Racial segregation in the United States Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{Short description|De jure and de facto separation of whites and non-whites}} {{Use American English|date=March 2023}} {{Use mdy dates|date=September 2023}} [[File:1943 Colored Waiting Room Sign.jpg|thumb|Sign for "colored" waiting room at a [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound]] bus terminal in [[Rome, Georgia]], 1943. Throughout the South there were [[Jim Crow laws]] creating ''de jure'' legally required segregation.]] Facilities and services such as [[Housing in the United States|housing]], [[Healthcare in the United States|healthcare]], [[Education in the United States|education]], [[Economy of the United States#Employment|employment]], and [[Transportation in the United States|transportation]] have been systematically separated in the United States based on [[Race and ethnicity in the United States|racial categorizations]]. Segregation was the legally or socially enforced separation of [[African Americans]] from [[White Americans|whites]], as well as the separation of other [[Minority group|ethnic minorities]] from majority and mainstream communities.<ref>C. Vann Woodward, ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow'' (3rd ed. 1947).</ref> While mainly referring to the physical separation and provision of separate facilities, it can also refer to other manifestations such as prohibitions against [[Interracial marriage in the United States|interracial marriage]] (enforced with [[Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States|anti-miscegenation laws]]), and the separation of roles within an institution. The [[United States Armed Forces|U.S. Armed Forces]] were [[De jure segregation|formally segregated]] until [[Executive Order 9981|1948]], as [[Military history of African Americans|black units]] were separated from white units but were still typically led by white officers.<ref>Harvard Sitkoff, ''The Struggle for Black Equality'' (2008)</ref> {{Segregation}} {{Nadir of American race relations}} [[File:WhiteTradeOnlyLancasterOhio.jpg|thumb|right|"We Cater to White Trade Only" sign on a restaurant window in [[Lancaster, Ohio]] in 1938. Ohio, like most of the North and West, did not have ''de jure'' statutory enforced segregation ([[Jim Crow laws]]), but many places still had ''de facto'' social segregation in the early 20th century. Together with state sponsored segregation, such private owner enforced segregation was outlawed for [[public accommodations]] in the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Robertson |first=Karen |title=The Long Struggle for Freedom Rights |date=June 2, 2020 |url=https://www.ohiohistory.org/the-long-struggle-for-freedom-rights/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116141558/https://www.ohiohistory.org/learn/collections/history/history-blog/june-2020/civilrightshistory |archive-date=January 16, 2021 |publisher=Ohio History Center}}{{cbignore}}</ref>|alt=A sign reading "We Cater to White Trade Only"]] In the 1857 [[Dred Scott]] case (''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]''), the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] found that Blacks were not and never could be [[Citizenship of the United States|U.S. citizens]] and that the [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]] and civil rights were not applicable to them. Congress passed the [[Civil Rights Act of 1875]], but it was overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1883 in the [[Civil Rights Cases]]. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of segregation in ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' (1896), so long as "[[separate but equal]]" facilities were provided, a requirement that was rarely met.<ref>{{cite book |last=Margo |first=Robert A. |title=Race and Schooling in the South, 1880–1950: An Economic History |year=1990 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0226505107 |page=68 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWyiQKCQN70C&pg=PA68 }}</ref> The doctrine's applicability to public schools was unanimously overturned in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' (1954). In the following years the court further ruled against racial segregation in several landmark cases including ''[[Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States]]'' (1964), which helped bring an end to the [[Jim Crow laws]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483|title=Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1)|website=Oyez|language=en|access-date=September 24, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515|title=Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States|website=Oyez|language=en|access-date=September 24, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/5-decision/courts-decision.html|title=The Court's Decision – Separate Is Not Equal|website=americanhistory.si.edu|access-date=September 24, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/jimcrow/struggle_court2.html|title=The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow. A National Struggle . The Supreme Court {{!}} PBS|website=www.thirteen.org|access-date=September 24, 2019}}</ref> Segregation was enforced across the U.S. for much of its history. Racial segregation follows two forms. ''[[De jure]]'' segregation mandated the separation of races by law, and was the form imposed by [[slave codes]] before the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] and by [[Black Codes (United States)|Black Codes]] and Jim Crow laws following the war. ''De jure'' segregation was outlawed by the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]], the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]], and the [[Fair Housing Act]] of 1968.<ref>Judy L. Hasday, ''The Civil Rights Act of 1964: An End to Racial Segregation'' (2007).</ref> ''[[De facto]]'' segregation, or segregation "in fact", is that which exists without sanction of the law. ''De facto'' segregation continues today in such closely related areas as [[Residential segregation in the United States|residential segregation]] and [[School segregation in the United States|school segregation]] because of both contemporary behavior and the historical legacy of ''de jure'' segregation.<ref name="Krysan">{{Cite book| last1 = Krysan | first1 = Maria | last2 = Crowder | first2 = Kyle| title = Cycle of Segregation: Social Processes and Residential Stratification| publisher = Russell Sage Foundation| location = New York| year = 2017| isbn = 978-0871544902}}</ref> ==Antebellum era== Schools were segregated in the U.S. and educational opportunities for Black people were restricted. Efforts to establish schools for them were met with violent opposition. The U.S. government established [[American Indian boarding schools|Indian boarding school]] where Native Americans were sent. The [[African Free School]] was established in New York City in the 18th century. [[Education during the slave period in the United States]] was limited. [[Richard Humphreys (philanthropist)|Richard Humphreys]], [[Samuel Powers Emlen Jr]], and [[Prudence Crandall]] established schools for African Americans in the decades preceding the Civil War. In 1832, [[Prudence Crandall]] admitted an African American girl to her all-white [[Canterbury Female Boarding School]] in [[Canterbury, Connecticut]], resulting in public backlash and protests. She converted the boarding school to one for only African American girls, but Crandall was jailed for her efforts for violating a [[Black Codes (United States)|Black Law]]. In 1835, an anti-abolitionist mob attacked and destroyed [[Noyes Academy]], an integrated school in [[Canaan, New Hampshire]] founded by [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionists]] in [[New England]]. In the 1849 case ''[[Roberts v. City of Boston]]'', the [[Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court]] ruled that segregated schools were allowed under the [[Constitution of Massachusetts]].<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.tolerance.org/magazine/spring-2004/brown-v-board-timeline-of-school-integration-in-the-us | title=BROWN V. BOARD: Timeline of School Integration in the U.S| date=April 2004}}</ref> [[Emlen Institution]] was a boarding school for African American and Native American orphans in Ohio and then Pennsylvania.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://soleburyhistory.org/on-line-exhibits/interactive-maps/underground-railroad-stops/emlen-institute/ | title=Emlen Institute | Solebury Township Historical Society | date=August 7, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://archives.tricolib.brynmawr.edu/resources/hcmc-999 | title=Collection: Emlen Institution for the Benefit of Children of African and Indian Descent records | Archives & Manuscripts }}</ref> [[Richard Humphreys (philanthropist)]] bequeathed money to establish the [[Institute for Colored Youth]] in Philadelphia.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archives.tricolib.brynmawr.edu/resources/hcmc-1256 | title=Collection: William Morris Maier papers | Archives & Manuscripts }}</ref> Yale Law School co-founder, judge, and mayor of New Haven [[David Daggett]] was a leader in the fight against schools for African Americans and helped block plans for a college for African Americans in New Haven, Connecticut. ==Civil rights after the Civil War== [[File:"Colored" drinking fountain from mid-20th century with african-american drinking (cropped).jpg|thumb|An African American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in [[Oklahoma City]], 1939<ref>{{cite web| last = Lee| first = Russell| title = Negro drinking at "Colored" water cooler in streetcar terminal, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma| work = Prints & Photographs Online Catalog| publisher = [[Library of Congress]] Home|date=July 1939| url = https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/fsa1997026728/PP/| access-date = March 23, 2005}}</ref>]] [[History of African-American education|Black schools]] were established by some religious groups and philanthropists to educate African Americans. [[Oberlin Academy]] was one of the early schools to integrate. [[Lowell High School (Massachusetts)|Lowell High School]] also accepted African American students. California passed a law prohibiting "Negroes, Mongolians and Indians" from attending public schools.<ref name="crf-usa.org">{{cite web | url=https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-23-2-c-mendez-v-westminster-paving-the-way-to-school-desegregation#:~:text=In%201854%2C%20black%20students%20in,white%20children%20anywhere%20in%20California | title=Teach Democracy }}</ref> It took ten or more minorities in a community to petition for a segregated school or these groups were denied access to public education. The state's superintendent of schools, [[Andrew Moulder]], stated: "The great mass of our citizens will not associate in terms of equality with these inferior races, nor will they consent that their children do so."<ref name="crf-usa.org"/> In Colorado housing and school segregation lasted into the 1960s.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://pressbooks.pub/coloradohistorydetectives/chapter/who-fought-to-belong-in-colorado/#:~:text=In%201895%2C%20Colorado%20legislators%20approved,which%20Congress%20approved%20in%201868 | title=Who Fought for Equality in Colorado? | date=March 30, 2019 | last1=Laugen | first1=Todd | last2=Frisbee | first2=Meg }}</ref> In 1867, Portland, Oregon prevented a Black student from attending its public elementary schools and instead established a separate segregated school when it was sued.<ref>https://www.ohs.org/oregon-historical-quarterly/upload/OHQ_111_1-Johnson-and-Williams_PPS.pdf</ref> Portland's public schools were integrated in 1872. ==Reconstruction== {{main|Reconstruction era}} {{See also|Black Codes (United States)|Civil rights movement (1865–1896)}} Congress passed the [[Reconstruction Acts]] of 1867, [[Ratification|ratified]] the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] in 1870, granting African Americans the right to vote, and it also enacted the [[Civil Rights Act of 1875]] forbidding racial segregation in accommodations. Federal occupation in the South helped allow many black people to vote and elect their own political leaders. The Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and they also asserted that everyone within it was formally equal under the law. However, it did not prohibit segregation in schools.<ref name="Fields">{{Cite book| author = Barbara J. Fields| author-link=Barbara J. Fields | chapter = Ideology and Race in American History| title = Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C. Vann Woodward| editor = J. Morgan Kousser| editor2 = James M. McPherson| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]| location = New York| year = 1982| isbn = 978-0195030754| page = 163}}</ref> When the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern black people wanted public schools for their children, but they did not demand racially integrated schools. Almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in [[New Orleans]]. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, [[Southern Democrats]] retained the public school systems but sharply cut their funding. <ref>{{cite book|author=Richard Zuczek|title=Reconstruction: A Historical Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppDcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA172|year=2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=172|isbn=978-1610699181}}</ref> Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race.<ref>[[Berea College]] in Kentucky was the main exception until state law in 1904 forced its segregation. {{cite journal|jstor=23376786|title=Berea College and the Day Law|journal=The Register of the Kentucky Historical Society|volume=66|issue=1|pages=35–52|last1=Heckman|first1=Richard Allen|last2=Hall|first2=Betty Jean|year=1968}}</ref> The [[American Missionary Association]] supported the development and establishment of several [[historically black colleges]] including [[Fisk University]] and [[Shaw University]]. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students. Northern denominations and especially their missionary associations established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided a small amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches financially supported the colleges and also subsidized the pay of some teachers. In 1900, churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for black people across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students.<ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Hampton Negro Conference|author=Hampton Negro Conference|series=Hampton bulletinno. 9–10, 12–16|editor1-last=Browne|editor1-first=Hugh |editor2-last=Kruse|editor2-first=Edwina|editor4-last=Moton|editor3-last=Walker|editor3-first=Thomas C.|editor4-first=Robert Russa|editor4-link=Robert Russa Moton|editor5-last=Wheelock|editor5-first=Frederick D.|publisher=[[Hampton Institute Press]]|location=[[Hampton, Virginia]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUQ9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA59|hdl=2027/chi.14025704?urlappend=%3Bseq=65|volume=5|year=1901|page=59}} [https://archive.org/details/reportofhamptonn00hamp/page/59/mode/1up Alt URL]</ref><ref>Joe M. Richardson, ''Christian Reconstruction: The American Missionary Association and Southern Blacks, 1861–1890'' (1986).</ref> Prominent schools included [[Howard University]], a private, federally chartered institution based in Washington, D.C.; [[Fisk University]] in Nashville, [[Atlanta University]], [[Hampton Institute]] in Virginia, and others. By the early 1870s, the North lost interest in further reconstruction efforts, and, when federal troops were withdrawn in 1877, the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] in the South splintered and lost support, leading to the conservatives (calling themselves "[[Redeemers]]") taking control of all the Southern states. [[Jim Crow laws|'Jim Crow' segregation]] began somewhat later, in the 1880s.<ref>C. Vann Woodward, ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow'' (3rd ed. 1974)</ref> Disfranchisement of black people began in the 1890s. Although the Republican Party had championed African-American rights during the Civil War and had become a platform for black political influence during Reconstruction, a backlash among white Republicans led to the rise of the [[lily-white movement]] to remove African Americans from leadership positions in the party and to incite riots to divide the party, with the ultimate goal of eliminating black influence.<ref>{{cite web |first=Paul D. |last=Casdorph |title=Lily-White Movement |work=[[Handbook of Texas Online]] |publisher=[[Texas State Historical Association]] |url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/wfl01 |access-date=July 23, 2017 |date=June 15, 2010 }}</ref> By 1910, segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, and only a small number of black leaders were allowed to vote across the [[Deep South]].<ref name="Robinson">{{Cite book| author = Armstead L. Robinson| chapter = Full of Faith, Full of Hope: African-American Experience From Emancipation to Segregation| title = African-American Reader: Essays On African-American History, Culture, and Society| editor = William R. Scott| editor2 = William G. Shade| publisher = U.S. Department of State| location = [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]]| pages = 105–123| year = 2005| oclc = 255903231}}</ref>{{Rp|117}} ===Jim Crow era=== {{main|Nadir of American race relations|Jim Crow laws|Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era}} {{Further|Civil rights movement (1896–1954)}} [[File:Segregated cinema entrance3.jpg|A black man goes into the "colored" entrance of a [[movie theater]] in [[Belzoni, Mississippi]], 1939.<ref>{{cite web| author = Marion Post Wolcott| title = Negro going in colored entrance of movie house on Saturday afternoon, Belzoni, Mississippi Delta, Mississippi| work = Prints & Photographs Online Catalog| publisher = [[Library of Congress]] Home|date=October 1939| url = https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/fsa1998013484/PP/| access-date = January 29, 2009}}</ref>|thumb]] The legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of black people was upheld by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] in the 1896 case of ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'', 163 U.S. 537. The Supreme Court sustained the constitutionality of a Louisiana statute that required railroad companies to provide "[[separate but equal]]" accommodations for white and black passengers, and prohibited white people and black people from using railroad cars that were not assigned to their race.<ref>[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=163&page=537 Plessy v. Ferguson], 163 U.S. 537, 540 (1896) (quoting the Louisiana statute). From Findlaw. Retrieved on December 30, 2012.</ref> ''Plessy'' thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout the [[southern United States]], and represented the institutionalization of the [[Jim Crow]] period. Everyone was supposed to receive the same public services (schools, hospitals, prisons, etc.), but with separate facilities for each race. In practice, the services and facilities reserved for African-Americans were almost always of lower quality than those reserved for white people, if they existed at all; for example, most [[African-American schools]] received less public funding per student than nearby white schools. Segregation was not mandated by law in the Northern states, but a ''de facto'' system grew for schools, in which nearly all black students attended schools that were nearly all-black. In the South, white schools had only white pupils and teachers, while black schools had only black teachers and black students.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aft.org/periodical/american-educator/summer-2004/jim-crows-schools|title=Jim Crow's Schools|date=August 8, 2014|work=American Federation of Teachers|access-date=May 29, 2018|language=en}}</ref> President [[Woodrow Wilson]], a Southern Democrat, initiated the segregation of federal workplaces in 1913.<ref name="Gardner2002">{{cite book|author=Michael R. Gardner|title=Harry Truman and Civil Rights|url=https://archive.org/details/harrytrumancivil00gard|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=SIU Press|isbn=978-0809388967|pages=[https://archive.org/details/harrytrumancivil00gard/page/108 108]–}}</ref> Some [[streetcar]] companies did not segregate voluntarily. It took 15 years for the government to break down their resistance.<ref name=roback>{{cite journal |first=Jennifer |last=Roback |title=The Political Economy of Segregation: The Case of Segregated Streetcars |journal=Journal of Economic History |volume=56 |issue=4 |year=1986 |pages=893–917 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700050634 |s2cid=154950603 }}</ref> On at least six occasions over nearly 60 years, the Supreme Court held, either explicitly or by necessary implication, that the "separate but equal" rule announced in Plessy was the correct rule of law,<ref>[https://casetext.com/case/cumming-v-county-board-of-education Cumming v. Board of Education], 175 U.S. 528 (1899); [[Berea College v. Kentucky]], 211 U.S. 45 (1908); [[Gong Lum v. Rice]], 275 U.S. 78 (1927); [[Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada]], 305 U.S. 337 (1938); [[Sipuel v. Board of Regents]], 332 U.S. 631 (1948); [[Sweatt v. Painter]], 339 U.S. 629 (1950)</ref> although, toward the end of that period, the Court began to focus on whether the separate facilities were in fact equal. The repeal of "separate but equal" laws was a major focus of the [[civil rights movement]]. In ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'', '''347 U.S. 483''' (1954), the Supreme Court outlawed segregated public education facilities for black people and white people at the state level. The [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] superseded all state and local laws requiring segregation. Compliance with the new law came slowly, and it took years with many cases in lower courts to enforce it. {{citation needed|date=July 2022}} In parts of the United States, especially in the South, signs were used to indicate where African Americans could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Litwack |first1=Leon F. |author1-link=Leon Litwack |title=Jim Crow Blues |journal=[[Organization of American Historians|OAH Magazine of History]] |date=January 2004 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=7–11, 58 |doi=10.1093/maghis/18.2.7 |jstor=25163654 |url=https://jstor.org/stable/pdf/25163654.pdf |access-date=March 18, 2022 |quote=The demands made by Jim Crow worked their way into the daily routines of African American men and women. ... The signs instructed blacks where they could legally walk, sit, rest, eat, drink, and entertain themselves. They punctuated the southern landscape, appearing over the entrances to parks, theaters, boarding houses, railroad station waiting rooms, toilets, and water fountains.... Movie houses were becoming increasingly popular and Jim Crow demanded not only separate ticket windows and entrances but also separate seating, usually in the balcony—what came to be known as the 'buzzard roost' and 'nigger heaven.'}}</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-38536668 "Barack Obama legacy: Did he improve US race relations?"]. BBC. Retrieved June 5, 2020</ref> ===New Deal era=== [[File:Roanoke,_Virginia_HOLC_Redlining_Map.jpg|thumb|277x277px|Roanoke, Virginia [[Home Owners' Loan Corporation|HOLC]] [[redlining]] map]] With the passing of [[National Housing Act of 1934]], the United States government began to make low-interest mortgages available to families through the [[Federal Housing Administration]] (FHA). Black families were explicitly denied these loans. While technically legally allowed these loans, in practice they were barred. This was because eligibility for federally backed loans was largely determined by [[redlining]] maps created by the [[Home Owners' Loan Corporation|HOLC]].<ref name="Rothstein-2018">{{Cite book |last=Rothstein |first=Richard |title=The Color of Law: A forgotten history of how our government segregated America |date=2018 |publisher=Liveright Publishing Corporation, a division of W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-1-63149-453-6 |edition= |location=New York London}}</ref> Any neighborhood with "inharmonious racial groups" would either be marked red or yellow, depending on the proportion of Black residents.<ref name="Rothstein-2018"/> This was explicitly stated within the FHA underwriting manual that the HOLC used as for its maps.<ref>{{cite book |title=Underwriting Manual: Underwriting and Valuation Procedure Under Title II of the National Housing Act With Revisions to February 1938 |title-link=National Housing Act of 1934 |publisher=[[Federal Housing Administration]] |location=Washington, D.C. |chapter=Part II, Section 9, Rating of Location |quote=Recommended restrictions should include provision for the following: Prohibition of the occupancy of properties except by the race for which they are intended [...] Schools should be appropriate to the needs of the new community and they should not be attended in large numbers by inharmonious racial groups |chapter-url=http://wbhsi.net/~wendyplotkin/DeedsWeb/fha38.html |access-date=June 7, 2023 |archive-date=December 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121220101009/http://wbhsi.net/~wendyplotkin/DeedsWeb/fha38.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Philadelphia_HOLC_Redlining_Zone_Descriptions,_1937.pdf|page=100|thumb|450x450px|Page of HOLC document from [[c:File:Home_Owners'_Loan_Corporation_Philadelphia_redlining_map.jpg|Philadelphia redlining map]]. Zone D20, one of the red areas.{{Br|2}}It lists the 'Detrimental Influences' as a "concentration of Negros and Italians."]] For neighborhood building projects, a similar requirement existed. The federal government required them to be explicitly segregated to be federally backed.<ref name="Rothstein-2018"/> The federal government's financial backing also required the use of [[Covenant (law)#United States|racially restrictive covenants]], that banned white homeowners from reselling their house to any black buyers, effectively locking Black Americans out of the housing market.<ref name="Rothstein-2018" /> The government encouraged white families to move into suburbs by granting them loans, which were refused to Black Americans. Many established African American communities were disrupted by the routing of [[interstate highways]] through their neighborhoods.<ref>{{Cite news |last=King |first=Noel |date=April 7, 2021 |title=A Brief History Of How Racism Shaped Interstate Highways |work=NPR News |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/04/07/984784455/a-brief-history-of-how-racism-shaped-interstate-highways}}</ref> In order to build these elevated highways, the government destroyed tens of thousands of single-family homes.{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}} Because these properties were summarily declared to be "in decline", families were given pittances for their properties, and forced to move into federally-funded housing which was called "the projects". To build these projects, still more single-family homes were demolished.<ref>{{cite web |title=When a City Turns White, What Happens to Its Black History? |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/158487 |access-date=May 29, 2018 |website=historynewsnetwork.org |date=February 22, 2015 |language=en}}</ref> The [[New Deal]] of the 1930s as a whole was racially segregated; black people and whites rarely worked alongside each other in New Deal programs. The largest relief program by far was the [[Works Progress Administration]] (WPA); it operated segregated units, as did its youth affiliate, the [[National Youth Administration]] (NYA).<ref name="Lumpkins2008">{{cite book|author=Charles L. Lumpkins|title=American Pogrom: The East St. Louis Race Riot and Black Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q8_ZBcXXRAYC&pg=PA179|year=2008|publisher=Ohio UP|page=179|isbn=978-0821418031}}</ref> Black people were hired by the WPA as supervisors in the North; of 10,000 WPA supervisors in the South, only 11 were black.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cheryl Lynn Greenberg|title=To Ask for an Equal Chance: African Americans in the Great Depression|year=2009|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=59|isbn=978-0742551893}}</ref> Historian Anthony Badger argues, "New Deal programs in the South routinely discriminated against black people and perpetuated segregation."<ref>{{cite book|author=Anthony J. Badger|title=New Deal / New South: An Anthony J. Badger Reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VmXIZEtMYyQC&pg=PA38|year=2011|publisher=U. of Arkansas Press|page=38|isbn=978-1610752770}}</ref> In its first few weeks of operation, [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] (CCC) camps in the North were integrated. By July 1935, practically all the CCC camps in the United States were segregated, and black people were strictly limited in the supervisory roles they were assigned.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kay Rippelmeyer|title=The Civilian Conservation Corps in Southern Illinois, 1933–1942|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffupBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98|year=2015|publisher=Southern Illinois Press|pages=98–99|isbn=978-0809333653}}</ref> [[Philip Klinkner]] and [[Rogers Smith]] argue that "even the most prominent racial liberals in the New Deal did not dare to criticize Jim Crow."<ref>{{cite book|author1=Philip A. Klinkner|author2=Rogers M. Smith|title=The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226443416|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=U of Chicago Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226443416/page/130 130]|isbn=978-0226443416}}</ref> Secretary of the Interior [[Harold L. Ickes|Harold Ickes]] was one of the Roosevelt Administration's most prominent supporters of black people and former president of the Chicago chapter of the NAACP. In 1937, when Senator [[Josiah Bailey]], a Democrat from North Carolina, accused him of trying to break down segregation laws, Ickes wrote him to deny that: :I think it is up to the states to work out their social problems if possible, and while I have always been interested in seeing that the Negro has a square deal, I have never dissipated my strength against the particular stone wall of segregation. I believe that wall will crumble when the Negro has brought himself to a high educational and economic status.... Moreover, while there are no segregation laws in the North, there is segregation in fact and we might as well recognize this.<ref>Harold Ickes, ''The secret diary of Harold L. Ickes Vol. 2: The inside struggle, 1936–1939'' (1954) p 115</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=David L. Chappell|title=A Stone of Hope: Prophetic Religion and the Death of Jim Crow|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8jomttdSV5YC&pg=PA9|year=2009|pages=9–11|publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0807895573}}</ref> The New Deal, nonetheless, also provided federal benefits to Black Americans. This led many to become part of the [[New Deal coalition]] from their base in Northern and Western cities where they could now vote, having in large numbers left the South during the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]].<ref name="Leuchtenburg">{{Cite web |last=Leuchtenburg |first=William E. |author-link=William Leuchtenburg |date=October 4, 2016 |title=Franklin D. Roosevelt: The American Franchise |url=https://millercenter.org/president/fdroosevelt/the-american-franchise |access-date=April 11, 2021 |website=millercenter.org |publisher=UVA Miller Center |language=en}}</ref> Influenced in part by the "[[Black Cabinet]]" advisors and the [[March on Washington Movement]], just prior to America's entry into World War II, Roosevelt issued [[Executive Order 8802]], the first anti-discrimination order at the federal level and established the [[Fair Employment Practices Committee]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=FDR on racial discrimination, 1942 |url=https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/spotlight-primary-source/fdr-racial-discrimination-1942 |access-date=April 11, 2021 |website=www.gilderlehrman.org |publisher=[[Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History]]}}</ref><ref name="Leuchtenburg"/> Roosevelt's successor, President [[Harry Truman]] appointed the [[President's Committee on Civil Rights]], and issued Executive Order 9980 and [[Executive Order 9981]] providing for desegregation throughout the federal government and the armed forces.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Jennifer |last2=Hussey |first2=Michael |title=Executive Orders 9980 and 9981: Ending segregation in the Armed Forces and the Federal workforce – Pieces of History |url=https://prologue.blogs.archives.gov/2014/05/19/executive-orders-9980-and-9981-ending-segregation-in-the-armed-forces-and-the-federal-workforce/ |access-date=April 11, 2021 |website=National Archives |date=May 19, 2014 |language=en-US}}</ref> ==Hypersegregation== In an often-cited 1988 study, [[Douglas Massey]] and [[Nancy Denton]] compiled 20 existing segregation measures and reduced them to five dimensions of residential segregation.<ref>{{cite book|author=Vincent N. Parrillo|title=Encyclopedia of Social Problems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mRGr_B4Y1CEC&pg=PT508|year=2008|publisher=SAGE Publications|page=508|isbn=978-1412941655}}</ref> Dudley L. Poston and Michael Micklin argue that Massey and Denton "brought conceptual clarity to the theory of segregation measurement by identifying five dimensions".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dudley L. Poston|author2=Michael Micklin|title=Handbook of Population|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fenOb8i4cTEC&pg=PA499|year=2006|publisher=Springer|page=499|isbn=978-0387257020}}</ref> African Americans are considered to be racially segregated because of all five dimensions of segregation being applied to them within these inner cities across the U.S. These five dimensions are evenness, clustering, exposure, centralization and concentration.<ref name="Hypersegregation">{{Cite journal|author=Douglas S. Massey|author-link=Douglas Massey|author2=Nancy A. Denton|s2cid=37301240|date=August 1989|title=Hypersegregation in U.S. Metropolitan Areas: Black and Hispanic Segregation Along Five Dimensions|journal=Demography|volume=26|issue=3|pages=373–391|doi=10.2307/2061599|issn=0070-3370|jstor=2061599|pmid=2792476|oclc=486395765|doi-access=free}}</ref> Evenness is the difference between the percentage of a minority group in a particular part of a city, compared to the city as a whole. Exposure is the likelihood that a minority and a majority party will come in contact with one another. Clustering is the gathering of different minority groups into a single space; clustering often leads to one big [[ghetto]] and the formation of "hyperghettoization". Centralization measures the tendency of members of a minority group to be located in the middle of an urban area, often computed as a percentage of a minority group living in the middle of a city (as opposed to the outlying areas). Concentration is the dimension that relates to the actual amount of land a minority lives on within its particular city. The higher segregation is within that particular area, the smaller the amount of land a minority group will control.<ref name="Hypersegregation" />{{Rp|page=373 (2 in pdf)}} The pattern of hypersegregation began in the early 20th century. African-Americans who moved to large cities often moved into the inner-city in order to gain industrial jobs. The influx of new African-American residents caused many white residents to move to the new suburbs (federally subsidized for white families only<ref name="Rothstein-2018"/>) in a case of [[white flight]]. This was encouraged by the government, as many were white middle-class families who lived in [[Subsidized housing in the United States#Public Works Administration (PWA) Housing Division|segregated public housing first established in the 1930s]]. The US government heavily advertised the suburbs to them and the subsidized mortgages the government provided were typically cheaper than monthly rent.<ref name="Rothstein-2018"/> These same mortgages were not provided to Black Americans in public housing, leading to overcrowding, while white public housing sat vacant.<ref name="Rothstein-2018"/> As industry began to move out of the inner-city, the African-American residents lost the stable jobs that had brought them to the area. Many were unable to leave the inner-city and became increasingly poor.<ref name="Hurst">{{Cite book| author = Charles E. Hurst| title = Social Inequality: Forms, causes, and consequences| edition = 6th| publisher = Pearson| location = Boston| year = 2007| isbn = 978-0205698295}}</ref> This created the inner-city ghettos that make up the core of hypersegregation. Though the [[Civil Rights Act of 1968]] banned discrimination in housing, housing patterns established earlier saw the perpetuation of hypersegregation.<ref>{{Cite journal| author = David R Williams| author2 = Chiquita Collins| title = Racial Residential Segregation: A Fundamental Cause of Racial Disparities in Health| journal = [[Public Health Reports]] | year = 2001| url = https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1093/phr/116.5.404 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110021807/http://www.publichealthreports.org/archives/issueopen.cfm?articleID=1121 | archive-date = January 10, 2012 | url-status = live | volume = 116| issue = 5| pages = 404–416| doi = 10.1093/phr/116.5.404| pmid = 12042604| pmc = 1497358| issn = 0033-3549}}</ref>{{cbignore}} Data from the 2000 census shows that 29 metropolitan areas displayed black-white hypersegregation. Two areas—Los Angeles and New York City—displayed Hispanic-white hypersegregation. No metropolitan area displayed hypersegregation for Asians or for Native Americans.<ref>{{Cite journal| author = Rima Wilkes| author2 = John Iceland| s2cid = 5777361| year = 2004| title = Hypersegregation in the Twenty First Century| journal = Demography| volume = 41| issue = 1| pages = 23–361| oclc = 486373184| jstor = 1515211| doi=10.1353/dem.2004.0009| pmid=15074123| doi-access = free}}</ref> {{anchor|Public facilities}} ==Racism== {{Main|Racism in the United States|Racism against African Americans}} President [[Woodrow Wilson]] removed many Blacks from public office. He did not oppose segregation practices by autonomous department heads of the [[United States federal civil service|federal civil service]], according to Brian J. Cook in his work, ''Democracy And Administration: Woodrow Wilson's Ideas And The Challenges Of Public Management''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?documentprint=1115 |title=Another Open Letter to Woodrow Wilson W.E.B. DuBois, September, 1913 |publisher=Teachingamericanhistory.org |access-date=February 28, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328100131/http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?documentprint=1115 |archive-date=March 28, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> White and [[Black (people)|black people]] were sometimes required to eat separately, go to separate schools, use separate public toilets, park benches, train, buses, and water fountains, etc. In some locales, stores and restaurants refused to serve different races under the same roof. Public segregation was challenged by individual citizens on rare occasions but had minimal impact on civil rights issues, until December 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, [[Rosa Parks]] refused to be moved to the back of a bus for a white passenger. Parks' civil disobedience had the effect of sparking the [[Montgomery bus boycott]]. Parks' act of defiance became an important symbol of the modern [[Civil Rights Movement]] and Parks became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation. Segregation was also pervasive in housing. [[State constitution (United States)|State constitutions]] (for example, that of [[California Constitution|California]]) had clauses giving local jurisdictions the right to regulate where members of certain races could live. In 1917, the Supreme Court in the case of ''[[Buchanan v. Warley]]'' declared municipal resident segregation [[Local ordinance|ordinances]] unconstitutional. In response, whites resorted to the [[restrictive covenant]], a formal deed restriction binding white property owners in a given neighborhood not to sell to blacks. Whites who broke these agreements could be sued by "damaged" neighbors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=443|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080121121733/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=443|url-status=dead|title=The Great Migration, Period: 1920s|archivedate=January 21, 2008}}</ref> In the 1948 case of ''[[Shelley v. Kraemer]]'', the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] finally ruled that such covenants were unenforceable in a court of law. Residential segregation patterns had already become established in most American cities, and have often persisted up to the present from the impact of [[white flight]] and [[Redlining]]. In most cities, the only way blacks could relieve the pressure of crowding that resulted from increasing migration was to expand residential borders into surrounding previously white neighborhoods, a process that often resulted in harassment and attacks by white residents whose intolerant attitudes were intensified by fears that black neighbors would cause property values to decline. Moreover, the increased presence of African Americans in cities, North and South, as well as their competition with whites for housing, jobs, and political influence sparked a series of race riots. In 1898 white citizens of [[Wilmington, North Carolina]], resenting African Americans' involvement in local government and incensed by an editorial in an [[African-American newspapers|African-American newspaper]] accusing white women of loose sexual behavior, rioted and killed dozens of blacks. In the fury's wake, [[Wilmington insurrection of 1898|white supremacists overthrew the city government]], expelling black and white officeholders, and instituted restrictions to prevent blacks from voting. In Atlanta in 1906, newspaper accounts alleging attacks by black men on white women provoked an outburst of shooting and killing that left twelve blacks dead and seventy injured. An influx of unskilled black strikebreakers into [[East St Louis, Illinois]], heightened [[East St. Louis riots|racial tensions]] in 1917. Rumors that blacks were arming themselves for an attack on whites resulted in numerous attacks by white mobs on black neighborhoods. On July 1, blacks fired back at a car whose occupants they believed had shot into their homes and mistakenly killed two policemen riding in a car. The next day, a full-scaled riot erupted which ended only after nine whites and thirty-nine blacks had been killed and over three hundred buildings were destroyed. [[File:Mr & Mrs Sammy Davis Jnr 2 Allan Warren.jpg|thumb|upright|Although the ban on interracial marriage ended in California in 1948, entertainer [[Sammy Davis Jr.]] faced a backlash for his involvement with a white woman in 1957.]] [[Anti-miscegenation laws]] (also known as miscegenation laws) prohibited whites and non-whites from marrying each other. The first ever anti-miscegenation law was passed by the [[Maryland General Assembly]] in 1691, criminalizing interracial marriage.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation"/> During one of his [[Lincoln–Douglas debates|famous debates]] with [[Stephen A. Douglas]] in [[Charleston, Illinois]] in 1858, [[Abraham Lincoln]] stated, "I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people".<ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen A. |last=Douglas|title=The Complete Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858 |date=1991 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |page=235}}</ref> By the late 1800s, 38 US states had anti-miscegenation statutes.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation"/> By 1924, the ban on interracial marriage was still in force in 29 states.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation"/> While interracial marriage had been legal in California since 1948, in 1957 actor [[Sammy Davis Jr.]] faced a backlash for his involvement with white actress [[Kim Novak]].<ref name="Smithsonian" /> [[Harry Cohn]], the president of Columbia Pictures (with whom Novak was under contract) gave in to his concerns that a racist backlash against the relationship could hurt the studio.<ref name="Smithsonian" /> Davis briefly married black dancer Loray White in 1958 to protect himself from mob violence.<ref name="Smithsonian" /> Inebriated at the wedding ceremony, Davis despairingly said to his best friend, Arthur Silber Jr., "Why won't they let me live my life?"<ref name="Smithsonian" /> The couple never lived together and commenced divorce proceedings in September 1958.<ref name="Smithsonian">Lanzendorfer, Joy (August 9, 2017) [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/hollywood-loved-sammy-davis-jr-until-he-dated-white-movie-star-180964395/ "Hollywood Loved Sammy Davis Jr. Until He Dated a White Movie Star"], ''[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]'' Retrieved February 23, 2021.</ref> When former president [[Harry S. Truman]] was asked by a reporter in 1963 if interracial marriage would become widespread in the U.S., he responded, "I hope not; I don’t believe in it", before asking a question often aimed at anyone advocating racial integration, "Would you want your daughter to marry a Negro? She won't love someone who isn't her color."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wallenstein |first1=Peter |title=Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and Law--An American History |date=2004 |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group |page=185}}</ref> In 1958, officers in [[Virginia]] entered the home of [[Loving v. Virginia#Plaintiffs|Richard and Mildred Loving]] and dragged them out of bed for living together as an interracial couple, on the basis that "any white person intermarry with a colored person"— or vice versa—each party "shall be guilty of a felony" and face prison terms of five years.<ref name="Anti-miscegenation">{{cite news |title=Eugenics, Race, and Marriage |url=https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/eugenics-race-and-marriage |access-date=February 23, 2021 |website=Facing History.org}}</ref> In 1965, Virginia trial court Judge Leon Bazile, who heard their original case, defended his decision: {{blockquote|Almighty God created the races [[White people|white]], [[Black people|black]], [[Asian people|yellow]], [[Malay race|Malay]], and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|red]], and placed them on separate [[continents]], and but for the interference with his arrangement there would be no cause for such marriages. The fact that he separated the races shows that he did not intend the races to mix.<ref name="tucker">Tucker, Neely (June 13, 2006). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/12/AR2006061201716.html "Loving Day Recalls a Time When the Union of a Man And a Woman Was Banned"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914005046/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/12/AR2006061201716.html |date=2017-09-14 }}. ''The Washington Post''.</ref>}} {{See also|Racism against African Americans in the U.S. military}} [[File:ColoredSailersRoomWWINOLA.jpg|thumb|right|Colored sailors room in World War I]] In [[World War I]], blacks served in the [[United States Armed Forces]] in segregated units. The 369th Infantry (formerly 15th New York National Guard) Regiment distinguished themselves, and were known as the "[[Harlem Hellfighters]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/detached.htm |title=Detached Service By Segregated Infantry Units |publisher=Worldwar1.com |date=April 16, 1918 |access-date=February 28, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwar1.com/dbc/hhf.htm |title=James Reese Europe and The Harlem Hellfighters Band by Glenn Watkins |publisher=Worldwar1.com |access-date=February 28, 2013}}</ref> [[File:African-americans-wwii-002.jpg|thumb|left|A black [[military police]]man on a motorcycle in front of the "colored" MP entrance during World War II]] The U.S. military was still heavily segregated in World War II. The [[United States Army Air Corps|Army Air Corps]] (forerunner of the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]]) and the [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]] had no blacks enlisted in their ranks. There were blacks in the Navy [[Seabees]]. Before the war, the army had only five African-American officers.<ref name=fonerblack/> No African American received the [[Medal of Honor]] during the war, and they were mostly relegated to non-combat units. Black soldiers were sometimes forced to give up their seats in trains to [[Nazi]] prisoners of war.<ref name=fonerblack>{{cite book|last=Foner|first=Eric|title=Give Me Liberty!: An American History|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]]|isbn=978-0393935530|edition=3|page=696|date=February 1, 2012}}</ref> World War II saw the first black military pilots in the U.S., the [[Tuskegee Airmen]], 99th Fighter Squadron,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmagazine.com/issues/2004/may/interest.htm|title=On Clipped Wings|date=May 9, 2006|access-date=May 18, 2017|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061128214021/http://www.smithsonianmagazine.com/issues/2004/may/interest.htm|archive-date=November 28, 2006}}</ref> and also saw the segregated 183rd Engineer Combat Battalion participate in the liberation of [[Holocaust survivors|Jewish survivors]] at [[Buchenwald concentration camp]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://asagordon.byethost10.com/LIBERATORS/ENCOUNTR.HTM |title=William A. Scott, III and the Holocaust: The Encounter of African American Liberators and Jewish Survivors at Buchenwald by Asa R. Gordon, Executive Director, Douglass Institute of Government |publisher=Asagordon.byethost10.com |access-date=February 28, 2013}}</ref> Despite the institutional policy of racially segregated training for enlisted members and in tactical units; Army policy dictated that black and white soldiers train together in [[officer candidate school]]s (beginning in 1942).<ref name="WAAC">{{cite book| title = Women's Army Corps| chapter-url = http://www.history.army.mil/books/wac/chapter1.htm#p5| chapter = Chapter I The Women's Army Corps, 1942–1945| url = http://www.history.army.mil/books/wac/index.htm#contents| first = Bettie J.| last = morden| publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]| year = 2000| orig-year = 1990| id = CMH Pub 30-14| series = Army Historical Series| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100729213804/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wac/index.htm#contents| archive-date = July 29, 2010}}</ref><ref name="OCSINT">{{cite book| title = Integration of the Armed Forces: 1940–1965| chapter-url = http://www.history.army.mil/books/integration/IAF-02.htm| chapter = CHAPTER 2 "World War II: The Army"| id = (link: [http://www.history.army.mil/books/integration/IAF-fm.htm IAF-fm.htm])| year = 1985| publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]| first = Morris J. Jr.| last = MacGregor| series = Defense Studies Series| access-date = July 15, 2010| archive-date = July 27, 2010| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100727161209/http://www.history.army.mil/books/integration/IAF-02.htm| url-status = dead}}</ref> Thus, the [[Officer Candidate School (U.S. Army)|Officer Candidate School]] became the Army's first formal experiment with integration – with all Officer Candidates, regardless of race, living and training together.<ref name="OCSINT" /> [[File:US Census Bureau keypunch operators, Negro section.jpg|thumb|Negro section of [[keypunch]] operators at the [[U.S. Census Bureau]]]] During World War II, 110,000 [[Japanese Americans|people of Japanese descent]] (whether citizens or not) were placed in [[internment camp]]s. Hundreds of people of [[German Americans|German]] and [[Italian Americans|Italian descent]] were also imprisoned (see [[German American internment]] and [[Italian American internment]]). While the government program of [[Japanese American internment]] targeted all the Japanese in America as enemies, most German and Italian Americans were left in peace and were allowed to serve in the U.S. military. Pressure to end racial segregation in the [[Federal government of the United States|government]] grew among African Americans and progressives after the end of World War II. On July 26, 1948, President [[Harry S. Truman]] signed [[Executive Order 9981]], ending segregation in the United States Armed Forces. A club central to the [[Harlem Renaissance]] in the 1920s, the [[Cotton Club]] in Harlem, New York City was a whites-only establishment, with blacks (such as [[Duke Ellington]]) allowed to perform, but to a white audience.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ella Fitzgerald |date=1989 |publisher=Holloway House Publishing |page=27}}</ref> The first black Oscar recipient [[Hattie McDaniel]] was not permitted to attend the premiere of ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' with [[Racial segregation in Atlanta|Atlanta being racially segregated]], and at the [[12th Academy Awards]] ceremony at the [[Ambassador Hotel (Los Angeles)|Ambassador Hotel]] in [[Los Angeles]] she was required to sit at a segregated table at the far wall of the room; the hotel had a no-blacks policy, but allowed McDaniel in as a favor.<ref name="LA segregation">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/features/oscars-first-black-winner-accepted-774335|title=Oscar's First Black Winner Accepted Her Honor in a Segregated 'No Blacks' Hotel in L.A.|last=Abramovitch|first=Seth|date=February 19, 2015|magazine=The Hollywood Reporter|access-date=August 10, 2017}}</ref> McDaniel's final wish to be buried in [[Hollywood Forever Cemetery|Hollywood Cemetery]] was denied because the graveyard was restricted to whites only.<ref name="LA segregation"/> On September 11, 1964, [[John Lennon]] announced [[The Beatles]] would not play to a segregated audience in [[Jacksonville, Florida]].<ref name="Concert"/> City officials relented following this announcement.<ref name="Concert">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-14963752 "The Beatles banned segregated audiences, contract shows"]. BBC. Retrieved July 17, 2017</ref> A contract for a 1965 Beatles concert at the [[Cow Palace]] in [[Daly City, California]], specifies that the band "not be required to perform in front of a segregated audience".<ref name="Concert"/> Despite all the legal changes that have taken place since the 1940s and especially in the 1960s (see [[Desegregation in the United States|Desegregation]]), the United States remains, to some degree, a segregated society, with housing patterns, school enrollment, church membership, employment opportunities, and even college admissions all reflecting significant ''de facto'' segregation.<ref name="Krysan"/> Supporters of [[affirmative action]] argue that the persistence of such disparities reflects either racial discrimination or the persistence of its effects. ''[[Gates v. Collier]]'' was a case decided in federal court that brought an end to the [[Trusty system (prison)|trusty system]] and flagrant inmate abuse at the notorious [[Mississippi State Penitentiary]] at [[Parchman, Mississippi]]. In 1972 [[federal judge]], [[William C. Keady]] found that Parchman Farm violated modern standards of decency. He ordered an immediate end to all unconstitutional conditions and practices. Racial segregation of inmates was abolished. And the trusty system, which allowed certain inmates to have power and control over others, was also abolished.<ref name="hnet">{{cite web |url = http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=22500870194459 |title = Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice |access-date = August 28, 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060826214105/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=22500870194459 |archive-date = August 26, 2006 |url-status = dead }}</ref> More recently, the disparity between the [[Race and incarceration in the United States|racial compositions of inmates in the American prison system]] has led to concerns that the U.S. Justice system furthers a "new [[apartheid]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=43&ItemID=5758 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040704061407/http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=43&ItemID=5758 |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 4, 2004 |title=The New American Apartheid |publisher=ZMag.org |date=June 22, 2004 |access-date=February 28, 2013 }}</ref> ===Scientific racism=== {{main|Scientific racism}} The intellectual roots of ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'', the landmark United States Supreme Court decision which upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation, under the doctrine of "separate but equal", were partially tied to the [[scientific racism]] of the era. The popular support of the decision was likely a result of the racist beliefs which were held by most whites at the time.<ref name="rlac">{{cite book |title=Race, Law, and Culture: Reflections on Brown V. Board of Education |url=https://archive.org/details/racelawculturere00sara |url-access=limited |first=Austin |last=Sarat |pages=[https://archive.org/details/racelawculturere00sara/page/n65 55] and 59 |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195106220 }}</ref> Later, the court decision ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' rejected the ideas of scientific racists about the need for segregation, especially in schools. Following that decision both scholarly and popular ideas of scientific racism played an important role in the attack and backlash that followed the court decision.<ref name="rlac"/> The ''[[Mankind Quarterly]]'' is a journal that has published scientific racism. It was founded in 1960, partly in response to the 1954 United States Supreme Court decision ''Brown v. Board of Education'', which ordered the desegregation of US schools.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schaffer |first=Gavin |title='"Scientific" Racism Again?': Reginald Gates, the Mankind Quarterly and the Question of 'Race' in Science after the Second World War |journal=Journal of American Studies |year=2007 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=253–278 |doi=10.1017/S0021875807003477 |s2cid=145322934 }}</ref><ref name="jackson">{{cite book |title=Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case Against Brown V. Board of Education |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceforsegreg00jack |url-access=limited |first=John P. |last=Jackson |isbn=978-0814742716 |page=[https://archive.org/details/scienceforsegreg00jack/page/n160 148] |date=August 2005 |publisher=NYU Press }}</ref> Many of the publication's contributors, publishers, and board of directors espouse academic [[hereditarianism]]. The publication is widely criticized for its extremist politics, anti-semitic bent and its support for scientific racism.<ref>e.g., {{cite book |last=Arvidsson |first=Stefan |year=2006 |title=Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science |others=translated by Sonia Wichmann |location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226028606 }}</ref> ===In the South=== {{see also|Racial segregation in Atlanta}} <!-- This section is linked from [[Mutual Broadcasting System]] --> [[File:Ku Klux Klan members and a burning cross, Denver, Colorado, 1921.jpg|thumb|Founded by former [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] soldiers after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] (1861–1865), the [[Ku Klux Klan]] (KKK) used [[Terrorism|violence and intimidation]] to prevent blacks from voting, holding political office and attending school.]] After the end of Reconstruction and the withdrawal of federal troops, which followed from the [[Compromise of 1877]], the Democratic governments in the South instituted state laws to separate black and white racial groups, submitting African-Americans to ''de facto'' second-class citizenship and enforcing [[white supremacy]]. Collectively, these state laws were called the [[Jim Crow]] system, after the name of a stereotypical 1830s black minstrel show character.<ref name="Remembering_Jim_Crow">[http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/remembering/ Remembering Jim Crow] – Minnesota Public Radio</ref> Sometimes, as in Florida's [[Florida Constitutional Convention of 1885|Constitution of 1885]], segregation was mandated by state constitutions. Racial segregation became the law in most parts of the [[Southern United States|American South]] until the [[Civil Rights Movement]]. These laws, known as [[Jim Crow laws]], forced segregation of facilities and services, prohibited intermarriage, and denied suffrage. Impacts included: * Segregation of facilities included separate schools, hotels, bars, hospitals, toilets, parks, even telephone booths, and separate sections in libraries, cinemas, and restaurants, the latter often with separate ticket windows and counters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov:80/malu/documents/jim_crow_laws.htm|title="Jim Crow" Laws|website=National Park Service|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060821012733/http://www.nps.gov/malu/documents/jim_crow_laws.htm|archive-date=August 21, 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Estes, R. (1960). "Segregated libraries." ''Library Journal'' (December 15), 4418–4421.</ref> ** After Reconstruction, many southern states passed Jim crow laws and followed the "separate but equal" doctrine created during the [[Plessy v. Ferguson|''Plessy v. Ferguson'' case.]] Segregated libraries under this system existed in most parts of the south. The [[East Henry Street Carnegie Library|East Henry Street Carnegie]] library in [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]], built by African Americans during the segregation era in 1914 with help from the Carnegie foundation, is one example. Hundreds of segregated libraries existed across the United States prior to the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. These libraries were often underfunded, understocked, and had fewer services than their white counterparts. Only during the landmark [[Brown v. Board of Education|''Brown v. Board'']] was the acknowledgement that separate was never equal and that African Americans were not segregating by choice.<ref>{{Citation|title=African-Americans and U.S. Libraries: History|date=December 17, 2009|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/e-elis3-120044938|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, Third Edition|pages=42–50|publisher=CRC Press|doi=10.1081/e-elis3-120044938|isbn=978-0203757635|access-date=April 22, 2021}}</ref> During the Civil rights movement, several demonstrations and sit-ins were orchestrated by activist including nine [[Tougaloo College|Tugaloo College]] students who were arrested when they requested service from the all-white Jackson Public Library in Mississippi. Another example was the St. Helena Four, where four local teenagers made several attempts to use the Auburn Regional Library located in [[Greensburg, Louisiana|Greenburg, Louisiana]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wiegand|date=2017|title="Any Ideas?": The American Library Association and the Desegregation of Public Libraries in the American South|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/libraries.1.1.0001|journal=Libraries: Culture, History, and Society|volume=1|issue=1|pages=1–22|doi=10.5325/libraries.1.1.0001|issn=2473-0343}}</ref> Police were typically called on these civil rights activists usually resulting in some form of intimidation or incarceration. Libraries in several states continued their segregation practices even after the "separate but equal" doctrine was overruled by the Civil Rights Act. In 1964 E.J. Josey, the first African American member of ALA, put forth a resolution preventing ALA officers and staff members to attend segregated state chapter meetings.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2020|title=AONL 2020|journal=Nurse Leader|volume=18|issue=1|pages=21–22|doi=10.1016/j.mnl.2020.01.001|issn=1541-4612|doi-access=free}}</ref> The segregated states being targeted by this resolution were Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana. This resolution led to the integration of these state's libraries within a few years. * Laws prohibited blacks from being present in certain locations. For example, blacks in 1939 were not allowed on the streets of [[Palm Beach, Florida]] after dark, unless required by their employment.<ref>{{citation|title=Florida. A Guide to the Southernmost State|date=1939|place=New York|author=Federal Writers' Project|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=229}}</ref> * [[Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States|State laws prohibiting interracial marriage]] ("[[miscegenation]]") had been enforced throughout the South and in many Northern states since the Colonial era. During [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]], such laws were repealed in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida, Texas and South Carolina. In all these states such laws were reinstated after the Democratic "[[Redeemers]]" came to power. The [[SCOTUS|Supreme Court]] declared such laws constitutional in 1883. This verdict was overturned only in 1967 by ''[[Loving v. Virginia]]''.<ref name="Hist_Jim_Crow">{{Cite web|url=http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060602172112/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm|url-status=dead|title=The History of Jim Crow|archivedate=June 2, 2006}}</ref> * The [[Black suffrage in the United States|voting rights of blacks]] were systematically restricted or denied through suffrage laws, such as the introduction of [[poll tax (United States)|poll taxes]] and [[literacy test]]s. Loopholes, such as the [[grandfather clause]] and the understanding clause, protected the voting rights of white people who were unable to pay the tax or pass the literacy test. (See [[Benjamin Tillman#Disenfranchising the African American: 1895 state constitutional convention|Senator Benjamin Tillman's open defense of this practice]].) Only whites could vote in [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] primary contests.<ref name="Hist_Jim_Crow"/> Where and when black people did manage to vote in numbers, their votes were negated by systematic [[Gerrymandering in the United States|gerrymander]] of electoral boundaries. [[File:Wallace at University of Alabama edit2.jpg|thumb|[[Stand in the Schoolhouse Door]]: Governor [[George Wallace]] attempts to block the enrollment of black students at the [[University of Alabama]].]] * In theory the segregated facilities available for negroes were of the same quality as those available to whites, under the separate but equal doctrine. In practice this was rarely the case. For example, in [[Martin County, Florida]], students at [[Stuart Training School]] "read second-hand books...that were discarded from their all-white counterparts at [[Martin County High School|Stuart High School]]. They also wore secondhand basketball and football uniforms.... The students and their parents built the basketball court and sidewalks at the school without the help of the school board. 'We even put in wiring for lights along the sidewalk, but the school board never connected the electricity.{{'"}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Students remember receiving hand-me-down books, uniforms |newspaper=[[Palm Beach Post]] ([[West Palm Beach, Florida]]) |date=January 16, 2000 |page=27 |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32215654/stuart_training_school_reunion/}}</ref> ===In the North=== Formal segregation was enforced in the North. Some neighborhoods were restricted to blacks and job opportunities were denied them by unions in, for example, the skilled building trades. Blacks who moved to the North in the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] after World War I sometimes could live without the same degree of oppression experienced in the South, but the racism and discrimination still existed. {{blockquote|Despite the actions of abolitionists, life for free blacks was far from idyllic, due to northern racism. Most free blacks lived in racial enclaves in the major cities of the North: New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. There, poor living conditions led to disease and death. In a Philadelphia study in 1846, practically all poor black infants died shortly after birth. Even wealthy blacks were prohibited from living in white neighborhoods due to whites' fear of declining property values.<ref name="AIA4">[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4narr3.html "Africans in America"] – PBS Series – Part 4 (2007)</ref> |}} [[File:We want white tenants.jpg|thumb|White tenants seeking to prevent blacks from moving into the [[Sojourner Truth Project|Sojourner Truth housing project]] erected this sign. [[Detroit]], 1942.]] The rapid influx of blacks during the Great Migration disturbed the racial balance within Northern and Western cities, exacerbating hostility between both blacks and whites in the two regions.<ref>Michael O. Emerson, Christian Smith (2001). ''Divided by Faith: Evangelical Religion and the Problem of Race in America''. p. 42. Oxford University Press</ref> Deed restrictions and [[restrictive covenants]] became an important instrument for enforcing racial segregation in most towns and cities, becoming widespread in the 1920s.<ref name="CNN 2020">{{cite news |title=Racist language is still woven into home deeds across America. Erasing it isn't easy, and some don't want to |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/15/us/racist-deeds-covenants/index.html |access-date=December 5, 2020 |agency=CNN}}</ref> Such covenants were employed by many [[real estate development|real estate developers]] to "protect" entire [[subdivision (land)|subdivisions]], with the primary intent to keep "[[white people|white]]" neighborhoods "white". Ninety percent of the housing projects built in the years following [[World War II]] were racially restricted by such covenants.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kennedy|first=Stetson|url=http://www.stetsonkennedy.com/jim_crow_guide/index.html|title=Jim Crow Guide: The Way it Was|year=1959|chapter=Who May Live Where|chapter-url=http://www.stetsonkennedy.com/jim_crow_guide/chapter6.htm}}</ref> Cities known for their widespread use of racial covenants include [[Chicago]], [[Baltimore]], [[Detroit]], [[Milwaukee]],<ref>{{cite web|author1=Michelle Maternowski|author2=Joy Powers|date=March 3, 2017|title=How Did Metro Milwaukee Become So Segregated?|url=https://www.wuwm.com/post/how-did-metro-milwaukee-become-so-segregated|website=WUWM.com|ref=WUWM 89.7 Milwaukee NPR}}</ref> [[Los Angeles]], [[Seattle]], and [[St. Louis]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Racial Restrictive Covenants: Enforcing Neighborhood Segregation in Seattle – Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project |url=https://depts.washington.edu/civilr/covenants_report.htm |access-date=December 5, 2020 |agency=University of Washington}}</ref> {{blockquote|"Said premises shall not be rented, leased, or conveyed to, or occupied by, any person other than of the white or Caucasian race."|[[Racial covenant]] for a home in [[Beverly Hills, California]].<ref name="CNN 2020"/>}} [[Cicero, Illinois]], a [[sundown town]] adjacent to Chicago, for example, was made famous when Civil Rights advocate Rev. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] led a march advocating open (race-unbiased) housing in 1966.<ref name="Loewen">{{cite book |last1=Sundown Towns A hidden dimension of American racism |first1=James W. |title=Loewen |date=2018 |publisher=The New Press |quote=The Civil Rights Movement rarely addressed northern sundown towns and suburbs directly, and when it did, such as Martin Luther King Jr.'s 1966 march for open housing in Cicero, Illinois, it usually failed.|location=New York, London |isbn=9781620974346 |pages=7, 394 |edition=2018 }}</ref> {{blockquote|Northern blacks were forced to live in a white man's democracy, and while not legally enslaved, were subject to definition by their race. In their all-black communities, they continued to build their own churches and schools and to develop vigilance committees to protect members of the black community from hostility and violence.<ref name="AIA4"/>}} [[File:No beer sold to indians.jpg|thumb|left|A sign posted above a bar that reads "No beer sold to Indians" ([[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]). Birney, Montana, 1941.]] Within employment, economic opportunities for blacks were routed to the lowest-status and restrictive in potential mobility. In 1900 Reverend Matthew Anderson, speaking at the annual [[Hampton Negro Conference]] in Virginia, said that "...the lines along most of the avenues of wage earning are more rigidly drawn in the North than in the South. There seems to be an apparent effort throughout the North, especially in the cities to debar the colored worker from all the avenues of higher remunerative labor, which makes it more difficult to improve his economic condition even than in the South."<ref>{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Hampton Negro Conference|chapter=The Economic Aspect of the Negro Problem|first=Anderson|last=Matthew|series=Hampton bulletinno. 9–10, 12–16 |editor1-last=Browne |editor1-first=Hugh |editor2-last=Kruse |editor2-first=Edwina |editor4-last=Moton |editor3-last=Walker |editor3-first=Thomas C. |editor4-first=Robert Russa |editor4-link=Robert Russa Moton |editor5-last=Wheelock |editor5-first=Frederick D. |publisher=Hampton Institute Press|location=[[Hampton, Virginia]]|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gkQ9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA39|hdl=2027/chi.14025588?urlappend=%3Bseq=43|volume=4|year=1900|page=39}}</ref> In the 1930s, job discrimination ended for many African Americans in the North, after the [[Congress of Industrial Organizations]], one of America's lead labor unions at the time, agreed to integrate the union.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brueggemann |first1=John |last2=Boswell |first2=Terry |s2cid=154406653 |year=1998 |title=Realizing Solidarity: Sources of Interracial Unionism During the Great Depression |journal=[[Work and Occupations]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=436–482 |doi=10.1177/0730888498025004003 }}</ref> School segregation in the North was also a major issue.<ref name=io>{{cite web |url=http://web.wm.edu/news/archive/index.php?id=5438 |title=Q&A with Douglas: Northern segregation |website=William and Mary College, Office of University Relations |date=December 13, 2005 |access-date=February 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222054448/http://web.wm.edu/news/archive/index.php?id=5438 |archive-date=February 22, 2014 }}</ref> In Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, towns in the south of those states enforced school segregation, despite the fact that it was prohibited by state laws.<ref name=io /> Indiana also required school segregation by state law.<ref name=io /> During the 1940s, NAACP lawsuits quickly depleted segregation from the Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New Jersey southern areas.<ref name=io /> In 1949, Indiana officially repealed its school segregation law as well.<ref name=io /> The most common form of segregation in the northern states came from [[anti-miscegenation]] laws.<ref name=d.c /> The state of Oregon went farther than even any of the Southern states, specifically excluding blacks from entering the state, or from owning property within it. School integration did not come about until the mid-1970s. As of 2017, the population of Oregon was about 2% black.<ref name="Oregon Exclusion">{{cite web |title=Black Exclusion Laws in Oregon |url=https://oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/exclusion_laws/#.XH_kUIhKhGM |access-date=March 6, 2019}}</ref><ref name="Blacks in Oregon">{{cite web |title=Blacks in Oregon |url=https://oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/blacks_in_oregon/#.XH_k_IhKhGM |access-date=March 6, 2019}}</ref> ===In Alaska=== [[File:Discrimination_in_a_restaurant_in_Juneau_in_1908.png|thumb|Discrimination in a restaurant in [[Juneau, Alaska]], in 1908: "All White Help."]] Racial segregation in [[Alaska]] was primarily targeted at [[Alaska Natives]].{{Sfn|Cole|1992|p=430}} In 1905, the Nelson Act specified an educational system for whites and one for indigenous Alaskans.{{Sfn|Cole|1992|p=431}} Public areas such as playgrounds, swimming pools, and theaters were also segregated.{{Sfn|Cole|1992|p=434}} Groups such as the [[Alaska Native Brotherhood/Sisterhood|Alaska Native Brotherhood]] (ANB) staged boycotts of places that supported segregation.{{Sfn|Cole|1992|p=434}} In 1941, [[Elizabeth Peratrovich]] ([[Tlingit]]) and her husband argued to the governor of Alaska, [[Ernest Gruening]], that segregation was "very Un-American".{{Sfn|Cole|1992|pp=435–436}} Gruening supported anti-discrimination laws and pushed for their passage.{{Sfn|Cole|1992|p=436}} In 1944, [[Alberta Schenck Adams|Alberta Schenck]] ([[Iñupiat|Inupiaq]]) staged a sit-in in the whites-only section of a theater in Nome, Alaska.<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 16, 2017|title=Peratrovich, ANB work to end 'de jure' segregation in Alaska|url=https://www.kcaw.org/2017/02/16/peratrovich-anb-work-end-de-jure-segregation-alaska/|access-date=November 11, 2020|website=KCAW|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1945, the first anti-discrimination law in the United States, the [[Alaska Equal Rights Act of 1945|Alaska Equal Rights Act]], was passed in Alaska.<ref name="Vaughan-2019">{{Cite news|last=Vaughan|first=Carson|date=March 20, 2019|title=Overlooked No More: Elizabeth Peratrovich, Rights Advocate for Alaska Natives|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/20/obituaries/elizabeth-peratrovich-overlooked.html|access-date=November 11, 2020|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The law made segregation illegal and banned signs that discriminate based on race.<ref name="Vaughan-2019" /> ===Sports=== {{further|Negro league baseball|Black players in pro football|Black players in ice hockey|Race and ethnicity in the NBA}} Segregation in [[sports in the United States]] was also a major national issue.<ref>[http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/geography/sports.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307135546/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/geography/sports.htm|date=March 7, 2011}}</ref> In 1900, just four years after the US Supreme Court separate but equal constitutional ruling, segregation was enforced in [[horse racing]], a sport which had previously seen many African American jockeys win [[United States Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing|Triple Crown]] and other major races.<ref name=ml;>{{cite web|url=http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_sports.htm|title=Jim Crow and Sports|last=West|first=Jean M.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021019142325/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_sports.htm|archive-date=October 19, 2002|website=The History of Jim Crow}}</ref> Widespread segregation also existed in bicycle and automobile racing.<ref name=ml; /> In 1890, segregation lessened for African-American [[track and field]] athletes after various universities and colleges in the northern states agreed to integrate their track and field teams.<ref name=ml; /> Like track and field, [[soccer]] was another which experienced a low amount of segregation in the early days of segregation.<ref name=ml; /> Many colleges and universities in the northern states allowed African Americans to play on their football teams.<ref name=ml; /> Segregation was also hardly enforced in boxing.<ref name=ml; /> In 1908, [[Jack Johnson (boxer)|Jack Johnson]] became the first African American to win the World Heavyweight Title.<ref name=ml; /> Johnson's personal life (i.e. his publicly acknowledged relationships with white women) made him very unpopular among many Caucasians throughout the world.<ref name=ml; /> In 1937, when [[Joe Louis]] defeated German boxer [[Max Schmeling]], the general American public embraced an African American as the World Heavyweight Champion.<ref name=ml; /> In 1904, [[Charles Follis]] became the first African American to play for a professional football team, the [[Shelby Blues]],<ref name=ml; /> and professional football leagues agreed to allow only a limited number of teams to be integrated.<ref name=ml; /> In 1933, the NFL, now the only major football league in the United States, reversed its limited integration policy and completely segregated the entire league.<ref name=ml; /> The NFL color barrier permanently broke in 1946, when the Los Angeles Rams signed [[Kenny Washington (American football)|Kenny Washington]] and [[Woody Strode]] and the Cleveland Browns hired [[Marion Motley]] and [[Bill Willis]].<ref name=ml; /> [[File:Rex theatre.jpg|thumb|The Rex theater for colored people, [[Leland, Mississippi]], 1937]] Prior to the 1930s, basketball saw a great deal of discrimination as well.<ref name=ml; /> Blacks and whites played mostly in different leagues and usually were forbidden from playing in inter-racial games.<ref name=ml; /> The popularity of the African American Harlem Globetrotters altered the American public's acceptance of African Americans in basketball.<ref name=ml; /> By the end of the 1930s, many northern colleges and universities allowed African Americans to play on their teams.<ref name=ml; /> In 1942, the color barrier for basketball was removed after [[Bill Jones (basketball, born 1914)|Bill Jones]] and three other African American basketball players joined the Toledo Jim White Chevrolet [[National Basketball League (United States)|NBL]] franchise and five Harlem Globetrotters joined the [[Chicago Studebakers]].<ref name=ml; /> In 1947, the [[baseball color line]] was broken when [[Negro league baseball]] player [[Jackie Robinson]] joined the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] and had a breakthrough season.<ref name=ml; /> By the end of 1949, only fifteen states had no segregation laws in effect.<ref name="d.c">{{cite web|url=http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_jim_crow_laws.htm|title=Jim Crow Legislation Overview|last=Falck|first=Susan|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314154825/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_jim_crow_laws.htm|archive-date=March 14, 2012|url-status=dead|access-date=February 18, 2016}}</ref> and only eighteen states had outlawed segregation in public [[lodging|accommodations]].<ref name=d.c /> Of the remaining states, twenty still allowed school segregation to take place,<ref name=d.c /> fourteen still allowed segregation to remain in public transportation<ref name=d.c /> and 30 still enforced laws forbidding [[miscegenation]].<ref name=d.c /> [[NCAA Division I]] has two historically black athletic conferences: [[Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference]] (founded in 1970) and [[Southwestern Athletic Conference]] (founded in 1920). The [[Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association]] (founded in 1912) and [[Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]] (founded in 1913) are part of the [[NCAA Division II]], whereas the [[Gulf Coast Athletic Conference]] (founded in 1981) is part of the [[National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics]] Division I. In 1948, the [[National Association for Intercollegiate Basketball]] became the first national organization to open their intercollegiate postseason to black student-athletes. In 1953, it became the first collegiate association to invite [[historically black colleges and universities]] into its membership. Golf was racially segregated until 1961. The [[Professional Golfers Association of America]] (PGA) had an article in its bylaws stating that it was "for members of the Caucasian race".<ref name="golf barrier">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-32234719 |title=The man who defied death threats to play at the Masters |work=BBC News |accessdate=April 10, 2015}}</ref> Once the color restrictions were lifted, the [[United Golf Association]] Tour (UGA), made up of black players, ceased operations.<ref name="golf barrier"/> Public [[swimming pool]]s proved to be particularly contentious venues for segregation, where "issues of hygiene, class, and gender coalesced to create an environment where segregation was especially pronounced [...]".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zaubler |first=William S. |date=Fall 2015 |title=Don't Dive in My Pool: Normalizing Segregated Swimming in Montclair, New Jersey. |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=31h&AN=110800228&site=eds-live&scope=site |journal=New England Journal of History |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=2 |via=Ebscohost}}</ref> As efforts to desegregate pools strengthened throughout the 1940s through to the end of the 1960s, many municipalities chose to close their facilities either temporarily or permanently in an effort to avoid operating integrated facilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kirk |first=John A. |date=2014 |title=Going Off the Deep End: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Desegregation of Little Rock's Public Swimming Pools |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24477573 |journal=The Arkansas Historical Quarterly |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=148, 151 |jstor=24477573 |issn=0004-1823}}</ref> One of the effects of this is demarcated by a clear divide between the prevalence of swimming ability demonstrated by people of color when compared against their white counterparts who had greater access to both swimming facilities and the programs they offered.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Waller |first1=Steven |last2=Bemiller |first2=Jim |date=2018-08-15 |title=Navigating Rough Waters: Public Swimming Pools, Discrimination, and the Law |url=https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/ijare/vol11/iss1/10 |journal=International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education |volume=11 |issue=1 |doi=10.25035/ijare.11.01.10 |issn=1932-9253|doi-access=free }}</ref> This disparate access to swimming facilities also contributed to the development of a racial [[stereotype]] which suggests people of color cannot swim for reasons related to physicality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiltse |first=Jeff |date=February 4, 2014 |title=The Black–White Swimming Disparity in America: A Deadly Legacy of Swimming Pool Discrimination |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0193723513520553 |journal=Journal of Sport and Social Issues |language=en |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=367 |doi=10.1177/0193723513520553 |s2cid=145668916 |issn=0193-7235}}</ref> ==Contemporary== {{quote box|width=23em|As far as I'm concerned, what he did in those days—and they were hard days, in 1937—made it possible for Negroes to have their chance in baseball and other fields.|— Lionel Hampton on [[Benny Goodman]],<ref>"Ibid"; Firestone, Ross pp. 183–184.</ref> who helped to launch the careers of many major names in jazz, and during an era of [[racial segregation|segregation]], he also led one of the first racially integrated musical groups.}} Black–white segregation is consistently declining for most metropolitan areas and cities, though there are geographical differences. In 2000, for instance, the [[United States Census Bureau|US Census Bureau]] found that residential segregation has on average declined since 1980 in the West and South, but less so in the Northeast and Midwest.<ref name="census">{{cite web |title=Residential Segregation of Blacks or African Americans: 1980{{ndash}}2000 |url=https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/housing_patterns/pdf/ch5.pdf |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date=August 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060327095115/https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/housing_patterns/pdf/ch5.pdf |archive-date=March 27, 2006 |language=en |date=Aug 2002}}</ref> Indeed, the top ten most segregated cities are in the [[Rust Belt]], where total populations have declined in the last few decades.{{R|census|p=64, 72}} Despite these pervasive patterns, changes for individual areas are sometimes small.<ref name="SethiSomanathan2004" /> Thirty years after the civil rights era, the United States remained a residentially segregated society in which blacks and whites still often inhabited vastly different neighborhoods.<ref name="SethiSomanathan2004">{{cite journal |title=Inequality and Segregation |first1=Rajiv |last1=Sethi |first2=Rohini |last2=Somanathan |journal=Journal of Political Economy|volume=112 |year=2004 |issue=6 |pages=1296–1321 |doi=10.1086/424742 |citeseerx=10.1.1.1029.4552 |s2cid=18358721 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |author=Douglas S. Massey |author-link=Douglas Massey |date=August 2004 |title=Segregation and Stratification: A Biosocial Perspective |journal=[[Du Bois Review|Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race]] |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=7–25 |doi=10.1017/S1742058X04040032 |s2cid=144395873}}</ref> An article in [[The Guardian]] newspaper cited a study from the [[University of California, Berkeley]] that "more than 80% of America’s large metropolitan areas were more racially segregated in 2019 than they were in 1990".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Beckett|first1=Lois|title='Where you live determines everything': why segregation is growing in the US|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2021/jun/28/us-racial-segregation-study-university-of-california-berkeley|accessdate=February 16, 2024|work=The Guardian|date=June 28, 2021}}</ref> The study led by Stephen Menendian found present day race segregation to occur across a range of parameters including housing and property values, schools and healthcare. [[Redlining]] is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as [[banking]], [[insurance]], access to jobs,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913.pdf |title=Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities |access-date=February 28, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130210614/http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913.pdf |archive-date=November 30, 2007 }}</ref> access to health care,<ref>See: [[Race and health]]</ref> or even [[supermarkets]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1023/A:1015772503007 |title=In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition |first=Elizabeth |last=Eisenhauer |s2cid=151164815 |journal=[[GeoJournal]] |volume=53 |issue=2 |year=2001 |pages=125–133 }}</ref> to residents in certain, often racially determined,<ref name="eastny">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TWo8OFJpFtAC |title=How East New York Became a Ghetto |first=Walter |last=Thabit |isbn=978-0814782675 |page=42 |year=2003 |publisher=NYU Press }}</ref> areas. The most devastating form of redlining, and the most common use of the term, refers to [[Mortgage Discrimination]]. Data on house prices and attitudes toward integration suggest that in the mid-20th century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by whites to exclude blacks from their neighborhoods.<ref name="vigdor">{{cite journal |title=The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto |first1=David M. |last1=Cutler |author1-link=David Cutler |first2=Edward L. |last2=Glaeser |author2-link=Edward Glaeser |first3=Jacob L. |last3=Vigdor |s2cid=134413201 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=107 |issue=3 |year=1999 |pages=455–506 |doi=10.1086/250069 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:2770033 }}</ref> The creation of [[Interstate Highway System|expressways]] in some cases divided and isolated [[black neighborhoods]] from goods and services, many times within industrial corridors. For example, Birmingham's Interstate Highway system attempted to maintain the racial boundaries that had been established by the city's 1926 racial zoning law. The construction of Interstate Highways through black neighborhoods in the city led to significant population loss in those neighborhoods and is associated with an increase in neighborhood racial segregation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=From Racial Zoning to Community Empowerment: The Interstate Highway System and the African American Community in Birmingham, Alabama |first=Charles E. |last=Connerly |s2cid=144767245 |journal=Journal of Planning Education and Research |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=99–114 |year=2002 |doi=10.1177/0739456X02238441 }}</ref> The desire of some whites to avoid having their children attend integrated schools has been a factor in [[white flight]] to the suburbs,<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580651_3/Segregation_in_the_United_States.html#s15 Segregation in the United States – MSN Encarta<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070430211002/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580651_3/Segregation_in_the_United_States.html#s15 |date=April 30, 2007 }}</ref> and in the foundation of numerous [[Segregation academy|segregation academies]] and [[Private school#United States|private schools]] which most African-American students, though technically permitted to attend, are unable to afford.<ref>Glenda Alice Rabby, ''The Pain and the Promise: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Tallahassee, Florida'', Athens, Ga., University of Georgia Press, 1999, {{ISBN|082032051X}}, p. 255.</ref> Recent studies in San Francisco showed that groups of homeowners tended to self-segregate to be with people of the same education level and race.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bayer |first1=Patrick |last2=Ferreira |first2=Fernando |last3=McMillan |first3=Robert |title=A Unified Framework for Measuring Preferences for Schools and Neighborhoods |journal=[[Journal of Political Economy]] |date=August 2007 |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=588–638 |doi=10.1086/522381 |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/522381 |quote=... there is considerable heterogeneity in preferences for schools and neighbors, with households preferring to self‐segregate on the basis of both race and education |access-date=March 6, 2022|hdl=10161/2014 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><!-- working paper link: https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w13236/w13236.pdf [[Live Science]] reference: Homeowners Self-Segregate by Race and Education, https://web.archive.org/web/20070916040348/http://news.yahoo.com/s/livescience/20070910/sc_livescience/homeownersselfsegregatebyraceandeducation --> By 1990, the legal barriers enforcing segregation had been mostly replaced by indirect factors, including the phenomenon where whites pay more than blacks to live in predominantly white areas.<ref name="vigdor"/> The residential and social segregation of whites from blacks in the United States creates a socialization process that limits whites' chances for developing meaningful relationships with blacks and other minorities. The segregation experienced by whites from blacks fosters segregated lifestyles and leads them to develop positive views about themselves and negative views about blacks.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Every Place Has a Ghetto...': The Significance of Whites' Social and Residential Segregation |first1=Eduardo |last1=Bonilla-Silva |first2=David G. |last2=Embrick |journal=[[Symbolic Interaction (journal)|Symbolic Interaction]] |year=2007 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=323–345 |doi=10.1525/si.2007.30.3.323 }}</ref> Segregation affects people from all social classes. For example, a survey conducted in 2000 found that middle-income, suburban Blacks live in neighborhoods with many more whites than do poor, inner-city blacks. But their neighborhoods are not the same as those of whites having the same socioeconomic characteristics; and, in particular, middle-class blacks tend to live with white neighbors who are less affluent than they are. While, in a significant sense, they are less segregated than poor blacks, race still powerfully shapes their residential options.<ref>{{cite journal |title=How Segregated Are Middle-Class African Americans? |first1=Richard D. |last1=Alba |first2=John R. |last2=Logan |first3=Brian J. |last3=Stults |journal=[[Social Problems]] |volume=47 |issue=4 |year=2000 |pages=543–558 |doi= 10.2307/3097134|jstor=3097134 }}</ref> The number of hypersegregated inner-cities is now beginning to decline. By reviewing census data, Rima Wilkes and John Iceland found that nine metropolitan areas that had been hypersegregated in 1990 were not by 2000.<ref name="Wilkes, R. 2004 pp. 23">{{cite journal |last1=Wilkes |first1=R. |last2=Iceland |first2=J. |s2cid=5777361 |title=Hypersegregation in the Twenty First Century |journal=Demography |volume=41 |issue=1 |year=2004 |pages=23–36 |doi=10.1353/dem.2004.0009 |pmid=15074123 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Only two new cities, [[Atlanta]] and [[Mobile, Alabama]], became hypersegregated over the same time span.<ref name="Wilkes, R. 2004 pp. 23"/> This points toward a trend of greater integration across most of the United States. ===Residential=== {{Main|Residential segregation in the United States}} {{further|American ghettos}} [[File:2000census- Black Residential Segregation.JPG|thumb|alt=Map showing a large concentration of black residents in the north side of metropolitan Milwaukee.|Residential segregation in [[Milwaukee]], the most segregated city in America according to the 2000 US Census. The cluster of blue dots represent black residents.{{R|census|p=72{{ndash}}73}}]] Racial segregation is most pronounced in housing. Although in the U.S. people of different races may work together, they are still very unlikely to live in integrated neighborhoods. This pattern differs only by degree in different metropolitan areas.<ref name="Keating">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0bnHQAACAAJ |title=The Suburban Racial Dilemma: Housing and Neighborhoods |first=William Dennis |last=Keating |publisher=Temple University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-1566391474 }}</ref> Residential segregation persists for a variety of reasons. Segregated neighborhoods may be reinforced by the practice of "[[Racial steering|steering]]" by real estate agents. This occurs when a real estate agent makes assumptions about where their client might like to live based on the color of their skin.<ref name='Encyc of Chicago – "Steering"'>{{cite encyclopedia|last=deVise|first=Pierre|title=Steering|url=http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1195.html|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Chicago|publisher=Chicago Historical Society|access-date=October 7, 2012|year=2005}}</ref> Housing discrimination may occur when landlords lie about the availability of housing based on the race of the applicant or give different terms and conditions to the housing based on race; for example, requiring that black families pay a higher security deposit than white families.<ref>{{cite news|last=Thomas|first=Danielle|title=Investigation Reveals Blatant Housing Discrimination on Coast|url=http://www.wlox.com/Global/story.asp?S=1672782|access-date=October 7, 2012|newspaper=WLOX|date=February 26, 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616041708/http://www.wlox.com/Global/story.asp?S=1672782|archive-date=June 16, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Redlining has helped preserve segregated living patterns for blacks and whites in the United States because discrimination motivated by [[prejudice]] is often contingent on the racial composition of neighborhoods where the loan is sought and the race of the applicant. Lending institutions have been shown to treat black mortgage applicants differently when buying homes in white neighborhoods than when buying homes in black neighborhoods in 1998.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Stephen R. |last=Holloway |year=1998 |title=Exploring the Neighborhood Contingency of Race Discrimination in Mortgage Lending in Columbus, Ohio |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=252–276 |doi=10.1111/1467-8306.00093 }}</ref> These discriminatory practices are illegal. The [[Fair Housing Act]] of 1968 prohibits housing discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, or disability. The [[Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity]] is charged with administering and enforcing fair housing laws. Any person who believes that they have faced housing discrimination based on their race can file a fair housing complaint.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/fair_housing_equal_opp/online-complaint |title=Housing Discrimination Complaint Online Form – HUD |publisher=Portal.hud.gov |access-date=October 3, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131005022332/http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=%2Fprogram_offices%2Ffair_housing_equal_opp%2Fonline-complaint |archive-date=October 5, 2013 }}</ref> Households were held back or limited to the money that could be made. Inequality was present in the workforce which lead over to the residential areas. This study provides this statistic of "The median household income of African Americans were 62 percent of non-Hispanic Whites ($27,910 vs. $44,504)"<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gaskins|first1=Darrell J.|s2cid=154156857|title=Racial Disparities inHealth and Wealth: The Effects of Slavery and Past Discrimination|journal=Review of Black Political Economy|date=Spring 2005|volume=32 3/4|issue=2005|page=95|doi=10.1007/s12114-005-1007-9}}</ref> Blacks were forced by the system to be in urban and poor areas while the whites lived together, being able to afford the more expensive homes. These forced measures promoted poverty levels to rise and belittle blacks. Massey and Denton proposed that the fundamental cause of [[poverty among African Americans]] is segregation. This segregation has created the inner city black urban ghettos that create [[poverty trap]]s and keep blacks from being able to escape the underclass. It is sometimes claimed that these neighborhoods have institutionalized an inner-city black culture that is negatively stigmatized and purports the economic situation of the black community. Sociolinguist, William Labov<ref>Labov (2008) Unendangered Dialects, Endangered People. In King, K., N. Shilling-Estes, N. Wright Fogle, J. J. Lou, and B. Soukup (eds.), Sustaining Linguistic Diversity: Endangered and Minority Languages and Language Varieties (Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics Proceedings). Georgetown University Press, pp. 219–238.</ref> argues that persistent segregation supports the use of [[African American English]] (AAE) while endangering its speakers. Although AAE is stigmatized, sociolinguists who study it note that it is a legitimate dialect of English as systematic as any other.<ref>Green, Lisa. 2002. African American English: a linguistic introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> Arthur Spears argues that there is no inherent educational disadvantage in speaking AAE and that it exists in vernacular and more standard forms.<ref>Spears, Arthur. 2001. "Ebonics" and African-American English. In Clinton Crawford (ed.) The Ebonics and Language Education of African Ancestry Students. Brooklyn, NY: Sankofa World Publishers. pp. 235–247.</ref> Historically, residential segregation split communities between the black inner city and white suburbs. This phenomenon is due to [[white flight]] where whites actively leave neighborhoods often because of a black presence. There are more than just geographical consequences to this, as the money leaves and poverty grows, crime rates jump and businesses leave and follow the money. This creates a job shortage in segregated neighborhoods and perpetuates the economic inequality in the inner city. With the wealth and businesses gone from inner-city areas, the tax base decreases, which hurts funding for education. Consequently, those that can afford to leave the area for better schools leave decreasing the tax base for educational funding even more. Any business that is left or would consider opening doesn't want to invest in a place nobody has any money but has a lot of crime, meaning the only things that are left in these communities are poor black people with little opportunity for employment or education."<ref>{{cite book |last=Newman |first=Katherine |title=No Shame in My Game: The Working Poor in the Inner City |url=https://archive.org/details/noshameinmygamew00newm |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Knopf |year=1999 |isbn=978-0375402548 }}</ref> Today, a number of whites are willing, and are able, to pay a premium to live in a predominantly white neighborhood. Equivalent housing in white areas commands a higher rent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kiel |first1=K. A. |first2=J. E. |last2=Zabel |title=Housing Price Differentials in U.S. Cities: Household and Neighborhood Racial Effects |journal=Journal of Housing Economics |volume=5 |year=1996 |issue=2 |pages=143–165 |doi=10.1006/jhec.1996.0008 }}</ref> By bidding up the price of housing, many white neighborhoods again effectively shut out blacks, because blacks are unwilling, or unable, to pay the premium to buy entry into white neighborhoods. While some scholars maintain that residential segregation has continued—some sociologists have termed it "[[hypersegregation]]" or "American Apartheid"<ref name="American Apartheid">{{Cite book| author = Douglas S. Massey| author-link = Douglas Massey| author2 = Nancy A. Denton| author2-link = Nancy Denton| title = American Apartheid| publisher = Harvard University Press| location = Cambridge| year = 1993| isbn = 978-0674018204| oclc = 185399837}}</ref>—the US Census Bureau has shown that residential segregation has been in overall decline since 1980.{{R|census|p=59{{ndash}}60, 68, 72}} According to a 2012 study found that "credit markets enabled a substantial fraction of Hispanic families to live in neighborhoods with fewer black families, even though a substantial fraction of black families were moving to more racially integrated areas. The net effect is that credit markets increased racial segregation."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ouazad |first1=Amine |last2=Rancière |first2=Romain |title=Did the mortgage credit boom contribute to the decline in US racial segregation? |url=https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/did-mortgage-credit-boom-contribute-decline-us-racial-segregation |website=VoxEU |publisher=[[Centre for Economic Policy Research]] |access-date=November 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519175908/http://www.voxeu.org/index.php?q=node/7729 |archive-date=2012-05-19 |date=March 16, 2012 |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref> As of 2015, residential segregation had taken new forms in the United States with black [[majority minority]] suburbs such as [[Ferguson, Missouri]], supplanting the historic model of black inner cities, white suburbs.<ref name=ASA72815>{{cite web|author1=Daniel Fowler|title=With Racial Segregation Declining Between Neighborhoods, Segregation Now Taking New Form|url=http://www.asanet.org/documents/press/pdfs/ASR_August_2015_Lichter_News_Release.pdf|website=asanet.org|publisher=American Sociological Association|access-date=August 4, 2015|format=News release|date=July 28, 2015|quote=The racial composition of Ferguson went from about 25 percent black to 67 percent black in a 20-year period.}}</ref> Meanwhile, in locations such as Washington, D.C., [[gentrification]] had resulted in development of new white neighborhoods in historically black inner cities. Segregation occurs through premium pricing by white people of housing in white neighborhoods and exclusion of low-income housing<ref name=Atlantic6215>{{cite news|author1=Alana Semuels|title=Where Should Poor People Live?|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/06/where-should-poor-people-live/394556/|access-date=August 4, 2015|work=The Atlantic|date=June 2, 2015|quote=For more than a century, municipalities across the country have crafted zoning ordinances that seek to limit multi-family (read: affordable) housing within city limits. Such policies, known as exclusionary zoning, have led to increased racial and social segregation, which a growing body of work indicates limits educational and employment opportunities for low-income households.}}</ref> rather than through rules which enforce segregation. Black segregation is most pronounced; Hispanic segregation less so, and Asian segregation the least.<ref name=CityLabs>{{cite news|author1=Alana Semuels|title=White Flight Never Ended Today's cities may be more diverse overall, but people of different races still don't live near each other.|url=http://www.citylab.com/housing/2015/07/white-flight-never-ended/400016/|access-date=August 4, 2015|work=CityLabs|publisher=The Atlantic|date=July 30, 2015}}</ref><ref name=ASR815>{{cite journal|author1=Daniel T. Lichter |author2=Domenico Parisi |author3=Michael C. Taquino |s2cid=53632555 |title=Toward a New Macro-Segregation? Decomposing Segregation within and between Metropolitan Cities and Suburbs|journal=American Sociological Review|date=August 2015|volume=80|issue=4|pages=843–873|doi=10.1177/0003122415588558}}</ref> ===Commercial and industrial=== Lila Ammons discusses the process of establishing black-owned banks during the 1880s–1990s, as a method of dealing with the discriminatory practices of financial institutions against African-American citizens of the United States. Within this period, she describes five distinct periods that illustrate the developmental process of establishing these banks, which were: ====1888–1928==== In 1851, one of the first meetings to begin the process of establishing black-owned banks took place, although the ideas and implementation of these ideas were not utilized until 1888.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Annons|first1=Lila|title=Evolution of Black-Owned Banks|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=4|page=469}}</ref> During this period, approximately 60 black-owned banks were created, which gave blacks the ability to access loans and other banking needs, which non-minority banks would not offer African-Americans. ====1929–1953==== Only five banks were opened during this time, while seeing many black-owned banks closed, leaving these banks with an expected nine-year life span for their operations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1966|volume=26|issue=5|page=473}}</ref> With blacks continuing to migrate toward northern urban areas, they were challenged by high unemployment rates, due to whites taking their jobs.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thieblot|first1=A.|title=The Negro in the Banking Industry: Report no. 9|date=1970|publisher=University of Pennsylvania, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, Department of Industry|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> At this time, the entire [[Banking in the United States|banking industry in the U.S.]] was stagnated, and these smaller banks even more for having higher closure rates and lower rates of loan repayment. The first groups of banks invested their profits back into the black community, whereas banks established during this period invested their finances mainly in [[mortgage loan]]s, [[fraternal societies]], and [[U.S. Bonds|U.S. government bonds]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|page=476}}</ref> ====1954–1969==== Approximately 20 more banks were established during this period, which also saw African Americans become active citizens by taking part in various social movements centered around economic equality, better housing, better jobs, and the desegregation of society.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|page=477}}</ref> Through desegregation, these banks could no longer solely depend on the Black community for business and were forced to become established on the open market, by paying their employees competitive wages, and were now required to meet the needs of the entire society instead of just the Black community.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> ====1970–1979==== Urban [[deindustrialization]] was occurring, resulting in the number of black-owned banks being increased considerably, with 35 banks established, during this time.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|pages=478–80}}</ref> Although this change in economy allowed more banks to be opened, this period further impoverished African-American communities, as unemployment rates raised more with the shift in the labour market, from unskilled labour to government jobs.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|pages=479–80}}</ref> ====1980–1990s==== Approximately 20 banks were established during this time, competing with other financial institutions that serve the financial necessities of people at a lower cost.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ammons|first1=Lila|title=The Evolution of Black-Owned Banks in the United States Between the 1880s and 1990s|journal=Black Studies|date=March 1996|volume=26|issue=5|page=484}}</ref> ====2000s==== Dan Immergluck writes that in 2003 small businesses in black neighborhoods still received fewer loans, even after accounting for business density, business size, industrial mix, neighborhood income, and the credit quality of local businesses.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Dan |last=Immergluck |s2cid=153818729 |title=Redlining Redux |journal=[[Urban Affairs Review]] |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=22–41 |year=2002 |doi=10.1177/107808702401097781 }}</ref> Gregory D. Squires wrote in 2003 that it is clear that race has long affected and continues to affect the policies and practices of the insurance industry.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Gregory D. |last=Squires |s2cid=10070258 |title=Racial Profiling, Insurance Style: Insurance Redlining and the Uneven Development of Metropolitan Areas |journal=Journal of Urban Affairs |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=391–410 |doi=10.1111/1467-9906.t01-1-00168 |year=2003 }}</ref> Workers living in American inner-cities have a harder time finding jobs than suburban workers, a factor that disproportionately affects black workers.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities |first1=Yves |last1=Zenou |author1-link=Yves Zenou |first2=Nicolas |last2=Boccard |journal=Journal of Urban Economics |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=260–285 |doi=10.1006/juec.1999.2166 |year=2000 |citeseerx=10.1.1.70.1487 }}</ref> [[Rich Benjamin]]'s book, ''[[Searching for Whitopia|Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America]]'', reveals the state of residential, educational, and social segregation. In analyzing racial and class segregation, the book documents the migration of white Americans from urban centers to small-town, exurban, and rural communities. Throughout the 20th Century, racial discrimination was deliberate and intentional. Today, racial segregation and division result from policies and institutions that are no longer explicitly designed to discriminate. Yet the outcomes of those policies and beliefs have negative, racial impacts, namely with segregation.<ref>[[Rich Benjamin|Benjamin, Rich]]. ''Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America''. (New York: Hachette Books, 2009).</ref> ===Transportation=== Local bus companies practiced segregation in city buses. This was challenged in [[Montgomery, Alabama]] by [[Rosa Parks]], who refused to give up her seat to a white passenger, and by Rev. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], who organized the [[Montgomery bus boycott]] (1955–1956). A federal court suit in Alabama, ''[[Browder v. Gayle]]'' (1955), was successful at the district court level, which ruled Alabama's bus segregation laws illegal. It was upheld at the Supreme Court level. In 1961 [[Congress of Racial Equality]] director [[James Farmer]], other CORE members and some [[Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee]] members traveled as a mixed race group, [[Freedom Riders]], on Greyhound buses from Washington, D.C., headed toward [[New Orleans]]. In several states the travelers were subject to violence. In [[Anniston, Alabama]] the [[Ku Klux Klan]] attacked the buses, setting one bus on fire. After U.S. attorney general [[Robert F. Kennedy]] resisted taking action and urged restraint by the riders, Kennedy relented. He urged the [[Interstate Commerce Commission]] to issue an order directing that buses, trains, and their intermediate facilities, such as stations, restrooms and water fountains be desegregated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/freedom-rides|title=Freedom Rides|date=June 29, 2017|website=The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/freedom-riders-end-racial-segregation-southern-us-public-transit-1961|title=Freedom Riders end racial segregation in Southern U.S. public transit, 1961 | Global Nonviolent Action Database|website=nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu}}</ref> ==Effects== ===Education=== {{Main|School segregation in the United States}} {{further|School integration in the United States|Educational inequality in the United States}} [[File:Colored School, by J. A. Palmer.jpg|thumb|A "Colored School" in South Carolina, {{Circa|1878}}]] Segregation in [[education]] has major social repercussions. The prejudice that many young African Americans experience causes them undue stress which has been proven to undermine [[cognitive development]]. [[Eric Hanushek]] and his co-authors have considered racial concentrations in schools, and they find large and important effects. Black students appear to be systematically and physically hurt by larger concentrations of black students in their school. These effects extend neither to white nor to Hispanic students in the school, implying that they are related to peer interactions and not to school quality.<ref>[[Eric Hanushek|Eric A. Hanushek]], John F. Kain, and Steve G. Rivkin, "[https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w8741/w8741.pdf New evidence about Brown v. Board of Education: The complex effects of school racial composition on achievement]", ''Journal of Labor Economics'' 27(3), July 2009: 349–383.</ref> Moreover, it appears that the effect of black concentrations in schools is largest for high-achieving black students.<ref>[[Eric Hanushek|Eric A. Hanushek]] and Steven G. Rivkin, "Harming the best: How schools affect the black-white achievement gap." ''Journal of Policy Analysis and Management'' 28(3), Summer 2009: 366–393.</ref> Even African Americans from poor inner-cities who attend universities can underperform academically due to worry about family and friends still in the poverty-stricken inner cities.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Camille Z. Charles|author2=Gniesha Dinwiddie|author3=Douglas S. Massey|author3-link=Douglas Massey|date=December 21, 2004|title=The Continuing Consequences of Segregation: Family Stress and College Academic Performance|journal=[[Social Science Quarterly]]|volume=85|issue=5|pages=1353–1373|issn=1540-6237|oclc=4708543|doi=10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.00280.x|url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118763871/abstract}}{{dead link|date=February 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Education is also used as a means to perpetuate hypersegregation. Real estate agents often implicitly use school racial composition as a way of enticing white buyers into the segregated ring surrounding the inner city.<ref>Institute on Race and Poverty. Examining the Relationship between Housing, Education, and Persistent Segregation: Final report. Report to McKnight Foundation, June 2007</ref> The percentage of black children who now go to integrated public schools is{{when|date=August 2019}} at its lowest level since 1968.<ref name="salon">''[http://dir.salon.com/story/mwt/feature/2005/09/22/kozol/ Apartheid America: Jonathan Kozol rails against a public school system that, 50 years after Brown v. Board of Education, is still deeply – and shamefully – segregated.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905225933/http://dir.salon.com/story/mwt/feature/2005/09/22/kozol/ |date=September 5, 2008 }}'' book review by Sarah Karnasiewicz for salon.com</ref> The words of "American apartheid" have been used in reference to the disparity between white and black schools in America. Those who compare this inequality to apartheid frequently point to unequal funding for predominantly black schools.<ref>Singer, Alan. [http://eric.ed.gov:80/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ598497&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=EJ598497 ''American Apartheid: Race and the Politics of School Finance on Long Island, NY.'']</ref> In Chicago, by the academic year 2002–2003, 87 percent of public-school enrollment was black or Hispanic; less than 10 percent of children in the schools were white. In Washington, D.C., 94 percent of children were black or Hispanic; less than 5 percent were white. [[Jonathan Kozol]] expanded on this topic in his 2005 book ''[[The Shame of the Nation|The Shame of the Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid Schooling in America]].'' The "New American apartheid" refers to the allegation that U.S. drug and criminal policies in practice target blacks on the basis of race. The radical left-wing{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} web-magazine [[ZNet]] featured a series of 4 articles on "The New American Apartheid" in which it drew parallels between the treatment of blacks by the American justice system and apartheid: <blockquote>Modern prisoners occupy the lowest rungs on the social class ladder, and they always have. The modern prison system (along with local jails) is a collection of ghettos or poorhouses reserved primarily for the unskilled, the uneducated, and the powerless. In increasing numbers this system is being reserved for racial minorities, especially blacks, which is why we are calling it the New American Apartheid. This is the same segment of American society that has experienced some of the most drastic reductions in income and they have been targeted for their involvement in drugs and the subsequent violence that extends from the lack of legitimate means of goal attainment.<ref>Shelden, Randall G. and William B. Brown. [https://web.archive.org/web/20040704061407/http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=43&ItemID=5758 The New American Apartheid]</ref></blockquote> This article has been discussed at the [[Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice]] and by several school boards attempting to address the issue of continued segregation. Due to education being funded primarily through local and state revenue, the quality of education varies greatly depending on the geographical location of the school. In some areas, education is primarily funded through revenue from property taxes; therefore, there is a direct correlation in some areas between the price of homes and the amount of money allocated to educating the area's youth.<ref name="autogenerated2004">Massey, Douglas S. 2004. "The New Geography of Inequality in Urban America", in C. Michael Henry, ed. Race, Poverty, and Domestic Policy. New Haven: Yale University Press.</ref> The 2010 U.S. census showed that 27.4% of all African Americans lived under the poverty line, the highest percentage of any other ethnic group in the United States.<ref>Income, Poverty and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2010". U.S. Census Bureau</ref> Therefore, in predominantly African American areas, otherwise known as 'ghettos', the amount of money available for education is extremely low. This is referred to as "funding segregation".<ref name="autogenerated2004"/> This questionable system of educational funding can be seen as one of the primary reasons contemporary racial segregation continues to prosper. Predominantly Caucasian areas with more money funneled into primary and secondary educational institutions, allow their students the resources to succeed academically and obtain post-secondary degrees. This practice continues to ethnically, socially and economically divide America. [[Alternative certification|Alternative certificate]] programs were introduced in many inner-city schools and rural areas. These programs award a person a teaching license even though he/she has not completed a traditional teaching degree. This program came into effect in the 1980s throughout most states in response to the dwindling number of people seeking to earn a secondary degree in education.<ref>Feistritzer, Emily (February 1, 2006). "Alternative Teacher Certification". National Center for Alternative Certification</ref> This program has been very controversial. It is, "booming despite little more than anecdotal evidence of their success.[...] there are concerns about how they will perform as teachers, especially since they are more likely to end up in poor districts teaching students in challenging situations."<ref>{{cite news |author1=Morgan Smith |author2=Nick Pandolfo |name-list-style=amp |title=For-Profit Certification for Teachers is Booming |newspaper= The New York Times |date=November 26, 2011 |access-date= November 4, 2012 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/27/us/for-profit-certification-for-teachers-in-texas-is-booming.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0}}</ref> Alternative certificate graduates tend to teach African Americans and other ethnic minorities in inner-city schools and schools in impoverished small rural towns. Therefore, impoverished minorities not only have to cope with having the smallest amount of resources for their educational facilities but also with having the least trained teachers in the nation. Valorie Delp, a mother residing in an inner-city area whose child attends a school taught by teachers awarded by an alternative certificate program notes: <blockquote>One teacher we know who is in this program said he had visions of coming in to "save" the kids and the school and he really believes that this idea was kind of stoked in his program. No one ever says that you may have kids who threaten to stab you, or call you unspeakable names to your face, or can't read despite being in 7th grade.<ref>{{cite web|author=Valorie Delp |title=My Inner City Story: Why Alternative Certification Programs Don't Work, Parenting Education |date=October 29, 2006 |url= http://education.families.com/blog/my-inner-city-story-how-alternative-teacher-certification-programs-do-a-disservice-to-the-inner-city |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721121106/http://www.families.com/blog/my-inner-city-story-how-alternative-teacher-certification-programs-do-a-disservice-to-the-inner-city |archive-date=2013-07-21|url-status=dead|access-date=25 November 2022}}</ref></blockquote> Delp showcases that, while many graduates of these certificate programs have honorable intentions and are educated, intelligent people, there is a reason why teachers have traditionally had to take a significant amount of training before officially being certified as a teacher. The experience they gain through their practicum and extensive classroom experience equips them with the tools necessary to educate today's youth. Some measures have been taken to try give less affluent families the ability to educate their children. President [[Ronald Reagan]] introduced the [[McKinney–Vento Homeless Assistance Act]] on July 22, 1987.<ref>Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, "McKinney-Vento Education for Homeless Children and Youths Program: Notice of school enrollment guidelines"</ref> This Act was meant to allow children the ability to succeed if their families did not have a permanent residence. Leo Stagman, a single, African-American parent, located in [[Berkeley, California]], whose daughter had received a great deal of aid from the Act wrote on October 20, 2012, that, "During her education, she [Leo's daughter] was eligible for the free lunch program and received assistance under the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Educational Act. I know my daughter's performance is hers, but I wonder where she would have been without the assistance she received under the McKinney-Vento Act. Many students at BHS owe their graduation and success to the assistance under this law."<ref name="sfbayview1">{{cite news |first=Leo |last=Stagman |title=Racism and classism in Berkeley streets and schools |publisher=San Francisco Bay View National Black Newspaper |date=October 24, 2012 |access-date= November 4, 2012 |url=http://sfbayview.com/2012/racism-and-classism-in-berkeley-streets-and-schools/}}</ref> Leo then goes on to note that, "the majority of the students receiving assistance under the act are Black and Brown".<ref name="sfbayview1"/> There have been various other Acts enacted to try and aid impoverished youth with the chance to succeed. One of these Acts includes the [[No Child Left Behind Act|No Child Left Behind Act of 2001]] (NCLB). This Act was meant to increase the accountability of public schools and their teachers by creating standardized testing which gives an overview of the success of the school's ability to educate their students.<ref name="reauthorization1">{{cite web |title=Elementary & Secondary Education: A Blueprint for Reform: The Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act |publisher= [[United States Department of Education|US Department of Education]] |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED508795.pdf#page=7|date= May 27, 2011 }}</ref> Schools which repeatedly performed poorly could have increased attention and assistance from the federal government.<ref name="reauthorization1"/> One of the intended outcomes of the Act was to narrow the class and racial [[achievement gap in the United States]] by instituting common expectations for all students.<ref name="reauthorization1"/> Test scores have shown to be improving for minority children at the same rate as for Caucasian children, maintaining a gap.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Charting the Course: States Decide Major Provisions Under No Child Left Behind |url=http://www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2004/01/01142004.html |website=[[United States Department of Education|U.S. Department of Education]] |access-date=October 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040210195223/http://www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2004/01/01142004.html |archive-date=February 10, 2004 |date=January 14, 2004 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{cbignore}}<!-- live url does not have applicable content --> [[Roland G. Fryer Jr.]], at Harvard University has noted that, "There is necessarily a trade-off between doing well and rejection by your peers when you come from a traditionally low-achieving group, especially when that group comes into contact with more outsiders."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fryer |first1=Roland |author1-link=Roland G. Fryer Jr. |title=Acting White |journal=[[Education Next]] |date=Winter 2006 |volume=6 |issue=1 |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/fryer/files/acting_white.pdf |access-date=October 24, 2021}}</ref> Therefore, not only are there economic and prehistoric causes of racial educational segregation, but there are also social notions that continue to be obstacles to be overcome before minority groups can achieve success in education. [[Mississippi]] is one of the U.S. states where some public schools still remain highly segregated just like the 1960s when discrimination against black people was very rampant.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/us/history-of-segregation-still-evident-in-mississippi-region-1.3181796|title=History of segregation still evident in Mississippi region|newspaper=The Irish Times|access-date=July 18, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> In many communities where black kids represent the majority, white children are the only ones who enroll in small private schools. The [[University of Mississippi]], the state's flagship academic institution enrolls unreasonably few African-American and Latino young people. These schools are supposed to stand for excellence in terms of education and graduation but the opposite is happening.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mississippitoday.org/2018/01/29/mississippis-flagship-university-leaves-black-students-behind/|title=Mississippi's flagship university leaves black students behind {{!}} Mississippi Today|date=January 29, 2018|work=Mississippi Today|access-date=July 18, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> Private schools located in [[Jackson, Mississippi|Jackson City]] including small towns are populated by large numbers of white students. Continuing school segregation exists in Mississippi, South Carolina, and other communities where whites are separated from blacks.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://hechingerreport.org/racial-segregation-continues-to-impact-quality-of-education-in-mississippi-and-nationwide/|title=Racial segregation continues to impact quality of education in Mississippi—and nationwide – The Hechinger Report|date=April 25, 2013|work=The Hechinger Report|access-date=July 18, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> Segregation is not limited to areas in the [[Deep South]]. In New York City, 19 out of 32 school districts have fewer white students.{{clarification needed|date=October 2022}}<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/26/new-york-schools-segregated_n_5034455.html|title=The Nation's Most Segregated Schools Aren't Where You'd Think They'd Be|last=Resmovits|first=Joy|date=March 26, 2014|work=Huffington Post|access-date=July 18, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> The United States Supreme Court tried to deal with school segregation more than six decades ago but impoverished and colored students still do not have equal access to opportunities in education.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/history-brown-v-board-education-re-enactment|title=History – Brown v. Board of Education Re-enactment|work=United States Courts|access-date=July 18, 2018|language=en}}</ref> In spite of this situation, the [[Government Accountability Office]] circulated a 108-page report that showed from 2000 up to 2014, the percentage of deprived black or Hispanic students in American K-12 public schools increased from 9 to 16 percent.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/education/wp/2016/05/17/on-the-anniversary-of-brown-v-board-new-evidence-that-u-s-schools-are-resegregating/|title=On the anniversary of Brown v. Board, new evidence that U.S. schools are resegregating|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|access-date=July 18, 2018}}</ref> ===Health=== {{Main|Race and health in the United States}} Another impact of hypersegregation can be found in the health of the residents of certain areas. Poorer inner-cities often lack the health care that is available in outside areas. That many inner-cities are so isolated from other parts of society also is a large contributor to the poor health often found in inner-city residents. The overcrowded living conditions in the inner-city caused by hypersegregation means that the spread of infectious diseases, such as [[tuberculosis]], occurs much more frequently.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Acevedo-Garcia |first=Dolores |title=Residential Segregation and the Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=51 |issue=8 |year=2000 |pages=1143–1161 |doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00016-2 |pmid=11037206 }}</ref> This is known as "epidemic injustice" because racial groups confined in a certain area are affected much more often than those living outside the area. Poor inner-city residents also must contend with other factors that negatively affect health. Research has proven that in every major American city, hypersegregated blacks are far more likely to be exposed to dangerous levels of air toxins.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lopez |first=R. |title=Segregation and Black/White Differences in Exposure to Air Toxics in 1990 |journal=[[Environmental Health Perspectives]] |volume=110 |issue=Suppl. 2 |year=2002 |pages=289–295 |doi= 10.1289/ehp.02110s2289 |pmid=11929740 |pmc=1241175 |jstor=3455065 }}</ref> Daily exposure to this polluted air means that African-Americans living in these areas are at greater risk of disease. ===Crime=== {{Main|Race and crime in the United States}} One area where hypersegregation seems to have the greatest effect is in violence experienced by residents. The number of violent crimes in the U.S. in general has fallen. The number of murders in the U.S. fell 9% from the 1980s to the 1990s.<ref name="Getting Away with Murder">{{Cite journal| author = Douglas S. Massey| author-link = Douglas Massey|date=May 1995| title = Getting Away with Murder: Segregation and Violent Crime in Urban America| journal = [[University of Pennsylvania Law Review]]| volume = 143| issue = 5| pages = 1203–1232| jstor = 3312474| doi=10.2307/3312474| url = https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/penn_law_review/vol143/iss5/2}}</ref> Despite this number, the crime rates in the hypersegregated inner-cities of America continued to rise. As of 1993, young African American men are eleven times more likely to be shot to death and nine times more likely to be murdered than their white peers.<ref name="American Apartheid"/> Poverty, high unemployment, and broken families, all factors more prevalent in hypersegregated inner-cities, all contribute significantly to the unequal levels of violence experienced by African Americans. Research has proven that the more segregated the surrounding white suburban ring is, the rate of violent crime in the inner-city will rise, but, likewise, crime in the outer area will drop.<ref name="Getting Away with Murder"/> ===Poverty=== {{Main|Racial inequality in the United States}} One study finds that an area's residential racial segregation increases metropolitan rates of black poverty and overall black-white income disparities, while decreasing rates of white poverty and [[racial inequality in the United States|inequality]] within the white population.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Wrong Side(s) of the Tracks: The Causal Effects of Racial Segregation on Urban Poverty and Inequality |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |url=http://www.npc.umich.edu/news/events/econshocks/Ananat_Railroads_and_Segregation_21_Sept_2008.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605091627/http://www.npc.umich.edu/news/events/econshocks/Ananat_Railroads_and_Segregation_21_Sept_2008.pdf |archive-date=June 5, 2010 |date=April 1, 2011 |issn=1945-7782 |pages=34–66 |volume=3 |issue=2 |doi=10.1257/app.3.2.34 |first=Elizabeth Oltmans |last=Ananat |url-status=dead |citeseerx=10.1.1.637.8290}}</ref> ===Single parenthood=== One study finds that African Americans who live in segregated metro areas have a higher likelihood of single-parenthood than blacks who live in more integrated places.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Are Ghettos Good or Bad?|journal = The Quarterly Journal of Economics|date = August 1, 1997|issn = 0033-5533|pages = 827–872|volume = 112|issue = 3|doi = 10.1162/003355397555361|first1 = David M.|last1 = Cutler|author1-link=David Cutler|first2 = Edward L.|last2 = Glaeser|author2-link=Edward Glaeser|s2cid = 28330583}}</ref> ===Public spending=== Research shows that segregation along racial lines contributes to [[Public good (economics)|public goods]] inequalities. Whites and blacks are vastly more likely to support different candidates for mayor than whites and blacks in more integrated places, which makes them less able to build consensus. The lack of consensus leads to lower levels of public spending.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Segregation and Inequality in Public Goods|journal = American Journal of Political Science|volume = 60|issue = 3|date = October 1, 2015|issn = 1540-5907|pages = 709–725|doi = 10.1111/ajps.12227|first = Jessica|last = Trounstine|url = https://zenodo.org/record/894792|doi-access = free}}</ref> ===Costs=== In April 2017, the Metropolitan Planning Council in Chicago and the [[Urban Institute]], a think-tank located in Washington, DC, released a study estimating that racial and economic segregation is costing the United States billions of dollars every year. Statistics (1990–2010) from at least 100 urban hubs were analyzed.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/89201/the_cost_of_segregation.pdf |title=The Cost of Segregation: National Trends and the Case of Chicago, 1990–2010 |date=March 2017 |publisher=[[Urban Institute]]}}</ref> This study reported that segregation affecting Blacks economically was associated with higher rates of homicide.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/study-racial-segregation-costing-country-n741306|title=Study: Racial segregation is costing the country billions|work=NBC News|access-date=May 29, 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> ==Caste system== Scholars including [[W. Lloyd Warner]],<ref name="Warner1936">{{cite journal|last=Warner|first=W. Lloyd|author-link=W. Lloyd Warner|year=1936|title=American caste and class|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=42|issue=2|pages=234–237|doi=10.1086/217391|s2cid=146641210}}</ref> [[Gerald Berreman]],<ref name="Berreman1960">{{cite journal|last=Berreman|first=Gerald|date=September 1960|title=Caste in India and the United States|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=66|issue=2|pages=120–127|doi=10.1086/222839|jstor=2773155|s2cid=143949609}}</ref> and [[Isabel Wilkerson]] have described the pervasive practice of racial segregation in America as an aspect of a [[Caste|caste system]] proper to the United States. In her 2020 book ''[[Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents]]'', Wilkerson described the system of racial segregation and discrimination in the United States as one example of a caste system by comparing it to the [[Caste system in India|caste systems of India]] and [[Nazi Germany]]. In her view, the three systems all exhibit the defining features of caste: divine or natural justification for the system, heritability of caste, [[endogamy]], belief in purity, occupational hierarchy, dehumanization and stigmatization of lower castes, terror and cruelty as methods of enforcement and control, and the belief in the superiority of the dominant caste.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilkerson |first=Isabel |title=Caste: the origins of our discontents |year=2020 |isbn=978-0593230251 |edition=First |location=New York |pages=99 et seq |oclc=1147928120 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_er2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 |author-link=Isabel Wilkerson}}</ref> ==See also== {{Portal|United States}} {{Div col|colwidth=25em}} * [[African-American history]] * [[Auto-segregation]] * [[Baseball color line]] * [[Black flight]], into suburbs * [[Black Lives Matter]] * [[Black nationalism]] * [[Black Power]] * [[Black separatism]] * [[Black supremacy]] * [[Discrimination based on skin color#United States]] * [[Index of racism-related articles]] * [[List of anti-discrimination acts]] * [[Lynching in the United States]] * [[Mass racial violence in the United States]] * [[Nadir of American race relations]] * [[Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity]] * ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' * [[Race and health]] * [[Racial integration]] * [[Racial segregation]] * [[Racial segregation in Atlanta]] * [[Racial segregation of churches in the United States]] * [[Racial tension in Omaha, Nebraska]] * [[Racism against African Americans]] * [[Racism in the United States]] * [[Segregated prom]] * [[St. Augustine movement]] * [[Symbolic racism]] * [[Timeline of African-American history]] * [[Timeline of the civil rights movement]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ===Sources=== * {{Cite journal|last=Cole|first=Terrence M.|date=November 1992|title=Jim Crow in Alaska: The Passage of the Alaska Equal Rights Act|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/970301|journal=Western Historical Quarterly|volume=23|issue=4|pages=429–449|doi=10.2307/970301|jstor=970301|s2cid=163528642 |url-access=registration|via=JSTOR}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin|30em}} * Bond, Horace Mann. "The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States." ''[[Journal of Negro Education]]'' 4 (July 1935): 321–327. {{JSTOR|2291870}}. * Chafe, William Henry, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, eds. ''Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South'' (2003). * Glater, Jonathan D. and Alan Finder. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150605053202/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/15/education/15integrate.html?pagewanted=all School Diversity Based on Income Segregates Some], [[The New York Times]], July 15, 2007. * Graham, Hugh. ''The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960–1972'' (1990) * Guyatt, Nicholas. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Mx38CgAAQBAJ Bind Us Apart: How Enlightened Americans Invented Racial Segregation].'' New York: Basic Books, 2016. * Hanbury, Dallas. 2020. ''The Development of Southern Public Libraries and the African American Quest for Library Access 1898-1963.'' Lanham: Lexington Books. * Hannah-Jones, Nikole. "Worlds Apart". [[New York Times|New York Times Magazine]], June 12, 2016, pp. 34–39 and 50–55. * Hatfield, Edward. "[https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/segregation Segregation]." ''New Georgia Encyclopedia,'' June 1, 2007. * Hasday, Judy L. ''The Civil Rights Act of 1964: An End to Racial Segregation'' (2007). * Lands, LeeAnn, [http://southernspaces.org/2009/city-divided "A City Divided"], ''Southern Spaces'', December 29, 2009. * Levy, Alan Howard. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=xfDOkvXhfs8C Tackling Jim Crow: Racial Segregation in Professional Football]'' (2003). * Massey, Douglas S., and Nancy Denton. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=uGslMsIBNBsC American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass]'' (1993) * Merry, Michael S. (2012). "Segregation and Civic Virtue" Educational Theory Journal 62(4), pp. 465–486. * Myrdal, Gunnar. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1R4uDwAAQBAJ An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy]'' (1944). * Raffel, Jeffrey. ''Historical dictionary of school segregation and desegregation: The American experience'' (Bloomsbury, 1998) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=2a7OEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=HISTORICAL+DICTIONARY+OF+SCHOOL+SEGREGATION+AND+DESEGREGATION&ots=FNVMhQhrqU&sig=IpyhybKlG5BpZFJxVxtOMfHU_q4 online] * Ritterhouse, Jennifer. ''Growing Up Jim Crow: The Racial Socialization of Black and White Southern Children, 1890–1940.'' (2006). * Sitkoff, Harvard. ''The Struggle for Black Equality'' (2008) * Tarasawa, Beth. "[http://southernspaces.org/2009/new-patterns-segregation-latino-and-african-american-students-metro-atlanta-high-schools New Patterns of Segregation: Latino and African American Students in Metro Atlanta High Schools]", ''Southern Spaces'', January 19, 2009. * Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Strange Career :) of Jim Crow'' (1955). * Yellin, Eric S. ''Racism in the Nation's Service: Government Workers and the Color Line in Woodrow Wilson's America.'' Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2013. * {{cite book|title=Remembering Paradise Park : tourism and segregation at Silver Springs|first1=Lu|last1=Vickers|first2=Cynthia|last2=Wilson-Graham|publisher=University Press of Florida|year=2015|isbn=978-0813061528}} * {{cite book |title=Segregation in Washington a report |date=November 1948 |publisher=National Committee on Segregation in the Nation's Capital |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL7421324W/Segregation_in_Washington#editions-list|oclc= 735403|lccn=49002184}} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120402122117/http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=%2Fprogram_offices%2Ffair_housing_equal_opp Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131005022332/http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=%2Fprogram_offices%2Ffair_housing_equal_opp%2Fonline-complaint File a housing discrimination complaint] * [http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/remembering/ "Remembering Jim Crow"] – Minnesota Public Radio (multi-media) * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia "Africans in America"] – PBS 4-Part Series * [https://freemaninstitute.com/Collectmain.htm Black History Collection] * [https://newsreel.org/video/THE-RISE-AND-FALL-OF-JIM-CROW "the Rise and Fall of Jim Crow"], 4-part series from PBS distributed by California Newsreel * [https://catalog.sos.ri.gov/repositories/2/digital_objects/15 African-American Collection from Rhode Island State Archives] * "[https://archive.org/details/DestinationFreedom/DF_49-08-28_ep059-Segregation__Incorporated.mp3 Segregation Incorporated]", presented by [[Destination Freedom]], written by [[Richard Durham]] in 1949 {{Segregation by type|state=collapsed}} {{authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Racial Segregation in the United States}} [[Category:1880s establishments in the United States]] [[Category:1965 disestablishments in the United States]] [[Category:History of racial segregation in the United States| ]] [[Category:Anti-black racism in the United States]] [[Category:African-American-related controversies]] [[Category:Race-related controversies in the United States]] [[Category:United States caste system|*]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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