Research

{{short description|Systematic study undertaken to increase knowledge}}
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{{Research}}
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'''Research''' is "[[creativity|creative]] and [[scientific method|systematic]] work undertaken to increase the stock of [[knowledge]]".<ref>{{Cite book|doi = 10.1787/9789264239012-en|title = Frascati Manual|series = The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation Activities|year = 2015|isbn = 978-9264238800|last1 = OECD|hdl = 20.500.12749/13290|url = https://eduq.info/xmlui/handle/11515/35750|author1-link = OECD|access-date = 4 April 2020|archive-date = 5 June 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200605123738/https://eduq.info/xmlui/handle/11515/35750|url-status = live}}</ref> It involves the collection, organization, and [[analysis]] of [[evidence]] to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of [[bias]] and error. These activities are characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion of past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.

The primary purposes of [[basic research]] (as opposed to [[applied research]]) are [[documentation]], [[Discovery (observation)|discovery]], [[interpretation (philosophy)|interpretation]], and the [[research and development]] (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on [[epistemology|epistemologies]], which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: [[Science|scientific]], [[humanities]], [[artistic]], economic, [[social research|social]], business, [[marketing research|marketing]], [[practitioner research]], life, [[technological]], etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as [[metascience|meta-research]].

A '''researcher''' is a person engaged in conducting research, possibly recognized as an [[Occupation (human activity)|occupation]] by a formal [[job title]]. In order to be a social researcher or a social scientist, one should have enormous knowledge of subjects related to social science that they are specialized in. Similarly, in order to be a natural science researcher, the person should have knowledge of fields related to natural science (physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, zoology and so on). [[Professional association]]s provide one pathway to mature in the research profession.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sha |first=Mandy |date=2019-05-14 |title=Professional Association and Pathways to Leadership in Our Profession |url=https://www.surveypractice.org/article/8192-professional-association-and-pathways-to-leadership-in-our-profession |journal=Survey Practice |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.29115/SP-2018-0039 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Aristotle]], (384–322 BC), one of the early figures in the development of the [[scientific method]]<ref>"[https://www.pbs.org/saf/1307/features/knows.htm The Origins of Science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030303204503/http://www.pbs.org/saf/1307/features/knows.htm |date=3 March 2003 }}". ''[[Scientific American Frontiers]]''.</ref>]]

The word ''research'' is derived from the [[French language|Middle French]] "''recherche''", which means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the [[Old French]] term "recerchier," a compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'.<ref name="Merriam_webster">{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/research|title=Research |publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=20 May 2018|archive-date=18 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018122245/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/research|url-status=live}}</ref> The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.<ref name="Merriam_webster"/>

== Definitions ==
Research has been defined in a number of different ways, and while there are similarities, there does not appear to be a single, all-encompassing definition that is embraced by all who engage in it.

Research, in its simplest terms, is searching for knowledge and searching for truth. In a formal sense, it is a systematic study of a problem attacked by a deliberately chosen strategy, which starts with choosing an approach to preparing a blueprint (design) and acting upon it in terms of designing research hypotheses, choosing methods and techniques, selecting or developing data collection tools, processing the data, interpretation, and ending with presenting solution(s) of the problem.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grover |first=Vijey |date=2015 |title=RESEARCH APPROACH: AN OVERVIEW |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273352276 |journal=Golden Research Thoughts |volume=4}}</ref>

Another definition of research is given by [[John W. Creswell]], who states that "research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.<ref>Creswell, J.W. (2008). ''Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research'' (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.{{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=June 2019}}</ref>

The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research more generally to also include studying already existing knowledge: "studious inquiry or examination; ''especially'': investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws"<ref name="Merriam_webster"/>

== Forms of research ==
=== Original research ===
{{Redirect|Original research|the Wikipedia prohibition against user-generated, unpublished research|Wikipedia:No original research|selfref=yes}}
'''Original research''', also called '''primary research''', is research that is not exclusively based on a summary, review, or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a [[Primary source|primary-source]] character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new [[knowledge]] rather than present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified).<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Original Research? Original research is considered a primary source |url=http://www.unf.edu/library/guides/originalresearch.html|publisher=Thomas G. Carpenter Library, University of North Florida|access-date=9 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709085129/http://www.unf.edu/library/guides/originalresearch.html|archive-date=9 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XlIH4R9Z_k8C&pg=PT75|title=Schaum's Quick Guide to Writing Great Research Papers|first=Laurie|last=Rozakis|date=2007|publisher=McGraw Hill Professional|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0071511223}}</ref> Original research can take various forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the [[methodology]], results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results. In [[Scientific modelling|analytical]] work, there are typically some new (for example) mathematical results produced or a new way of approaching an existing problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the work of the [[Academic authorship|researcher]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aare.edu.au/09pap/li091380.pdf |title=Early career researcher originality: Engaging Richard Florida's international competition for creative workers |first=Michael |last=Singh |author2=Li, Bingyi |date=6 October 2009 |publisher=Centre for Educational Research, University of Western Sydney |page=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110410083715/http://aare.edu.au/09pap/li091380.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2011 |url-status=live |access-date=12 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The degree of originality of the research is among the major criteria for articles to be published in [[academic journal]]s and usually established by means of [[peer review]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Callaham |first1=Michael |last2=Wears|first2= Robert|last3=Weber|first3=Ellen L. |title=Journal Prestige, Publication Bias, and Other Characteristics Associated With Citation of Published Studies in Peer-Reviewed Journals |journal=JAMA |volume=287 |issue=21 |pages=2847–50 |year=2002 |doi=10.1001/jama.287.21.2847|pmid=12038930 |doi-access= }}</ref> [[Graduate student]]s are commonly required to perform original research as part of a [[dissertation]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oFFWt5oyA3oC&q=%22original+research%22&pg=PA178|title=Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006–2007 edition|author=US Department of Labor|date=2006|publisher=Mcgraw-hill|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0071472883}}</ref>

=== Scientific research ===
{{Main|Scientific method}}
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[[File:Microscopy lab.jpg|thumb|right|Primary scientific research being carried out at the [[Electron microscope|Microscopy]] Laboratory of the [[Idaho National Laboratory]]]]
[[File:Alcator C-Mod.jpg|thumb|right|Scientific research equipment at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]]]
[[File:RV Sonne 2014 1.jpg|thumb|right|German maritime [[research vessel]] [[RV Sonne (2014)|''Sonne'']]]]

'''Scientific research''' is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing [[curiosity]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} This research provides [[science|scientific]] information and theories for the explanation of [[Nature (philosophy)|the nature]] and [[Property (philosophy)|the properties]] of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations, and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.{{copy edit inline|reason=strange definition of 'scientific research' and three sentences after one another starting with 'scientific'.|date=March 2024}}

Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural [[Process (science)|process]]. Though the order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:
# [[Scientific method#Elements of the scientific method|Observations and formation of the topic]]: Consists of the subject area of one's interest and following that subject area to conduct subject-related research. The subject area should not be randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.
# [[Hypothesis]]: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more variables.
# [[Conceptual definition]]: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts.
# [[Operational definition]]: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.
# [[Data collection|Gathering of data]]: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information from or about these samples by using specific research instruments. The instruments used for data collection must be valid and reliable.
# [[Data analysis|Analysis of data]]: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data to draw conclusions about it.
# [[Data Interpretation]]: This can be represented through tables, figures, and pictures, and then described in words.
# [[Scientific method#Evaluation and improvement|Test, revising of hypothesis]]
# [[Scientific method#Elements of the scientific method|Conclusion, reiteration if necessary]]

A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see, rather, [[null hypothesis]]). Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected (see [[falsifiability]]). However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true.

A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which states no relationship or difference between the independent or dependent variables.

=== Research in the humanities ===
'''Research in the humanities''' involves different methods such as for example [[hermeneutics]] and [[semiotics]]. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in [[historical method]]. Historians use [[primary sources]] and other [[evidence]] to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past. Other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in societies and communities, without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety of approaches, such as queer theory or feminist theory.<ref name="Roffee 4–22">{{Cite journal|last1=Roffee|first1=James A|last2=Waling|first2=Andrea|date=18 August 2016|title=Resolving ethical challenges when researching with minority and vulnerable populations: LGBTIQ victims of violence, harassment and bullying|journal=Research Ethics|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=4–22|doi=10.1177/1747016116658693|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Artistic research ===
'''Artistic research''', also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth.

The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented is leading to artistic research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lesage |first1=Dieter |date=Spring 2009 |title=Who's Afraid of Artistic Research? On measuring artistic research output |journal=Art & Research |volume=2 |issue=2 |url=http://www.artandresearch.org.uk/v2n2/pdfs/lesage.pdf |issn=1752-6388 |access-date=14 August 2011 |archive-date=5 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005085443/http://www.artandresearch.org.uk/v2n2/pdfs/lesage.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept [[subjectivity]] as opposed to the classical scientific methods. As such, it is similar to the [[social science]]s in using [[qualitative research]] and [[intersubjectivity]] as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Eisner | first1 = E. W. |title = On the Differences between Scientific and Artistic Approaches to Qualitative Research |journal = Educational Researcher |volume = 10 |issue = 4 |pages = 5–9 |year = 1981| doi = 10.2307/1175121 | jstor = 1175121 }}</ref>

Artistic research has been defined by the [[School of Dance and Circus]] (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), [[Stockholm]] in the following manner – "Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices, methods, and criticality. Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed in a context."<ref name="DOCH">{{cite web |url=http://www.doch.se/web/Artistic_Research.aspx |title=Artistic research at DOCH |author=Unattributed |website=Dans och Cirkushögskolan (website) |access-date=14 August 2011 |archive-date=5 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105125920/http://www.doch.se/web/Artistic_Research.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.<ref>Schwab, M. (2009). "Draft Proposal". ''Journal for Artistic Research''. Bern University of the Arts.</ref> A simpler understanding by [[Julian Klein]] defines artistic research as any kind of research employing the artistic mode of perception.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jar-online.net/what-artistic-research/ |title=What is artistic research? |author=Julian Klein |date=2010 |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=13 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513033206/https://jar-online.net/what-artistic-research |url-status=live }}</ref> For a survey of the central problematics of today's artistic research, see [[Giaco Schiesser]].<ref>Schiesser, G. (2015). What is at stake – Qu'est ce que l'enjeu? Paradoxes – Problematics – Perspectives in Artistic Research Today, in: Arts, Research, Innovation and Society. Eds. Gerald Bast, [[Elias G. Carayannis]] [= ARIS, Vol. 1]. Wien/New York: Springer. pp. 197–210.</ref>

According to artist [[Hakan Topal]], in artistic research, "perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities".<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.newmuseum.org/blog/view/whose-terms-a-glossary-for-social-practice-research|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909042922/http://www.newmuseum.org/blog/view/whose-terms-a-glossary-for-social-practice-research| url-status=live|archive-date=2014-09-09|title=Whose Terms? A Glossary for Social Practice: Research|author=Topal, H. |date=2014|website=newmuseum.org}}</ref> Most writers, whether of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do research to support their creative work. This may be factual, historical, or background research. Background research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.<ref>Hoffman, A. (2003). ''Research for Writers'', pp. 4–5. London: A&C Black Publishers Limited.</ref>

The [[Society for Artistic Research]] (SAR) publishes the triannual ''Journal for Artistic Research'' (''JAR''),<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.swtr.ch/images/stories/pdf/en/kunstbericht_e.pdf| title = Swiss Science and Technology Research Council (2011), ''Research Funding in the Arts''}}{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[[Henk Borgdorff]] (2012), ''The Conflict of the Faculties. Perspectives on Artistic Research and Academia'' (Chapter 11: The Case of the Journal for Artistic Research), Leiden: Leiden University Press.</ref> an international, online, [[open access]], and [[peer-review]]ed [[Academic journal|journal]] for the identification, publication, and [[dissemination]] of artistic research and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines and it runs the ''Research Catalogue'' (RC),<ref>Schwab, Michael, and Borgdorff, Henk, eds. (2014), ''The Exposition of Artistic Research: Publishing Art in Academia'', Leiden: Leiden University Press.</ref><ref>Wilson, Nick and van Ruiten, Schelte / ELIA, eds. (2013), ''SHARE Handbook for Artistic Research Education'', Amsterdam: Valand Academy, p. 249.</ref><ref>Hughes, Rolf: "Leap into Another Kind: International Developments in Artistic Research", in Swedish Research Council, ed. (2013), ''Artistic Research Then and Now: 2004–2013, Yearbook of AR&D 2013'', Stockholm: Swedish Research Council.</ref> a searchable, documentary [[database]] of artistic research, to which anyone can contribute.

Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR) genres: narrative inquiry, fiction-based research, poetry, music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Methods Meets Art|last=Leavy|first=Patricia| publisher=Guilford|year=2015|isbn=978-1462519446|edition=2nd|location=New York}}</ref>

In 2016, the [[European League of Institutes of the Arts]] launched ''The Florence Principles' on the Doctorate in the Arts''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rahmat |first=Omarkhil |title=Florence principles, 2016 |url=http://www.elia-artschools.org/userfiles/File/customfiles/1-the-florence-principles20161124105336_20161202112511.pdf |access-date=23 December 2016 |archive-date=21 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221161920/http://www.elia-artschools.org/userfiles/File/customfiles/1-the-florence-principles20161124105336_20161202112511.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Florence Principles relating to the Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg Recommendations of the [[European University Association]] name seven points of attention to specify the Doctorate / PhD in the Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / PhD. The Florence Principles have been endorsed and are supported also by [[European Association of Conservatoires|AEC]], [[CILECT]], CUMULUS and [[Society for Artistic Research|SAR]].

=== Historical research ===
{{Main|Historical method}}
[[File:Leopold von Ranke 1868.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|German historian [[Leopold von Ranke]] (1795–1886), considered to be one of the founders of modern source-based history]]

The [[historical method]] comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines that are commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes [[lower criticism]] and sensual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are part of most formal historical research:<ref name="Garraghan (1946)">{{cite book |title=A Guide to Historical Method |last=Garraghan |first=Gilbert J. |year=1946 |publisher=Fordham University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8371-7132-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/guidetohistorica0000garr_e1h2/page/168 168] |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetohistorica0000garr_e1h2|url-access=limited }}</ref>
* [[Identification (information)|Identification]] of origin date
* [[Evidence]] of localization
* [[Recognition (sociology)|Recognition]] of authorship
* [[Analysis]] of data
* Identification of [[integrity]]
* Attribution of [[credibility]]

===Documentary research===
{{main|Documentary research}}

== Steps in conducting research ==
[[File:Research design and evidence.svg|thumb|Research design and evidence]]
[[File:Research cycle.png|thumb|Research cycle]]
Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research.<ref>Trochim, W.M.K, (2006). Research Methods Knowledge Base.</ref> The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:<ref>Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2008 {{ISBN|0-13-613550-1}} (pages 8–9)</ref>
* Identification of research problem
* [[Literature review]]
* Specifying the purpose of research
* Determining specific [[research question]]s
* Specification of a [[conceptual framework]], sometimes including a set of hypotheses<ref>{{cite book|first1= Patricia M.|last1= Shields<!--|authorlink1=Patricia M. Shields-->|last2= Rangarjan|first2= N.|year= 2013|title= A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=tVYbAgAAQBAJ|location= Stillwater, OK|publisher= New Forums Press|isbn= 9781581072471}}{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
* Data collection
* Verifying data
* Analyzing and interpreting the data
* Reporting and evaluating research
* Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations

The steps generally represent the overall process; however, they should be viewed as an ever-changing iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps.<ref>Gauch, Jr., H.G. (2003). Scientific method in practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2003 {{ISBN|0-521-81689-0}} (page 3)</ref> Most research begins with a general statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.<ref>Rocco, T.S., Hatcher, T., & Creswell, J.W. (2011). The handbook of scholarly writing and publishing. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-470-39335-2}}</ref> The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a [[literature review]] is conducted in a given subject area before a [[research question]] is identified. A gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. The research question may be parallel to the [[hypothesis]]. The hypothesis is the supposition to be tested. The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as [[empirical research]]. The results of the data analysis in rejecting or failing to reject the [[null hypothesis]] are then reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for [[Further research is needed|further research]]. However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving "up" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review. The reverse approach is justified by the transactional nature of the research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings have fully emerged and been interpreted.

[[Rudolph Rummel]] says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have confidence in the results."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/MTF.CHAP9.HTM|title=QUESTIONS ABOUT FREEDOM, DEMOCIDE, AND WAR|website=www.hawaii.edu|access-date=25 November 2011|archive-date=4 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104195242/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/MTF.CHAP9.HTM|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Plato]] in [[Meno]] talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrased in the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?! [i.e., you have already found it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching for?!"<ref>Plato, & Bluck, R. S. (1962). Meno. Cambridge, UK: University Press.</ref>

== Research methods ==
[[File:NYC Public Library Research Room Jan 2006-1- 3.jpg|thumb|The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of [[secondary research]] in progress]]
[[File:Hilleman-Walter-Reed.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.55|[[Maurice Hilleman]], the preeminent [[vaccinologist]] of the 20th century, is credited with saving more lives than any other scientist in that time.<ref>{{cite news |author=Sullivan P |date=13 April 2005 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A48244-2005Apr12.html |title=Maurice R. Hilleman dies; created vaccines |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=10 September 2017 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020102622/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A48244-2005Apr12.html |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure):
* [[Exploratory research]], which helps to identify and define a problem or question.
* [[Constructive research]], which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.
* [[Empirical research]], which tests the feasibility of a solution using [[empirical evidence]].
There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:

;[[Qualitative research]]

Qualitative research refers to much more subjective non- quantitative, use different methods of collecting data, analyzing data, interpreting data for meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols metaphors of things. Qualitative research further classified into following types: '''Ethnography:''' This research mainly focus on culture of group of people which includes share attributes, language, practices, structure, value, norms and material things, evaluate human lifestyle. Ethno: people, Grapho: to write, this disciple may include ethnic groups, ethno genesis, composition, resettlement and social welfare characteristics. '''Phenomenology''': It is very powerful strategy for demonstrating methodology to health professions education as well as best suited for exploring challenging problems in health professions educations.<ref>{{cite book  |last1=Pawar |first1=Neelam |date=December 2020 |chapter=6. Type of Research and Type Research Design |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352055750 |title=Research Methodology: An Overview |publisher=KD Publications |volume=15 |pages=46–57 |isbn=978-81-948755-8-1 }}</ref> In addition, [[Project Management Institute|PMP]] researcher Mandy Sha argued that a [[project management]] approach is necessary to control the scope, schedule, and cost related to [[qualitative research]] design, participant recruitment, data collection, reporting, as well as [[Stakeholder management|stakeholder engagement]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sha |first1=Mandy |last2=Childs |first2=Jennifer Hunter |date=2014-08-01 |title=Applying a project management approach to survey research projects that use qualitative methods |url=https://www.surveypractice.org/article/2865-applying-a-project-management-approach-to-survey-research-projects-that-use-qualitative-methods |journal=Survey Practice |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.29115/SP-2014-0021 |doi-access=free |access-date=3 December 2023 |archive-date=25 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125171133/https://www.surveypractice.org/article/2865-applying-a-project-management-approach-to-survey-research-projects-that-use-qualitative-methods |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Sha |first1=Mandy |last2=Pan |first2=Yuling |date=2013-12-01 |title=Adapting and Improving Methods to Manage Cognitive Pretesting of Multilingual Survey Instruments |url=https://www.surveypractice.org/article/2888 |journal=Survey Practice |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.29115/SP-2013-0024 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

;[[Quantitative research]]
:This involves systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships, by asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze it utilizing [[Descriptive statistical technique|statistical]] methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive).<ref>Creswell, J.W. (2008). ''Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research.'' Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.</ref> Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of [[positivism]].

The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods produce results that can be summarized, compared, and generalized to larger populations if the data are collected using proper sampling and data collection strategies.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|author=Eyler, Amy A. |title=Research Methods for Public Health|date=2020|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8261-8206-7|location=New York|oclc=1202451096}}</ref> Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.<ref name=":2" />

If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment).{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://people.uwec.edu/piercech/ResearchMethods/Data%20collection%20methods/DATA%20COLLECTION%20METHODS.htm|title=Data Collection Methods<!-- Bot generated title -->|website=uwec.edu|access-date=26 October 2011|archive-date=20 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020151015/http://people.uwec.edu/piercech/ResearchMethods/Data%20collection%20methods/DATA%20COLLECTION%20METHODS.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data.<ref name=":2" /> Primary data is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research. It is good ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever possible.<ref>Kara H. (2012). ''Research and Evaluation for Busy Practitioners: A Time-Saving Guide'', p. 102. Bristol: The Policy Press.</ref>

Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and secondary data, is becoming more common.<ref>Kara H (2012). ''Research and Evaluation for Busy Practitioners: A Time-Saving Guide'', p. 114. Bristol: The Policy Press.</ref> This method has benefits that using one method alone cannot offer. For example, a researcher may choose to conduct a qualitative study and follow it up with a quantitative study to gain additional insights.<ref name="Creswell Book">{{cite book |last=Creswell |first=John W. |title=Research design : qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches |date=2014 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|Sage]] |location=[[Thousand Oaks]] |isbn=978-1-4522-2609-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PViMtOnJ1LcC |edition=4th |access-date=11 December 2018 |archive-date=16 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116101007/https://books.google.com/books?id=PViMtOnJ1LcC |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Big data]] has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not put much effort into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available huge amounts of data have also been developed.
Types of Research Method
1. Observatory Research Method
2. Correlation Research Method <ref>{{Cite book|publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|date = 2015|isbn = 978-1118900772|first = Alex|last = Liu|doi = 10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0325|title = Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences|pages = 1–15|chapter = Structural Equation Modeling and Latent Variable Approaches}}</ref>

;Non-empirical research
Non-empirical ([[theory|theoretical]]) research is an approach that involves the development of theory as opposed to using observation and experimentation. As such, non-empirical research seeks solutions to problems using existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not mean that new ideas and innovations cannot be found within the pool of existing and established knowledge. Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach. Neither one is less effective than the other since they have their particular purpose in science. Typically empirical research produces observations that need to be explained; then theoretical research tries to explain them, and in so doing generates empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then tested empirically, giving more observations that may need further explanation; and so on. See [[Scientific method]].

A simple example of a non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a differentiated application of existing knowledge; another is the development of a business process in the form of a flow chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. Much of [[cosmology|cosmological research]] is theoretical in nature. [[Mathematics]] research does not rely on externally available data; rather, it seeks to prove [[theorem]]s about [[mathematical object]]s.

== Research ethics ==
{{Excerpt|Research ethics|references=no}}

== Problems in research ==

=== Meta-research ===
{{main|Meta-research}}
Meta-research is the study of research through the use of research methods. Also known as "research on research", it aims to reduce waste and increase the quality of research in all fields. Meta-research concerns itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and inefficiencies. Among the finding of meta-research is a low rates of [[reproducibility]] across a large number of fields. This widespread difficulty in reproducing research has been termed the "[[replication crisis]]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ioannidis|first1=John P. A.|last2=Fanelli|first2=Daniele|last3=Dunne|first3=Debbie Drake|last4=Goodman|first4=Steven N.|date=2015-10-02|title=Meta-research: Evaluation and Improvement of Research Methods and Practices|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=13|issue=10|pages=–1002264|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1002264|pmid=26431313|issn=1545-7885|pmc=4592065 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Methods of research ===
In many disciplines, Western methods of conducting research are predominant.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reverby|first=Susan M.|date=1 April 2012|title=Zachary M. Schrag. Ethical Imperialism: Institutional Review Boards and the Social Sciences, 1965–2009. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 2010. Pp. xii, 245. $45.00|journal=The American Historical Review|language=en|volume=117|issue=2|pages=484–485|doi=10.1086/ahr.117.2.484-a|issn=0002-8762}}</ref> Researchers are overwhelmingly taught Western methods of data collection and study. The increasing participation of [[indigenous peoples]] as researchers has brought increased attention to the [[scientific lacuna]] in [[culturally sensitive]] methods of data collection.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples|url=https://www.zedbooks.net/shop/book/decolonizing-methodologies/|last=Smith|first=Linda Tuhiwai|publisher=Zed Books|year=2012|isbn=978-1848139503|edition=2nd|location=London|access-date=24 October 2018|archive-date=25 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025071033/https://www.zedbooks.net/shop/book/decolonizing-methodologies/|url-status=live}}</ref> Western methods of data collection may not be the most accurate or relevant for research on non-Western societies. For example, "[[Hua Oranga]]" was created as a criterion for psychological evaluation in [[Māori people|Māori]] populations, and is based on dimensions of mental health important to the Māori people – "taha wairua (the spiritual dimension), taha hinengaro (the mental dimension), taha tinana (the physical dimension), and taha whanau (the family dimension)".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stewart|first=Lisa|title=Commentary on Cultural Diversity Across the Pacific: The Dominance of Western Theories, Models, Research and Practice in Psychology|journal=Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology|volume=6|issue=1|pages=27–31|doi=10.1017/prp.2012.1|year=2012|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Bias ===
Research is often biased in the languages that are preferred ([[linguicism]]) and the geographic locations where research occurs.
Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and academic publication. As the great majority of mainstream academic journals are written in English, multilingual periphery scholars often must translate their work to be accepted to elite Western-dominated journals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Canagarajah|first=A. Suresh|date=1 January 1996|title=From Critical Research Practice to Critical Research Reporting|jstor=3588146|journal=TESOL Quarterly|volume=30|issue=2|pages=321–331|doi=10.2307/3588146}}</ref> Multilingual scholars' influences from their native communicative styles can be assumed to be incompetence instead of difference.<ref name="Canagarajah">{{Cite journal|last=Canagarajah|first=Suresh|date=October 1996|title='Nondiscursive' Requirements in Academic Publishing, Material Resources of Periphery Scholars, and the Politics of Knowledge Production|journal=Written Communication|volume=13|issue=4|pages=435–472|doi=10.1177/0741088396013004001|s2cid=145250687}}</ref>

For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with heavy emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Since 2000, Latin American countries have become more popular in single-country studies. In contrast, countries in [[Oceania]] and the [[Caribbean]] are the focus of very few studies. Patterns of geographic bias also show a relationship with linguicism: countries whose official languages are French or Arabic are far less likely to be the focus of single-country studies than countries with different official languages. Within Africa, English-speaking countries are more represented than other countries.<ref name="Pepinsky"/>

===Generalizability===
{{see also|External validity}}
Generalization is the process of more broadly applying the valid results of one study.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1212/WNL.0b013e318258f812|title=Generalizability: The trees, the forest, and the low-hanging fruit|year=2012|last1=Kukull|first1=W. A.|last2=Ganguli|first2=M.|journal=Neurology|volume=78|issue=23|pages=1886–1891|pmid=22665145|pmc=3369519}}</ref> Studies with a narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be applicable to other populations or regions. In comparative politics, this can result from using a single-country study, rather than a study design that uses data from multiple countries. Despite the issue of generalizability, single-country studies have risen in prevalence since the late 2000s.<ref name="Pepinsky">{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-051017-113314|doi-access=free|title=The Return of the Single-Country Study|year=2019|last1=Pepinsky|first1=Thomas B.|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=22|pages=187–203}}</ref>

=== Publication peer review ===
{{update|reason=This subsection's claims are potentially outdated in the "digital age" given that near-total penetration of Web access among scholars worldwide enables any scholar[s] to submit papers to any journal anywhere|date=May 2017}}
[[Peer review]] is a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia, [[scholarly peer review]] is often used to determine an academic paper's suitability for publication. Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge. The tradition of peer reviews being done for free has however brought many pitfalls which are also indicative of why most peer reviewers decline many invitations to review.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peerviewer.com/freelance-peer-review-scholarly-journals/|title=Peer Review of Scholarly Journal|website=www.PeerViewer.com|language=en-US|date=June 2017|access-date=29 July 2017|archive-date=30 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730015618/http://peerviewer.com/freelance-peer-review-scholarly-journals/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was observed that publications from periphery countries rarely rise to the same elite status as those of North America and Europe, because limitations on the availability of resources including high-quality paper and sophisticated image-rendering software and printing tools render these publications less able to satisfy standards currently carrying formal or informal authority in the publishing industry.<ref name="Canagarajah" /> These limitations in turn result in the under-representation of scholars from periphery nations among the set of publications holding prestige status relative to the quantity and quality of those scholars' research efforts, and this under-representation in turn results in disproportionately reduced acceptance of the results of their efforts as contributions to the body of knowledge available worldwide.

=== Influence of the open-access movement ===
The open access movement assumes that all information generally deemed useful should be free and belongs to a "public domain", that of "humanity".<ref name="Christen">{{Cite journal|last=Christen|first=Kimberly|date=2012|title=Does Information Really Want to be Free? Indigenous Knowledge Systems and the Question of Openness|url=http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/1618|journal=International Journal of Communication|volume=6|access-date=7 June 2017|archive-date=15 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715032503/http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/1618|url-status=live}}</ref> This idea gained prevalence as a result of Western colonial history and ignores alternative conceptions of knowledge circulation. For instance, most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be determined by relationships.<ref name="Christen" />

There is alleged to be a double standard in the Western knowledge system. On the one hand, "digital right management" used to restrict access to personal information on social networking platforms is celebrated as a protection of privacy, while simultaneously when similar functions are used by cultural groups (i.e. indigenous communities) this is denounced as "access control" and reprehended as censorship.<ref name="Christen" />

=== Future perspectives ===
Even though Western dominance seems to be prominent in research, some scholars, such as [[Simon Marginson]], argue for "the need [for] a plural university world".<ref name="Marginson">{{Cite web|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/sun-sets-on-western-dominance-as-east-asian-confucian-model-takes-lead/415300.article|title=Sun sets on Western dominance as East Asian Confucian model takes lead|date=24 February 2011|access-date=2016-08-29|archive-date=20 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920190704/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/sun-sets-on-western-dominance-as-east-asian-confucian-model-takes-lead/415300.article|url-status=live}}</ref> Marginson argues that the East Asian Confucian model could take over the Western model.

This could be due to changes in funding for research both in the East and the West. Focused on emphasizing educational achievement, East Asian cultures, mainly in China and South Korea, have encouraged the increase of funding for research expansion.<ref name="Marginson" /> In contrast, in the Western academic world, notably in the United Kingdom as well as in some state governments in the United States, funding cuts for university research have occurred, which some {{who|date=February 2017}} say may lead to the future decline of Western dominance in research.

=== Neo-colonial approaches ===
{{Excerpt|Neo-colonial science}}

== Professionalisation {{anchor|Professionalization}} ==
{{globalize|section|date=January 2014}}
{{see also|Academic ranks|Academics|Scientists}}
{{further|Research fellow|Research associate|Research assistant}}
In several national and private academic systems, the [[professionalisation]] of research has resulted in formal job titles.

=== In Russia ===
In present-day Russia, and some other countries of the former [[Soviet Union]], the term ''researcher'' ({{lang-ru|link=no|Научный сотрудник}}, ''nauchny sotrudnik'') has been used both as a generic term for a person who has been carrying out scientific research, and as a job position within the frameworks of the [[USSR Academy of Sciences|Academy of Sciences]], universities, and in other research-oriented establishments.

The following ranks are known:
* Junior Researcher (Junior Research Associate)
* Researcher (Research Associate)
* Senior Researcher (Senior Research Associate)
* Leading Researcher (Leading Research Associate)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aup.ru/docs/d2/210.htm|title=Ведущий научный сотрудник: должностные обязанности|website=www.aup.ru|access-date=22 January 2014|archive-date=1 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401114149/http://www.aup.ru/docs/d2/210.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Chief Researcher (Chief Research Associate)

== Publishing ==
[[File:Nature cover, November 4, 1869.jpg|thumb|Cover of the first issue of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', 4 November 1869]]
[[Academic publishing]] is a system that is necessary for academic scholars to [[peer review]] the work and make it available for a wider audience. The system varies widely by field and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. There is also a large body of research that exists in either a thesis or dissertation form. These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and dissertations. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine.
Most established [[List of academic disciplines|academic fields]] have their own scientific journals and other outlets for publication, though many [[academic journal]]s are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format. A study suggests that researchers should not give great consideration to findings that are not replicated frequently.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/Armstrong/Replications.pdf| title = Replication Research in Marketing Revisited: A Note on a Disturbing Trend| author = Heiner Evanschitzky, Carsten Baumgarth, Raymond Hubbard and J. Scott Armstrong| year = 2006| access-date = 10 January 2012| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100620220043/http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/Armstrong/Replications.pdf| archive-date = 20 June 2010| url-status = dead| df = dmy-all}}</ref> It has also been suggested that all published studies should be subjected to some measure for assessing the validity or reliability of its procedures to prevent the publication of unproven findings.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/research/On%20the%20interpretation%20of%20factor%20analysis.pdf | title = On the Interpretation of Factor Analysis | author1 = J. Scott Armstrong | author2 = Peer Soelberg | name-list-style = amp | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 70 | issue = 5 | pages = 361–364 | year = 1968 | doi = 10.1037/h0026434 | s2cid = 25687243 | access-date = 11 January 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100621000352/http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/research/On%20the%20interpretation%20of%20factor%20analysis.pdf | archive-date = 21 June 2010 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> [[Business model]]s are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is [[Open access (publishing)|open access]].<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/Armstrong/MakingProgressinForecasting.pdf | title = Monetary Incentives in Mail Surveys | author1 = J. Scott Armstrong | author2 = Robert Fildes | name-list-style = amp | journal = International Journal of Forecasting | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 433–441 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijforecast.2006.04.007 | s2cid = 154398140 | access-date = 11 January 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100620211539/http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/Armstrong/MakingProgressinForecasting.pdf | archive-date = 20 June 2010 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref> There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and [[self-archiving]], where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web.

== Research statistics and funding ==
{{main|Research funding}}
{{expand section|funding for research in the humanities and other areas.
Presently, only scientific research is addressed|date=April 2019}}

Most funding for scientific research comes from three major sources: [[Corporation|corporate]] [[research and development]] departments; [[private foundation]]s; and government research councils such as the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the US<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://report.nih.gov/|title=Home &#124; RePORT|website=report.nih.gov|access-date=22 May 2021|archive-date=21 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521144521/https://report.nih.gov/|url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] in the UK. These are managed primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research but also as a source of merit. The [[Social Psychology Network]] provides a comprehensive list of U.S. Government and private foundation funding sources.

The total number of researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants for individual countries is shown in the following table.
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
! Country !! researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants 2018<ref>[https://www.unesco.org/reports/science/2021/en/statistics, Research input and output worldwide, various years since 2014, Statistical Annex, by country, Table C2: Total researchers and researchers per million inhabitants, 2015 and 2018]</ref> 
|-
| {{flaglist| Algeria  }}  || 819
|-
| {{flaglist| Argentina}}  || 1192
|-
| {{flaglist| Austria}}  || 5733
|-
| {{flaglist| Belgium}}  || 5023
|-
| {{flaglist| Bulgaria}}  || 2343
|-
| {{flaglist| Canada}}  || 4326
|-
| {{flaglist| Chile}}  || 493
|-
| {{flaglist| China }}  || 1307  
|-
| {{flaglist| Costa Rica}}  || 380
|-
| {{flaglist| Croatia }}  || 1921
|-
| {{flaglist| Cyprus}}  || 1256
|-
| {{flaglist| Czechia}}  || 3863
|-
| {{flaglist| Denmark}}  || 8066
|-
| {{flaglist| Egypt }}  || 687
|-
| {{flaglist| Estonia}}  || 3755
|-
| {{flaglist| Finland}}  || 6861
|-
| {{flaglist| France}}  || 4715
|-
| {{flaglist| Georgia }}  || 1464
|-
| {{flaglist| Germany}}  || 5212
|-
| {{flaglist| Greece}}  || 3483
|-
| {{flaglist| Hungary}}  || 3238
|-
| {{flaglist| Iceland }}  || 6131
|-
| {{flaglist| India }}  || 253 
|-
| {{flaglist| Indonesia }}  || 216
|-
| {{flaglist| Iran }}  || 1475
|-
| {{flaglist| Ireland}}  || 5243
|-
| {{flaglist| Israel}}  || 2307
|-
| {{flaglist| Italy}}  || 2307
|-
| {{flaglist| Japan }}  || 5331
|-
| {{flaglist| Jordan }}  || 596 
|-
| {{flaglist| Kazakhstan}}  || 667
|-
| {{flaglist| Kuwait }}  || 514 
|-
| {{flaglist| Latvia}}  || 1792
|-
| {{flaglist| Lithuania}}  || 3191
|-
| {{flaglist| Luxembourg }}  || 4942
|-
| {{flaglist| Malaysia }}  || 2397
|-
| {{flaglist| Malta }}  || 1947
|-
| {{flaglist| Mauritius }}  || 474
|-
| {{flaglist| Mexico}}  || 315
|-
| {{flaglist| Moldova}}  || 696
|-
| {{flaglist| Montenegro}}  || 734
|-
| {{flaglist| Morocco }}  || 1074
|-
| {{flaglist| Netherlands }}  || 5605
|-
| {{flaglist| New Zealand }}  || 5530 
|-
| {{flaglist| North Macedonia}}  || 799
|-
| {{flaglist| Norway }}  || 6467
|-
| {{flaglist| Pakistan }}  || 336
|-
| {{flaglist| Poland }}  || 3106
|-
| {{flaglist| Portugal }}  || 4538
|-
| {{flaglist| Romania }}  || 882
|-
| {{flaglist| Russia }}  || 2784
|-
| {{flaglist| Serbia }}  || 2087
|-
| {{flaglist| Singapore }}  || 6803 
|-
| {{flaglist| Slovakia }}  || 2996
|-
| {{flaglist| Slovenia }}  || 4855
|-
| {{flaglist| South Africa }}  || 518 
|-
| {{flaglist| South Korea }}  || 7980 
|-
| {{flaglist| Spain }}  || 3001
|-
| {{flaglist| Sweden}}  || 7536
|-
| {{flaglist| Switzerland}}  || 5450
|-
| {{flaglist| Thailand }}  || 1350
|-
| {{flaglist| Tunisia }}  || 1772 
|-
| {{flaglist| Turkey }}  || 1379
|-
| {{flaglist| Ukraine }}  || 988
|-
| {{flaglist| United Arab Emirates }}  || 2379
|-
| {{flaglist| United Kingdom }}  || 4603
|-
| {{flaglist| United States of America }}  || 4412
|-
| {{flaglist| Uruguay}}  || 696
|-
| {{flaglist| Vietnam}}  || 708
|}

Research expenditure by type of research as a share of GDP for individual countries is shown in the following table.
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Country
! colspan="4" |Research expenditure as a share of GDP by type of research (%), 2018<ref>[https://www.unesco.org/reports/science/2021/en/statistics, Research input and output worldwide, various years since 2014, Statistical Annex, by country, Table B1: Research expenditure as a share of GDP and in purchasing power parity dollars (PPP$),  2015–2018, year 2018 ]</ref> 
|-
! data-sort-type="number" | Basic
! data-sort-type="number" | Applied
! data-sort-type="number" | Development
|-
|-
| {{flaglist| Algeria  }}  || 0.01 || 0.27 || 0.02
|-
| {{flaglist| Argentina}}  || 0.14 || 0.27 || 0.12
|-
| {{flaglist| Austria}}  || 0.54 || 1.00 || 1.46
|-
| {{flaglist| Belgium}}  || 0.30 || 1.24 || 1.16
|-
| {{flaglist| Bulgaria}}  || 0.08 || 0.47 || 0.20
|-
| {{flaglist| Chile}}  || 0.10 || 0.14 || 0.08
|-
| {{flaglist| China }}  || 0.12  || 0.24 ||  1.82
|-
| {{flaglist| Costa Rica}}  || 0.10 || 0.07 || 0.02
|-
| {{flaglist| Croatia }}  || 0.33  || 0.28 || 0.25
|-
| {{flaglist| Cyprus}}  || 0.08 || 0.30 || 0.18
|-
| {{flaglist| Czechia}}  || 0.50 || 0.77 || 0.66
|-
| {{flaglist| Denmark}}  || 0.56 || 0.95 || 1.54
|-
| {{flaglist| Estonia}}  || 0.35 || 0.28 || 0.66
|-
| {{flaglist| France}}  || 0.50 || 0.92 || 0.78
|-
| {{flaglist| Greece}}  || 0.35 || 0.37 || 0.41
|-
| {{flaglist| Hungary}}  || 0.26 || 0.30 || 0.78
|-
| {{flaglist| Iceland }}  || 0.43 || 0.95 || 0.66
|-
| {{flaglist| India }}  || 0.10  || 0.15 || 0.13
|-
| {{flaglist| Ireland}}  || 0.22 || 0.42 || 0.55
|-
| {{flaglist| Italy}}  || 0.31 || 0.58 || 0.49
|-
| {{flaglist| Israel }}  || 0.52 || 0.51 || 3.93
|-
| {{flaglist| Japan }}  || 0.41 || 0.62 || 2.10
|-
| {{flaglist| Kazakhstan}}  || 0.02 || 0.07 || 0.03
|-
| {{flaglist| Kuwait }}  || 0.00  || 0.06 || 0.00
|-
| {{flaglist| Latvia}}  || 0.16 || 0.22 || 0.13
|-
| {{flaglist| Lithuania}}  || 0.24 || 0.38 || 0.28
|-
| {{flaglist| Luxembourg }}  || 0.48 || 0.49 || 0.33
|-
| {{flaglist| Malaysia }}  || 0.42 || 0.81 || 0.21
|-
| {{flaglist| Malta }}  || 0.30 || 0.19 || 0.09
|-
| {{flaglist| Mauritius }}  || 0.03 || 0.12 || 0.02
|-
| {{flaglist| Mexico}}  || 0.10 || 0.09 || 0.12
|-
| {{flaglist| Montenegro}}  || 0.10 || 0.21 || 0.04
|-
| {{flaglist| Netherlands }}  || 0.52 || 0.87 || 0.60
|-
| {{flaglist| New Zealand }}  || 0.34  || 0.55 || 0.48
|-
| {{flaglist| North Macedonia}}  || 0.09 || 0.23 || 0.05
|-
| {{flaglist| Norway }}  || 0.38 || 0.79 || 0.93
|-
| {{flaglist| Poland }}  || 0.30 || 0.18 || 0.55
|-
| {{flaglist| Portugal }}  || 0.29 || 0.51 || 0.53
|-
| {{flaglist| Romania }}  || 0.10 || 0.31 || 0.09
|-
| {{flaglist| Russia }}  || 0.15 || 0.21 || 0.65
|-
| {{flaglist| Serbia }}  || 0.29 || 0.34 || 0.29
|-
| {{flaglist| Singapore }}  || 0.46 || 0.61 || 0.87
|-
| {{flaglist| Slovakia }}  || 0.33 || 0.20 || 0.30
|-
| {{flaglist| Slovenia }}  || 0.33 || 0.82 || 0.71
|-
| {{flaglist| South Africa }}  || 0.22  || 0.44 || 0.17
|-
| {{flaglist| South Korea }}  || 0.68  || 1.06 || 3.07
|-
| {{flaglist| Spain }}  || 0.26 || 0.50 || 0.45
|-
| {{flaglist| Switzerland}}  || 1.41 || 1.09 || 0.88
|-
| {{flaglist| Thailand }}  || 0.10 || 0.27 || 0.64
|-
| {{flaglist| Ukraine }}  || 0.11 || 0.10 || 0.27
|-
| {{flaglist| United Kingdom }}  || 0.30 || 0.74 || 0.64
|-
| {{flaglist| United States of America }}  || 0.47 || 0.56 || 1.80
|-
| {{flaglist| Vietnam}}  || 0.07 || 0.30 || 0.04
|}

== See also ==
{{Div col|rules=yes}}
* [[Advertising research]]
* [[European Charter for Researchers]]
* [[Funding bias]]
* [[Internet research]]
* [[Laboratory]]
* [[List of countries by research and development spending]]
* [[List of words ending in ology|List of words ending in ''ology'']]
* [[Market research]]
* [[Marketing research]]
* [[Open research]]
* [[Operations research]]
* [[Participatory action research]]
* [[Psychological research methods]]
* [[Research integrity]]
* [[Research-intensive cluster]]
* [[Research organization]]
* [[Research proposal]]
* [[Research university]]
* [[Scholarly research]]
* [[Secondary research]]
* [[Social research]]
* [[Society for Artistic Research]]
* [[Timeline of the history of the scientific method]]
* [[Undergraduate research]]
{{Div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |title=Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts|last=Groh |first=Arnold |year=2018 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-3-319-72774-5 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = N. | last2 = Arieli | first2 = T. | year = 2011 | title = Field research in conflict environments: Methodological challenges and snowball sampling | journal = Journal of Peace Research | volume = 48 | issue = 4| pages = 423–436 | doi=10.1177/0022343311405698| s2cid = 145328311 }}
* Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. 2014. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ENDpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT23 Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies] New York: Routledge.
* Talja, Sanna and Pamela J. Mckenzie (2007). Editor's Introduction: Special Issue on Discursive Approaches to Information Seeking in Context, The University of Chicago Press.

== External links ==
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