Sacrifice

{{Short description|Offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity}}
{{Other uses | Sacrifice (disambiguation)}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=May 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
[[File:Marcus Aurelius showing sacrifice - Arch of Marcus Aurelius - Musei Capitolini - Rome 2016.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Marcus Aurelius]] and members of the Imperial family offer sacrifice in gratitude for success against [[Germanic peoples|Germanic tribes]]: contemporary [[bas-relief]], [[Capitoline Hill|Capitoline Museum]], Rome.]]

'''Sacrifice''' is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a [[deity]] as an act of [[propitiation]] or [[worship]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/sacrifice |title=Sacrifice Definition & Meaning |publisher=Dictionary.com |date= |accessdate=2022-05-13 |archive-date=16 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190816053236/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/sacrifice |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| editor1-last = Cowdell| editor2-last = Fleming| editor2-first = Chris| editor3-last = Hodge| editor3-first = Joel| title            = Violence, Desire, and the Sacred| url = {{Google books|8HTHAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}| volume = 2: René Girard and Sacrifice in Life, Love and Literature| publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing| date = 2014| isbn             = 9781623562557| access-date       = 2016-06-01}}</ref> Evidence of ritual [[animal sacrifice]] has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly existed before that. Evidence of ritual [[human sacrifice]] can also be found back to at least pre-Columbian civilizations of [[Mesoamerica]] as well as in European civilizations. Varieties of ritual non-human sacrifices are practiced by numerous religions today.

Sacrifice (particularly blood sacrifice) is an exclusively male rite almost worldwide{{sfn | Dresen | 1993 | p=25-41}} that serves to bond men: "it establishes a kinship which goes above and beyond the 'natural' bloodshed of childbirth."{{sfn | Jay | 1992}} Among other points, Korte draws a connection between sacrificial blood and fertility-related blood.{{sfn | Dresen | 1993 | p=25-41}} 

== Terminology ==
[[File:Laurinmäki sacrificial cairn.JPG|thumb|The sacrificial [[cairn]] in [[Janakkala]], [[Finland]]]]
The [[Latin language|Latin]] term ''sacrificium'' (a sacrifice) derived from Latin ''sacrificus'' (performing priestly functions or sacrifices), which combined the concepts ''sacra'' (sacred things) and ''facere'' (to make, to do).<ref>{{OEtymD|sacrifice|access-date=2015-08-23}}</ref>
The Latin word ''sacrificium'' came to apply to the Christian [[eucharist]] in particular, sometimes named a "bloodless sacrifice" to distinguish it from blood sacrifices. In individual non-Christian [[ethnic religion]]s, terms translated as "sacrifice" include the Indic ''[[yajna]]'', the Greek ''thusia'', the Germanic ''[[blót|blōtan]]'', the Semitic ''[[qorban]]''/''[[qurban]]'', Slavic [[:pl:Żertwa|żertwa]], etc.

The term usually implies "doing without something" or "giving something up" (see also [[self-sacrifice]]). But the word ''sacrifice'' also occurs in [[metaphor]]ical use to describe doing good for others or taking a short-term loss in return for a greater [[Power (social and political)|power]] gain, [[Sacrifice (chess)|such as in a game of chess]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.javno.com/en-economy/sacrifices-needed-to-fix-auto-crisis_240289 |title= Sacrifices Needed to Fix Auto Crisis - Economy - Javno |access-date= 24 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091001040035/http://www.javno.com/en-economy/sacrifices-needed-to-fix-auto-crisis_240289 |archive-date= 1 October 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.state.ny.us/governor/press/0822072.html |title= Governor signs into law legislation protecting rights of nursing mothers in the workplace |access-date= 24 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090417052341/http://www.state.ny.us/governor/press/0822072.html |archive-date= 17 April 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/amsterdam-summit-blair-forced-to-sacrifice-powers-on-immigration-1256395.html | work=The Independent | location=London | title=Amsterdam summit: Blair forced to sacrifice powers on immigration | first=Sarah | last=Helm | date=17 June 1997 | access-date=23 May 2010 | archive-date=1 January 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101161403/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/amsterdam-summit-blair-forced-to-sacrifice-powers-on-immigration-1256395.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

== Animal sacrifice ==
[[File:Sacrifice scene Louvre G402.jpg|thumb|left|Animal sacrifice offered together with [[libation]] in [[Ancient Greece]]. Attic red-figure [[oinochoe]], {{circa|430}}–425 BC ([[Louvre]]).]]
{{main|Animal sacrifice}}
Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing of an animal as part of a religion. It is practiced by adherents of many religions as a means of appeasing a god or gods or changing the course of nature. It also served a social or economic function in those cultures where the edible portions of the animal were distributed among those attending the sacrifice for consumption. Animal sacrifice has turned up in almost all cultures, from the [[Hebrews]] to the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] (particularly the purifying ceremony [[Lustratio]]), [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] (for example in the cult of [[Apis (god)|Apis]]) and from the [[Aztecs]] to the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]. The religion of the ancient Egyptians forbade the sacrifice of animals other than sheep, bulls, calves, male calves and geese.<ref>{{cite book|last1=introduction|first1=Herodotus; translated by Robin Waterfield; with an|last2=Dewald|first2=notes by Carolyn|title=The histories|date=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-953566-8|edition=1a ed. 1998; reimpr. 2008.}}</ref>

Animal sacrifice is still practiced today by the followers of [[Santería]] and other lineages of Orisa as a means of curing the sick and giving thanks to the [[Orisa]] (gods). However, in Santeria, such animal offerings constitute an extremely small portion of what are termed ''ebos''—ritual activities that include offerings, prayer and deeds. Christians from some villages in Greece also sacrifice animals to Orthodox saints in a practice known as [[kourbània|kourbánia]]. The practice, while publicly condemned, is often tolerated.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}

== Human sacrifice ==
{{main|Human sacrifice}}
[[File:Codex Magliabechiano (141 cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Aztec]] [[human sacrifice]], from [[Codex Mendoza]], 16th century ([[Bodleian Library]], [[Oxford University|Oxford]]).]]

[[Human sacrifice]] was practiced by many ancient cultures. People would be ritually killed in a manner that was supposed to please or appease a [[god]] or spirit.

Some occasions for human sacrifice found in multiple cultures on multiple continents include:{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}
* Human sacrifice to accompany the dedication of a new temple or bridge.
* Sacrifice of people upon the [[death]] of a king, high priest or great leader; the sacrificed were supposed to serve or accompany the deceased leader in the next life.
* Human sacrifice in times of natural disaster. Droughts, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, etc. were seen as a sign of anger or displeasure by deities, and sacrifices were supposed to lessen the divine ire.

There is evidence to suggest Pre-Hellenic [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] cultures practiced human sacrifice. Corpses were found at a number of sites in the [[citadel]] of [[Knossos]] in [[Crete]]. The north house at Knossos contained the bones of children who appeared to have been butchered. The myth of [[Theseus]] and the [[Minotaur]] (set in the [[labyrinth]] at Knossos) suggests human sacrifice. In the myth, [[Athens]] sent [[sacrificial victims of Minotaur|seven young men and seven young women]] to Crete as human sacrifices to the Minotaur. This ties up with the archaeological evidence that most sacrifices were of young adults or [[child sacrifice|children]].

The [[Punic religion|Phoenicians of Carthage]] were reputed to practise child sacrifice, and though the scale of sacrifices may have been exaggerated by ancient authors for political or religious reasons, there is archaeological evidence of large numbers of children's skeletons buried in association with sacrificial animals. [[Plutarch]] (ca. 46–120 AD) mentions the practice, as do [[Tertullian]], [[Paulus Orosius|Orosius]], [[Diodorus Siculus]] and [[Philo]]. They describe children being roasted to death while still conscious on a heated bronze idol.<ref name=control>{{cite journal|last1 = Stager|first1 = Lawrence|last2=Wolff|first2=Samuel R. |title = Child sacrifice in Carthage: religious rite or population control?|journal = Journal of Biblical Archeological Review|volume = January|pages = 31–46|year = 1984}}</ref>

Human sacrifice was practiced by various [[Pre-Columbian era|Pre-Columbian]] civilizations of [[Mesoamerica]]. The [[Aztec]] in particular are known for the practice of human sacrifice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wade |first=Lizzie |date=2018-06-21 |title=Feeding the gods: Hundreds of skulls reveal massive scale of human sacrifice in Aztec capital |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |doi=10.1126/science.aau5404}}</ref> Current estimates of Aztec sacrifice are between a couple thousand and twenty thousand per year.<ref>{{cite journal|date=2012|title=Mass Murder or Religious Homicide? Rethinking Human Sacrifice and Interpersonal Violence in Aztec Society|last=Dodds Pennock|first=Caroline|journal=Historical Social Research|volume=37|number=3|pages=276–302|jstor=41636609|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41636609|access-date=24 August 2022|archive-date=24 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220824152712/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41636609|url-status=live}}</ref> Some of these sacrifices were to help the sun rise, some to help the rains come, and some to dedicate the expansions of the great ''[[Templo Mayor]]'', located in the heart of [[Tenochtitlán]] (the capital of the [[Aztec Empire]]). There are also accounts of captured [[conquistador]]es being sacrificed during the wars of the [[Spain|Spanish]] invasion of [[Mexico]].

In [[Scandinavia]], the old [[Scandinavian religion]] contained human sacrifice, as both the [[Norse saga]]s and German historians relate. See, e.g. [[Temple at Uppsala]] and [[Blót]].

In the ''[[Aeneid]]'' by [[Virgil]], the character [[Sinon]] claims (falsely) that he was going to be a human sacrifice to [[Poseidon]] to calm the seas.

Human sacrifice is no longer officially condoned in any country,{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} and any cases which may take place are regarded as [[murder]].

== By religion ==
=== Ancient China and Confucianism ===
{{Further|Confucianism}}
During the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty]], the ruling class had a complicated and hierarchical sacrificial system. Sacrificing to ancestors was an important duty of nobles, and an emperor could hold hunts, start wars, and convene royal family members in order to get the resources to hold sacrifices,
<ref>{{cite web |url=http://anthropoetics.ucla.edu/ap0102/china/ |title=Archaic Chinese Sacrificial Practices in the Light of Generative Anthropology |first=Herbert |last=Plutschow |date=1996 |publisher=Anthropoetics |language=English |access-date=2021-07-22 |quote=Among the kings' most important functions were sacrificial ritual, and ritual-related war and hunting, understood, among others, as a state-unifying, ritual action in search of sacrificial supply. |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224002017/http://anthropoetics.ucla.edu/ap0102/china/ |url-status=live }}</ref> serving to unify states in a common goal and demonstrate the strength of the emperor's rule.
[[Archaeologist]] [[Kwang-chih Chang]] states in his book ''Art, Myth and Ritual: the Path to Political Authority in Ancient China'' (1983) that the sacrificial system strengthened the authority of ancient China's ruling class and promoted production, e.g. through casting [[Chinese ritual bronzes|ritual bronzes]].

[[Confucius]] supported the restoration of the Zhou sacrificial system, which excluded human sacrifice, with the goal of maintaining social order and enlightening people. [[Mohism]] considered any kind of sacrifice to be too extravagant for society.
[[File:Ghost Festival Ritual.jpg|thumb|A sacrificed pig during [[Ghost Festival]]]]

=== Chinese folk religion ===
Members of [[Chinese folk religion]]s often use pork, chicken, duck, fish, squid, or shrimp in sacrificial offerings. For those who believe the high deities to be vegetarian, some altars are two-tiered: The high one offers vegetarian food, and the low one holds animal sacrifices for the high deities' soldiers. Some ceremonies of supernatural spirits and ghosts, like the [[Ghost Festival]], use whole goats or pigs. There are competitions of raising the heaviest pig for sacrifice in Taiwan and Teochew.
<ref>{{cite news |language = Chinese |url = https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/chinese-news-54117912 |title = 強迫灌食肥豬變八百公斤「神豬」 被批虐待動物 |publisher = BBC |date = 2020-09-11 |access-date = 2021-07-19 |archive-date = 19 July 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210719095053/https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/chinese-news-54117912 |url-status = live }}</ref>

=== Christianity ===
{{See also|Redemptive suffering|Victim soul|Propitiation#Contemporary Catholic theology}}
[[File:Christ at the Cross - Cristo en la Cruz.jpg|thumb|Artwork depicting the [[Justification (theology)|Sacrifice of Jesus]]: ''Christ on the Cross'' by Carl Heinrich Bloch]]
In [[Nicene Christianity]], God became [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnate]] as [[Jesus]], sacrificing his son to accomplish the reconciliation of God and humanity, which had separated itself from God through sin (see the concept of [[original sin]]). According to a view that has featured prominently in Western theology since early in the 2nd millennium, God's justice required an [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]] for sin from humanity if human beings were to be restored to their place in creation and saved from damnation. However, God knew limited human beings could not make sufficient atonement, for humanity's offense to God was infinite, so God created a [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]] with [[Abraham]], which he fulfilled when he sent his only Son to become the sacrifice for the broken covenant.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} According to this theology, Christ's sacrifice replaced the insufficient animal sacrifice of the [[Old Covenant]]; Christ the "[[Lamb of God]]" replaced the lambs' sacrifice of the ancient ''Korban Todah'' (the Rite of Thanksgiving), chief of which is the Passover in the Mosaic law.

In the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es, the [[Lutheran Church]]es, the [[Methodist Church]]es, and the [[Irvingian Church]]es,<ref name="THM2004"/><ref name="O'Malley2016"/> the [[Eucharist]] or Mass, as well as the [[Divine Liturgy]] of the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], is seen as a sacrifice. Among the Anglicans the words of the liturgy make explicit that the Eucharist is a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving and is a material offering to God in union with Christ using such words, as "with these thy holy gifts which we now offer unto Thee" (1789 BCP) or "presenting to you from the gifts you have given us we offer you these gifts" (Prayer D BCP 1976) as clearly evidenced in the revised Books of Common Prayer from 1789 in which the theology of Eucharist was moved closer to the Catholic position. Likewise, the United Methodist Church in its Eucharistic liturgy contains the words "Let us offer ourselves and our gifts to God" (A Service of Word and Table I). The United Methodist Church officially teaches that "Holy Communion is a type of sacrifice" that re-presents, rather than repeats the [[Justification (theology)|sacrifice of Christ on the Cross]]; She further proclaims that: {{blockquote|We also present ourselves as sacrifice in union with Christ (Romans 12:1; 1 Peter 2:5) to be used by God in the work of redemption, reconciliation, and justice. In the Great Thanksgiving, the church prays: "We offer ourselves in praise and thanksgiving as a holy and living sacrifice, in union with Christ's offering for us . . ." ([[The United Methodist Hymnal|UMH]]; page 10).<ref name="THM2004">{{cite book|title=This Holy Mystery, Study Guide: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion|url={{Google books|skkRswEACAAJ|plainurl=yes}}|year=2004|publisher=The General Board of Discipleship of The United Methodist Church|language=en |page=9}}</ref>}}

A formal statement by the [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops|USCCB]] affirms that "Methodists and Catholics agree that the sacrificial language of the Eucharistic celebration refers to 'the sacrifice of Christ once-for-all,' to 'our pleading of that sacrifice here and now,' to 'our offering of the sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving,' and to 'our sacrifice of ourselves in union with Christ who offered himself to the Father.'"<ref>{{cite book|title=Methodist-Catholic Dialogues|year=2001|publisher=[[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]] and The General Commission on Christian Unity and Interreligious Concerns of The United Methodist Church|language=en |page=20}}</ref>

Roman Catholic theology speaks of the Eucharist not being a separate or additional sacrifice to that of Christ on the cross; it is rather exactly the same sacrifice, which transcends time and space ("the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world" – Rev. 13:8), renewed and made present, the only distinction being that it is offered in an unbloody manner. The sacrifice is made present without Christ dying or being crucified again; it is a re-presentation of the "once and for all" sacrifice of Calvary by the now risen Christ, who continues to offer himself and what he has done on the cross as an oblation to the Father. The complete identification of the Mass with the sacrifice of the cross is found in Christ's words at the last supper over the bread and wine: "This is my body, which is given up for you," and "This is my blood of the new covenant, which is shed...unto the forgiveness of sins." The bread and wine, offered by [[Melchizedek]] in sacrifice in the old covenant (Genesis 14:18; Psalm 110:4), are transformed through the Mass into the body and blood of Christ (see [[transubstantiation]]; note: the Orthodox Church and Methodist Church do not hold as dogma, as do Catholics, the doctrine of transubstantiation, preferring rather to not make an assertion regarding the "how" of the [[sacraments]]),<ref name="Losch2002">{{cite book|last=Losch|first=Richard R.|title=A Guide to World Religions and Christian Traditions|date=1 May 2002|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=9780802805218|page=90|quote=In the Roman Catholic Church the official explanation of how Christ is present is called transubstantiation. This is simply an explanation of ''how'', not a statement ''that'', he is present. Anglicans and Orthodox do not attempt to define how, but simply accept the mystery of his presence.}}</ref><ref name="Neal2014">{{cite book|last=Neal|first=Gregory S.|title=Sacramental Theology and the Christian Life|date=19 December 2014|publisher=WestBow Press|isbn=9781490860077|page=111|quote=For Anglicans and Methodists the reality of the presence of Jesus as received through the sacramental elements is not in question. Real presence is simply accepted as being true, its mysterious nature being affirmed and even lauded in official statements like ''This Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion''.}}</ref> and the offering becomes one with that of Christ on the cross. In the Mass as on the cross, Christ is both priest (offering the sacrifice) and victim (the sacrifice he offers is himself), though in the Mass in the former capacity he works through a solely human priest who is joined to him through the sacrament of [[Holy Orders]] and thus shares in Christ's priesthood as do all who are baptized into the death and resurrection of Jesus, the Christ. Through the Mass, the effects of the one sacrifice of the cross can be understood as working toward the redemption of those present, for their specific intentions and prayers, and to assisting the souls in [[purgatory]]. For Catholics, the theology of sacrifice has seen considerable change as the result of historical and scriptural studies.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Zupez|first=John|date=December 2019|title=Is the Mass a Propitiatory or Expiatory Sacrifice?|url=https://emmanuelpublishing.org/article-categories/eucharistic-teachings/is-the-mass-a-propitiatory-or-expiatory-sacrifice/|journal=Emmanuel|volume=125|pages=378–381|access-date=3 July 2020|archive-date=4 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704132603/https://emmanuelpublishing.org/article-categories/eucharistic-teachings/is-the-mass-a-propitiatory-or-expiatory-sacrifice/|url-status=live}}</ref> For Lutherans, the Eucharist is a "sacrifice of thanksgiving and praise…in that by giving thanks a person acknowledges that he or she is in need of the gift and that his or her situation will change only by receiving the gift".<ref name="O'Malley2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.americamagazine.org/issue/longing-communion|title=Catholics, Lutherans and the Eucharist: There's a lot to share|last=O'Malley|first=Timothy P.|date=7 July 2016|publisher=[[America (magazine)|America Magazine]]|language=en|access-date=13 April 2018|archive-date=13 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413185830/https://www.americamagazine.org/issue/longing-communion|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Irvingian Church]]es, teach the "real presence of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion": {{blockquote|In Holy Communion, it is not only the body and blood of Christ, but also His sacrifice itself, that are truly present. However, this sacrifice has only been brought once and is not repeated in Holy Communion. Neither is Holy Communion merely a reminder of the sacrifice. Rather, during the celebration of Holy Communion, Jesus Christ is in the midst of the congregation as the crucified, risen, and returning Lord. Thus His once-brought sacrifice is also present in that its effect grants the individual access to salvation. In this way, the celebration of Holy Communion causes the partakers to repeatedly envision the sacrificial death of the Lord, which enables them to proclaim it with conviction (1 Corinthians 11: 26). —¶8.2.13, ''The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church''<ref name="NAC">{{cite web |title=8.2.13 The real presence of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion |url=https://nak.org/en/kennenlernen/katechismus?id=486cc250-3c08-4bf9-bc8b-149d3628fcf1 |publisher=[[New Apostolic Church]] |work=The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church |date=18 December 2020 |access-date=14 February 2021 |language=English |archive-date=15 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215075536/https://nak.org/en/kennenlernen/katechismus?id=486cc250-3c08-4bf9-bc8b-149d3628fcf1 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

The concept of self-sacrifice and [[martyr]]s are central to Christianity. Often found in Roman Catholicism is the idea of joining one's own life and sufferings to the sacrifice of Christ on the cross. Thus one can offer up involuntary suffering, such as illness, or purposefully embrace suffering in acts of [[penance]]. Some Protestants criticize this as a denial of the all-sufficiency of Christ's sacrifice, but according to Roman Catholic interpretation it finds support in St. Paul: "Now I rejoice in my sufferings for your sake, and in my flesh I complete what is lacking in Christ's afflictions for the sake of his body, that is, the church" (Col 1:24). [[Pope John Paul II]] explained in his [[Ecclesiastical letter#Letters of the popes in modern times|Apostolic Letter]] ''[[Salvifici doloris|Salvifici Doloris]]'' (11 February 1984):<blockquote>In the Cross of Christ not only is the Redemption accomplished through suffering, but also human suffering itself has been redeemed. ...Every man has his own share in the Redemption. Each one is also called to share in that suffering through which the Redemption was accomplished. ...In bringing about the Redemption through suffering, Christ has also raised human suffering to the level of the Redemption. Thus each man, in his suffering, can also become a sharer in the redemptive suffering of Christ. ...The sufferings of Christ created the good of the world's redemption. This good in itself is inexhaustible and infinite. No man can add anything to it. But at the same time, in the mystery of the Church as his Body, Christ has in a sense opened his own redemptive suffering to all human suffering" (''Salvifici Doloris'' 19; 24).</blockquote>
[[File:Waldburg-Gebetbuch 034.jpg|thumb|A page from the Waldburg Prayer Book illustrating the celebration of the Holy Eucharist on Earth before the [[Holy Trinity]] and the [[Virgin Mary]] in [[Heaven in Christianity|Heaven]]]]
Some Christians reject the idea of the [[Eucharist]] as a sacrifice, inclining to see it as merely a holy meal (even if they believe in a form of the [[real presence]] of Christ in the bread and wine, as [[Reformed tradition|Reformed]] Christians do). The more recent the origin of a particular tradition, the less emphasis is placed on the sacrificial nature of the Eucharist. The Roman Catholic response is that the sacrifice of the Mass in the New Covenant is that one sacrifice for sins on the cross which transcends time offered in an unbloody manner, as discussed above, and that Christ is the real priest at every Mass working through mere human beings to whom he has granted the grace of a share in his priesthood. As ''priest'' carries connotations of "one who offers sacrifice", some Protestants, with the exception of Lutherans and Anglicans, usually do not use it for their [[clergy]]. Evangelical Protestantism emphasizes the importance of a decision to accept [[Christ's sacrifice on the Cross]] consciously and personally as atonement for one's individual sins if one is to be saved—this is known as "accepting Christ as one's personal Lord and Savior".

The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es see the celebration of the Eucharist as a continuation, rather than a reenactment, of the [[Last Supper]], as Fr. John Matusiak (of the [[Orthodox Church in America|OCA]]) says: "The Liturgy is not so much a reenactment of the Mystical Supper or these events as it is a continuation of these events, which are beyond time and space. The Orthodox also see the Eucharistic Liturgy as a bloodless sacrifice, during which the bread and wine we offer to God become the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ through the descent and operation of the Holy Spirit, Who effects the change." This view is witnessed to by the prayers of the [[Divine Liturgy]] of [[St. John Chrysostom]], when the priest says: "Accept, O God, our supplications, make us to be worthy to offer unto thee supplications and prayers and bloodless sacrifices for all thy people," and "Remembering this saving commandment and all those things which came to pass for us: the cross, the grave, the resurrection on the third day, the ascension into heaven, the sitting down at the right hand, the second and glorious coming again, Thine own of Thine own we offer unto Thee on behalf of all and for all," and "… Thou didst become man and didst take the name of our High Priest, and deliver unto us the priestly rite of this liturgical and bloodless sacrifice…"

=== Hinduism ===
{{main|Animal sacrifice in Hinduism}}
The modern practice of Hindu animal sacrifice is mostly associated with [[Shaktism]], and in currents of folk Hinduism strongly rooted in local popular or tribal traditions. Animal sacrifices were part of the ancient [[Vedic]] religion in India, and are mentioned in scriptures such as the [[Yajurveda]]. Some Puranas forbid animal sacrifice.

=== Islam ===
{{main|Dhabihah}}
An animal sacrifice in Arabic is called ''ḏabiḥa'' (ذَبِيْحَة) or ''Qurban'' (قُرْبَان) . The term may have roots from the [[Judaism|Jewish]] term ''Korban''; in some places like [[Bangladesh]], [[India]] or [[Pakistan]], ''qurbani'' is always used for Islamic animal sacrifice. In the [[Islam]]ic context, an animal sacrifice referred to as ''ḏabiḥa'' (ذَبِيْحَة) meaning "sacrifice as a ritual" is offered only in [[Eid ul-Adha]]. The sacrificial animal may be a sheep, a goat, a camel, or a cow. The animal must be healthy and conscious.
"...Therefore to the Lord turn in Prayer and Sacrifice." ([[Quran 108:2]]) 
Qurban is an Islamic prescription for the affluent to share their good fortune with the needy in the community.

On the occasion of Eid ul Adha (Festival of Sacrifice), affluent [[Muslims]] all over the world perform the [[Sunnah]] of [[Prophet]] [[Abraham in Islam|Ibrahim]] (Abraham) by sacrificing a cow or sheep. The meat is then divided into three equal parts. One part is retained by the person who performs the sacrifice. The second is given to his relatives. The third part is distributed to the poor.

The [[Quran]] states that the sacrifice has nothing to do with the blood and gore (Quran 22:37: "It is not their meat nor their blood that reaches God. It is your piety that reaches Him..."). Rather, it is done to help the poor and in remembrance of [[Abraham]]'s willingness to sacrifice his son [[Ishmael in Islam|Ismael]] at God's command.

The [[Urdu]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] word "Qurbani" comes from the Arabic word 'Qurban'. It suggests that associate act performed to hunt distance to [[Creator Deity|Almighty God]] and to hunt His sensible pleasure. Originally, the word 'Qurban' enclosed all acts of charity as a result of the aim of charity is nothing however to hunt [[Allah]]'s pleasure. But, in precise non-secular nomenclature, the word was later confined to the sacrifice of associate animal slaughtered for the sake of Allah.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://onlinequrbani2012.webs.com/apps/blog/|title=Online Qurbani|date=1 November 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104091413/http://onlinequrbani2012.webs.com/apps/blog/|archive-date=4 November 2012}}</ref>

A similar symbology, which is a reflection of [[Abraham]] and [[Ishmael in Islam|Ismael]]'s dilemma, is the stoning of the [[Stoning of the Devil|Jamaraat]] which takes place during the [[Hajj|pilgrimage]].

=== Judaism ===
{{Main|Korban}}
{{Further|Shechita}}
Ritual sacrifice was practiced in Ancient Israel, with the opening chapters of the book [[Leviticus]] detailing parts of an overview referring to the exact methods of bringing [[korban|sacrifice]]s. Although sacrifices could include bloodless offerings (grain and wine), the most important were animal sacrifices.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |edition=2|volume=17 |chapter=sacrifice |page=641}}</ref> Blood sacrifices were divided into [[burnt offering]]s (Hebrew: עלה קרבנות) in which the whole unmaimed animal was burnt, [[guilt offering]]s (in which part was burnt and part left for the priest) and [[peace offering]]s (in which similarly only part of the undamaged animal was burnt and the rest eaten in ritually pure conditions).

After the destruction of the [[Second Temple]], ritual sacrifice ceased except among the [[Samaritans]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.the-samaritans.com/festival.htm|title= THE SAMARITAN'S FESTIVALS|publisher=The Samaritans|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060304234420/http://www.the-samaritans.com/festival.htm |archive-date=4 March 2006 }}</ref> [[Maimonides]], a medieval Jewish rationalist, argued that God always held sacrifice inferior to prayer and philosophical meditation. However, God understood that the Israelites were used to the animal sacrifices that the surrounding pagan tribes used as the primary way to commune with their gods. As such, in Maimonides' view, it was only natural that Israelites would believe that sacrifice was a necessary part of the relationship between God and man. Maimonides concludes that God's decision to allow sacrifices was a concession to human psychological limitations. It would have been too much to have expected the Israelites to leap from pagan worship to prayer and meditation in one step. In the ''[[Guide for the Perplexed]]'', he writes:

:"But the custom which was in those days general among men, and the general mode of worship in which the Israelites were brought up consisted in sacrificing animals... It was in accordance with the wisdom and plan of God...that God did not command us to give up and to discontinue all these manners of service. For to obey such a commandment would have been contrary to the nature of man, who generally cleaves to that to which he is used; it would in those days have made the same impression as a prophet would make at present [the 12th Century] if he called us to the service of God and told us in His name, that we should not pray to God nor fast, nor seek His help in time of trouble; that we should serve Him in thought, and not by any action." (Book III, Chapter 32. Translated by M. Friedlander, 1904, ''The Guide for the Perplexed'', Dover Publications, 1956 edition.)

In contrast, many others such as [[Nachmanides]] (in his Torah commentary on Leviticus 1:9) disagreed, contending that sacrifices are an ideal in Judaism, completely central.

The teachings of the [[Torah]] and [[Tanakh]] reveal the Israelites's familiarity with human sacrifices, as exemplified by the near-sacrifice of Isaac by his father Abraham (Genesis 22:1–24) and some believe, the actual sacrifice of [[Jephthah's daughter]] (Judges 11:31–40), while many believe that Jephthah's daughter was committed for life in service equivalent to a nunnery of the day, as indicated by her lament over her "weep for my virginity" and never having known a man (v37). The king of Moab gives his firstborn son and heir as a whole burnt offering, albeit to the pagan god Chemosh.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/grace-journal/11-3_34.pdf|title=The meaning of II Kings 3:27|last=Harton|first=George M.|publisher=Biblical Studies|access-date=2022-08-24|archive-date=22 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722154147/http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/grace-journal/11-3_34.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In the book of [[Micah (prophet)|Micah]], one asks, 'Shall I give my firstborn for my sin, the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul?' ({{bibleverse||Micah|6:7|HE}}), and receives a response, 'It hath been told thee, O man, what is good, and what the LORD doth require of thee: only to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God.' ({{bibleverse||Micah|6:8|HE}}) Abhorrence of the practice of child sacrifice is emphasized by [[Jeremiah]]. See Jeremiah 7:30–32.
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== See also ==
{{commons category|Sacrifice}}

* [[Signalling theory]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book | last=Korte | first=Anne-Marie | title=Significance Obscured: Rachel's Theft of the Teraphim Divinity and Corporeality in Gen.31 32 | editor-first=Jonneke | editor-last=Bekkenkamp | editor2-first=Maaike | editor2-last=de Haardt | publisher=Peeters | year=1998 | pages=157–182 | location=Leuven | trans-title=Translation: Mischa F.C. Hoyinck}} Korte summarizes Jay at length and refers to Dresden. 

*{{cite journal | last=Dresen | first=Grietje | title=Heilig bloed, ontheiligend bloed: Over het ritueel van de kerkgang en het offer in de katholieke traditie | journal=Tijdschrift voor Vrouwenstudies | volume=14 | year=1993 | pages=25–41}}

* Aldrete, Gregory S. (2014). "Hammers, Axes, Bulls, and Blood: Some Practical Aspects of Roman Animal Sacrifice." ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 104:28–50.
* Bataille, Georges. (1989). ''Theory of Religion.'' New York: Zone Books.
* Bloch, Maurice. (1992). ''Prey into Hunter: The Politics of Religious Experience.'' Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
* Bubbio, Paolo Diego. (2014). ''Sacrifice in the Post-Kantian Tradition: Perspectivism, Intersubjectivity, and Recognition.'' SUNY Press.
* Burkert, Walter. (1983). ''Homo Necans: The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth.'' Translated by P. Bing. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
* Burkert, Walter, Marcel Sigrist, Harco Willems, et al. (2007). "Sacrifice, Offerings, and Votives." In ''Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide.'' Edited by S. I. Johnston, 325–349. Cambridge, MA: Belknap.
* Carter, Jeffrey. (2003). ''Understanding Religious Sacrifice: A Reader.'' London: Continuum.
* Davies, Nigel. (1981). ''Human Sacrifice: In History and Today.'' London: Macmillan.
* Faraone, Christopher A., and F. S. Naiden, eds. (2012). ''Greek and Roman Animal Sacrifice: Ancient Victims, Modern Observers.'' Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
* Feeney, Denis. (2004). "Interpreting Sacrificial Ritual in Roman Poetry: Disciplines and their Models." In ''Rituals in Ink: A Conference on Religion and Literary Production in Ancient Rome Held at Stanford University in February 2002.'' Edited by Alessandro Barchiesi, Jörg Rüpke, and Susan Stephens, 1–21. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
* Heinsohn, Gunnar. (1992). "The Rise of Blood Sacrifice and Priest-Kingship in Mesopotamia: A 'cosmic decree'?" ''Religion'' 22 (2): 109.
* Hubert, Henri, and Marcel Mauss. (1964). ''Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function.'' Translated by W. Hall. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
* Jay, Nancy. (1992). ''Throughout All Your Generations Forever: Sacrifice, Religion, and Paternity.'' Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
* Jensen, Adolf E. (1963). ''Myth and Cult Among Primitive Peoples.'' Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
* Kunst, Jennifer W., and Zsuzsanna Várhelyi, eds. (2011). ''Ancient Mediterranean Sacrifice.'' Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
* McClymond, Kathryn. (2008). ''Beyond Sacred Violence: A Comparative Study of Sacrifice.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
* Mylonopoulos, Joannis. (2013). "Gory Details? The Iconography of Human Sacrifice in Greek Art." In ''Sacrifices humains. Perspectives croissées et répresentations.'' Edited by Pierre Bonnechere and Gagné Renaud, 61–85. Liège, Belgium: Presses universitaires de Liège.
* {{cite journal | last=Watson | first=Simon R. | title= God in Creation: A Consideration of Natural Selection as the Sacrificial Means of a Free Creation | journal= Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses | year=2019 | volume=48 | number=2 | pages=216–236| doi=10.1177/0008429819830356 | s2cid=202271434 }}

==External links==
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Sacrifice
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* [http://archive.boston.com/news/world/articles/2003/11/29/in_india_case_links_mysticism_murder/ "In India, Case Links Mysticism, Murder" by John Lancaster]
* [http://tiresias.haifa.ac.il/?subj=sacrifice Ancient texts on sacrifice] Tiresias: The Ancient Mediterranean Religions Source Database
* [https://www.jw.org/en/publications/books/bible-glossary/sacrifice/ Sacrifice definition] from the Bible Dictionary

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[[Category:Sacrifice| ]]