit |date=1985 |publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell |location=Stockholm |isbn=91-22-00752-0 |pages=61, 222–223, 226, 240}}</ref> ancient [[South Asia]]n peoples,<ref name="jackson"/> Northern [[Eurasia]]n peoples,<ref name=Hop-Nat/><ref name="Hoppál">{{cite book |last1=Hoppál |first1=Mihály |title=Sámánok. Lelkek és jelképek ["Shamans / Souls and symbols"] |date=1994 |publisher=Helikon Kiadó |location=Budapest |isbn=963-208-298-2 |page=225}}</ref> and in [[Ancient Egyptians]] (the [[Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul|''ka'' and ''ba'']]).<ref name="McClelland"/> The belief in soul dualism is found throughout most [[Austronesian people|Austronesian]] [[shamanistic]] traditions. The reconstructed [[Proto-Austronesian]] word for the "body soul" is ''*nawa'' ("breath", "life", or "vital spirit"). It is located somewhere in the [[abdominal cavity]], often in the [[liver]] or the [[heart]] (Proto-Austronesian ''*qaCay'').<ref name="tan"/><ref name="sather2018"/> The "free soul" is located in the head. Its names are usually derived from Proto-Austronesian ''*qaNiCu'' ("ghost", "spirit [of the dead]"), which also apply to other non-human nature spirits. The "free soul" is also referred to in names that literally mean "twin" or "double", from Proto-Austronesian ''*duSa'' ("two").<ref name="yu2000">{{cite book |first=Jose Vidamor B. |last=Yu |title=Inculturation of Filipino-Chinese Culture Mentality |volume=3 |publisher=Editrice Pontifica Universita Gregoriana |series=Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations |year =2000 |pages=148–149 |isbn=9788876528484 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c4WqAOKb5c8C}}</ref><ref name="duSa">{{cite encyclopedia |author1=Robert Blust |author1-link=Robert Blust |author2=Stephen Trussel |dictionary=Austronesian Comparative Dictionary |entry=*du |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-s_d.htm#30339 |access-date=7 July 2018}}</ref> A virtuous person is said to be one whose souls are in harmony with each other, while an evil person is one whose souls are in conflict.<ref name="mercado1991">{{cite journal |author=Leonardo N. Mercado |year=1991 |title=Soul and Spirit in Filipino Thought |journal=Philippine Studies |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=287–302 |jstor=42633258}}</ref> The "free soul" is said to leave the body and journey to the [[Spirit world (spiritualism)|spirit world]] during sleep, [[trance|trance-like states]], [[delirium]], [[insanity]], and death. The duality is also seen in the healing traditions of Austronesian shamans, where illnesses are regarded as a "[[soul loss]]" and thus to heal the sick, one must "return" the "free soul" (which may have been stolen by an evil spirit or got lost in the spirit world) into the body. If the "free soul" can not be returned, the afflicted person dies or goes permanently insane.<ref name="salazar">{{cite journal |author=Zeus A. Salazar |author-link=Zeus A. Salazar |year=2007 |title=Faith healing in the Philippines: An historical perspective |journal=Asian Studies |volume=43 |issue=2v |pages=1–15 |url=http://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-43-02-2007/Faith%20Healing%20in%20the%20Philippines%20Zeus%20Salazar.pdf}}</ref> In some ethnic groups, there can also be more than two souls. Like among the [[Tagbanwa people]], where a person is said to have six souls – the "free soul" (which is regarded as the "true" soul) and five secondary souls with various functions.<ref name="tan"/> Several [[Inuit]] groups believe that a person has more than one type of soul. One is associated with respiration, the other can accompany the body as a shadow.{{sfn|Kleivan|Sonne|1985|pp=17–18}} In some cases, it is connected to [[Inuit religion|shamanistic beliefs among the various Inuit groups]].<ref name="Merkur"/> Also [[Caribou Inuit]] groups believed in several types of souls.{{sfn|Gabus|1970|p=211}} The [[shaman]] heals within the spiritual dimension by returning 'lost' parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. The shaman also cleanses excess negative energies, which confuse or pollute the soul. === Shinto === {{expand section|date=September 2021}} [[Shinto]] distinguishes between the souls of living persons (''tamashii'') and those of dead persons (''[[mitama]]''), each of which may have different aspects or sub-souls. ===Sikhism=== [[Sikhism]] considers soul (''atma'') to be part of [[God in Sikhism|God]] ([[Waheguru]]). Various hymns are cited from the holy book [[Guru Granth Sahib]] (SGGS) that suggests this belief. "God is in the Soul and the Soul is in the God."<ref>SGGS, M 1, p. 1153.</ref> The same concept is repeated at various pages of the SGGS. For example: "The soul is divine; divine is the soul. Worship Him with love."<ref>SGGS, M 4, p. 1325.</ref> and "The soul is the Lord, and the Lord is the soul; contemplating the Shabad, the Lord is found."<ref>SGGS, M 1, p. 1030.</ref> The ''atma'' or soul according to Sikhism is an entity or "spiritual spark" or "light" in the human body - because of which the body can sustain life. On the departure of this entity from the body, the body becomes lifeless – no amount of manipulations to the body can make the person make any physical actions. The soul is the "driver" in the body. It is the ''roohu'' or spirit or ''atma'', the presence of which makes the physical body alive. Many{{quantify|date=September 2021}} religious and philosophical traditions support the view that the soul is the ethereal substance – a spirit; a non-material spark – particular to a unique living being. Such traditions often consider the soul both immortal and innately aware of its immortal nature, as well as the true basis for sentience in each living being. The concept of the soul has strong links with notions of an afterlife, but opinions may vary wildly even within a given religion as to what happens to the soul after death. Many within these religions and philosophies see the soul as immaterial, while others consider it possibly material. ===Taoism=== According to Chinese traditions, every person has two types of soul called [[hun and po]] (魂 and 魄), which are respectively [[yin and yang|yang and yin]]. [[Taoism]] believes in ten souls, ''sanhunqipo'' ([[:zh:三魂七魄|三魂七魄]]) "three ''hun'' and seven ''po''".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.deathreference.com/Ce-Da/Chinese-Beliefs.html |title=Encyclopedia of Death and Dying (2008) |publisher=deathreference.com |access-date=13 November 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105103959/http://www.deathreference.com/Ce-Da/Chinese-Beliefs.html |archive-date=5 November 2011}}</ref> A living being that loses any of them is said to have mental illness or [[unconsciousness]], while a dead soul may [[reincarnate]] to a [[disability]], lower [[desire realm]]s, or may even be unable to reincarnate. ===Zoroastrianism=== {{Main|Zoroastrianism}} ===Other religious beliefs and views=== [[File:Charun dead souls Cdm Paris 2783.jpg|thumb|[[Charon (mythology)|Charon]] (Greek) who guides dead souls to the Underworld. 4th century BCE.]] <!-- {{Main|Salvation|Soul sleep}} No, [[Salvation]] and [[Soul sleep]] are not the "main articles" for "Life and death", as this former article section has been called. Any connections between these terms should be made explicit in the text. At the very least, [[Template:Seealso]] would be more appropriate than [[Template:Main]]. --> In theological reference to the soul, the terms "life" and "death" are viewed as emphatically more definitive than the common concepts of "[[life|biological life]]" and "biological death". Because the soul is said to be transcendent of the ''[[matter|material]] existence,'' and is said to have (potentially) [[immortality|eternal life]], the death of the soul is likewise said to be an ''eternal death''. Thus, in the concept of [[divine judgment]], God is commonly said to have options with regard to the dispensation of souls, ranging from [[Heaven]] (i.e., [[angel]]s) to [[hell]] (i.e., [[demon]]s), with various concepts in between. Typically both Heaven and hell are said to be eternal, or at least far beyond a typical human concept of [[life expectancy|lifespan]] and time. According to [[Louis Ginzberg]], the soul of [[Adam]] is the image of [[God]].<ref>[[Louis Ginzberg|Ginzberg, Louis]] (1909). ''[[Legends of the Jews|The Legends of the Jews]] [https://philologos.org/__eb-lotj/vol1/two.htm#4 Vol I, Chapter II: Adam] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201063745/https://philologos.org/__eb-lotj/vol1/two.htm |date=1 December 2017 }}'' (Translated by Henrietta Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society. <br>Citation: ''God had fashioned his (Adam's) soul with particular care. She is the image of God, and as God fills the world, so the soul fills the human body; as God sees all things, and is seen by none, so the soul sees, but cannot be seen; as God guides the world, so the soul guides the body; as God in His holiness is pure, so is the soul; and as God dwells in secret, so doth the soul''.</ref> Every soul of human also escapes from the body every night, rises up to heaven, and fetches new life thence for the body of man.<ref>[[Louis Ginzberg|Ginzberg, Louis]] (1909). ''[[Legends of the Jews|The Legends of the Jews]] [https://philologos.org/__eb-lotj/vol1/two.htm#4 Vol I, Chapter II: The Soul of Man] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201063745/https://philologos.org/__eb-lotj/vol1/two.htm |date=1 December 2017 }}'' (Translated by Henrietta Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.</ref> ===Spirituality, New Age, and new religions=== ====Brahma Kumaris==== In [[Brahma Kumaris]], human souls are believed to be incorporeal and [[eternity|eternal]]. God is considered to be the Supreme Soul, with maximum degrees of spiritual qualities, such as peace, love and purity.<ref name="Ramsay_Possession">{{cite thesis | last = Ramsay | first = Tamasin | author-link=Tamasin Ramsay |date=Sep 2010 | title = Custodians of Purity An Ethnography of the Brahma Kumaris | url=https://bridges.monash.edu/articles/thesis/Custodians_of_purity_an_ethnography_of_the_Brahma_Kumaris/4546132 | publisher= Monash University | page=105 }}</ref> ====Theosophy==== In [[Helena Blavatsky]]'s [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]], the soul is the field of our psychological activity (thinking, emotions, memory, desires, will, and so on) as well as of the so-called paranormal or [[psychic]] phenomena (extrasensory perception, out-of-body experiences, etc.). However, the soul is not the highest, but a middle dimension of human beings. Higher than the soul is the spirit, which is considered to be the real self; the source of everything we call "good"—happiness, wisdom, love, compassion, harmony, peace, etc. While the spirit is eternal and incorruptible, the soul is not. The soul acts as a link between the material body and the spiritual self, and therefore shares some characteristics of both. The soul can be attracted either towards the spiritual or towards the material realm, being thus the "battlefield" of good and evil. It is only when the soul is attracted towards the spiritual and merges with the Self that it becomes eternal and divine. ====Anthroposophy==== [[Rudolf Steiner]] claimed classical [[trichotomy (philosophy)|trichotomic]] stages of soul development, which interpenetrated one another in consciousness:<ref>{{cite book|translator-last=Creeger|translator-first=Catherine E.|first=Rudolf|last=Steiner|title=Theosophy: an introduction to the spiritual processes in human life and in the cosmos|url=https://archive.org/details/theosophyintrodu00stei|url-access=limited|year=1994|publisher=Anthroposophic Press|location=Hudson, NY|isbn=978-0-88010-373-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/theosophyintrodu00stei/page/n74 42]–46|edition=3rd}}</ref> * The "sentient soul", centering on sensations, drives, and passions, with strong [[conatus|conative]] (will) and emotional components; * The "intellectual" or "mind soul", internalizing and reflecting on outer experience, with strong affective (feeling) and cognitive (thinking) components; and * The "consciousness soul", in search of universal, objective truths. ====Miscellaneous==== In [[Surat Shabd Yoga|Surat Shabda Yoga]], the soul is considered to be an exact replica and spark of the Divine. The purpose of Surat Shabd Yoga is to realize one's True Self as soul (Self-Realisation), True Essence (Spirit-Realisation) and True Divinity (God-Realisation) while living in the physical body. Similarly, the spiritual teacher [[Meher Baba]] held that "Atma, or the soul, is in reality identical with Paramatma the Oversoul – which is one, infinite, and eternal...[and] [t]he sole purpose of creation is for the soul to enjoy the infinite state of the Oversoul consciously."<ref>[[Meher Baba|Baba, Meher]]. (1987). ''Discourses''. Myrtle Beach, SC: Sheriar Press. p. 222. {{ISBN|978-1-880619-09-4}}.</ref> [[Eckankar]], founded by [[Paul Twitchell]] in 1965, defines Soul as the true self; the inner, most sacred part of each person.<ref>Klemp, H. (2009). The call of soul. Minneapolis, MN: Eckankar</ref> [[George Gurdjieff|G.I. Gurdjieff]] taught that humans are not born with immortal souls but could develop them through certain efforts.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gurdjieff |first=George Ivanovitch |author-link=George Gurdjieff |title=Life is real only then, when 'I am'|date=25 February 1999|isbn=978-0-14-019585-9|location=London|publisher=Arkana|oclc=41073474}}</ref> ==Philosophical views== Greek philosophers, such as [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], and [[Aristotle]], understood that the soul (ψυχή ''[[wikt:ψυχή#Ancient Greek|psykhḗ]]'') must have a logical faculty, the exercise of which was the most divine of human actions. At his defense trial, Socrates even summarized his teachings as nothing other than an exhortation for his fellow Athenians to excel in matters of the psyche since all bodily goods are dependent on such excellence (''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'' 30a–b). Aristotle reasoned that a man's body and soul were his matter and form respectively: the body is a collection of elements and the soul is the essence. Soul or [[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]] ([[Ancient Greek]]: ψυχή ''psykhḗ'', of ψύχειν ''psýkhein'', "to breathe", cf. [[Latin]] 'anima') comprises the mental abilities of a living being: reason, character, [[free will]], feeling, [[consciousness]], [[qualia]], memory, perception, thinking, etc. Depending on the philosophical system, a soul can either be [[Mortality of the soul|mortal]] or [[immortality of the soul|immortal]].<ref>{{Cite OED|Soul (noun)|id=185083|access-date=1 December 2016}}</ref> The [[ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] used the word "[[Ensoulment|ensouled]]" to represent the concept of being "alive", indicating that the earliest surviving [[western philosophy|western philosophical]] view believed that the soul was that which gave the body life.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2009/entries/ancient-soul/|title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last=Lorenz|first=Hendrik|chapter=Ancient Theories of Soul |date=2009|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Summer 2009}}</ref> The soul was considered the incorporeal or spiritual "breath" that animates (from the Latin, ''[[:wikt:anima|anima]]'', cf. "animal") the living organism. [[F. M. Cornford|Francis M. Cornford]] quotes [[Pindar]] by saying that the soul sleeps while the limbs are active, but when one is sleeping, the soul is active and reveals "an award of joy or sorrow drawing near" in dreams.<ref>[[F. M. Cornford|Francis M. Cornford]], ''Greek Religious Thought'', p. 64, referring to Pindar, Fragment 131.</ref> [[Erwin Rohde]] writes that an early pre-[[Pythagoreanism|Pythagorean]] belief presented the soul as lifeless when it departed the body, and that it retired into [[Hades]] with no hope of returning to a body.<ref>[[Erwin Rohde]], ''Psyche'', 1928.</ref> Plato was the first thinker in antiquity to combine the various functions of the soul into one coherent conception: the soul is that which moves things (i.e., that which gives life, on the view that life is self-motion) by means of its thoughts, requiring that it be both a mover and a thinker.<ref name="Campbell, Douglas 2021">Campbell, Douglas (2021). "Self‐Motion and Cognition: Plato's Theory of the Soul". ''The Southern Journal of Philosophy''. '''59''': 523–544.</ref> ===Socrates and Plato<!--Linked from 'Emanationism'-->=== [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Plato]] (left) and [[Aristotle]] (right), a detail of ''[[The School of Athens]]'', a [[fresco]] by [[Raphael]]]] {{Main|Plato's tripartite theory of soul}} Drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, Plato considered the psyche to be the [[essence]] of a person, being that which decides how we behave. He considered this essence to be an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our being. Plato said that even after death, the soul exists and is able to think. He believed that as bodies die, the soul is continually reborn ([[metempsychosis]]) in subsequent bodies. However, Aristotle believed that only one part of the soul was immortal, namely the intellect (''[[Logos#Ancient Greek philosophy|logos]]''). The Platonic soul consists of three parts:<ref>{{cite book|title = The Gift of Logos: Essays in Continental Philosophy|last = Jones|first = David|publisher = Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year = 2009|isbn = 978-1-4438-1825-4|pages = 33–35|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1RgaBwAAQBAJ&q=plato+soul+logos&pg=PA34|access-date = 2016-02-23}}</ref> # the ''logos'', or ''logistikon'' (mind, [[nous]], or [[reason]]) # the ''[[Thumos|thymos]]'', or ''thumetikon'' ([[emotion]], spiritedness, or masculine) # the ''[[Eros (concept)|eros]]'', or ''epithumetikon'' (appetitive, [[motivation|desire]], or feminine) The parts are located in different regions of the body: # ''logos'' is located in the head, is related to reason and regulates the other part. # ''thymos'' is located near the chest region and is related to anger. # ''eros'' is located in the stomach and is related to one's desires. Plato also compares the three parts of the soul or psyche to a societal [[Plato's tripartite theory of soul|caste system]]. According to Plato's theory, the three-part soul is essentially the same thing as a state's class system because, to function well, each part must contribute so that the whole functions well. Logos keeps the other functions of the soul regulated. The soul is at the heart of Plato's philosophy. Francis Cornford described the twin pillars of Platonism as being the theory of the Forms, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the doctrine of the immortality of the soul.<ref>[[F. M. Cornford|Cornford, Francis]] (1941). ''The Republic of Plato''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. xxv.</ref> Indeed, Plato was the first person in the history of philosophy to believe that the soul was both the source of life and the mind. In Plato's dialogues, we find the soul playing many disparate roles.<ref>Campbell, Douglas (2021). "Self‐Motion and Cognition: Plato's Theory of the Soul". ''The Southern Journal of Philosophy''. '''59''': 523–544</ref> Among other things, Plato believes that the soul is what gives life to the body (which was articulated most of all in the ''Laws'' and ''Phaedrus'') in terms of self-motion: to be alive is to be capable of moving yourself; the soul is a self-mover. He also thinks that the soul is the bearer of moral properties (i.e., when I am virtuous, it is my soul that is virtuous as opposed to, say, my body). The soul is also the mind: it is that which thinks in us. We see this casual oscillation between different roles of the soul in many dialogues. First of all, in the ''Republic'':<blockquote>Is there any function of the soul that you could not accomplish with anything else, such as taking care of something (''epimeleisthai''), ruling, and deliberating, and other such things? Could we correctly assign these things to anything besides the soul, and say that they are characteristic (''idia'') of it? No, to nothing else. What about living? Will we deny that this is a function of the soul? That absolutely is.<ref>Plato, ''Republic,'' Book 1, 353d. Translation found in Campbell 2021: 523.</ref></blockquote>The ''Phaedo'' most famously caused problems to scholars who were trying to make sense of this aspect of Plato's theory of the soul, such as Sarah Broadie<ref>[[Sarah Broadie|Broadie, Sarah]]. 2001. “Soul and Body in Plato and Descartes.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 101: 295–308.</ref> and Dorothea Frede.<ref>Frede, Dorothea. 1978. "The Final Proof of the Immortality of the Soul in Plato’s Phaedo 102a–107a". ''Phronesis'', 23.1: 27–41.</ref> More-recent scholarship has overturned this accusation by arguing that part of the novelty of Plato's theory of the soul is that it was the first to unite the different features and powers of the soul that became commonplace in later ancient and medieval philosophy.<ref name="Campbell, Douglas 2021"/> For Plato, the soul moves things by means of its thoughts, as one scholar puts it, and accordingly, the soul is both a mover (i.e., the principle of life, where life is conceived of as ''self-motion'') and a thinker.<ref name="Campbell, Douglas 2021"/> ===Aristotle=== [[File:Aristotelian Soul.png|thumb|upright=1.5|The structure of the souls of plants, animals, and humans, according to [[Aristotle]], with ''Bios'', ''Zoê'', and ''Psūchê'']] {{further|Aristotle's biology}} Aristotle (384–322 BCE) defined the soul, or ''Psūchê'' (ψυχή), as the "[[first actuality]]" of a naturally organized body,<ref>{{cite book|last=Aristotle|title=On The Soul|page=412b5}}</ref> and argued against its separate existence from the physical body. In Aristotle's view, the primary activity, or full actualization, of a living thing constitutes its soul. For example, the full actualization of an eye, as an independent organism, is to see (its purpose or [[final cause]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=Physics |at=Book VIII, Chapter 5, pp. 256a5–22}}</ref> Another example is that the full actualization of a human being would be living a fully functional human life in accordance with reason (which he considered to be a faculty unique to humanity).<ref>{{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=Nicomachean Ethics |at=Book I, Chapter 7, pp. 1098a7–17}}</ref> For Aristotle, the soul is the organization of the form and matter of a natural being which allows it to strive for its full actualization. This organization between form and matter is necessary for any activity, or functionality, to be possible in a natural being. Using an artifact (non-natural being) as an example, a house is a building for human habituation, but for a house to be actualized requires the material (wood, nails, bricks, etc.) necessary for its actuality (i.e. being a fully functional house). However, this does not imply that a house has a soul. In regards to artifacts, the source of motion that is required for their full actualization is outside of themselves (for example, a builder builds a house). In natural beings, this source of motion is contained within the being itself.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=Physics |at=Book III, Chapter 1, pp. 201a10–25}}</ref> Aristotle elaborates on this point when he addresses the faculties of the soul. The various [[faculties of the soul]], such as nutrition, movement (peculiar to animals), reason (peculiar to humans), sensation (special, common, and incidental) and so forth, when exercised, constitute the "second" actuality, or fulfillment, of the capacity to be alive. For example, someone who falls asleep, as opposed to someone who falls dead, can wake up and live their life, while the latter can no longer do so. Aristotle identified three hierarchical levels of natural beings: plants, animals, and people, having three different degrees of soul: ''Bios'' (life), ''Zoë'' (animate life), and ''Psuchë'' (self-conscious life). For these groups, he identified three corresponding levels of soul, or biological activity: the nutritive activity of growth, sustenance and reproduction which all life shares (''Bios''); the self-willed motive activity and sensory faculties, which only animals and people have in common (''Zoë''); and finally "reason", of which people alone are capable (''Pseuchë''). Aristotle's discussion of the soul is in his work, ''De Anima'' (''[[On the Soul]]''). Although mostly seen as opposing Plato in regard to the immortality of the soul, a controversy can be found in relation to the fifth chapter of the third book: in this text both interpretations can be argued for, soul as a whole can be deemed mortal, and a part called "active intellect" or "active mind" is immortal and eternal.<ref>{{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=On The Soul |at=Book III, Chapter 5, pp. 430a24–25}}</ref> Advocates exist for both sides of the controversy, but it has been understood that there will be permanent disagreement about its final conclusions, as no other [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] text contains this specific point, and this part of ''De Anima'' is obscure.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/active-mind.html |title=Aristotle's Psychology |chapter=supplement: The Active Mind of De Anima iii 5) |access-date=2013-12-12 |last=Shields |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Shields |year=2011 |publisher=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> Further, Aristotle states that the soul helps humans find the truth, and understanding the true purpose or role of the soul is extremely difficult.<ref>{{cite book |title=Introduction to Aristotle |last=Smith |first=J. S. (Trans) |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1973 |location=Chicago |pages=155–59}}</ref> ===Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis=== Following Aristotle, [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina) and [[Ibn al-Nafis]], an Arab physician, further elaborated upon the Aristotelian understanding of the soul and developed their own theories on the soul. They both made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and the [[Avicennism|Avicennian]] doctrine on the nature of the soul was influential among the [[Scholasticism|Scholastics]]. Some of Avicenna's views on the soul include the idea that the immortality of the soul is a consequence of its nature, and not a purpose for it to fulfill. In his theory of "The Ten Intellects", he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final [[intelligence|intellect]].<ref>Nahyan A.G. Fancy (2006), [http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615 "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615/ |date=4 April 2015 }}, pp. 209–10 (''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]]).</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Arabic and Islamic Psychology and Philosophy of Mind |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-mind/#Avi |publisher=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |date=29 May 2012}}</ref> While he was imprisoned, Avicenna wrote his famous "[[Floating man]]" [[thought experiment]] to demonstrate human [[self-awareness]] and the substantial nature of the soul.{{CN|date=January 2024}} He told his readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no [[sense|sensory]] contact with even their own bodies. He argues that in this scenario one would still have [[self-consciousness]]. He thus concludes that the idea of the [[self (philosophy)|self]] is not logically dependent on any physical [[object (philosophy)|thing]], and that the soul should not be seen in [[relative term]]s, but as a primary given, a [[substance theory|substance]]. This argument was later refined and simplified by [[René Descartes]] in [[epistemology|epistemic]] terms, when he stated: "I can abstract from the supposition of all external things, but not from the supposition of my own consciousness."<ref>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] and [[Oliver Leaman]] (1996), ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', p. 315, [[Routledge]], {{ISBN|0-415-13159-6}}.</ref> Avicenna generally supported Aristotle's idea of the soul originating from the [[heart]], whereas Ibn al-Nafis rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few [[organ (anatomy)|organs]]". He further criticized Aristotle's idea whereby every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul," and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying "[[I (pronoun)|I]]".<ref>{{cite thesis |author=Nahyan A.G. Fancy |year=2006 |title=Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288) |pages=209–210 |work=Electronic Theses and Dissertations, [[University of Notre Dame]]|url=http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615/ |archive-date=4 April 2015|publisher=University of Notre Dame}}</ref> ===Thomas Aquinas=== Following Aristotle (whom he referred to as "the Philosopher") and Avicenna, [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–74) understood the soul to be the first actuality of the living body. Consequent to this, he distinguished three orders of life: plants, which feed and grow; animals, which add sensation to the operations of plants; and humans, which add intellect to the operations of animals. Concerning the human soul, his epistemological theory required that, since the knower becomes what he knows, the soul is definitely not corporeal—if it is corporeal when it knows what some corporeal thing is, that thing would come to be within it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Aquinas|first=Thomas|title=Quaestiones Disputatae de Veritate|url=http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/qdv02.html#51826|language=la|access-date=2016-02-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023626/http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/qdv02.html#51826|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> Therefore, the soul has an operation which does not rely on a body organ, and therefore the soul can exist without a body. Furthermore, since the rational soul of human beings is a subsistent form and not something made of matter and form, it cannot be destroyed in any natural process.<ref>{{cite web|last=Aquinas|first=Thomas|title=Super Boetium De Trinitate|url=http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/cbt.html#84681|language=la|access-date=2016-02-23|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304110654/http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/cbt.html#84681|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The full argument for the [[immortality of the soul]] and Aquinas' elaboration of Aristotelian theory is found in Question 75 of the First Part of the [[Summa Theologica]]. Aquinas affirmed in the doctrine of the divine effusion of the soul, the [[particular judgement]] of the soul after the separation from a dead body, and the final [[Resurrection of the flesh]]. He recalled two canons of the 4th-century ''[[Gennadius of Massilia#De Ecclesiasticis Dogmatibus|De Ecclesiasticis Dogmatibus]]'' for which "the rational soul is not engendered by coition" (canon XIV)<ref>Cited in {{cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/summa/1118.htm#article2|title=Summa Th. 1:118:2, Objection 4}}</ref> and "is one and the same soul in man, that both gives life to the body by being united to it, and orders itself by its own reasoning."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.newadvent.org/summa/1076.htm#article2|title=Summa Theologiae of St Thomas Aquinas - Pars I - Quaestio 76 - Article 3. Whether besides the intellectual soul there are in man other souls essentially different from one another?|translator-last1=Fathers of the English Dominican Province|year=1920}} Full citation of the canon: ''Nor do we say that there are two souls in one man, as James and other Syrians write; one, animal, by which the body is animated, and which is mingled with the blood; the other, spiritual, which obeys the reason; but we say that it is one and the same soul in man, that both gives life to the body by being united to it, and orders itself by its own reasoning.''</ref> Moreover, he believed in a unique and tripartite soul, within which are distinctively present a nutritive, a sensitive and intellectual soul. The latter is created by God and is taken solely by human beings, includes the other two types of soul and makes the sensitive soul incorruptible.<ref>''Summa th. '', Pars I, Quaestion 76, Article 3, Reply to Objection 1.</ref> ===Immanuel Kant=== In his discussions of rational psychology, [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804) identified the soul as the "I" in the strictest sense, and argued that the existence of inner experience can neither be proved nor disproved. {{blockquote|We cannot prove a priori the immateriality of the soul, but rather only so much: that all properties and actions of the soul cannot be recognized from materiality.}} It is from the "I", or soul, that Kant proposes transcendental rationalization, but cautions that such rationalization can only determine the limits of knowledge if it is to remain practical.<ref> Immanuel Kant proposed the existence of certain mathematical truths (2+2 = 4)m that are not tied to matter, or soul. {{cite book | last = Bishop | first = Paul | title = Synchronicity and Intellectual Intuition in Kant, Swedenborg, and Jung | publisher = [[Edwin Mellen Press]] | year = 2000 | location = [[Lewiston, New York]] | pages = 262–67 | isbn = 978-0-7734-7593-9}}</ref> ===Philosophy of mind=== {{Main|Philosophy of mind}} [[Gilbert Ryle]]'s [[ghost in the machine]] argument, which is a rejection of Descartes's [[mind–body dualism]], can provide a contemporary understanding of the soul/mind, and the problem concerning its connection to the brain/body.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ryle|first=Gilbert|title=The Concept of Mind|year=1949|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref> ===Psychology=== Soul belief prominently figures in [[Otto Rank]]'s work recovering the importance of immortality in the psychology of primitive, classical and modern interest in life and death. Rank's work directly opposed the "scientific" psychology that concedes the possibility of the soul's existence and postulates it as an object of research without really admitting that it exists. "Just as religion represents a psychological commentary on the social evolution of man, various psychologies represent our current attitudes toward spiritual belief. In the animistic era, psychologizing was a ''creating'' of the soul; in the religious era, it was a ''representing'' of the soul to one's self; in our era of natural science it is a ''knowing'' of the individual soul." <ref name="Psychology and the Soul">{{cite book |last=Rank |first=Otto |title=Psychology and the Soul: Otto Rank's Seelenglaube und Psychologie |translator-first=William D.|translator-last=Turner |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1950 |page=11 |oclc=928087}}</ref> Rank's "Seelenglaube" translates to "Soul Belief". Rank's work had a significant influence on [[Ernest Becker]]'s understanding of a universal interest in immortality. In [[Denial of Death]], Becker describes "soul" in terms of [[Kierkegaard]]'s use of "self" when he says, "what we call schizophrenia is an attempt by the symbolic self to deny the limitations of the finite body."<ref>*{{cite book|last=Becker|first=Ernest|title=The Denial of Death|location=New York|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=1973|isbn=0-684-83240-2|url=https://archive.org/details/denialofdeathbeckrich | page=76}}</ref> {{Poemquote |text=† Kierkegaard's use of "self" may be a bit confusing. He uses it to include the symbolic self and the physical body. It is a synonym really for "total personality" that goes beyond the person to include what we would now call the "soul" or the "ground of being" out of which the created person sprang.}} ==Science== According to Julien Musolino, the scientific consensus holds that the mind is a complex machine that operates on the same physical laws as all other objects in the universe.<ref name="Musolino2015">{{cite book|last=Musolino|first=Julien|date=2015|title=The Soul Fallacy: What Science Shows We Gain from Letting Go of Our Soul Beliefs|location=Amherst, New York|publisher=Prometheus Books|isbn=978-1-61614-962-8|pages=21–38}}</ref> According to Musolino, there is currently no scientific evidence whatsoever to support the existence of soul.<ref name="Musolino2015"/> The search for the soul is seen to have been instrumental in driving the understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the human body, particularly in the fields of cardiovascular and neurology.<ref name="Santoro">{{cite journal |last1=Santoro |first1=G |last2=Wood |first2=MD |last3=Merlo |first3=L |last4=Anastasi |first4=GP |last5=Tomasello |first5=F |last6=Germanò |first6=A |title=The anatomic location of the soul from the heart, through the brain, to the whole body, and beyond: a journey through Western history, science, and philosophy. |journal=Neurosurgery |date=October 2009 |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=633–43; discussion 643 |doi=10.1227/01.NEU.0000349750.22332.6A |pmid=19834368|s2cid=27566267 }}</ref> In the two dominant conflicting concepts of the soul – one seeing it to be spiritual and immortal, and the other seeing it to be material and mortal, both have described the soul as being located in a particular organ or as pervading the whole body.<ref name="Santoro"/> ===Neuroscience=== [[Neuroscience]] as an [[interdisciplinary]] field, and its branch of [[cognitive neuroscience]] particularly, operates under the [[ontology|ontological]] assumption of [[physicalism]]. In other words, it assumes that only the fundamental phenomena studied by [[physics]] exist. Thus, neuroscience seeks to understand mental phenomena within the framework according to which human [[thought]] and [[behavior]] are caused solely by physical processes taking place inside the brain, and it operates by the way of [[reductionism]] by seeking an explanation for the mind in terms of brain activity.<ref>[[O. Carter Snead]]. "[https://www.brookings.edu/research/cognitive-neuroscience-and-the-future-of-punishment/ Cognitive Neuroscience and the Future of Punishment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105165031/http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2010/12/28%20neuroscience%20snead/1228_neuroscience_snead.pdf |date=5 November 2014 }}" (2010).</ref><ref>Kandel, ER; Schwartz JH; Jessell TM; Siegelbaum SA; Hudspeth AJ. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=s64z-LdAIsEC Principles of Neural Science, Fifth Edition]" (2012).</ref> To study the mind in terms of the brain several methods of [[functional neuroimaging]] are used to study the neuroanatomical correlates of various [[cognition|cognitive processes]] that constitute the mind. The evidence from brain imaging indicates that all processes of the mind have physical correlates in brain function.<ref>Andrea Eugenio Cavanna, Andrea Nani, Hal Blumenfeld, Steven Laureys. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=YQZomQEACAAJ Neuroimaging of Consciousness]" (2013).</ref> However, such correlational studies cannot determine whether neural activity plays a causal role in the occurrence of these cognitive processes ([[correlation does not imply causation]]) and they cannot determine if the neural activity is either [[necessity and sufficiency|necessary or sufficient]] for such processes to occur. Identification of [[causality|causation]], and of necessary and sufficient conditions requires explicit experimental manipulation of that activity. If manipulation of brain activity changes consciousness, then a causal role for that brain activity can be inferred.<ref name="Murphy">{{cite journal|last=Farah|first=Martha J.|author2=Murphy, Nancey|title=Neuroscience and the Soul|journal=Science|date=February 2009|volume=323|issue=5918|page=1168|doi=10.1126/science.323.5918.1168a|pmid=19251609|s2cid=6636610}}</ref><ref>Max Velmans, Susan Schneider. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=B1lRZmOzuJ0C The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness]" (2008). p. 560.</ref> Two of the most common types of manipulation experiments are loss-of-function and gain-of-function experiments. In a loss-of-function (also called "necessity") experiment, a part of the nervous system is diminished or removed in an attempt to determine if it is necessary for a certain process to occur, and in a gain-of-function (also called "sufficiency") experiment, an aspect of the nervous system is increased relative to normal.<ref>Matt Carter, Jennifer C. Shieh. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=3rT4ngEACAAJ Guide to Research Techniques in Neuroscience]" (2009).</ref> Manipulations of brain activity can be performed with direct [[electrical brain stimulation]], magnetic brain stimulation using [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]], [[psychoactive drug|psychopharmacological]] manipulation, [[optogenetics|optogenetic]] manipulation, and by studying the symptoms of [[brain damage]] (case studies) and [[lesion]]s. In addition, neuroscientists are also investigating how the mind develops with the development of the brain.<ref>Squire, L. et al. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=AEmEn-_hD9IC Fundamental Neuroscience, 4th edition]" (2012). Chapter 43.</ref> ====Near-death experience==== Neuroscience research hypothesizes that a [[near-death experience]] (an NDE) is a [[wikt:subjective#Adjective|subjective]] [[hallucination|phenomenon]] resulting from "disturbed bodily multisensory integration" that occurs during life-threatening events.<ref name=blanke2009>{{Cite book|title=The Neurology of Consciousness|last=Blanke|first=Olaf|publisher=London: Academic Publishers, 2009|year=2009|isbn=978-0-12-374168-4|location=London|pages=303–324}}</ref> Some researchers of near-death experiences consider such a phenomenon as a challenge to the [[materialist]] assumptions about the relationship between mind and brain.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parnia|first=Sam|date=February 2017|title=Understanding the cognitive experience of death and the near-death experience|url=https://academic.oup.com/qjmed/article-abstract/110/2/67/2681812?redirectedFrom=fulltext|journal=QJM: An International Journal of Medicine|volume=110|issue=2|pages=67–69|doi=10.1093/qjmed/hcw185|pmid=28100825|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Greyson|first=Bruce|date=2010|title=Implications of Near-Death Experiences for a Postmaterialist Psychology|url=https://med.virginia.edu/perceptual-studies/wp-content/uploads/sites/360/2017/01/NDE62_postmaterialist-PRS.pdf|journal=Psychology of Religion and Spirituality 2010, Vol. 2, No. 1, 37– 45}}</ref> Sam Parnia and others have suggested that a mind that is mediated by, but not produced by the brain is a possible way to explain NDE.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sleutjes A, Moreira-Almeida A, Greyson B | date = Nov 2014 | title = Almost 40 years investigating near-death experiences: an overview of mainstream scientific journals | journal = J Nerv Ment Dis | volume = 202 | issue = 11| pages = 833–6 | doi = 10.1097/NMD.0000000000000205 | pmid = 25357254 | s2cid = 16765929 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Jonathan|last=Petre|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/1371323/Soul-searching-doctors-find-life-after-death.html|title=Soul-searching doctors find life after death|publisher=The Telegraph|date=22 October 2000|quote=These people were having these experiences when we wouldn't expect them to happen, when the brain shouldn't be able to sustain lucid processes or allow them to form memories that would last. So it might hold an answer to the question of whether mind or consciousness is actually produced by the brain or whether the brain is a kind of intermediary for the mind, which exists independently.... I started off as a sceptic but, having weighed up all the evidence, I now think that there is something going on. Essentially, it comes back to the question of whether the mind or consciousness is produced from the brain. If we can prove that the mind is produced by the brain, I don't think there is anything after we die because essentially we are conscious beings. If, on the contrary, the brain is like an intermediary which manifests the mind, like a television will act as an intermediary to manifest waves in the air into a picture or a sound, we can show that the mind is still there after the brain is dead. And that is what I think these near-death experiences indicate}}</ref> ===Physics=== Physicist [[Sean M. Carroll]] has written that the idea of a soul is incompatible with [[quantum field theory]] (QFT). He writes that for a soul to exist: "Not only is new physics required, but dramatically new physics. Within QFT, there can't be a new collection of 'spirit particles' and 'spirit forces' that interact with our regular atoms, because we would have detected them in existing experiments."<ref>{{cite web|first=Sean|last=Carroll|url=https://www.preposterousuniverse.com/blog/2011/05/23/physics-and-the-immortality-of-the-soul/|title=Physics and the Immortality of the Soul|date=May 23, 2011|type=blog|access-date=March 21, 2024}}</ref> [[Quantum indeterminacy|Quantum indeterminism]] has been invoked as an explanatory mechanism for possible soul/brain interaction, but neuroscientist Peter Clarke found errors with this viewpoint, noting there is no evidence that such processes play a role in brain function; Clarke concluded that a [[Cartesian dualism|Cartesian]] soul has no basis from quantum physics.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Clarke|first=Peter G. H.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0278262613001711|title=Neuroscience, Quantum Indeterminism and the Cartesian Soul|journal=Brain and Cognition|date=November 21, 2013|volume=84|issue=1|pages=109–117|doi=10.1016/j.bandc.2013.11.008|pmid=24355546 |access-date=March 21, 2024|issn=0278-2626|quote=Quantum indeterminism is frequently invoked as a solution to the problem of how a disembodied soul might interact with the brain (as Descartes proposed), and is sometimes invoked in theories of libertarian free will even when they do not involve dualistic assumptions. [...] I conclude that Heisenbergian uncertainty is too small to affect synaptic function, and that amplification by chaos or by other means does not provide a solution to this problem. Furthermore, even if Heisenbergian effects did modify brain functioning, the changes would be swamped by those due to thermal noise.}}</ref> ==Parapsychology== Some [[parapsychologists]] have attempted to establish, by [[scientific]] experiment, whether a soul separate from the brain exists, as is more commonly defined in religion rather than as a synonym of psyche or mind. [[Milbourne Christopher]] (1979) and [[Mary Roach]] (2010) have argued that none of the attempts by parapsychologists have yet succeeded.<ref>[[Milbourne Christopher]]. (1979). ''Search for the Soul: An Insider's Report on the Continuing Quest by Psychics and Scientists for Evidence of Life After Death''. Thomas Y. Crowell, Publishers.</ref><ref>[[Mary Roach]]. (2010). ''[[Spook: Science Tackles the Afterlife]]''. Canongate Books Ltd. {{ISBN|978-1-84767-080-9}}</ref> ===Weight of the soul=== In 1901 [[Duncan MacDougall (doctor)|Duncan MacDougall]] conducted [[21 grams experiment|an experiment]] in which he made weight measurements of patients as they died. He claimed that there was weight loss of varying amounts at the time of death; he concluded the soul weighed 21 grams, based on measurements of a single patient and discarding conflicting results.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = MacDougall |first1 = Duncan |author-link = Duncan MacDougall (doctor) |year = 1907 |title = The Soul: Hypothesis Concerning Soul Substance Together with Experimental Evidence of the Existence of Such Substance |journal = American Medicine |series=New Series |volume = 2 |pages = 240–43}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/32327-how-much-does-the-soul-weigh.html|title=How much does the soul weights?|website=[[Live Science]]|date=December 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428081819/http://www.livescience.com/32327-how-much-does-the-soul-weigh.html|archive-date=28 April 2016}}</ref> The physicist [[Robert L. Park]] wrote that MacDougall's experiments "are not regarded today as having any scientific merit" and the psychologist [[Bruce Hood (psychologist)|Bruce Hood]] wrote that "because the weight loss was not reliable or replicable, his findings were unscientific."<ref>[[Robert L. Park|Park, Robert L]]. (2009). ''Superstition: Belief in the Age of Science''. [[Princeton University Press]]. p. 90. {{ISBN|978-0-691-13355-3}}</ref><ref>[[Bruce Hood (psychologist)|Hood, Bruce]]. (2009). ''Supersense: From Superstition to Religion – The Brain Science of Belief''. Constable. p. 165. {{ISBN|978-1-84901-030-6}}</ref> ==See also== {{div col}} * [[Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul]] * [[Being]] * [[Chinese room]] * [[Consciousness]] * [[Ekam]] * [[History of the location of the soul]] * [[Kami]] * [[Knowledge argument]] * [[Metaphysical naturalism]] * [[Mind–body problem]] * [[Nafs]] in Islam * [[Nishimta]] in Mandaeism * [[The Over-Soul]] (essay) * [[Paramatman]] (or oversoul) * [[Philosophical zombie]] * [[Open individualism]] * [[Qualia]] * [[Self]] * [[Self-awareness]] * [[Shade (mythology)]] * [[Soul dualism]] * [[Soul flight]] * [[Spirit (vital essence)]] (seen as a synonym of soul) * [[Substance dualism]] * [[Vitalism]] * [[Vertiginous question]] {{div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== * Batchelor, Stephen. (1998). ''Buddhism Without Beliefs''. Bloomsbury Publishing. *{{cite book|chapter=[[s:Sermons from the Latins/Sermon 47|Sermon 47: The Value of the Soul.]] |title=Sermons from the Latins|year=1902|publisher= Benziger Brothers|first=Robert|last=Bellarmine|author-link=Robert Bellarmine}} * {{Cite book |last=Bremmer |first=Jan |url=http://irs.ub.rug.nl/ppn/287753204 |title=The Early Greek Concept of the Soul |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-691-03131-6 |location=Princeton |ref=none |access-date=16 August 2007}} * Chalmers, David. J. (1996). ''The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory'', New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. * [[Milbourne Christopher|Christopher, Milbourne]]. (1979). ''Search for the Soul: An Insider's Report on the Continuing Quest By Psychics & Scientists For Evidence of Life After Death''. Thomas Y. Crowell, Publishers. * {{Cite journal |last=Clarke |first=Peter |year=2014 |title=Neuroscience, Quantum Indeterminism and the Cartesian Soul |journal=Brain and Cognition |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=109–17 |doi=10.1016/j.bandc.2013.11.008 |pmid=24355546 |ref=none |s2cid=895046}} * [[Bruce Hood (psychologist)|Hood, Bruce]]. (2009). ''Supersense: From Superstition to Religion – The Brain Science of Belief''. Constable. {{ISBN|978-1-84901-030-6}} * McGraw, John J. (2004). ''Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul''. Aegis Press. * [[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Martin, Michael]]; Augustine, Keith. (2015). [https://books.google.com/books?id=dlRuBwAAQBAJ ''The Myth of an Afterlife: The Case against Life After Death'']. Rowman & Littlefield. {{ISBN|978-0-8108-8677-3}} * [[Robert L. Park|Park, Robert L]]. (2009). ''Superstition: Belief in the Age of Science''. [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-691-13355-3}} * [[Erwin Rohde|Rohde, Erwin]]. (1925). [https://archive.org/details/psychecultofsoul00rohd/ ''Psyche: The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality Among the Greeks''], London: [[Routledge|Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd.]] * Ryle, Gilbert. (1949) ''The Concept of Mind'', London: Hutchinson. * Spenard, Michael (2011) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110928230010/http://www.memeoid.net/books/Spenard/Dueling_with_Dualism-Spenard.pdf "Dueling with Dualism: the forlorn quest for the immaterial soul"], essay. An historical account of mind-body duality and a comprehensive conceptual and empirical critique on the position. {{ISBN|978-0-578-08288-2}} * [[Richard Swinburne|Swinburne, Richard]]. (1997). ''The Evolution of the Soul''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Leibowitz, Aryeh. (2018). The Neshama: A Study of the Human Soul. Feldheim Publishers. {{ISBN|1-68025-338-7}} * {{cite book |last1=Kleivan |first1=Inge |last2=Sonne |first2=B. |title=Eskimos. Greenland and Canada |series=Iconography of religions |chapter=Arctic peoples |at=section VIII, fascicle 2 |department=Institute of Religious Iconography |publisher=State University Groningen, via E.J. Brill |location=Leiden, The Netherland) |year=1985 |isbn=90-04-07160-1}} * {{cite book |last=Gabus |first=Jean |title=A karibu eszkimók |publisher=Gondolat Kiadó |location=Budapest |year=1970 |language=hu}} Translation of the original: {{cite book |last=Gabus |first=Jean |title=Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous |publisher=Libraire Payot Lausanne |year=1944}} ==External links== {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category}} * [http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/neuroskeptic/2013/12/22/quantum-theory-wont-save-soul/ Quantum Theory Won't Save The Soul] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150624080153/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/neuroskeptic/2013/12/22/quantum-theory-wont-save-soul/ |date=24 June 2015 }} * [http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/13-03-20/ What Science Really Says About the Soul] by Stephen Cave * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ancient-soul/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Ancient Theories of the Soul] * [http://www.chabad.org/k1499 The soul in Judaism] at [[Chabad.org]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150209043622/http://www.wlsessays.net/node/1182 The Old Testament Concept of the Soul] by Heinrich J. Vogel] * [http://www.jba.gr/Articles/nkjv_jbamay96.htm Body, Soul and Spirit] Article in the [http://www.jba.gr/ Journal of Biblical Accuracy] * [http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20150917-is-another-human-living-inside-you Is Another Human Living Inside You?] * {{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Soul|ref=none}} * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548g4 "The Soul"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Richard Sorabji, Ruth Padel and Martin Palmer (''In Our Time'', 6 June 2002) {{Religion topics}} {{Philosophy of religion}} {{Spirituality-related topics}} {{Ghosts}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Conceptions of self]] [[Category:Concepts in metaphysics]] [[Category:Metaphysics of religion]] [[Category:Concepts in the philosophy of mind]] [[Category:Religious philosophical concepts]] [[Category:Religious belief and doctrine]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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