Resurrection

{{Short description|Living being coming back to life after death}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2023}}
[[File:Mantegna, Andrea - La Résurrection - 1457-1459.jpg|320px|thumb|The Resurrection, painting by [[Andrea Mantegna]], 1457–1459]]
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles - Phoenix (CIIIIv).jpg|thumb|A depiction of a [[Phoenix (mythology)|Phoenix]], a figure of revival]]
[[File:Plaque resurrection dead VandA M.104-1945.jpg|thumb|Plaque depicting [[saint]]s rising from the dead]]
'''Resurrection''' or '''anastasis''' is the concept of coming back to life after [[death]]. In a number of religions, a [[Dying-and-rising deity|dying-and-rising god]] is a deity which dies and is resurrected. [[Reincarnation]] is a similar process hypothesized by other religions, which involves the same person or deity coming back to another body.  Disappearance of a body is another similar, but distinct, belief in some religions.

With the advent of written records, the earliest known recurrent theme of resurrection was in [[ancient Egyptian religion|Egyptian]] and [[Canaanite religion]]s, which had cults of dying-and-rising gods such as [[Osiris]] and [[Baal]]. [[Ancient Greek religion]] generally emphasised [[immortality]], but in the mythos a number of men and women were made physically immortal as they were resurrected from the dead.

The [[Universal resurrection|general resurrection of the dead]] is a standard [[Eschatology|eschatological]] belief in the [[Abrahamic religions]]. As a religious concept, it is used in two distinct respects: a belief in the resurrection of individual [[soul]]s that is current and ongoing ([[Idealism (Christian eschatology)|Christian idealism]], [[realized eschatology]]), or else a belief in a singular bodily resurrection of the dead at the [[Eschatology|end of the world]].<ref>In the language of the Christian [[creed]]s and professions of faith this return to life is called resurrection of the body (''resurrectio carnis, resurrectio mortuoram, anastasis ton nekron'') for a double reason: first, since the [[Immortality of the soul|soul cannot die]], it cannot be said to return to life; second the [[heretical]] contention of [[Hymenaeus (Ephesian)|Hymeneus and Philitus]] that the [[Scriptures]] denote by resurrection not the return to life of the body, but the rising of the soul from the death of [[Christian views on sin|sin]] to the life of [[Grace (Christianity)|grace]], must be excluded."</ref> Some believe the soul is the actual vehicle by which people are resurrected.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gregory of Nyssa: "On the Soul and the Resurrection:" However far from each other their natural propensity and their inherent forces of repulsion urge them, and debar each from mingling with its opposite, none the less will the soul be near each by its power of recognition, and will persistently cling to the familiar atoms, until their concourse after this division again takes place in the same way, for that fresh formation of the dissolved body which will properly be, and be called, resurrection |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf205.x.iii.ii.html |publisher=Ccel.org}}</ref> The [[Crucifixion of Jesus|death]] and [[resurrection of Jesus]] is a central focus of [[Christianity]]. While most Christians believe Jesus' resurrection from the dead and [[Ascension of Jesus|ascension to heaven]] was in a material body, some believe it was spiritual.<ref>{{cite web |first=R. C. |last=Symes |title=According to Paul of Tarsus, the resurrection transformed Jesus into the Christ, the Son of God and Savior of the world. Christ's resurrected body was not a resuscitated physical body, but a new body of a spiritual/celestial nature: the natural body comes first and then the spiritual body (1 Cor. 15:46). Paul never says that the earthly body becomes immortal. |url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/symes01.htm |publisher=religioustolerance.org}}</ref><ref>The Watchtower Society claims that Jesus was not raised in His actual physical human body, but rather was raised as an invisible spirit being—what He was before, the archangel Michael. They believe that Christ's post-Resurrection appearances on earth were on-the-spot manifestations and materializations of flesh and bones, with different forms, that the Apostles did not immediately recognize. Their explanation for the statement "a spirit hath not flesh and bones" is that Christ was saying that he was not a ghostly apparition, but a true materialization in flesh, to be seen and touched, as proof that he was actually raised. But that, in fact, the risen Christ was, in actuality, a divine spirit being, who made himself visible and invisible at will. The Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses believes that Christ's perfect manhood was forever sacrificed at Calvary, and that it was not actually taken back. They state: "...in his resurrection he ‘became a life-giving spirit.’ That was why for most of the time he was invisible to his faithful apostles... He needs no human body any longer... The human body of flesh, which Jesus Christ laid down forever as a ransom sacrifice, was disposed of by God's power."—Things in Which it is Impossible for God to Lie, pages 332, 354.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gospel-mysteries.net/resurrection-theories.html |title=Resurrection Theories |publisher=Gospel-mysteries.net |access-date=2013-05-04}}</ref>

Like the Abrahamic religions, the [[Dharmic religions]] also include belief in resurrection and reincarnation. There are stories in [[Buddhism]] where the power of resurrection was allegedly demonstrated in [[Chan Buddhism|Chan]] or [[Zen Buddhism|Zen]] tradition. In [[Hinduism]], the core belief in resurrection/reincarnation is known as ''[[saṃsāra]]''.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zhxpr82/revision/3#:~:text=life%20after%20death%3F-,Most%20Hindus%20believe%20that%20humans%20are%20in%20a%20cycle%20of,may%20exist%20in%20other%20realms. | title=What does Hinduism teach about life after death? - Life after death - GCSE Religious Studies Revision }}</ref>

Aside from religious belief, [[cryonics]] and other speculative resurrection technologies are practiced, but the resurrection of long-dead bodies is not considered possible at the current level of scientific knowledge.

==Etymology==
Resurrection, from the Latin noun ''resurrectio -onis'', from the verb ''rego'', "to make straight, rule" + preposition ''sub'', "under", altered to ''subrigo'' and [[Syncope (phonology)|contracted to]] ''surgo, surrexi, surrectum'' ("to rise", "get up", "stand up"<ref>[[Karl Ernst Georges]], Ferruccio Badellino, Oreste Calonghi, ''Dizionario Latino-Italiano'' (''Latin to Italian dictionary''), Rosenberg & Sellier, 3rd edition, [[Turin]], 1989, 2.957 pages</ref>) + preposition ''re-'', "again",<ref>Cassell's Latin Dictionary</ref> thus literally "a straightening from under again".

==Religion==

===Ancient religions in the Near East===
{{See also|Dying-and-rising god}}
The concept of resurrection is found in the writings of some ancient non-Abrahamic religions in the [[Middle East]]. A few extant [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] and [[Canaan]]ite writings allude to [[Life-death-rebirth deity|dying and rising gods]] such as [[Osiris]] and [[Baal]]. Sir [[James Frazer]] in his book ''[[The Golden Bough]]'' relates to these dying and rising gods,<ref>Sir [[James Frazer]] (1922). ''The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion'' Ware: Wordsworth 1993.</ref> but many of his examples, according to various scholars, distort the sources.<ref>[[Jonathan Z. Smith]] "Dying and Rising Gods" in Mircea Eliade (ed.) ''The Encyclopedia of Religion: Vol. 3''. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan 1995: 521-27.</ref> Taking a more positive position, [[Tryggve Mettinger]] argues in his recent book that the category of rise and return to life is significant for Ugaritic [[Baal]], [[Melqart]], [[Adonis]], [[Eshmun]], [[Osiris]] and [[Tammuz (deity)|Dumuzi]].<ref>Mettinger, ''Riddle of Resurrection'', 55-222.</ref>

===Ancient Greek religion===
In [[ancient Greek religion]] a number of men and women have been interpreted as being resurrected and made [[Immortality#Ancient Greek religion|immortal]]. [[Achilles]], after being killed, was snatched from his funeral pyre by his divine mother [[Thetis]] and brought to an immortal existence in either Leuce, the [[Elysium|Elysian plains]] or the [[Fortunate Isles|Islands of the Blessed]]. [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]], who was killed by Achilles, seems to have received a similar fate. [[Alcmene]], [[Castor and Pollux|Castor]], [[Heracles]], and [[Melicertes]], are also among the figures interpreted to have been resurrected to physical immortality. According to [[Herodotus]]'s [[Histories (Herodotus)|''Histories'']], the seventh century BC sage [[Aristeas of Proconnesus]] was first found dead, after which his body disappeared from a locked room. He would reappear alive years later.<ref>Endsjø, ''Greek Resurrection Beliefs'', 54-64; cf. Finney, ''Resurrection, Hell and the Afterlife'', 13-20.</ref> However, Greek attitudes towards resurrection were generally negative, and the idea of resurrection was considered neither desirable nor possible.<ref>{{Citation |last=Wright |first=NT |title= The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God |volume = 3 |publisher = Fortress Press |year = 2003 |isbn=978-0-8006-2679-2 |page=53}}</ref> For example, [[Asclepius]] was killed by Zeus for using herbs to resurrect the dead, but by his father [[Apollo]]'s request, was subsequently immortalized as a star.<ref>Emma and Ludwig Edelstein, ''Asclepius: Collection and Interpretation of the Testimonies, Volume 1, Page 51</ref><ref>[[Sabine G. MacCormack]] ''Concise Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology'' p.47</ref><ref>Theony Condos, ''Star Myths of the Greeks and Romans'', p.141</ref>

Many other figures, like a great part of those who fought in the [[Trojan war|Trojan]] and Theban wars, [[Menelaus]], and the historical pugilist Cleomedes of Astupalaea, were also believed to have been made physically immortal, but without having died in the first place. Indeed, in Greek religion, immortality originally always included an eternal union of body and soul.<ref>Endsjø, ''Greek Resurrection Beliefs'', 21-45, 64-72.</ref> [[Alcestis]] undergoes something akin to a resurrection in her escape from the underworld,<ref>
{{cite book
| editor1-last = Luschnig
| editor1-first = C. A. E.
| title = Euripides' Alcestis
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RLw1yMrIhzgC
| series = Oklahoma series in classical culture
| year = 2003
| volume = 29
| location = Norman, Oklahoma
| publisher = University of Oklahoma Press
| publication-date = 2003
| page = 219
| isbn = 9780806135748
| access-date = 2019-11-04
| quote = [...] Alcestis' resurrection and restoration to her home [...] once the three days pass that it will take for Alcestis to be cleansed of her obligations to the Netherworld [...]
}}
</ref>
but without achieving immortality.<ref>
{{cite journal
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=GAQ8AAAAMAAJ
| journal               = Transactions of the American Philological Association
| title                 = Transactions of the American Philological Association
| year = 1994
| publisher             = Scholars Press
| publication-date      = 1994
| volume                = 124
| issn                  = 1533-0699
| access-date           = 2019-11-04
| quote                 = And it should be remembered that Alcestis is not immortal — she and Admetus must eventually die their fated deaths.
}}
</ref>{{Full citation needed |date=August 2023}}

Writing his ''Lives of Illustrious Men'' ([[Parallel Lives]]) in the first century, the [[Middle Platonism|Middle Platonic]] philosopher [[Plutarch]] in his chapter on [[Romulus]] gave an account of the king's mysterious disappearance and subsequent deification, comparing it to Greek tales such as the physical immortalization of Alcmene and Aristeas the [[Proconnesian]], "for they say Aristeas died in a fuller's work-shop, and his friends coming to look for him, found his body vanished; and that some presently after, coming from abroad, said they met him traveling towards Croton". Plutarch openly scorned such beliefs held in ancient Greek religion, writing, "many such improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, deifying creatures naturally mortal."<ref>''[[Parallel Lives]], Life of Romulus 28:4-6''</ref> Likewise, he writes that while something within humans comes from the gods and returns to them after death, this happens "only when it is most completely separated and set free from the body, and becomes altogether pure, fleshless, and undefiled."<ref>Collins, Adela Yarbro (2009), ''"Ancient Notions of Transferal and Apotheosis"'', pp 46,51</ref>

The parallel between these traditional beliefs and the later resurrection of Jesus was not lost on the early Christians, as [[Justin Martyr]] argued: "when we say ... [[Jesus Christ]], our teacher, was crucified and died, and rose again, and ascended into heaven, we propose nothing different from what you believe regarding those whom you consider sons of Zeus." ([[First Apology of Justin Martyr|''1 Apol.'' 21]]).

===Buddhism===
{{Further|Rebirth (Buddhism)}}
There are stories in [[Buddhism]] where the power of resurrection was allegedly demonstrated in Chan or [[Zen]] tradition. One is the [[legend]] of [[Bodhidharma]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adamek |first=Wendi Leigh |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/166230168 |title=The mystique of transmission : on an early Chan history and its contexts |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-231-51002-8 |location=New York |pages=154 |oclc=166230168}}</ref> the Indian master who brought the [[Ekayana]] school of India that subsequently became [[Chan Buddhism]] to China.

The other is the passing of Chinese Chan master [[Puhua]] (Japanese:Jinshu Fuke) and is recounted in the Record of [[Linji Yixuan|Linji]] (Japanese: Rinzai Gigen). Puhua was known for his unusual behavior and teaching style so it is no wonder that he is associated with an event that breaks the usual prohibition on displaying such powers. Here is the account from Irmgard Schloegl's "The Zen Teaching of Rinzai".

{{Blockquote|
"One day at the street market Fuke was begging all and sundry to give him a robe. Everybody offered him one, but he did not want any of them. The master [Linji] made the superior buy a coffin, and when Fuke returned, said to him: "There, I had this robe made for you." Fuke shouldered the coffin, and went back to the street market, calling loudly: "Rinzai had this robe made for me! I am off to the East Gate to enter transformation" (to die)." The people of the market crowded after him, eager to look. Fuke said: "No, not today. Tomorrow, I shall go to the South Gate to enter transformation." And so for three days. Nobody believed it any longer. On the fourth day, and now without any spectators, Fuke went alone outside the city walls, and laid himself into the coffin. He asked a traveler who chanced by to nail down the lid.

The news spread at once, and the people of the market rushed there. On opening the coffin, they found that the body had vanished, but from high up in the sky they heard the ring of his hand bell.<ref>Schloegl, Irmgard; tr. "The Zen Teaching of Rinzai". Shambhala Publications, Inc., Berkeley, 1976. Page 76. {{ISBN|0-87773-087-3}}.</ref>}}

===Christianity===
In [[Christianity]], resurrection most critically concerns the [[resurrection of Jesus]], but also includes the resurrection of [[Judgment Day]] known as the resurrection of the dead by those Christians who subscribe to the [[Nicene Creed]] (which is the majority or mainstream Christianity), as well as the resurrection miracles done by Jesus and the prophets of the [[Old Testament]].

====Resurrection miracles====
[[File:Bonnat01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''The Resurrection of Lazarus'', painting by [[Leon Bonnat]], France, 1857]]
{{Main|Miracles of Jesus#Resurrection of the dead}}
In the [[New Testament]], Jesus is said to have raised several persons from death. These resurrections included the daughter of [[Jairus]] shortly after death, a young man in the midst of his own [[funeral]] procession, and [[Lazarus of Bethany]], who had been buried for four days.

During the [[Ministry of Jesus]] on earth, before his death, Jesus commissioned his [[Twelve Apostles]] to, among other things, raise the dead.<ref>Not in the [[Great Commission]] of the resurrected Jesus, but only in the so-called [[Matthew 10|''Lesser Commission'']] of Matthew, specifically {{bibleverse||Matthew|10:8}}.</ref>

Similar resurrections are credited to the [[twelve apostles|apostles]] and Catholic saints. In the [[Acts of the Apostles]], [[Saint Peter]] raised a woman named [[Dorcas]] (also called Tabitha), and [[Paul the Apostle]] revived a man named [[Eutychus]] who had fallen asleep and fell from a window to his death. According to the [[Gospel of Matthew]], after Jesus's resurrection, many of those previously dead came out of their tombs and entered [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]], where they appeared to many. Following the [[Apostolic Age]], many saints were said to resurrect the dead, as recorded in [[Orthodoxy#Christianity|Orthodox Christian]] hagiographies.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}} [[Columba|St. Columba]] supposedly raised a boy from the dead in the land of Picts<ref>Adomnan of Iona. Life of St Columba. Penguin books, 1995</ref> and [[Saint Nicholas|St. Nicholas]] is said to have resurrected pickled children from a brine barrel during a famine by making the [[sign of the cross]].<ref>{{citation|last=Ferguson|first=George|date=1976|orig-year=1954|chapter=St. Nicholas of Myra or Bari|title=Signs and Symbols in Christian Art|location=Oxford, England|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=136}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stnicholascenter.org/Brix?pageID=409|title=St. Nicholas Center: Saint Nicolas|website=stnicholascenter.org|access-date=22 December 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091205211459/http://www.stnicholascenter.org/Brix?pageID=409|archive-date=5 December 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Resurrection of Jesus====
{{Main|Life-death-rebirth deity|Resurrection of Jesus|Easter|Resurrection appearances of Jesus}}
[[File:Pilon-risenchrist2.jpg|thumb|Resurrection of Jesus]]
Christians regard the resurrection of Jesus as the central doctrine in Christianity. Others take the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation of Jesus]] to be more central; however, it is the [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]]&nbsp;– and particularly his resurrection&nbsp;– which provide validation of his incarnation. According to Paul, the entire Christian faith hinges upon the centrality of the resurrection of Jesus and the hope for a life after death. The [[Apostle Paul]] wrote in his first letter to the Corinthians:
{{Blockquote|
If only for this life we have hope in Christ, we are to be pitied more than all men. But Christ has indeed been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who have fallen asleep.<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|15:19-20|49}}</ref>}}

====Resurrection of the dead====
{{Main|Universal resurrection#Christianity|Christian eschatology#Resurrection of the dead}}
Christianity started as a religious movement within 1st-century Judaism (late [[Second Temple Judaism]]), and it retains what the New Testament itself claims was the [[Pharisaic]] belief in the [[Pharisees#The afterlife|afterlife and resurrection of the dead]]. Whereas this belief was only one of many beliefs held about the [[world to come]] in Second Temple Judaism, and was notably rejected by the [[Sadducees]], but accepted by the Pharisees (cf. Acts 23:6-8). Belief in the resurrection became dominant within [[Early Christianity]] and already in the Gospels of Luke and John, included an insistence on the resurrection of the flesh. Most modern [[Christian churches]] continue to uphold the belief that there will be a final [[resurrection of the dead#Christianity|resurrection of the dead]] and [[World to Come#Christian eschatology|world to come]].

Belief in the resurrection of the dead, and Jesus' role as judge, is codified in the [[Apostles' Creed]], which is the fundamental creed of Christian [[baptismal]] faith. The [[Book of Revelation]] also makes many references about the [[Judgment Day|Day of Judgment]] when the dead will be raised.

=== Hinduism ===
{{Further|Reincarnation}}
There are folklore, stories, and extractions from certain holy texts that refer to resurrections. One major folklore is that of Savitri saving her husband's life from Yamraj.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Pragativadi News |date=2023-05-19 |title=Know Significance Of Sabitri Brata |url=https://pragativadi.com/know-significance-of-sabitri-brata/ |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=Pragativadi |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-18 |title=पति के बिना कैसे होंगे 100 पुत्र? सावित्री ने जब यमराज से बचाई सत्यवान की जान |url=https://www.aajtak.in/visualstories/religion/vat-savitri-vrat-2023-savitri-saved-her-husband-life-from-yamraj-with-the-blessing-of-100-sons-tvisu-35769-18-05-2023 |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=www.aajtak.in |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Savitri {{!}} Epic Poem, Indian Mythology, Hinduism {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Savitri |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In the [[Ramayana]], after Ravana was slain by Rama in a great battle between good and evil, Rama requests the king of Devas, Indra, to restore the lives of all the monkeys who died in the great battle<ref>{{Cite web |title=Valmiki Ramayana - Yuddha Kanda |url=http://www.valmikiramayan.net/yuddha/sarga120/yuddha_120_prose.htm |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=www.valmikiramayan.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2020-09-27 |title=On Rama’s request Indra restores the Army [Chapter 123] |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-ramayana-of-valmiki/d/doc424751.html |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> [[Mahavatar Babaji]] and [[Lahiri Mahasaya]] are also believed to have resurrected themselves.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Here's how Rajinikanth became a devotee of Mahavatar Babaji |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/lifestyle/what-s-hot/story/here-s-how-rajinikanth-became-a-devotee-of-mahavatar-babaji-1191001-2018-03-16 |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter 43: The Resurrection of Sri Yukteswar - Autobiography of a Yogi |url=https://www.crystalclarity.com/pages/autobiography-of-a-yogi-chapter-43-the-resurrection-of-sri-yukteswar |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=Crystal Clarity Publishers |language=en}}</ref>

===Islam===
{{Main|Islamic eschatology}}
Belief in the [[Day of Resurrection]] (''yawm al-qiyāmah'') is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of ''Qiyāmah'' is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and [[tribulation]]s preceding and during the ''Qiyāmah'' are described in the Quran and the [[hadith]], and also in the commentaries of [[Ulema|scholars]]. The Quran emphasizes [[Resurrection of the Dead|bodily resurrection]], a break from the [[pre-Islamic Arabia]]n understanding of death.<ref>See:
* "Resurrection", ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'' (2003)
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Avicenna | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online }}: Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
* {{Cite encyclopedia | title=Qiyama | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online | author=L. Gardet }}</ref>

According to [[Nasir Khusraw]] (d. after 1070), an [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]] thinker of the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] era, the Resurrection (''Qiyāma'') will be ushered by the [[Al-Qa'im Al Muhammad|Lord of the Resurrection]] (''Qāʾim al-Qiyāma''), an individual symbolizing the purpose and pinnacle of creation from among the progeny of Muhammad and his Imams. Through this individual, the world will come out of darkness and ignorance and “into the light of her Lord” (Quran 39:69). His era, unlike that of the enunciators of the divine revelation (''nāṭiqs'') before him, is not one where God prescribes the people to work but instead one where God rewards them. Preceding the Lord of the Resurrection (''Qāʾim'') is his proof (''ḥujjat''). The Qur’anic verse stating that “the night of power (''laylat al-qadr'') is better than a thousand months” (Quran 97:3) is said to refer to this proof, whose knowledge is superior to that of a thousand Imams, though their rank, collectively, is one. Hakim Nasir also recognizes the successors of the Lord of the Resurrection to be his deputies (''khulafāʾ'').<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Virani|first=Shafique|title=The Days of Creation in the Thought of Nasir Khusraw|url=https://www.academia.edu/37219457|journal=Nasir Khusraw: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow|date=January 2005|language=en}}</ref>

===Judaism===
{{Main|Jewish eschatology}}
There are three explicit examples in the Hebrew Bible of people being resurrected from the dead:
* The prophet [[Elijah]] prays and God raises a young boy from death ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%2017:17-24;&version=49; 1 Kings 17:17-24])
* [[Elisha]] raises the son of the [[Woman of Shunem]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Kings%204:32-37;&version=49; 2 Kings 4:32-37]) whose birth he previously foretold ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Kings%204:8-16;&version=49; 2 Kings 4:8-16])
* A dead man's body that was thrown into the dead Elisha's tomb is resurrected when the body touches Elisha's bones ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Kings%2013:21;&version=49; 2 Kings 13:21])

According to Herbert C. Brichto, writing in Reform Judaism's ''[[Hebrew Union College Annual]]'', the family tomb is the central concept in understanding biblical views of the [[afterlife]]. Brichto states that it is "not mere sentimental respect for the physical remains that is...the motivation for the practice, but rather an assumed connection between proper [[sepulture]] and the condition of happiness of the deceased in the afterlife".<ref>Raphael ''Jewish Views of the Afterlife'', 45.</ref>

According to Brichto, the early [[Israelites]] apparently believed that the graves of family, or tribe, united into one, and that this unified collectivity is to what the [[Biblical Hebrew]] term [[Sheol]] refers, the common grave of humans. Although not well defined in the [[Tanakh]], Sheol in this view was a subterranean underworld where the souls of the dead went after the body died. The Babylonians had a similar underworld called [[ancient Mesopotamian underworld|Aralu]], and the [[ancient Greeks]] had one known as [[Greek underworld|Hades]]. According to Brichto, other biblical names for Sheol were [[Abaddon]] "ruin", found in Psalm 88:11, Job 28:22 and Proverbs 15:11;  Bor "pit", found in Isaiah 14:15, 24:22, Ezekiel 26:20; and Shakhat "corruption", found in Isaiah 38:17, Ezekiel 28:8.<ref name="Kin, Cult p.8">Herbert Chanon Brichto "Kin, Cult, Land and Afterlife&nbsp;– A Biblical Complex", Hebrew Union College Annual 44, p.8 (1973)</ref>

During the [[Second Temple period]], there developed a diversity of beliefs concerning the resurrection.<ref>Cf. Elledge ''Resurrection of the Dead in Early Judaism'', 19-65; Finney ''Resurrection, Hell and the Afterlife'', 49-77; Lehtipuu ''Debates over the Resurrection'', 31-40.</ref> The concept of resurrection of the physical body is found in [[2 Maccabees]], according to which it will happen through re-creation of the flesh.<ref>2 Maccabees 7.11, 7.28.</ref> Resurrection of the dead also appears in detail in the extra-canonical [[Book of Enoch]],<ref>1 Enoch 61.5, 61.2.</ref> [[2 Baruch]],<ref>2 Baruch 50.2, 51.5</ref> and [[2 Esdras]]. According to the British scholar in ancient Judaism [[Philip R. Davies]], there is "little or no clear reference ... either to immortality or to resurrection from the dead" in the texts of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]].<ref>Philip R. Davies. "Death, Resurrection and Life After Death in the Qumran Scrolls" in Avery-Peck & Neusner (eds.) ''Judaism in Late Antiquity'', 209; cf. Nickelsburg ''Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life'', 179.</ref> [[C.D. Elledge]], however, argues that some form of resurrection may be referred to in the Dead Sea texts [[4Q521]], [[Pseudo-Ezekiel]], and [[4QInstruction]].<ref>Elledge ''Resurrection of the Dead in Early Judaism'', 160-72.</ref> Too, there is the [[Vision of the Valley of Dry Bones]] in the [[Book of Ezekiel]], and the [[Book of Daniel]], which mentions resurrection. As Professor Devorah Dimant notes on ''TheTorah.com'', "Originally an allegorical vision about the future return of Judeans to their land, Ezekiel's vision (ch. 37) becomes one of the cornerstones for the Jewish belief in the resurrection of the dead. ... The only biblical passage that ''unambiguously'' refers to resurrection is found in the final chapter of the book of Daniel[.]" <ref>{{Cite web |last=Dimant |first=Devorah |date=2018 |title=The Valley of Dry Bones and the Resurrection of the Dead |url=https://www.thetorah.com/article/the-valley-of-dry-bones-and-the-resurrection-of-the-dead |access-date=September 8, 2023 |website=TheTorah.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

Both [[Josephus]] and the [[New Testament]] record that the [[Sadducees]] did not believe in an [[afterlife]],<ref>Josephus Antiquities 18.16; Matthew 22.23; Mark 12.18; Luke 20.27; Acta 23.8.</ref> but the sources vary on the beliefs of the [[Pharisees]]. The New Testament claims that the Pharisees believed in the resurrection, but does not specify whether this included the flesh or not.<ref>Acta 23.8.</ref> According to Josephus, who himself was a Pharisee, the Pharisees held that only the soul was immortal and the souls of good people will "pass into other bodies," while "the souls of the wicked will suffer eternal punishment."<ref>Josephus ''Jewish War'' 2.8.14; cf. ''Antiquities'' 8.14-15.</ref> [[Paul the Apostle]], who also was a Pharisee,<ref>Acts 23.6, 26.5.</ref> said that at the resurrection what is "sown as a natural body is raised a spiritual body."<ref>1 Corinthians 15.35-53</ref> The [[Book of Jubilees]] seems to refer to the resurrection of the soul only, or to a more general idea of an immortal soul.<ref>Jubilees 23.31</ref>

== Philosophy ==
Anastasis or Ana-stasis is a concept in contemporary philosophy emerging from the works of [[Jean-Luc Nancy]], [[Divya Dwivedi]] and [[Shaj Mohan]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jean-Luc Nancy : Anastasis de la pensée - Traversées|url=https://www.centrepompidou.fr/fr/programme/agenda/evenement/gTCnI4o|access-date=2022-02-01|website=Centre Pompidou|language=fr-FR}}</ref> Nancy developed the concept through his interpretation of paintings depicting the resurrection of [[Jesus Christ]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Nancy|first=Jean-Luc|author-link=Jean-Luc Nancy|translator-last1=Brault|translator-first1=Pascale-Anne|translator-last2=Naas|translator-first2=Michael|translator-last3=Clift|translator-first3=Sarah|title=Noli Me Tangere: On the Raising of the Body|date=25 August 2009|publisher=Fordham Univ Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8RGGxTIyTkkC|isbn=9780823228898}}</ref> Dwivedi and Mohan, referring to Nancy, defined Ana-stasis as coming over stasis, which is a method for philosophy to overcome its end as [[Martin Heidegger]] defined. This concept is noted to be linked in the works of Nancy, Dwivedi and Mohan to have a relation to Heidegger's [https://positionspolitics.org/welcoming-divya-dwivedi-and-shaj-mohans-gandhi-and-philosophy/ "other beginning of philosophy"].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://positionspolitics.org/the-deconstructive-materialism-of-dwivedi-and-mohan-a-new-philosophy-of-freedom/|title=The Deconstructive Materialism of Dwivedi and Mohan: A New Philosophy of Freedom|last=Janardhanan|first=Reghu|website=positions politics}}</ref> Kohan and Dwivdei that this "overcoming" would construct a new dimension in philosophy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mohan |first=Shaj |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=4sB2DwAAQBAJ&q=%22Gandhi+and+philosophy%22+%22the+obscure+beginning+which+would%22&pg=PA217&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=%22Gandhi%20and%20philosophy%22%20%22the%20obscure%20beginning%20which%20would%22&f=false |title=Gandhi and Philosophy: On Theological Anti-Politics |last2=Dwivedi |first2=Divya |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4742-2173-3 |pages=217}}</ref>

[[John Hick]] argues that the "replica theory" makes the religious doctrine of bodily resurrection somewhat plausible. For example, if a man disappears or dies in [[London]] and an exact "replica" suddenly re-appears in [[New York City|New York]], both entities should be regarded as the same, especially if they share physical and psychological characteristics. Hick extends this theory to [[Parallel Universes (nonfiction)|parallel universes]], which occupy a different space to our own. He also distinguishes the theory from [[reincarnation]], where a person lives in several successive bodies.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Hick |first=John |title=Death and Eternal Life |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0664255091 |pages=279–285}}</ref>

Other scholars reivse the replica theory with the "counterpart theory", where it is believed that God creates a resurrection counterpart to one's current body, which is new and improved. Although it is defined by one's soul and history, it is not identical to the current body, which [[Eternal oblivion|remains destroyed after death]]. A useful analogy is to imagine a soul as a programme, a body as a computer and the "series of states" that a soul undergoes as a person's biography. They believe the theory has precedent in scriptures like the New Testament. In addition, it incentivizes people to care about their future.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Steinhart |first=Eric |date=2008 |title=The Revision Theory of Resurrection |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20006407 |journal=Religious Studies |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=63–81 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>

== Technological resurrection ==
=== Cryonics ===
[[Cryonics]] is the [[Cryopreservation|low-temperature freezing]] (usually at {{cvt|−196|C|F K|disp=or}}) of a human corpse or severed head, with the speculative hope that resurrection may be possible in the [[future]].<ref>{{cite news|last=McKie|first=Robin|title=Cold facts about cryonics|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2002/jul/14/medicalscience.science|access-date=1 December 2013|newspaper=[[The Observer]]|date=13 July 2002|quote="Cryonics, which began in the Sixties, is the freezing – usually in liquid nitrogen – of human beings who have been legally declared dead. The aim of this process is to keep such individuals in a state of refrigerated limbo so that it may become possible in the [[future]] to resuscitate them, cure them of the condition that killed them, and then restore them to functioning life in an era when medical science has triumphed over the activities of the Grim Reaper."}}</ref><ref name="guardian keep cool">{{cite news|title=Dying is the last thing anyone wants to do – so keep cool and carry on|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/oct/11/cryonics-booms-in-us|access-date=21 February 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=10 October 2015}}</ref> Cryonics is regarded with [[skepticism]] within the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a [[pseudoscience]],<ref name=jk>{{cite news |title=Mainstream science is frosty over keeping the dead on ice |author=Steinbeck RL |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=29 September 2002 |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2002-09-29-0209290429-story.html}}</ref> and has been characterized as [[quackery]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.bmj.com/medical-ethics/2016/11/18/justice-cryogenically-delayed-is-justice-denied/|title=Justice Cryogenically Delayed is Justice Denied?|last=Hoppe|first=Nils|date=2016-11-18|website=BMJ Journal of Medical Ethics blog|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-06-24|quote=The mere fact that we feel the promises made by the cryopreservation industry amount to a most grievous form of quackery ...}}; {{Cite news|title=Could He Live to 2150?|last1=Zimmer|first1=Carl|date=October 2007|work=Best Life|quote=Quack watch: The following controversial treatments are all being touted as antiaging miracle cures.|last2=Hamilton|first2=David}}; {{cite book|author=Harold Schechter|title=The Whole Death Catalog: A Lively Guide to the Bitter End|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fpozwi3nyA8C&pg=PA206|date=2 June 2009|publisher=Random House Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-345-51251-2|page=206}}; {{Cite web|url=https://thebaffler.com/salvos/everybody-freeze-pein|title=Everybody Freeze!|last=Pein|first=Corey|date=2016-03-08|website=The Baffler|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-24}}; {{Cite news|url=https://harpers.org/archive/2014/12/heads-will-roll/3/|title=Heads Will Roll|last=Chiasson|first=Dan|date=December 2014|work=Harper's Magazine|access-date=2019-06-24|issn=0017-789X}}; {{Cite web|url=https://www.salon.com/2012/06/24/the_mansion_of_happiness_matters_of_life_and_death/|title="The Mansion of Happiness": Matters of life and death|last=Miller|first=Laura|date=2012-06-24|website=Salon|language=en|access-date=2019-06-24}}; {{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/02/books/review/strange-bodies-by-marcel-theroux.html|title=Sparks of Life|last=Almond|first=Steve|date=2014-02-28|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-06-24|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}; {{Cite book|title=The Skeptics Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions|last=Carroll|first=Robert Todd|publisher=Wiley|year=2003|isbn=0471272426|quote=A business based on little more than hope for developments that can be imagined by science is quackery. There is little reason to believe that the promises of cryonics will ever be fulfilled.}}</ref>

=== Digital ghosts ===
In his 1988 book ''Mind Children'', [[roboticist]] [[Hans Moravec]] proposed that a future [[supercomputer]] might be able to resurrect long-dead minds from the information that still survived. For example, such can include information in the form of memories, filmstrips, social media interactions,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Galvão |first1=Vinicius Ferreira |last2=Maciel |first2=Cristiano |last3=Pereira |first3=Vinicius Carvalho |last4=Garcia |first4=Ana Cristina Bicharra |last5=Pereira |first5=Roberto |last6=Viterbo |first6=José |title=Proceedings of the XX Brazilian Symposium on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=Posthumous data at stake: An Overview of Digital Immortality Issues |date=18 October 2021 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1145/3472301.3484358 |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|isbn=9781450386173 |s2cid=238585039 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Galvão |first1=Vinícius Ferreira |last2=Maciel |first2=Cristiano |last3=Pereira |first3=Roberto |last4=Gasparini |first4=Isabela |last5=Viterbo |first5=José |last6=Bicharra Garcia |first6=Ana Cristina |title=Discussing human values in digital immortality: towards a value-oriented perspective |journal=Journal of the Brazilian Computer Society |date=26 November 2021 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=15 |doi=10.1186/s13173-021-00121-x |s2cid=244664252 |issn=1678-4804|doi-access=free }}</ref> modeled personality traits,<ref name="10.1007/s42438-018-0007-6"/> personal favourite things,<ref name="10.1007/s42438-018-0007-6">{{cite journal |last1=Savin-Baden |first1=Maggi |last2=Burden |first2=David |title=Digital Immortality and Virtual Humans |journal=Postdigital Science and Education |date=1 April 2019 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=87–103 |doi=10.1007/s42438-018-0007-6 |s2cid=149797460 |language=en |issn=2524-4868|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Personal information manager|personal notes and tasks]],{{additional citation needed|date=November 2022}} [[electronic health record|medical records]], and [[genome|genetic information]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/mindchildrenfutu00mora|url-access=registration|title=Mind Children|publisher=Harvard University Press|access-date=6 July 2015|isbn=9780674576186|last1=Moravec|first1=Hans|year=1988}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://futurisms.thenewatlantis.com/2010/02/resurrecting-dead.html|title=Resurrecting the Dead - Futurisms - The New Atlantis|work=Futurisms - The New Atlantis|date=6 February 2010 |access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref>

[[Ray Kurzweil]], American inventor and [[futurist]], believes that when his concept of [[Technological singularity|singularity]] comes to pass, it will be possible to resurrect the dead by digital recreation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.singularityweblog.com/ray-kurzweil-singularity/|title=Ray Kurzweil on the Singularity and Bringing Back the Dead|author=Socrates|date=18 July 2012|work=Singularity Weblog|access-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> Such is one approach in the concept of [[digital immortality]], which could be described as resurrecting deceased as "digital [[ghost]]s"<ref>{{cite web |title=Ghostbots, the Quest for Digital Immortality and the Law |url=https://www.jurist.org/commentary/2022/01/mauricio-figueroa-ghostbots-digital-immortality-law/ |website=www.jurist.org |date=18 January 2022 |access-date=2 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steinhart |first1=Eric |title=Survival as a Digital Ghost |journal=Minds and Machines |date=1 October 2007 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=261–271 |doi=10.1007/s11023-007-9068-0 |s2cid=2741620 |language=en |issn=1572-8641|url=https://philarchive.org/rec/STESAA }}</ref> or "digital avatars".<ref>{{cite news |title=Digital immortality: How your life's data means a version of you could live forever |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2018/10/18/139457/digital-version-after-death/ |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=MIT Technology Review |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=How your digital self could 'live' on after you die |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-40935790 |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=BBC News |date=21 August 2017}}</ref> In the context of [[knowledge management]], "virtual persona" could "aid in knowledge capture, retention, distribution, access and use" and continue to learn.<ref name="10.1007/s42438-018-0007-6"/> Issues include [[post-mortem privacy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gamba |first1=Fiorenza |title=AI, mourning and digital immortality. Some ethical questions on digital remain and post-mortem privacy |journal=Études sur la mort |date=11 October 2022 |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=13–25 |doi=10.3917/eslm.157.0013|s2cid=253060024 }}</ref> and potential use of personalised digital twins and associated systems by [[big data]] firms and advertisers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Truby |first1=Jon |last2=Brown |first2=Rafael |title=Human digital thought clones: the Holy Grail of artificial intelligence for big data |journal=Information & Communications Technology Law |date=4 May 2021 |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=140–168 |doi=10.1080/13600834.2020.1850174 |s2cid=229442428 |issn=1360-0834|doi-access=free |hdl=10576/17266 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Related alternative approaches of digital immortality include gradually "[[Artificial neuron|replacing]]" neurons in the brain with advanced medical technology (such as [[nanobiotechnology]]) as a form of [[mind uploading]] (see also: [[wetware computer]]).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Turchin |first1=Alexey |title=Multilevel Strategy for Immortality: Plan A ? Fighting Aging, Plan B ? Cryonics, Plan C ? Digital Immortality, Plan D ? Big World Immortality |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/TURMSF-2 |access-date=2 November 2022}}</ref>

=== De-extinction ===
[[De-extinction]], enabling an organism that either resembles or is an [[extinct species]], is also known as "resurrection biology" and often described as working on "resurrecting" dead species.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ahmed |first1=Issam |title=Forget mammoths, study shows how to resurrect Christmas Island rats |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-03-mammoths-resurrect-christmas-island-rats.html |access-date=19 April 2022 |work=phys.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=De-extinction: scientists are planning the multimillion-dollar resurrection of the Tasmanian tiger |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/aug/16/de-extinction-scientists-are-planning-the-multimillion-dollar-resurrection-of-the-tasmanian-tiger |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=16 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bringing extinct species back from the dead could hurt—not help—conservation efforts |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/bringing-extinct-species-back-dead-could-hurt-not-help-conservation-efforts |publisher=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |access-date=2 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Medical resuscitation ===
Modern medicine can, in some cases, revive patients who "died" by some definitions of [[death]], or were declared dead. However, under most definitions of death, this would mean that the patient wasn't truly dead.

Most advanced versions of such capabilities may include a method/system under development reported in 2019, 'BrainEx', that could partially revive (pig) brains hours after death (to the degree of brain circulation and cellular functions).<ref name="bbc62406350"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vrselja |first1=Zvonimir |last2=Daniele |first2=Stefano G. |last3=Silbereis |first3=John |last4=Talpo |first4=Francesca |last5=Morozov |first5=Yury M. |last6=Sousa |first6=André M. M. |last7=Tanaka |first7=Brian S. |last8=Skarica |first8=Mario |last9=Pletikos |first9=Mihovil |last10=Kaur |first10=Navjot |last11=Zhuang |first11=Zhen W. |last12=Liu |first12=Zhao |last13=Alkawadri |first13=Rafeed |last14=Sinusas |first14=Albert J. |last15=Latham |first15=Stephen R. |last16=Waxman |first16=Stephen G. |last17=Sestan |first17=Nenad |title=Restoration of brain circulation and cellular functions hours post-mortem |journal=Nature |date=April 2019 |volume=568 |issue=7752 |pages=336–343 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1099-1 |pmid=30996318 |pmc=6844189 |bibcode=2019Natur.568..336V |language=en |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> It showed that "the process of cell death is a gradual, stepwise process and that some of those processes can be either postponed, preserved or even reversed".<ref>{{cite news |title=Wild ideas in science: Death is reversible |url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/wild-ideas-death-is-reversible/ |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=BBC Science Focus Magazine |language=en}}</ref> A similar [[Machine perfusion|organ perfusion system]] under development, 'OrganEx', can restore – i.e. on the cellular level – multiple vital (pig) organs one hour after death (during which the body had prolonged warm [[ischaemia]]).<ref name="bbc62406350">{{cite news |title=Pig organs partially revived hour after death |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-62406350 |access-date=15 September 2022 |work=BBC News |date=3 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Andrijevic |first1=David |last2=Vrselja |first2=Zvonimir |last3=Lysyy |first3=Taras |last4=Zhang |first4=Shupei |last5=Skarica |first5=Mario |last6=Spajic |first6=Ana |last7=Dellal |first7=David |last8=Thorn |first8=Stephanie L. |last9=Duckrow |first9=Robert B. |last10=Ma |first10=Shaojie |last11=Duy |first11=Phan Q. |last12=Isiktas |first12=Atagun U. |last13=Liang |first13=Dan |last14=Li |first14=Mingfeng |last15=Kim |first15=Suel-Kee |last16=Daniele |first16=Stefano G. |last17=Banu |first17=Khadija |last18=Perincheri |first18=Sudhir |last19=Menon |first19=Madhav C. |last20=Huttner |first20=Anita |last21=Sheth |first21=Kevin N. |last22=Gobeske |first22=Kevin T. |last23=Tietjen |first23=Gregory T. |last24=Zaveri |first24=Hitten P. |last25=Latham |first25=Stephen R. |last26=Sinusas |first26=Albert J. |last27=Sestan |first27=Nenad |title=Cellular recovery after prolonged warm ischaemia of the whole body |journal=Nature |date=August 2022 |volume=608 |issue=7922 |pages=405–412 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-05016-1 |pmid=35922506 |pmc=9518831 |bibcode=2022Natur.608..405A |s2cid=251316299 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362458029 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription}}</ref> It could be used to preserve [[donor organ]]s but may also be developed to be useful for revival in medical emergencies by buying "more time for doctors to treat people whose bodies were starved of oxygen, such as those who died from drowning or heart attacks".<ref name="bbc62406350"/>

There is research into what happens during<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vicente |first1=Raul |last2=Rizzuto |first2=Michael |last3=Sarica |first3=Can |last4=Yamamoto |first4=Kazuaki |last5=Sadr |first5=Mohammed |last6=Khajuria |first6=Tarun |last7=Fatehi |first7=Mostafa |last8=Moien-Afshari |first8=Farzad |last9=Haw |first9=Charles S. |last10=Llinas |first10=Rodolfo R. |last11=Lozano |first11=Andres M. |last12=Neimat |first12=Joseph S. |last13=Zemmar |first13=Ajmal |title=Enhanced Interplay of Neuronal Coherence and Coupling in the Dying Human Brain |journal=Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience |date=2022 |volume=14 |page=813531 |doi=10.3389/fnagi.2022.813531 |pmid=35273490 |pmc=8902637 |issn=1663-4365|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Weisberger |first1=Mindy |title=Are 'Flatliners' Really Conscious After Death? |url=https://www.livescience.com/60593-flatliners-movie-death-resuscitation.html |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=livescience.com |date=4 October 2017 |language=en}}</ref> and after death as well as how and to what extent patients could be revived by the use of science and technology. For example, one study showed that in the hours after humans die, "certain cells [[Brain death#Medical criteria|in the human brain]] are still active".<ref>{{cite news |title='Zombie' genes? Research shows some genes come to life in the brain after death {{!}} UIC Today |url=https://today.uic.edu/zombie-genes-research-shows-some-genes-come-to-life-in-the-brain-after-death |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=today.uic.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dachet |first1=Fabien |last2=Brown |first2=James B. |last3=Valyi-Nagy |first3=Tibor |last4=Narayan |first4=Kunwar D. |last5=Serafini |first5=Anna |last6=Boley |first6=Nathan |last7=Gingeras |first7=Thomas R. |last8=Celniker |first8=Susan E. |last9=Mohapatra |first9=Gayatry |last10=Loeb |first10=Jeffrey A. |title=Selective time-dependent changes in activity and cell-specific gene expression in human postmortem brain |journal=Scientific Reports |date=23 March 2021 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6078 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-85801-6 |pmid=33758256 |pmc=7988150 |bibcode=2021NatSR..11.6078D |language=en |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> However, it is thought that at least ''without'' any life-support-like systems, death is permanent and irreversible after several hours – not days – even in cases when revival was still possible shortly after death.{{additional citation needed|date=November 2022}}

A 2010 study notes that physicians are determining death "test only for the permanent cessation of circulation and respiration because they know that irreversible cessation follows rapidly and inevitably once circulation no longer will restore itself spontaneously and will not be restored medically".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bernat |first1=J. L. |title=How the Distinction between "Irreversible" and "Permanent" Illuminates Circulatory-Respiratory Death Determination |journal=Journal of Medicine and Philosophy |date=1 June 2010 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=242–255 |doi=10.1093/jmp/jhq018|pmid=20439357 }}</ref> Development of advanced live support measures "including [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] (CPR) and [[positive pressure ventilation]] (PPV)" brought the interdependence of cessation of brain function and loss of respiration and circulation and "the traditional definition of death into question"<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spears |first1=William |last2=Mian |first2=Asim |last3=Greer |first3=David |title=Brain death: a clinical overview |journal=Journal of Intensive Care |date=16 March 2022 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=16 |doi=10.1186/s40560-022-00609-4 |pmid=35292111 |pmc=8925092 |issn=2052-0492 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and further developments upend more "definitions of mortality".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Koch |first1=Christof |title=Is Death Reversible? |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-death-reversible/ |access-date=2 November 2022 |work=Scientific American |date=October 1, 2019}}</ref>

=== Hypothetical speculations without existing technologies ===<!--in fiction and/or without underlying existing/developed technology-->
[[Russian cosmist]] [[Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov]] advocated resurrection of the dead using scientific methods. Fedorov tried to plan specific actions for scientific research of the possibility of restoring life and making it infinite. His first project is connected with collecting and synthesizing decayed remains of dead based on "knowledge and control over all atoms and molecules of the world". The second method described by Fedorov is genetic-hereditary. The revival could be done successively in the ancestral line: sons and daughters restore their fathers and mothers, they in turn restore their parents and so on. This means restoring the ancestors using the hereditary information that they passed on to their children. Using this genetic method it is only possible to create a [[identical twin|genetic twin]] of the dead person. It is necessary to give back the revived person his old mind, his personality. Fedorov speculates about the idea of "radial images" that may contain the personalities of the people and survive after death. Nevertheless, Fedorov noted that even if a soul is destroyed after death, Man will learn to restore it whole by mastering the forces of decay and fragmentation.<ref>Nikolai Berdyaev, The Religion of Resusciative Resurrection. "The Philosophy of the Common Task of N. F. Fedorov.</ref>

In his 1994 book ''The Physics of Immortality'', American [[physicist]] [[Frank J. Tipler]], an expert on the [[general theory of relativity]],  presented his [[Omega Point (Tipler)|Omega Point Theory]] which outlines how a resurrection of the dead could take place at the end of the [[cosmos]].  He posits that humans will evolve into [[robots]] which will turn the entire [[cosmos]] into a [[supercomputer]] which will, shortly before the [[Big Crunch]], perform the resurrection within its [[cyberspace]], reconstructing formerly dead humans (from information captured by the [[supercomputer]] from the past [[light cone]] of the cosmos) as [[Avatar (computing)|avatars]] within its [[metaverse]].<ref>Tipler ''The Physics of Immortality''. 56-page excerpt available [http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780385467995 here.]</ref>

[[David Deutsch]], British [[physicist]] and pioneer in the field of [[quantum computing]], formerly agreed with Tipler's Omega Point cosmology and the idea of resurrecting deceased people with the help of quantum computers<ref>David Deutsch (1997). "The Ends of the Universe". The Fabric of Reality: The Science of Parallel Universes—and Its Implications. London: Penguin Press. {{ISBN|0-7139-9061-9}}.</ref> but he is critical of Tipler's theological views.

Italian [[physicist]] and [[computer scientist]] [[Giulio Prisco]] presented the idea of "quantum archaeology",  "reconstructing the life, thoughts, memories, and feelings of any person in the past, up to any desired level of detail, and thus resurrecting the original person via 'copying to the future'".<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies]] | title=Technological Resurrection Concepts From Fedorov to Quantum Archeology | url=http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/prisco20151011 | access-date=December 10, 2015 | date=October 11, 2015 |author= Giulio Prisco}} {{cite web|url=http://giulioprisco.blogspot.fr/2011/12/quantum-archaeology.html|title=Quantum Archaeology |author=Giulio Prisco | access-date=6 July 2015 | date=December 16, 2011}}</ref>

In their [[science fiction]] [[novel]] ''[[The Light of Other Days]]'', [[Arthur C. Clarke|Sir Arthur Clarke]] and [[Stephen Baxter (author)|Stephen Baxter]] imagine a future civilization resurrecting the dead of past ages by reaching into the past, through micro [[wormholes]] and with [[Nanorobotics|nanorobots]], to download full snapshots of [[brain]] states and memories.<ref>Arthur C. Clarke, Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible, Millennium [i.e., Second] Edition, Victor Gollancz – An imprint of Orion Books Ltd., 1999, p. 118: "the novel that Stephen Baxter has now written from my synopsis — The Light of Other Days."</ref>

=== In religions ===
Both the Church of Perpetual Life and the [[Terasem Movement]] consider themselves [[Transhumanism#Spirituality|transreligions]] and advocate for the use of technology to indefinitely [[Life extension|extend the human lifespan]].<ref>{{cite news| newspaper=International Business Times | title=Virtual reality heaven: How technology is redefining death and the afterlife | url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/virtual-reality-heaven-how-technology-redefining-afterlife-1532429 | author=Anthony Cuthbertson | access-date=December 10, 2015 | date=December 9, 2015}}</ref>

==Zombies==
{{Main|Zombie}}
A zombie ([[Haitian French]]: ''{{lang|fr|zombi}}'', {{lang-ht|zonbi}}) is a fictional [[undead]] being created through the reanimation of a human [[corpse]]. Zombies are most commonly found in [[Horror fiction|horror]] and [[fantasy]] genre works. The term comes from [[Culture of Haiti#Folklore and mythology|Haitian folklore]], where a ''zombie'' is a dead body reanimated through various methods, most commonly [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]].

==Disappearances (as distinct from resurrection)==
{{See also|Entering heaven alive}}
As knowledge of different religions has grown, so have claims of bodily disappearance of some religious and mythological figures. In [[ancient Greek religion]], this was a way the gods made some physically immortal, including such figures as [[Cleitus (mythology)|Cleitus]], [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], [[Menelaus]], and [[Tithonus]].<ref>Rohde ''Psyche'', 55-87; Endsjø ''Greek Resurrection Beliefs'', 64-72.</ref> After his death, [[Cycnus]] was changed into a [[swan]] and vanished. In his chapter on [[Romulus]] from [[Parallel Lives]], [[Plutarch]] criticises the continuous belief in such disappearances, referring to the allegedly miraculous disappearance of the historical figures Romulus, Cleomedes of Astypalaea, and [[Croesus]]. In ancient times, Greek and Roman pagan similarities were explained by the early Christian writers, such as [[Justin Martyr]], as the work of demons, with the intention of leading Christians astray.<ref>Justin Martyr, [[Dialogue with Trypho]].</ref>

In the Buddhist [[Epic of King Gesar]], also spelled as Geser or Kesar, at the end, chants on a mountain top and his clothes fall empty to the ground.<ref>[[Alexandra David-Neel]], and Lama Yongden, ''The Superhuman Life of Gesar of Ling'', Rider, 1933, While still in oral tradition, it is recorded for the first time by an early European traveler.</ref> The body of the first Guru of the [[Sikh]]s, [[Guru Nanak Dev]], is said to have disappeared and flowers left in place of his dead body.<ref>Shukla, A. (2019). The Politics of Kartarpur Corridor and India-Pakistan Relations. Indian Council of World Affairs, 10, 1-8.</ref>

[[FitzRoy Somerset, 4th Baron Raglan|Lord Raglan]]'s [[The Hero Pattern|Hero Pattern]] lists many religious figures whose bodies disappear, or have more than one [[sepulchre]].<ref>[[Otto Rank]], [[FitzRoy Somerset, 4th Baron Raglan|Lord Raglan]], and [[Alan Dundes]], ''In Quest of the Hero'', Princeton University Press, 1990</ref> B. Traven, author of ''[[The Treasure of the Sierra Madre]]'', wrote that the [[Inca]] [[Virococha]] arrived at Cusco (in modern-day Peru) and the Pacific seacoast where he walked across the water and vanished.<ref>B. Traven, ''The Creation of the Sun and Moon'', Lawerence Hill Books, 1977</ref> It has been thought that teachings regarding the purity and incorruptibility of the hero's human body are linked to this phenomenon. Perhaps, this is also to deter the practice of disturbing and collecting the hero's remains. They are safely protected if they have disappeared.<ref>See: Michael Paterniti, ''Driving Mr. Albert: A Trip Across America with Einstein's Brain'', The Dial Press, 2000</ref>

The first such case mentioned in the Bible is that of [[Enoch (ancestor of Noah)|Enoch]] (son of [[Jared (ancestor of Noah)|Jared]], great-grandfather of [[Noah]], and father of [[Methuselah]]). Enoch is said to have lived a life where he "walked with God", after which "he was not, for God took him" (Genesis 5:1–18).<ref>{{bibleverse-lb||Genesis|5:18-24|HE}}</ref> In [[Deuteronomy]] (34:6) [[Moses]] is secretly buried. [[Elijah]] vanishes in a whirlwind [[2 Kings]] (2:11). In the [[Synoptic Gospels]], after hundreds of years these two earlier Biblical heroes suddenly reappear, and are reportedly seen walking with Jesus, then again vanish.<ref>[[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] (9:2–8), [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] (17:1–8) and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] (9:28–33)</ref> In the [[Gospel of Luke]], the last time Jesus is seen (24:51) he leaves his disciples by [[Ascension of Jesus|ascending into the sky]]. This ascension of Jesus was a “disappearance” of sorts as recorded by Luke but was after the physical resurrection occurring several days before.

==See also==
* [[1 Corinthians 15]]
* [[Information-theoretic death]]
* [[Metempsychosis]]
* [[Near death experience]]
* [[Necromancy]]
* [[Riverworld]]
* [[Suspended animation]]
* [[Undead]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [[Alan J. Avery-Peck]] & [[Jacob Neusner]] (eds.). ''Judaism in Late Antiquity: Part Four: Death, Life-After-Death, Resurrection, and the World-To-Come in the Judaisms of Antiquity.'' Leiden: Brill, 2000.
* [[Caroline Walker Bynum]]. ''The Resurrection of the Body in Western Christianity, 200-1336.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. 
* [[C.D. Elledge]]. ''Resurrection of the Dead in Early Judaism, 200 BCE -- CE 200''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.
* [[Dag Øistein Endsjø]]. ''Greek Resurrection Beliefs and the Success of Christianity''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 
* [[Mark T. Finney]]. ''Resurrection, Hell and the Afterlife: Body and Soul in Antiquity, Judaism and Early Christianity''. New York: Routledge, 2017.
* [[Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov]]. ''Philosophy of Physical Resurrection'' 1906.
* [[Edwin Hatch]]. ''Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages Upon the Christian Church'' (1888 Hibbert Lectures).
* [[Alfred J Hebert]]. ''Raised from the Dead: True Stories of 400 Resurrection Miracles''.
* [[Dierk Lange]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=syATJKcx5A0C&q=lange,+kingdoms "The dying and the rising God in the New Year Festival of Ife"], in: Lange, ''Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa'', Dettelbach: Röll Vlg. 2004, pp.&nbsp;343–376.
* [[Outi Lehtipuu]]. ''Debates over the Resurrection of the Dead: Constructing Early Christian Identity''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
* [[Richard Longenecker]], editor. ''Life in the Face of Death: The Resurrection Message of the New Testament''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
*[[Joseph McCabe]]. ''Myth of the Resurrection and Other Essays'', Prometheus books: New York, 1993 [1925]
* [[Kevin J. Madigan]] & [[Jon D. Levenson]]. ''Resurrection: The Power of God for Christians and Jews''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.
* [[Tryggve Mettinger]]. ''The Riddle of Resurrection: "Dying and Rising Gods" in the Ancient Near East'', Stockholm: Almqvist, 2001.
* [[Markus Mühling]]. ''Grundinformation Eschatologie. Systematische Theologie aus der Perspektive der Hoffnung''. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2007.
* [[George Nickelsburg]]. ''Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in Intertestmental Judaism''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972.
* [[Pheme Perkins]]. ''Resurrection: New Testament Witness and Contemporary Reflection''. Garden City: Doubleday & Company, 1984.
* [[Simcha Paull Raphael]]. ''Jewish Views of the Afterlife''. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009.
* [[Erwin Rohde]] ''Psyche: The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality among the Greeks''. New York: Harper & Row, 1925 [1921].
* [[Charles H. Talbert]]. "The Concept of Immortals in Mediterranean Antiquity", ''Journal of Biblical Literature'', Volume 94, 1975, pp 419–436.
* [[Charles H. Talbert]]. "The Myth of a Descending-Ascending Redeemer in Mediterranean Antiquity", ''New Testament Studies'', Volume 22, 1975/76, pp 418–440.
* {{cite book
 |author=Frank J. Tipler
 |year=1994
 |title=The Physics of Immortality: Modern Cosmology, God and the Resurrection of the Dead
 |location=my house
 |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]]
 |isbn=0-19-851949-4
 |url=https://archive.org/details/anthropiccosmolo00barr_0
 }}
* [[N.T. Wright]] (2003). ''The Resurrection of the Son of God''. London: SPCK; Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
*{{cite IEP |url-id=Resurrection/ |title=Resurrection}}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12789a.htm Resurrection of Jesus Christ] - Catholic Encyclopedia
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090702131515/http://www.firstthings.com/article/2007/01/the-life-of-the-world--15 Article on resurrection in the Hebrew Bible.]
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=233&letter=R Jewish Encyclopedia: Resurrection]
* [http://www.orthodoxphotos.com/readings/threshold/occult.shtml The enticement of the Occult: Occultism examined by a scientist and Orthodox Priest]
* [https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-18159992?refid=hbw_rd Rethinking the resurrection.(of Jesus Christ)(Cover Story) Newsweek, April 8th 1996, Woodward, Kenneth L.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311081839/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-76 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Death and Immortality, Resurrection, Reincarnation

{{Death}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Resurrection| ]]
[[Category:Afterlife]]
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Mythology]]
[[Category:Religious belief and doctrine]]