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Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Territory of the United States}} {{Pp-move}} {{Pp|small=yes}} {{Redirect-multi|2|Porto Rico|Borinquen|other uses|Porto Rico (disambiguation)|and|Borinquen (disambiguation)|and|Puerto Rico (disambiguation)}} {{Very long|date=June 2023|words=19,000}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}} {{Infobox political division | name = Puerto Rico | settlement_type = [[Territories of the United States|Unincorporated and organized U.S. territory]] | official_name = {{raise|0.2em|Commonwealth of Puerto Rico}}{{efn|name=commonwealth}}<br />{{nobold|Free Associated State of Puerto Rico}}<br />{{nobold|{{lang|es|Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico}} ([[Puerto Rican Spanish|Spanish]])}} | image_flag = Flag of Puerto Rico.svg | flag_size = 125px | flag_link = Flag of Puerto Rico | image_seal = Coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.svg | seal_size = 85px | seal_type = Coat of arms | seal_link = Coat of arms of Puerto Rico | nickname = {{native phrase|es|"La Isla del Encanto"|italics=off}}<br />('The Island of Enchantment') | nickname_link = List of U.S. state and territory nicknames | motto_link = List of U.S. state and territory mottos | motto = {{native phrase|la|"[[Coat of arms of Puerto Rico#History|Joannes est nomen ejus]]"|italics=off}}<br />('[[Saint John the Baptist|John]] is his name') | anthem_link = List of U.S. state songs | anthem = {{native phrase|es|"[[La Borinqueña]]"|italics=off}}<br />("The Song of Borinquen")<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:United States Navy Band - La Borinqueña.ogg]]}}</div> | image_map = Puerto_Rico_(orthographic_projection).svg | map_alt = Location of Puerto Rico | map_caption = Location of Puerto Rico | mapsize = 290px | image_map2 = | subdivision_type = [[Sovereign state]] | subdivision_name = {{flag|United States}}{{efn|Puerto Rico belongs to, but is not a part of, the United States. See the page for the [[Insular Cases#Background|Insular Cases]] for more information.}} | established_title = Before annexation | established_date = [[Captaincy General of Puerto Rico]] | established_title2 = {{nowrap|[[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Cession from Spain]]}} | established_date2 = 10 December 1898 | established_title3 = [[Puerto Rican constitutional referendum, 1952|Current constitution]] | established_date3 = 25 July 1952 | languages_type = Official languages | languages = {{hlist|[[Puerto Rican Spanish|Spanish]]|[[English language in Puerto Rico|English]]<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.efe.com/efe/english/life/p-rico-senate-declares-spanish-over-english-as-first-official-language/50000263-2704154 |title=P. Rico Senate declares Spanish over English as first official language |date=4 September 2015 |work=Agencia EFE |access-date=7 February 2016 |location=San Juan, Puerto Rico |archive-date=1 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101090937/https://www.efe.com/efe/english/life/p-rico-senate-declares-spanish-over-english-as-first-official-language/50000263-2704154 }}</ref>}} | common_languages = 94.3% Spanish<br />5.5% English<br />0.2% other<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?tid=ACSDP5Y2019.DP02PR&g=0400000US72&hidePreview=true |title=Puerto Rico 2015-2019 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2019 |website=US Census |publisher=Department of Commerce |access-date=7 July 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184353/https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?tid=ACSDP5Y2019.DP02PR&g=0400000US72&hidePreview=true |url-status=live }}</ref> | demonym = [[Puerto Ricans|Puerto Rican]] ({{lang-es|Puertorriqueño -a}})<br />[[Boricua]] (neutral){{efn|The term ''Boricua'' is gender-neutral, whereas the terms ''Puertorriqueño'', ''Borinqueño'', ''Borincano'', and ''Puertorro'' are male-specific when ending in «o» and female-specific when ending in «a».}}<br />''Borinqueño -a''<br /> ''Borincano -a''<ref>{{cite web |title=puertorriqueño |website=Diccionario de la Lengua Española por la Real Academia Española |url=https://dle.rae.es/puertorrique%C3%B1o#D2Prb5S |language=es |access-date=January 19, 2024}}</ref><br />''Puertorro -a''{{efn|The term ''Puertorro -a'' is used [[Popular culture |popularly]], [[Colloquialism|spontaneously]], and [[High culture| politely]] to refer to Puerto Ricans or Puerto Rico. It is occasionally mistaken for a [[Pejorative |pejorative]], but the term is not considered offensive by Puerto Ricans. It has been most famously used by Puerto Rican musicians, including [[Bobby Valentín]] in his song ''Soy Boricua'' (1972), [[Andy Montañez]] in ''En Mi Puertorro'' (2006), and [[Bad Bunny]] in ''ACHO PR'' (2023).}}<ref> {{cite web |title=puertorro|website=Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española: Diccionario de Americanismos |url= https://www.asale.org/damer/puertorro |language=es |access-date=2024-01-19}}</ref> | capital = [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] | largest_city = capital | coordinates = {{Coord|18|27|N|66|6|W|type:city_region:US-PR}} | ethnic_groups = {{Plainlist|''By self-identified race:'' * 49.8% [[Multiracial Americans|multiracial]] * 17.1% [[White Puerto Ricans|White]] * 7.0% [[Afro-Puerto Ricans|Black]] * 0.5% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] * 0.1% [[Asian Puerto Ricans|Asian]] * 25.5% [[Race and ethnicity in the United States census|other]] }} {{plainlist|''By ethnicity:'' * 98.9% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]] * 1.1% non-Hispanic or Latino}} | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="2020CensusData">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/improved-race-ethnicity-measures-reveal-united-states-population-much-more-multiracial.html |title=2020 Census Illuminates Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Country |work=[[United States Census]] |access-date=17 August 2021 |archive-date=21 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021091045/https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/improved-race-ethnicity-measures-reveal-united-states-population-much-more-multiracial.html |url-status=live }}</ref> | ethnic_groups_year = 2020 | government_type = [[Devolution|Devolved]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[constitution]]al [[Dependent territory|dependency]] | leader_title1 = [[President of the United States|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Joe Biden]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]) | leader_title2 = [[Governor of Puerto Rico|Governor]] | leader_name2 = [[Pedro Pierluisi]] ([[New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico)|PNP]]/[[Democratic Party of Puerto Rico|D]]) | national_representation = [[United States Congress]] | national_representation_type1 = [[Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico|Resident Commissioner]] | national_representation1 = [[Jenniffer González]] ([[New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico)|PNP]]/[[Republican Party of Puerto Rico|R]]) | legislature = [[Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico|Legislative Assembly]] | upper_house = [[Senate of Puerto Rico|Senate]] | lower_house = [[House of Representatives of Puerto Rico|House of Representatives]] | area_km2 = 13792 | area_sq_mi = 5,325<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> | percent_water = 35.6 | elevation_max_ft = 4,390{{efn|name=peakk|[[Cerro de Punta]] in the [[Cordillera Central (Puerto Rico) |Cordillera Central]] mountain range is the highest elevation in Puerto Rico.}} | elevation_max_m = 1,338 | population_census = 3,285,874<ref name="Census2020-Tab2">{{cite web |date=26 April 2021 |title=Table 2. Resident Population for the 50 States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico: 2020 Census |url=https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/data/apportionment/apportionment-2020-table02.pdf |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date=26 April 2021 |archive-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426194205/https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/data/apportionment/apportionment-2020-table02.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> | population_census_year = 2020 | population_estimate_rank = 136th | population_density_km2 = 361.4 | population_density_sq_mi = 936 | population_density_rank = 41st | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $132.052 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.PR">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=359,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (PR) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=13 October 2023 |archive-date=20 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120065832/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=359,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2023 | GDP_PPP_rank = 85th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $41,682<ref name="IMFWEO.PR" /> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 40th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $117.515 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.PR" /> | GDP_nominal_year = 2023 | GDP_nominal_rank = 62nd | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $37,093<ref name="IMFWEO.PR" /> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 28th | Gini = 53.1 | Gini_year = 2011 | Gini_ref =<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/acsbr11-02.pdf |title=Household Income for States: 2010 and 2011 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=September 2012 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=16 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528184959/http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/acsbr11-02.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2014 }}</ref> | HDI = 0.845 | HDI_year = 2015 | HDI_ref =<ref>{{cite journal |format=PDF |first=Ricardo R. |last=Fuentes-Ramírez |url=https://ceterisparibusuprm.org/volumen-actual/human-development-index-trends-and-inequality-in-puerto-rico-2010-2015-by-ricardo-r-fuentes-ramirez/ |title=Human Development Index Trends and Inequality in Puerto Rico 2010–2015 |journal=Ceteris Paribus: Journal of Socio-Economic Research |volume=7 |year=2017 |access-date=15 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525013711/https://ceterisparibusuprm.org/volumen-actual/human-development-index-trends-and-inequality-in-puerto-rico-2010-2015-by-ricardo-r-fuentes-ramirez/ |archive-date=25 May 2017 }}</ref> | HDI_rank = 40th | currency = [[United States dollar]] (US$) | currency_code = USD | timezone = [[Atlantic Time Zone|AST]] | utc_offset = -04:00 | date_format = dd/mm/yyyy<br>mm/dd/yyyy | drives_on = right | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Puerto Rico|+1 (787), +1 (939)]] | postal_code_type = {{nowrap|[[USPS abbreviation]]}} | postal_code = PR | iso_code = {{hlist|[[ISO 3166-2:PR|PR]]|[[ISO 3166-2:US|US-PR]]}} | cctld = [[.pr]] |image_blank_emblem=Seal of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.svg|blank_emblem_size=85px|blank_emblem_type=Seal of Puerto Rico|population_estimate=3,205,691{{efn|name=pop|Puerto Rico is the [[List of Caribbean countries by population#Table |4th most populated]] island in the Caribbean, [[:es:Anexo:Islas por superficie y población#Mayores islas del mundo |27th most populated]] island in the world, and [[List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population#Sovereign states and dependencies by population |136th most populated]] country or dependency in the world.}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/PR |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |title=Quick Facts Puerto Rico: Population Estimates, July 1, 2023 |date=July 1, 2023 |access-date=15 March 2024 |archive-date=30 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330054937/https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/PR |url-status=live }}</ref>|population_estimate_year=2023|area_land_km2=8868|area_land_sq_mi=3424|area_water_km2=4924|area_water_sq_mi=1901|area_footnote={{efn|name=area|The total area of Puerto Rico, the main island of the archipelago of the same name, is 5,325 m² (13,792 km²). The [[Land |land]] and [[Internal waters |internal costal water]] area is 3,513 m² (9,100 km²), with land covering 3,424 m² (8,868 km²) and internal costal waters 89 m² (232 km²). The [[Territorial waters |territorial waters]] of Puerto Rico stretch for 1,812 m² (4,692 km²). However, like all other countries and dependencies, the most widely accepted and used area of Puerto Rico does not include its [[Territorial waters |territorial waters]]. Excluding its 1,812 m² (4,692 km²) of territorial sea, the [[Land |land]] and [[Baseline (sea) |internal costal water]] area of Puerto Rico is 3,513 m² (9,100 km²), making it the [[List of Caribbean islands by area#Islands 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) and greater |4th biggest]] Caribbean island, [[List of islands by area#Islands 5,000–10,000 km2 (1,900–3,900 sq mi) |81st biggest]] world island, and [[List of countries and dependencies by area#Countries and dependencies by area |175th biggest]] country or dependency in the world. See [[Geography of Puerto Rico]].}}<ref name= "Geography">{{Cite web |url= https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/2010/geo/state-area.html |title= State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates |website= United States Census Bureau |access-date=24 February 2024}}</ref>|length_km=178|length_mi=110|width_km=65|width_mi=40|dimensions_footnotes={{efn|name=100x35|Puerto Rico, the main island of the archipelago of the same name, is 178 kilometers long (110 [[Mile |statute miles]]; 96 [[Nautical mile |nautical miles]]) and 65 kilometers wide (40 statute miles; 35 nautical miles). Boricuas often refer to Puerto Rico as ''100x35'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''100por35''), a direct reference to the island's size in nautical miles. Various Puerto Rican singers have used the term, including [[Farruko]] and [[Pedro Capó]] in their song ''Jíbaro'' (2021).}}<ref name= "Geographic"> {{Cite web |url=https://gis.pr.gov/Pages/Geografia_PR.aspx |title= Geografía de Puerto Rico |website= Sistemas de Información Geográfica |language=es |access-date=February 24, 2024}}</ref> |population_rank_link=}} {{langnf|es|'''Puerto Rico'''{{efn|Pronunciation: * {{IPAc-en|lang|ˌ|p|ɔr|t|ə|_|ˈ|r|iː|k|oʊ|,_|ˌ|p|w|ɛər|t|ə|_|-|,_|-|t|oʊ|_|-}} {{respell|POR|tə|_|REE|koh|,_|PWAIR|tə|_-,_-|toh|_-}}; * {{IPA|es|ˈpweɾto ˈriko|lang}}, {{IPA|und|ˈpwelto ˈχiko, - ˈʀ̥iko|label=locally (in rural areas)}}.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l9jLBAAAQBAJ&q=pwelto&pg=PT113 |title=Portuguese-Spanish Interfaces: Diachrony, synchrony, and contact |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |author1=Amaral, Patrícia |author2=Ana Maria Carvalho |name-list-style=amp |year=2014 |location=Philadelphia |page=130 |isbn=978-90-272-5800-7}}</ref>}}|italic=no|rich port|paren=left}}; abbreviated '''PR'''; {{lang-tnq|Borikén}} or {{lang|tnq|Borinquen}}),<ref name="CIA World Factbook - Puerto Rico">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/ |title=CIA World Factbook – Puerto Rico |access-date=5 August 2019 |archive-date=5 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105163943/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/ |url-status=live }}</ref> officially the '''Commonwealth of Puerto Rico'''{{efn|The definition of ''[[Commonwealth]]'' according to [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] policy (as codified in the department's ''[[Foreign Affairs Manual]]'') reads: "The term 'Commonwealth' does not describe or provide for any specific political status or relationship."<ref>{{cite web | url = https://fam.state.gov/FAM/07FAM/07FAM1120.html#M1121_2_1 | title = 7 fam 1120 acquisition of u.s. nationality in u.s. territories and possessions | access-date = 13 December 2015 | date = 3 January 2013 | work = U.S. Department of State Foreign Affairs Manual Volume 7- Consular Affairs | publisher = U.S. Department of State | format = PDF | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151222081013/https://fam.state.gov/FAM/07FAM/07FAM1120.html#M1121_2_1 | archive-date = 22 December 2015 }}</ref>|name=commonwealth}} ({{lang-es|Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico|lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico|links=no}}), is a [[Caribbean]] island, [[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)|Commonwealth]], and [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated territory]] of the [[United States]]. It is located in the northeast [[Caribbean Sea]], approximately {{convert|1000|mi}} southeast of [[Miami, Florida]], between the [[Dominican Republic]] and the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]], and includes the eponymous main island and several smaller islands, such as [[Isla de Mona|Mona]], [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra]], and [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]]. With roughly 3.2 million residents, it is divided into 78 [[Municipalities of Puerto Rico |municipalities]], of which the most populous is the [[Capital city|capital]] municipality of [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]].<ref name="CIA World Factbook - Puerto Rico"/> [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[English language|English]] are the [[official languages]] of the executive branch of government,<ref>Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior, 92 D.P.R. 596 (1965). Translation taken from the English text, 92 P.R.R. 580 (1965), pp. 588–89. See also López-Baralt Negrón, ''Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior: Español: Idioma del proceso judicial'', 36, Revista Jurídica de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. 396 (1967), and Vientós-Gastón, ''Informe del Procurador General sobre el idioma'', 36 Revista del Colegio de Abogados de PuertO Rico. (P.R.) 843 (1975).</ref> though Spanish predominates.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prfaa.pr.gov/puertoricond2.asp |title=Puerto Rico |access-date=21 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912144331/http://prfaa.pr.gov/puertoricond2.asp |archive-date=12 September 2015}}</ref> Puerto Rico was settled by a succession of peoples beginning 2,000 to 4,000 years ago;<ref name="Taus-Bolstad2004">{{cite book | author = Stacy Taus-Bolstad | date = 1 September 2004 | title = Puerto Ricans in America | publisher = Lerner Publications | pages = 7– | isbn = 978-0-8225-3953-7 | oclc = 1245779085 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AZG9k5LqlCoC&pg=PA7}}</ref> these included the [[Ortoiroid people|Ortoiroid]], [[Saladoid]], and [[Taíno]]. It was then colonized by [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] following the arrival of [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1493.<ref name="CIA World Factbook - Puerto Rico"/> Puerto Rico was contested by other European [[Regional power|powers]], but remained a Spanish possession for the next four centuries. An influx of [[Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies|African slaves]] and settlers primarily from the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Andalusia]] vastly changed the cultural and demographic landscape of the island. Within the [[Spanish Empire]], Puerto Rico played a secondary but strategic role compared to wealthier colonies like [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Peru]] and [[New Spain]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Constructing a Colonial People: Puerto Rico and the United States, 1898–1932 |last=Caban |first=Pedro A. |publisher=Westview Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7867-4817-4 |page=10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fb2PmghQ-DsC |title=Subject People and Colonial Discourses: Economic Transformation and Social Disorder in Puerto Rico, 1898–1947 |last=Santiago-Valles |first=Kelvin A. |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7914-1589-4 |page=ix}}</ref> By the late 19th century, a distinct Puerto Rican identity began to emerge, centered around a fusion of indigenous, African, and European elements.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjkhAwAAQBAJ |title=A History of Afro-Hispanic Language: Five Centuries, Five Continents |last=Lipski |first=John M. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-107-32037-6 |page=37}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/puerto-rico-books-and-pamphlets/articles-and-essays/nineteenth-century-puerto-rico/documenting-puerto-rican-identity/|title=Documenting a Puerto Rican Identity {{!}} In Search of a National Identity: Nineteenth and Early-Twentieth-Century Puerto Rico {{!}} Articles and Essays {{!}} Puerto Rico at the Dawn of the Modern Age: Nineteenth- and Early-Twentieth-Century Perspectives|publisher=Digital Collections, Library of Congress|access-date=11 April 2020|archive-date=11 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411210607/https://www.loc.gov/collections/puerto-rico-books-and-pamphlets/articles-and-essays/nineteenth-century-puerto-rico/documenting-puerto-rican-identity/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1898, following the [[Spanish–American War]], Puerto Rico was [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|acquired by the United States]].<ref name="CIA World Factbook - Puerto Rico"/><ref>José Trías Monge. ''Puerto Rico: The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World''. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1999. p. 4.</ref> [[Puerto Ricans]] have been [[United States nationality law|U.S. citizens]] since 1917, and can move freely between the island and the mainland.<ref>[https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1402 8 U.S. Code § 1402 – Persons born in Puerto Rico on or after 11 April 1899] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708100919/https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1402 |date=8 July 2017 }} (1941) Retrieved: 14 January 2015.</ref> However, when resident in the [[Territories of the United States|unincorporated territory]] of Puerto Rico, Puerto Ricans are [[Federal voting rights in Puerto Rico#Disenfranchisement in Puerto Rico|disenfranchised at the national level]], do not [[United States presidential election|vote for the president or vice president]],<ref>[http://puertoricoadvancement.org/Documents/Igartua%20de%20la%20Rosa_V_United%20States.pdf Igartúa–de la Rosa v. United States (Igartúa III)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316075619/http://puertoricoadvancement.org/Documents/Igartua%20de%20la%20Rosa_V_United%20States.pdf|date=16 March 2012}}, 417 F.3d 145 (1st Cir. 2005) (en banc), [https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-1st-circuit/1545899.html GREGORIO IGARTÚA, ET AL., Plaintiffs, Appellants, v. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, ET AL., Defendants, Appellees. No. 09-2186] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180905103026/https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-1st-circuit/1545899.html|date=5 September 2018}} (24 November 2010)</ref> and generally do not pay [[Taxation in Puerto Rico|federal income tax]].<ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/Health/trauma-puerto-ricos-maria-generation/story?id=60980466 ''The trauma of Puerto Rico's 'Maria Generation' ''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924204813/https://abcnews.go.com/Health/trauma-puerto-ricos-maria-generation/story?id=60980466 |date=24 September 2019 }} Robin Ortiz. ABC News. 17 February 2019. Accessed 24 September 2019.</ref><ref>[http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-06-541 ''PUERTO RICO: Fiscal Relations with the Federal Government and Economic Trends during the Phaseout of the Possessions Tax Credit.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726055556/http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-06-541 |date=26 July 2011 }} General Accounting Office publication number GAO-06-541. US Gen. Acctg. Office, Washington, DC. 19 May 2006. Public Release: 23 June 2006. (Note: All residents of Puerto Rico pay federal taxes, with the exception of federal '''income''' taxes which only <u>'''some'''</u> residents of Puerto Rico must still pay).</ref><ref group="Note">See the [[Political status of Puerto Rico]] article for more information. </ref> In common with four other territories, Puerto Rico sends a [[Nonvoting members of Congress|nonvoting representative]] to the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]], called a [[Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico|Resident Commissioner]], and participates in [[2020 Puerto Rico presidential primaries|presidential primaries]]; as it is not a [[U.S. state|state]], Puerto Rico does not have a vote in Congress, which governs it under the [[Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950]]. Congress approved [[Constitution of Puerto Rico|a local constitution]] in 1952, allowing U.S. citizens residing on the island to elect [[Governor of Puerto Rico|a governor]]. Puerto Rico's [[Political status of Puerto Rico|current and future political status]] has consistently been a matter of significant debate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42765.pdf |title=Puerto Rico's Political Status and the 2012 Plebiscite: Background and Key Questions |date=25 June 2013 |access-date=17 January 2016 |via=fas.org |publisher=Congressional Research Service |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175716/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42765.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/noticias/politica/nota/elsenadoapruebaenmiendasalaleydelplebiscito-2312006/ |title=El Nuevo Día |website=Elnuevodia.com |date=18 April 2017 |access-date=3 May 2017 |archive-date=27 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827085437/https://www.elnuevodia.com/noticias/politica/nota/elsenadoapruebaenmiendasalaleydelplebiscito-2312006/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Beginning in the mid-20th century, the [[federal government of the United States|U.S. government]], together with the [[Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company]], launched a series of economic projects to develop Puerto Rico into an industrial high-income economy. It is classified by the [[International Monetary Fund]] as a [[developed country|developed jurisdiction]] with an advanced, [[high-income economy]];<ref name="Advanced economies">{{cite web |url= https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=110&sg=All+countries+%2f+Advanced+economies |title= Advanced economies |publisher= IMF |access-date= 1 August 2019 |archive-date= 17 June 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190617091701/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=110&sg=All+countries+%2f+Advanced+economies |url-status= live }}</ref> it ranks 40th on the [[Human Development Index]]. The major sectors of Puerto Rico's economy are [[manufacturing in Puerto Rico|manufacturing]] (primarily [[Pharmaceutical industry in Puerto Rico|pharmaceuticals]], [[petrochemical]]s, and electronics) followed by [[Tertiary sector of the economy|services]] (namely [[Tourism in Puerto Rico|tourism]] and hospitality).<ref name="manufacturing-by-pr.gov">{{cite web |url=http://www2.pr.gov/GobiernoEmpresas/SectoresInversion/Pages/Manufactura.aspx |title=Manufactura |language=es |publisher=[[Government of Puerto Rico]] |access-date=7 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002150143/http://www2.pr.gov/GobiernoEmpresas/SectoresInversion/Pages/Manufactura.aspx |archive-date=2 October 2013 }}</ref> ==Etymology== Puerto Rico is Spanish for "rich port".<ref name="CIA World Factbook - Puerto Rico"/> [[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Ricans]] often call the island {{lang|es|Borinquen}}, a derivation of {{lang|tnq|Borikén}}, its [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Taíno]] name, which is popularly said to mean "Land of the Valiant Lord".<ref>{{cite book |last=Allatson |first=Paul |title=Key Terms in Latino/a Cultural and Literary Studies |page=47 |location=Malden, Mass. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4051-0250-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.taino-tribe.org/terms1.htm#anchor250018 |title=Taino Indigenous Peoples of the Caribbean |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013032642/http://www.taino-tribe.org/terms1.htm |archive-date=13 October 2007 |encyclopedia=Clásicos de Puerto Rico |edition=2nd |editor=Cayetano Coll y Toste |publisher=Ediciones Latinoamericanas, S.A. |year=1972}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/advanceinantill00grosgoog |title=H. B. Grose, Advance in the Antilles: the new era in Cuba and Porto Rico, Presbyterian Home Missions, 1910 |publisher=Literature Dept., Presbyterian Home Missions |year=1910 |access-date=6 February 2011 |last1=Grose |first1=Howard Benjamin}}</ref> The terms {{lang|es|boricua}}, {{lang|es|borinqueño}}, and {{lang|es|borincano}} are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage,<ref>[https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Boricua ''Boricua.''] Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Accessed 9 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220210030451/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Boricua Archived.]</ref><ref>[https://dle.rae.es/borincano ''Borincano.''] Diccionario de la Real Academia Española. Accessed 9 February 2022.[https://web.archive.org/web/20220210030619/https://dle.rae.es/borincano Archived.]</ref> and derive from {{lang|tnq|Borikén}} and {{lang|tnq|Borinquen}} respectively.<ref>Julian Granberry and Gary Vescelius. ''Languages of the Pre-Columbian Antilles.'' The University of Alabama Press. 2004. p.92. {{ISBN|978-0-8173-8191-2}}</ref> The island is also popularly known in Spanish as {{lang|es|La Isla del Encanto}}, meaning "the island of enchantment".<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rc7FAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 |chapter=¡Adelante Hermanas de la Raza!, Josefina Silva de Cintron and Puerto Rican Women's Feminismo. – The New York's World Fair: 1939–1940 |title=Exploring the Decolonial Imaginary: Four Transnational Lives |first=Patricia A. |last=Schechter |location=New York |publisher=MacMillan |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-137-01284-5}} Note: The phase "The Island of Enchantment" has been traced back to a travel guide by that title that [[Theodore Roosevelt Jr]]. offered in ''[[House & Garden (magazine)|House & Garden]]'' magazine in 1938.</ref> Columbus named the island {{lang|es|San Juan Bautista}}, in honor of Saint [[John the Baptist]], while the capital city was named {{lang|es|Ciudad de Puerto Rico}} ("Rich Port City").<ref name="CIA World Factbook - Puerto Rico"/> Eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city.{{efn|Proyecto Salón Hogar (in Spanish) "{{lang|es|Los españoles le cambiaron el nombre de Borikén a San Juan Bautista y a la capital le llamaron Ciudad de Puerto Rico. Con los años, Ciudad de Puerto Rico pasó a ser San Juan, y San Juan Bautista pasó a ser Puerto Rico.}}"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/enciclopedia_ilustrada/HistoriaPR1.htm |title=Historia de Puerto Rico |publisher=Proyectosalonhogar.com |access-date=14 April 2014 |archive-date=30 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140430045127/http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/Enciclopedia_Ilustrada/HistoriaPR1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>}} The island's name was changed to ''Porto Rico'' by the United States after the [[Treaty of Paris of 1898]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain; December 10, 1898 |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp |website=The Avalon Project |publisher=[[Yale Law School]] |access-date=27 July 2016 |archive-date=8 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708063629/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> The anglicized name was used by the U.S. government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico in 1931 by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by [[Félix Córdova Dávila]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Crafting an Identity |url=http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/HAIC/Historical-Essays/Foreign-Domestic/Crafting-Identity/ |website=History, Art & Archives |publisher=Office of the Historian and the Clerk of the House's Office of Art and Archives |access-date=27 July 2016 |archive-date=19 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819122410/http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/HAIC/Historical-Essays/Foreign-Domestic/Crafting-Identity/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|In 1932, the [[U.S. Congress]] officially back-corrected the former [[Anglicization]] of ''Porto Rico'' into the Spanish name ''Puerto Rico''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Pedro A. Malavet |title=America's colony: the political and cultural conflict between the United States and Puerto Rico |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pKqVpqGVsJYC |year=2004 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-5680-5 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pKqVpqGVsJYC&pg=PA43 43], [https://books.google.com/books?id=pKqVpqGVsJYC&pg=PA181 181 note 76] |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208215202/https://books.google.com/books?id=pKqVpqGVsJYC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>To change the name of the island of ''Porto Rico'' to ''Puerto Rico'', S.J. Res 36, 72nd Congress, enacted 1932. ({{USStat|47|158}})</ref> It had been using the former spelling in its legislative and judicial records since it acquired the archipelago. Patricia Gherovici states that both ''Porto Rico'' and ''Puerto Rico'' were used interchangeably in the news media and documentation before, during, and after the U.S. conquest of the island in 1898. The ''Porto'' spelling, for instance, was used in the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]], but ''Puerto'' was used by ''[[The New York Times]]'' that same year. Nancy Morris clarifies that "a curious oversight in the drafting of the [[Foraker Act]] caused the name of the island to be officially misspelled".<ref>{{cite book |author=Patricia Gherovici |title=The Puerto Rican syndrome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jSsxVWxu2sC |year=2003 |publisher=Other Press, LLC |isbn=978-1-892746-75-7 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2jSsxVWxu2sC&pg=PA140 140–141] |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208215157/https://books.google.com/books?id=2jSsxVWxu2sC |url-status=live }}</ref> However, Gervasio Luis Garcia traces the Anglicized spelling to a ''[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]'' article from 1899, after which the spelling was kept by many agencies and entities because of the ethnic and linguistic pride of the English-speaking citizens of the American mainland.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw2ZjkgjchkC |title=Hispanic Americans in Congress, 1822–2012 |last=Historian |first=Office of the |date=1 January 2013 |publisher=Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0-16-092068-4 |language=en |access-date=17 August 2016 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208215204/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw2ZjkgjchkC |url-status=live }}</ref>}}<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/registerportori03ricogoog |title=Register of Porto Rico |last1=Secretary's |first1=Puerto Rico |last2=Office |first2=Puerto Rico Secretary's |date=1 January 1903 |publisher=Office of the Secretary |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWczAQAAIAAJ |title=Porto Rico: A Caribbean Isle |last1=Van Deusen |first1=Richard James |last2=Van Deusen |first2=Elizabeth Kneipple |date=1931 |publisher=Henry Holt |language=en |access-date=17 August 2016 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208215040/https://books.google.com/books?id=gWczAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGhNAAAAYAAJ |title=Scientific survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands |last=Sciences |first=New York Academy of |date=1922 |publisher=New York Academy of Sciences |language=en}}</ref> The official name of the entity in Spanish is {{lang|es|[[Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico]]}} ("Free [[Associated State]] of Puerto Rico"), while its official English name is [[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)#Commonwealth of Puerto Rico|Commonwealth of Puerto Rico]].<ref name="CIA World Factbook - Puerto Rico"/> ==History== {{Main|History of Puerto Rico}} ===Pre-Columbian era=== [[File:Taino Village.JPG|thumb|A 20th-century reconstruction of an 8th-century [[Taíno]] village, located at the [[Tibes Indigenous Ceremonial Center|spot]] where their ballpark and remains were discovered in 1975, in the aftermath of [[Hurricane Eloise]]<ref>Carmelo Rosario Natal. ''Ponce En Su Historia Moderna: 1945–2002.'' Secretaría de Cultura y Turismo. Gobierno Municipal de Ponce. Ponce, Puerto Rico. 2003. p. 141.</ref>]] The ancient history of the archipelago which is now Puerto Rico is not well known. Unlike other indigenous cultures in the New World ([[Aztec]], [[Mayan civilization|Maya]] or [[Inca]]) which left behind abundant archeological and physical evidence of their societies, scant artifacts and evidence remain of the Puerto Rico's earliest population. Scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish accounts from the colonial era constitute all that is known about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by [[Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra]] in 1786, nearly three centuries after the first Spaniards landed on the island.<ref>{{cite book |last=Abbad y Lasierra |first=Iñigo |title=Historia Geográfica, Civil y Natural de la Isla de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico|url=https://archive.org/details/historiageografi00abba |year=1866 }}</ref> The first known settlers were the Casimiroid. They were followed by the relatively more well-known [[Ortoiroid people]] who were an [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic Period]] culture of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]] hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland. Some scholars suggest Ortoiroid settlement dates back about 4,000 years.<ref name="Rouse">Rouse, Irving. ''The Tainos : Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus'' {{ISBN|0-300-05696-6}}.</ref> An archeological dig in 1990 on the island of [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]] found the remains of a man, designated as the ''[[Puerto Ferro Archaeological Site|Puerto Ferro Man]]'', which was dated to around 2000 BC.<ref>{{cite news |author=Mahaffy, Cheryl |title=Vieques Island – What lies beneath |date=28 January 2006 |newspaper=Edmonton Journal |url=http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/travel/story.html?id=eb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7 |access-date=11 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011092855/http://canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/travel/story.html?id=eb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7 |archive-date=11 October 2007 }}</ref> The [[Ortoiroid people|Ortoiroid]] were displaced by the [[Saladoid]], a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BCE.<ref name=Rouse/> The [[Igneri]] tribe migrated to Puerto Rico between 120 and 400 AD from the region of the [[Orinoco]] river in northern South America. The Archaic and Igneri cultures clashed and co-existed on the island between the 4th and 10th centuries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Machlan |first=Morgan D. |date=1990 |title=Archeology and the Ethno-Tyrannies |journal=American Anthropologists |volume=92 |issue=615}}</ref> Between the 7th and 11th centuries, the [[Taíno]] culture developed on the island. By approximately 1000 AD, it had become dominant. At the time of Columbus' arrival, an estimated 30,000 to 60,000 Taíno Amerindians, led by the ''[[cacique]]'' (chief) [[Agüeybaná (The Great Sun)|Agüeybaná]], inhabited the island. They called it ''Boriken'', popularly said to mean "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord".<ref>{{cite web |author=Pedro Torres |work=Taíno Inter-Tribal Council Inc. |title=The Dictionary of the Taíno Language |url=http://members.dandy.net/~orocobix/tedict.html |access-date=11 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060213164808/http://members.dandy.net/~orocobix/tedict.html |archive-date=13 February 2006 }}</ref> The natives lived in small villages, each led by a cacique. They subsisted by hunting and fishing, done generally by men, as well as by the women's gathering and processing of indigenous [[cassava]] root and fruit. This lasted until Columbus arrived in 1493.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/travel/story.html?id=eb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7 |title=Vieques Island: What lies beneath |author=Cheryl Mahaffy |date=30 January 2006 |newspaper=Edmonton Journal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011092855/http://canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/travel/story.html?id=eb3c0119-8328-4b52-96ed-4a63763160f7 |archive-date=11 October 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newberry.org/exhibits/PuertoRico.html |title=500 Years of Puerto Rican History through the Eyes of Others |publisher=The Newberry Library |website=Newberry.org |date=12 July 2008 |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=11 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011191138/http://www.newberry.org/exhibits/PuertoRico.html }}</ref> ===Spanish colony (1493–1898)=== {{Further|Columbian Viceroyalty|New Spain|Captaincy General of Puerto Rico}} [[File:RUIDIAZ(1893) 1.083 JUAN PONCE DE LEÓN.jpg|thumb|upright| Artist's depiction of [[Juan Ponce de León]], Puerto Rico's first governor]] ====Conquest and early settlement==== When [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on 19 November 1493, the island was inhabited by the Taíno. They called it ''Borikén'', spelled in a variety of ways by different writers of the day.<ref name=Brau1>{{cite book|last=Brau|first=Salvador|title=Puerto Rico y su historia: investigaciones críticas|year=1894|publisher=Francisco Vives Moras|location=Valencia, Spain|pages=[https://archive.org/details/puertoricoysuhi00braugoog/page/n33/mode/2up 27]–40|url=https://archive.org/details/puertoricoysuhi00braugoog|language=es}}</ref> Columbus named the island ''San Juan Bautista'', in honor of St [[John the Baptist]].{{efn|Today, Puerto Ricans are also known as Boricuas, or people from Borinquen.}} Having reported the findings of his first travel, Columbus brought with him this time a letter from [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|King Ferdinand]]<ref>{{cite web |title=King Ferdinand's letter to the Taino-Arawak Indians |url=http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/documents/before-1600/king-ferdinands-letter-to-the-taino-arawak-indians.php |publisher=University of Groningen |access-date=27 March 2015 |archive-date=21 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321192743/http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/documents/before-1600/king-ferdinands-letter-to-the-taino-arawak-indians.php |url-status=live }}</ref> empowered by the [[Inter caetera]], a [[papal bull]] that authorized any course of action necessary for the expansion of the [[Spanish Empire]] and the Christian faith. [[Juan Ponce de León]], a [[lieutenant]] under Columbus, founded the first Spanish settlement of [[Caparra Archaeological Site|Caparra]] on 8 August 1508. He later served as the first [[List of Governors of Puerto Rico|governor]] of the island.{{efn|[[Vicente Yañez Pinzón]] is considered the first appointed governor of Puerto Rico, but he never arrived from Spain.}} Eventually, traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, and San Juan became the name of the main trading and shipping port city. At the beginning of the 16th century, Spanish people began to colonize the island. Despite the [[Laws of Burgos]] of 1512 and other decrees for the protection of the indigenous population, some Taíno Indians were forced into an [[encomienda]] system of [[Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies|forced labor]] in the early years of colonization. The population suffered extremely high fatalities from epidemics of European [[infectious]] diseases such as [[smallpox]].{{efn|[[PBS]], to which they had no natural [[immunity (medical)|immunity]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Arthur C. Aufderheide |author2=Conrado Rodríguez-Martín |author3=Odin Langsjoen |title=The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-55203-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&pg=PA204 204] |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173835/https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, a [[smallpox]] outbreak in 1518–1519 killed much of the Island's indigenous population.<ref>{{cite book |first=George C. |last=Kohn |title=Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzRwRmb09rgC&pg=PA160 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2008 |page=160 |isbn=978-0-8160-6935-4 |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208215043/https://books.google.com/books?id=tzRwRmb09rgC&pg=PA160#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> "The first ''repartimiento'' in Puerto Rico is established, allowing colonists fixed numbers of Tainos for wage-free and forced labor in the gold mines. When several priests protest, the crown requires Spaniards to pay native laborers and to teach them the Christian religion; the colonists continue to treat the natives as slaves."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/masterpiece/americancollection/woman/timeline.html |title=Masterpiece Theatre – American Collection – Almost a Woman – Puerto Rico: A Timeline |publisher=Pbs.org |access-date=14 April 2014 |archive-date=22 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222221840/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/masterpiece/americancollection/woman/timeline.html }}</ref>}}{{efn|Poole (2011) "[The Taíno] began to starve; many thousands fell prey to smallpox, measles and other European diseases for which they had no immunity [...]"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/What-Became-of-the-Taino.html |title=History, Travel, Arts, Science, People, Places – Smithsonian |publisher=Smithsonianmag.com |access-date=14 April 2014 |archive-date=7 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207130050/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/What-Became-of-the-Taino.html }}</ref>}}{{efn|[[PBS]] "[The Taíno] eventually succumbed to the Spanish soldiers and European diseases that followed Columbus's arrival in the New World in 1492."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/spirits/html/body_taino.html |title=taino |website=PBS |access-date=14 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208073734/https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/spirits/html/body_taino.html |archive-date=8 February 2013}}</ref>}}{{efn|[[Yale University]] "[...] the high death rate among the Taíno due to enslavement and European diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus) persisted."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/ |title=Puerto Rico – Colonial Genocides – Genocide Studies Program – Yale University |publisher=Yale.edu |access-date=14 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520120915/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/ |archive-date=20 May 2013}}</ref>}} ====Colonization under the Habsburgs==== [[File:Hendricksz 1625 attack on San Juan, Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|[[Battle of San Juan (1625)|1625 attack on San Juan]] by [[Boudewijn Hendricksz]]]] In 1520, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|King Charles I of Spain]] issued a royal decree collectively emancipating the remaining Taíno population. By that time, the Taíno people were few in number and their culture extirpated.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/index.html |title=Puerto Rico – Colonial Genocides – Genocide Studies Program |publisher=Yale University |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110908234849/http://www.yale.edu/gsp/colonial/puerto-rico/index.html |archive-date=8 September 2011}}</ref> [[slavery in the Spanish Empire|Enslaved Africans had already begun to be imported]] to compensate for the native labor loss, but their numbers were proportionate to the diminished commercial interest Spain soon began to demonstrate for the island colony. Other nearby islands, like [[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], and [[Guadeloupe|Guadalupe]], attracted more of the slave trade than Puerto Rico, probably because of greater agricultural interests in those islands, on which colonists had developed large sugar plantations and had the capital to invest in the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref name="Stark">{{cite journal |title=A New Look at the African Slave Trade in Puerto Rico Through the Use of Parish Registers: 1660–1815 |last=Stark |first=David M. |journal=Slavery & Abolition |year=2009 |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=491–520 |doi=10.1080/01440390903245083|s2cid=144704852 }}</ref> The colonial administration relied heavily on the industry of enslaved Africans and creole blacks for public works and defenses, primarily in coastal ports and cities, where the tiny colonial population had hunkered down. With no significant industries or large-scale agricultural production as yet, enslaved and free communities lodged around the few littoral settlements, particularly around San Juan, also forming lasting [[Afro–Puerto Ricans|Afro]]-[[Criollo people|Criollo]] communities. Meanwhile, in the island's interior, there developed a mixed and independent peasantry that relied on a subsistence economy. This mostly unsupervised population supplied villages and settlements with foodstuffs and, in relative isolation, set the pattern for what later would be known as the [[Jíbaro (Puerto Rico)|Puerto Rican Jíbaro culture]]. By the end of the 16th century, the Spanish Empire was diminishing and, in the face of increasing raids from European competitors, the colonial administration throughout the Americas fell into a "[[Siege mentality|bunker mentality]]". Imperial strategists and urban planners redesigned port settlements into military posts to protect Spanish territorial claims and ensure the safe passing of the king's silver-laden [[Spanish treasure fleet|Atlantic Fleet]] to the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. San Juan served as an important port-of-call for ships driven across the Atlantic by its powerful [[Atlantic Ocean#Climate|trade winds]]. West Indies convoys linked Spain to the island, sailing between [[Cádiz]] and the [[Spanish West Indies]]. The colony's seat of government was on the fortified [[Isleta de San Juan|Islet of San Juan]] and for a time became one of the most heavily fortified settlements in the [[Spanish West Indies|Spanish Caribbean]] earning the name of the "[[City Wall of San Juan|Walled City]]". The islet is still dotted with various forts and walls, such as [[La Fortaleza]], [[Castillo San Felipe del Morro]], and [[Castillo San Cristóbal (San Juan)|Castillo San Cristóbal]], designed to protect the population and the strategic [[Port of San Juan]] from the raids of the European competitors and corsairs. In 1625, in the [[Battle of San Juan (1625)|Battle of San Juan]], the [[Dutch people|Dutch]] commander [[Boudewijn Hendricksz]] tested the defenses' limits like no one else before. Learning from [[Francis Drake]]'s previous [[Battle of San Juan (1595)|failures here]], he circumvented the cannons of the castle of San Felipe del Morro and quickly brought his 17 ships into the [[San Juan Bay]]. He then occupied the port and attacked the city while the population hurried for shelter behind El Morro's moat and high battlements. Historians consider this event the worst attack on San Juan. Though the Dutch set the village on fire, they failed to conquer El Morro, and its batteries pounded their troops and ships until Hendricksz deemed the cause lost. Hendricksz's expedition eventually helped propel a fortification frenzy. Constructions of defenses for the San Cristóbal Hill were soon ordered so as to prevent the landing of invaders out of reach of El Morro's artillery. Urban planning responded to the needs of keeping the colony in Spanish hands. ====Late colonial period==== [[File:Hacienda La Fortuna Francisco Oller 1885 Brooklyn Museum.jpg|thumb|Sugar [[hacienda]]s, like the one depicted above, ran a significant portion of the Puerto Rican economy in the late 19th century. |alt=|left]] During the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Spain concentrated its colonial efforts on the more prosperous mainland North, Central, and South American colonies. With the advent of the lively [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon Dynasty]] in Spain in the 1700s, the island of Puerto Rico began a gradual shift to more imperial attention. More roads began connecting previously isolated inland settlements to coastal cities, and coastal settlements like [[Arecibo, Puerto Rico|Arecibo]], [[Mayagüez, Puerto Rico|Mayagüez]] and [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] began acquiring importance of their own, separate from San Juan. By the end of the 18th century, merchant ships from an array of nationalities threatened the tight regulations of the [[Mercantilism|Mercantilist system]], which turned each colony solely toward the European metropole and limited contact with other nations. U.S. ships came to surpass Spanish trade and with this also came the exploitation of the island's natural resources. Slavers, which had made but few stops on the island before, began selling more enslaved Africans to growing sugar and coffee plantations. The increasing number of Atlantic wars in which the Caribbean islands played major roles, like the [[War of Jenkins' Ear]], the [[Seven Years' War]] and the [[Atlantic Revolutions]], ensured Puerto Rico's growing esteem in [[Madrid]]'s eyes. On 17 April 1797, Sir [[Ralph Abercromby]]'s fleet invaded the island with a force of 6,000–13,000 troops,<ref>Confirmation of troop count is unattainable, only Spanish and Puerto Rican sources are available regarding troop count.</ref> which included German soldiers and Royal Marines and 60 to 64 ships. Fierce fighting continued for the next days with Spanish troops. Both sides suffered heavy losses. On Sunday 30 April the British ceased their attack and began their retreat from San Juan. By the time independence movements in the larger Spanish colonies gained success, new waves of loyal European-born immigrants began to arrive in Puerto Rico, helping to tilt the island's political balance toward the Crown. [[File:Castillo San Felipe del Morro SJU 06 2019 6598.jpg|thumb|The 16th-century Spanish colonial-era [[Castillo San Felipe del Morro|Castle San Felipe del Morro]], in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]]]] In 1809, to secure its political bond with the island and in the midst of the European [[Peninsular War]], the [[Junta (Peninsular War)|Supreme Central Junta]] based in [[Cádiz]] recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas [[Provinces of Spain|province of Spain]]. This gave the island residents the right to elect representatives to the recently convened [[Cortes of Cádiz]] (effectively the Spanish government during a portion of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]), with somewhat equal representation to mainland Iberian, Mediterranean ([[Balearic Islands]]) and Atlantic maritime Spanish provinces ([[Canary Islands]]). [[Ramón Power y Giralt]], the first Spanish parliamentary representative from the island of Puerto Rico, died after serving a three-year term in the Cortes. These [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|parliamentary and constitutional reforms]] were in force from 1810 to 1814, and again from 1820 to 1823. They were twice reversed during the restoration of the traditional monarchy by [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]]. Immigration and commercial trade reforms in the 19th century increased the island's ethnic European population and economy and expanded the Spanish cultural and social imprint on the local character of the island.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Puerto Rico |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/m/monge-puertorico.html |access-date=2023-08-20 |website=archive.nytimes.com |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820221316/https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/m/monge-puertorico.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Minor [[Slave rebellion|slave revolts]] had occurred on the island throughout the years, with the revolt planned and organized by [[Marcos Xiorro]] in 1821 being the most important. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, Xiorro achieved legendary status and is part of the [[folklore of Puerto Rico]].<ref name="GB">[[Guillermo A. Baralt]], ''Slave revolts in Puerto Rico: conspiracies and uprisings, 1795–1873''; Markus Wiener Publishers. {{ISBN|978-1-55876-463-7}}</ref> ====Politics of liberalism==== [[File:Intentona de Yauco.jpg|thumb|left|The flag flown by Fidel Vélez and his troops during the ''[[Intentona de Yauco]]'' revolt of 1897.]] In the early 19th century, Puerto Rico spawned an [[Independence movement in Puerto Rico|independence movement]] that, due to harsh persecution by the Spanish authorities, convened in the neighboring island of [[Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. Thomas]]. The movement was largely inspired by the ideals of [[Simón Bolívar]] in establishing a [[United Provinces of New Granada]] and [[Venezuela]], that included Puerto Rico and Cuba. Among the influential members of this movement were Brigadier General [[Antonio Valero de Bernabé]] and [[María de las Mercedes Barbudo]]. The movement was discovered, and Governor [[Miguel de la Torre]] had its members imprisoned or exiled.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.raquelrosario.net/Historias%20Claridad%20Mercedes%20Bar.pdf |title=María de las Mercedes Barbudo; Primera mujer independentista de Puerto Rico; ''CLARIDAD''; December 1994; p. 19 |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=25 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125005706/http://www.raquelrosario.net/Historias%20Claridad%20Mercedes%20Bar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> With the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the 19th century, the Spanish Crown considered Puerto Rico and Cuba of strategic importance. To increase its hold on its last two New World colonies, the Spanish Crown revived the [[Royal Decree of Graces of 1815]] as a result of which 450,000 immigrants, mainly Spaniards, settled on the island in the period up until the American conquest. Printed in three languages—[[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[English language|English]], and [[French language|French]]—it was intended to also attract non-Spanish Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity if new settlers had stronger ties to the Crown. Hundreds of non-Spanish families, mainly from [[Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico|Corsica]], [[French immigration to Puerto Rico|France]], [[German immigration to Puerto Rico|Germany]], [[Irish immigration to Puerto Rico|Ireland]], [[Italy]] and [[Scotland]], also immigrated to the island.<ref name="Graces"/> Free land was offered as an incentive to those who wanted to populate the two islands, on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]].<ref name="Graces">{{cite web |url=http://www.ensayistas.org/antologia/XIXE/castelar/esclavitud/cedula.htm |title=Real Cédula de 1789 "para el comercio de Negros" |language=es |publisher=Ensayistas.org |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=20 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720165149/https://ensayistas.org/antologia/XIXE/castelar/esclavitud/cedula.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The offer was very successful, and European immigration continued even after 1898. Puerto Rico still receives Spanish and European immigration. [[File:1868 Lares Revolutionay Flag.svg|thumb|The Lares revolutionary flag of 1868, also known as the "First Puerto Rican Flag" in Puerto Rico]] Poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as ''[[Grito de Lares]].'' It began in the rural town of [[Lares, Puerto Rico|Lares]] but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of [[San Sebastián, Puerto Rico|San Sebastián]]. Leaders of this independence movement included [[Ramón Emeterio Betances]], considered the Father of the Puerto Rican independence movement, and other political figures such as [[Segundo Ruiz Belvis]]. Slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico in 1873, "with provisions for periods of apprenticeship".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Ways of ending slavery |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=29 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309101044/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |archive-date=9 March 2013}}</ref> [[File:IMG 2972 - Abolition Park in Ponce, Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Monument commemorating the [[Slavery in colonial Spanish America|1873 abolition of slavery]] in Puerto Rico, located in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]]]] Leaders of ''Grito de Lares'' went into exile to [[New York City]]. Many joined the [[Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee]], founded on 8 December 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897, [[Antonio Mattei Lluberas]] and the local leaders of the independence movement in Yauco organized another uprising, which became known as the ''[[Intentona de Yauco]]''. They raised what they called the [[Flag of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican flag]], which was adopted as the [[national flag]]. The local conservative political factions opposed independence. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.<ref name="HMPR">{{Cite book |title=Historia militar de Puerto Rico |first=Héctor Andrés |last=Negroni |author-link=Hector Andres Negroni |publisher=Sociedad Estatal Quinto Centenario |year=1992 |language=es |isbn=978-84-7844-138-9 }}</ref> In 1897, [[Luis Muñoz Rivera]] and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to grant limited self-government to the island by [[Decree|royal decree]] in the Autonomic Charter, including a [[Bicameralism|bicameral legislature]].<ref>[http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/enciclopedia_ilustrada/Carta_Autonomica.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109192703/http://www.proyectosalonhogar.com/enciclopedia_ilustrada/Carta_Autonomica.htm|date=9 January 2015}} Retrieved: 8 January 2015. Carta Autonómica de Puerto Rico, 1897.</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=August 2021}} In 1898, Puerto Rico's first, but short-lived, autonomous government was organized as an "overseas province"{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} of Spain. This bilaterally agreed-upon charter maintained a governor appointed by the [[Monarchy of Spain|King of Spain]]—who held the power to annul any legislative decision{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}—and a partially elected parliamentary structure. In February, Governor-General [[Manuel Macías y Casado|Manuel Macías]] inaugurated the new government under the Autonomic Charter. General elections were held in March and the new government began to function on 17 July 1898.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.solboricua.com/history2.htm#usa |title=USA Seizes Puerto Rico |year=2000 |work=History of Puerto Rico |publisher=solboricua.com |access-date=30 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140515120148/http://www.solboricua.com/history2.htm#usa |archive-date=15 May 2014 }}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=August 2021}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.topuertorico.org/history4.shtml |title=History |access-date=1 October 2007 |author=Magaly Rivera |publisher=topuertorico.org |archive-date=12 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012174815/http://www.topuertorico.org/history4.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=August 2021}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronpr.html |title=Chronology of Puerto Rico in the Spanish–American War |work=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War |publisher=Hispanic Division, Library of Congress |access-date=30 December 2017 |archive-date=4 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180104123909/http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronpr.html |url-status=live }}</ref> {{Clear}} ====Spanish–American War==== {{Main|Spanish–American War|Puerto Rican Campaign|Treaty of Paris (1898)}} [[File:Bombardment of San Juan, Porto (sic) Rico LCCN2001695573.jpg|thumb|Artistic rendering of the 1898 [[Bombardment of San Juan]] by American forces during the [[Spanish–American War]]]] In 1890, Captain [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]], a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, published a book titled ''[[The Influence of Sea Power upon History]]'' in which he argued for the establishment of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British [[Royal Navy]]. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean, which would serve as coaling and naval stations. They would serve as strategic points of defense with the construction of a canal through the [[Isthmus of Panama]], to allow easier passage of ships between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.<ref name="SP">Jorge Rodriguez Beruff, ''Strategy as Politics'', Universidad de Puerto Rico: La Editorial; p. 7; {{ISBN|978-0-8477-0160-5}}</ref> [[File:First Company of native Puerto Ricans in the American Army.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The first company of Puerto Ricans enlisted in the U.S. Army, within a year of the U.S. invasion.]] [[William H. Seward]], the Secretary of State under presidents [[Abraham Lincoln]] and [[Andrew Johnson]], had also stressed the importance of building a canal in [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]] or [[Panama]]. He suggested that the United States annex the [[Dominican Republic]] and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba. The [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] did not approve his annexation proposal, and Spain rejected the U.S. offer of {{Nowrap|160 million}} dollars for Puerto Rico and Cuba.<ref name="SP"/> Since 1894, the United States [[Naval War College]] had been developing [[contingency plan]]s for a war with Spain. By 1896, the [[Office of Naval Intelligence|U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence]] had prepared a plan that included military operations in Puerto Rican waters. Plans generally centered on attacks on Spanish territories were intended as support operations against Spain's forces in and around Cuba.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC&pg=PA72 |author=David F. Trask |title=The War with Spain in 1898 |pages=72–78 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |access-date=6 February 2011 |isbn=978-0-8032-9429-5 |year=1996 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208215204/https://books.google.com/books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC&pg=PA72 |url-status=live }}</ref> Recent research suggests that the U.S. did consider Puerto Rico valuable as a naval station and recognized that it and Cuba generated lucrative crops of sugar, a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked prior to the development of the [[sugar beet]] industry in the United States.<ref>Jorge Rodriguez Beruff, ''Strategy as Politics'', La Editorial; Universidad de Puerto Rico; p. 13; {{ISBN|978-0-8477-0160-5}}</ref> On 25 July 1898, during the [[Spanish–American War]], the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico with a landing at [[Guánica, Puerto Rico|Guánica]]. After the U.S. prevailed in the war, Spain ceded Puerto Rico, along with the [[Philippines]] and [[Guam]], to the U.S. under the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]], which went into effect on 11 April 1899; Spain relinquished sovereignty over [[Cuba]], but did not cede it to the U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp |title=Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain |date=10 December 1898 |work=The Avalon Project at the Yale Law School |publisher=Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library |access-date=16 October 2010 |archive-date=8 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708063629/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp |url-status=live }}</ref> ===American territory (1898–present)=== ====U.S. unincorporated organized territory==== The United States and Puerto Rico began a long-standing metropolis-colony relationship.<ref>Truman R. Clark. ''Puerto Rico and the United States, 1917–1933.'' 1975. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 129.</ref> This relationship has been documented by numerous scholars, including U.S. Federal Appeals Judge [[Juan Torruella]],<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/28/us/juan-torruella-groundbreaking-us-appeals-judge-dies-at-87.html ''Juan Torruella, Groundbreaking U.S. Appeals Judge, Dies at 87: He was the only Hispanic to serve on the First Circuit court in Boston. In July he moved to overturn a death sentence in the Boston Marathon bombing.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911004323/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/28/us/juan-torruella-groundbreaking-us-appeals-judge-dies-at-87.html |date=11 September 2021 }} Sam Roberts. The New York Times. 28 October 2020. Accessed 15 December 2020.</ref> U.S. Congresswoman [[Nydia Velázquez]],<ref>[https://thehill.com/latino/517921-hopes-for-dc-puerto-rico-statehood-rise ''Hopes for DC, Puerto Rico statehood rise.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819000559/https://thehill.com/latino/517921-hopes-for-dc-puerto-rico-statehood-rise |date=19 August 2021 }} Marty Johnson and Rafael Bernal. The Hill. 24 September 2020. Accessed 15 December 2020.</ref> Chief Justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court [[José Trías Monge]],<ref>José Trías Monge. ''Puerto Rico: The trials of the oldest colony in the world.'' Yale University Press. 1997. p.3. {{ISBN|978-0-300-07618-9}}</ref> and former [[Albizu University]] president Ángel Collado-Schwarz.<ref>Angel Collado-Schwarz. ''Decolonization Models for America's Last Colony: Puerto Rico.'' Syracuse University Press. 2012. {{ISBN|0-8156-5108-2}}</ref>{{efn|For additional references to Puerto Rico's current (2020) colonial status under U.S. rule, see Nicole Narea,<ref>[https://www.msn.com/en-us/money/news/live-results-for-puerto-ricos-statehood-referendum/ar-BB1aF94A ''Live results for Puerto Rico's statehood referendum.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914030428/https://www.msn.com/en-us/money/news/live-results-for-puerto-ricos-statehood-referendum/ar-BB1aF94A |date=14 September 2021 }} Nicole Narea. MSN Microsoft News. 5 November 2020. Accessed 15 December 2020.</ref> Amy Goodman and Ana Irma Rivera Lassén,<ref>[https://www.democracynow.org/2020/11/6/puerto_rico_ana_irma_rivera_lassen ''Puerto Ricans Vote to Narrowly Approve Controversial Statehood Referendum & Elect 4 LGBTQ Candidates.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908232158/https://www.democracynow.org/2020/11/6/puerto_rico_ana_irma_rivera_lassen |date=8 September 2021 }} Amy Goodman and Ana Irma Rivera Lassén. Democracy Now! 6 November 2020. Accessed 15 December 2020.</ref> David S. Cohen<ref>[https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-features/the-political-travesty-of-puerto-rico-196852/ ''The Political Travesty of Puerto Rico: Like all U.S. territories, Puerto Rico has no real representation in its own national government.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908232211/https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-features/the-political-travesty-of-puerto-rico-196852/ |date=8 September 2021 }} David S. Cohen. RollingStone. 26 September 2017. Accessed 15 December 2020.</ref> and Sidney W. Mintz.<ref>Sidney W. Mintz. ''Three Ancient Colonies: Caribbean Themes and Variations.'' Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 2010. p. 134.</ref> Additional sources are available.}} In the early 20th century, Puerto Rico was ruled by the U.S. military, with officials including the governor appointed by the [[president of the United States]]. The [[Foraker Act]] of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government, including a popularly elected [[House of Representatives of Puerto Rico|House of Representatives]]. The upper house and governor were appointed by the United States. [[File:First Supreme Court PR.JPG|thumb|The first [[Supreme Court of Puerto Rico]], appointed pursuant to the [[Foraker Act]]|alt=|left]] Its judicial system was reformed{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} to bring it into conformity with the [[Law of the United States|American federal courts system]]; a [[Supreme Court of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico Supreme Court]]{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} and a [[United States territorial court|United States District Court]] for the unincorporated territory were established. It was authorized a nonvoting member of Congress, by the title of "[[Resident commissioner of Puerto Rico|Resident Commissioner]]", who was appointed. In addition, this Act extended all U.S. laws "not locally inapplicable" to Puerto Rico, specifying, in particular, exemption from U.S. Internal Revenue laws.<ref name=status>{{cite web |url=http://charma.uprm.edu/~angel/Puerto_Rico/reporte_status.pdf |title=Report by the President's task force on Puerto Rico's Status |date=December 2005 |access-date=1 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925184244/http://charma.uprm.edu/~angel/Puerto_Rico/reporte_status.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2007 }}</ref> The Act empowered the civil government to legislate on "all matters of legislative character not locally inapplicable", including the power to modify and repeal any laws then in existence in Puerto Rico, though the U.S. Congress retained the power to annul acts of the Puerto Rico legislature.<ref name="status"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Efrén Rivera Ramos |title=American Colonialism in Puerto Rico: The Judicial and Social Legacy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5l55R3_mPoC |year=2007 |publisher=Markus Wiener Publishers |isbn=978-1-55876-410-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J5l55R3_mPoC&pg=PA54 54–55] |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208215204/https://books.google.com/books?id=J5l55R3_mPoC |url-status=live }}</ref> During an address to the Puerto Rican legislature in 1906, President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] recommended that Puerto Ricans become [[Citizenship of the United States|U.S. citizens]].<ref name="status"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Porto Rico En Fete: President's Auto Tour Amid Shower of Roses: He Promises Citizenship |newspaper=The Washington Post |page=1 |date=22 November 1906 |id={{ProQuest|144628701}} }}</ref> In 1914, the Puerto Rican House of Delegates voted unanimously in favor of independence from the United States, but this was rejected by the U.S. Congress as "unconstitutional", and in violation of the 1900 [[Foraker Act]].<ref name="Gonzalez" /> ====U.S. citizenship and Puerto Rican citizenship==== {{Main|Puerto Rican citizenship}} In 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the [[Jones–Shafroth Act]] (popularly known as the Jones Act), which granted Puerto Ricans born on or after 25 April 1898 U.S. citizenship.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803–1898 |first1=Sanford |last1=Levinson |first2=Bartholomew H. |last2=Sparrow |location=New York |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |year=2005 |pages=166, 178 |quote=U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act, chap. 190, 39 Stat. 951 (1971)(codified at 48 U.S.C. § 731 (1987)) }}</ref> Opponents, including all the Puerto Rican House of Delegates (who voted unanimously against it), claimed the U.S. imposed citizenship to draft Puerto Rican men for [[American entry into World War I|America's entry into World War I]] the same year.<ref name="Gonzalez">Juan Gonzalez; ''Harvest of Empire'', pp. 60–63; Penguin Press, 2001; {{ISBN|978-0-14-311928-9}}</ref> The Jones Act also provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[legislative assembly]], as well as a [[bill of rights]]. It authorized the popular election of the Resident Commissioner to a four-year term. [[File:Puerto Ricans in WWII.jpg|thumb|Soldiers of the [[65th Infantry Regiment (United States)|65th Infantry]] training at [[Camp Santiago]], Salinas, Puerto Rico (August 1941)]] Natural disasters, including a major [[1918 San Fermín earthquake|earthquake]] and [[tsunami]] in 1918 and several [[hurricane]]s, as well as the [[Great Depression]], impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://redsismica.uprm.edu/spanish/tsunami/index.php |title=Sistema de Alerta de Tsunamis de Puerto Rico y el Caribe |publisher=Red Sísmica de Puerto Rico |language=es |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123161343/http://redsismica.uprm.edu/Spanish/tsunami/index.php |archive-date=23 January 2011}}</ref> Some political leaders, such as [[Pedro Albizu Campos]], who led the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]], demanded a change in relations with the United States. He organized a protest at the [[University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus|University of Puerto Rico]] in 1935, in which [[Río Piedras massacre|four were killed]] by police. In 1936, U.S. senator [[Millard Tydings]] introduced a bill supporting independence for Puerto Rico; he had previously co-sponsored the [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]], which provided independence to the [[Philippines]] following a 10-year transition period of limited autonomy. While virtually all Puerto Rican political parties supported the bill, it was opposed by [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] of the [[Liberal Party of Puerto Rico]],<ref name="Gatell"/> leading to its defeat<ref name="Gatell">{{Cite journal |jstor = 2510353|title = Independence Rejected: Puerto Rico and the Tydings Bill of 1936|journal = The Hispanic American Historical Review|volume = 38|issue = 1|pages = 25–44|last1 = Gatell|first1 = Frank Otto|year = 1958|doi = 10.2307/2510353}}</ref> In 1937, Albizu Campos' party organized a protest in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]]. The Insular Police, similar to the [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]], opened fire upon unarmed cadets and bystanders alike.<ref name=1937inquiry /> The attack on unarmed protesters was reported by U.S. Congressman [[Vito Marcantonio]] and confirmed by a report from the Hays Commission, which investigated the events, led by [[Arthur Garfield Hays]], counsel to the [[American Civil Liberties Union]].<ref name=1937inquiry>{{cite web |url=http://www.llmc.com/TitleLLMC.asp?ColID=3&Cat=136&TID=7037&TName=Ponce%20Massacre,%20Com.%20of%20Inquiry,%201937 |title=Report of the Commission of Inquiry on Civil Rights in Puerto Rico. The Commission, 70p, np, May 22, 1937 |publisher=Llmc.com |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214194610/http://llmc.com/TitleLLMC.asp?ColID=3&Cat=136&TID=7037&TName=Ponce%20Massacre%2C%20Com.%20of%20Inquiry%2C%201937 |archive-date=14 December 2010 }}</ref> Nineteen people were killed and over 200 were badly wounded, many shot in the back while running away.<ref name="5yrs">[http://www.cheverote.com/reviews/marcantonio.html "Five Years of Tyranny", Speech before the U.S. House of Representatives.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112031601/http://www.cheverote.com/reviews/marcantonio.html |date=12 January 2012 }} The entire speech is contained in the ''Congressional Record'' of {{Nowrap|14 August}}, 1939. It is reported in the Congressional record, and various other publications elsewhere, that among those shot in the back was a 7-year-old girl, Georgina Maldonado, who "was killed through the back while running to a nearby church"</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Antonio de la Cova |url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/ponce-1937.htm |title=Photos of police shooting with rifles (from positions previously occupied by marchers and bystanders) at bystanders running away |publisher=Latinamericanstudies.org |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=23 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120123113117/http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/ponce-1937.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Hays Commission declared it a massacre and police mob action,<ref name="5yrs" /> and it has since become known as the [[Ponce massacre]]. In the aftermath, on 2 April 1943, Tydings introduced another bill in Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico, though it was again defeated.<ref name="status" /> During the latter years of the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]–[[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administrations, the internal governance of the island was changed in a compromise reached with Luis Muñoz Marín and other Puerto Rican leaders. In 1946, President Truman appointed the first Puerto Rican-born governor, [[Jesús T. Piñero]]. Since 2007, the [[Puerto Rico Department of State]] has developed a protocol to issue certificates of [[Puerto Rican citizenship]] to Puerto Rican residents. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico, born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican-born parent, or be an American citizen with at least one year of residence in Puerto Rico. ====U.S. unincorporated organized territory with commonwealth constitution==== In 1947, the U.S. Congress passed the ''Elective Governor Act'', signed by President Truman, allowing Puerto Ricans to vote for their own [[governor of Puerto Rico|governor]]. The first elections under this act were held the following year, on 2 November 1948. On 21 May 1948, a bill was introduced before the [[Puerto Rican Senate]] which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements on the island. The Senate, controlled by the {{lang|es|Partido Popular Democrático}} ([[Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)|PPD]]) and presided by [[Luis Muñoz Marín]], approved the bill that day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen-vii/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327121629/http://academiajurisprudenciapr.org/en/revistas/volumen-vii/ |title=La obra jurídica del Profesor David M. Helfeld (1948–2008) |first=Carmelo |last=Delgado Cintron |archive-date=27 March 2012}}</ref> This bill, which resembled the anti-communist [[Smith Act]] passed in the United States in 1940, became known as the {{lang|es|Ley de la Mordaza}} ([[Gag Law (Puerto Rico)|Gag Law]]) when the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, [[Jesús T. Piñero]], signed it into law on 10 June 1948.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.topuertorico.org/history5.shtml |title=Puerto Rican History |publisher=Topuertorico.org |date=13 January 1941 |access-date=20 November 2011 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502215211/http://www.topuertorico.org/history5.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Under this new law, it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. It made it illegal to sing a patriotic song and reinforced the 1898 law that had made it illegal to display the [[flag of Puerto Rico]], with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law in any way being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of up to US$10,000 ({{Inflation|US|10000|1948|r=-3|fmt=eq}}), or both.{{efn|Cockcroft (2001; in Spanish) "[La Ley 53] fué llamada la 'pequeña ley Smith', debido a la semejanza con la Ley Smith de Estados Unidos [...]"<ref>{{cite book |first=James |last=Cockcroft |title=América Latina y Estados Unidos: historia y política país por país |publisher=Siglo XXI Editores |language=es |year=2001 |access-date=24 September 2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUGFqxW_zHQC&q=peque%C3%B1a%20ley%20smith%20puerto%20rico&pg=PA383 |isbn=978-968-23-2332-4 |archive-date=8 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208215042/https://books.google.com/books?id=rUGFqxW_zHQC&q=peque%C3%B1a%20ley%20smith%20puerto%20rico&pg=PA383#v=snippet&q=peque%C3%B1a%20ley%20smith%20puerto%20rico&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.topuertorico.org/history5.shtml |title=Puerto Rican History |publisher=Topuertorico.org |date=13 January 1941 |access-date=20 November 2011 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502215211/http://www.topuertorico.org/history5.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Dr [[Leopoldo Figueroa]], the only non-PPD member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives, the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the [[U.S. Constitution]], which guarantees [[Freedom of Speech]]. He asserted that the law as such was a violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico. The law was repealed in 1957.<ref name="LG">{{cite web |url=https://issuu.com/jaimepartsch/docs/jes_s_t._pi_ero_y_la_guerra_fria?mode=a_p |title=La Gobernación de Jesús T. Piñero y la Guerra Fría |publisher=Issuu.com |access-date=18 April 2014 |archive-date=13 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713132356/http://issuu.com/jaimepartsch/docs/jes_s_t._pi_ero_y_la_guerra_fria?mode=a_p |url-status=live }}</ref> In the November 1948 election, Luis Muñoz Marín became the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico, replacing U.S.-appointed Piñero on 2 January 1949. [[File:US 65th Infantry Regiment.Painting.Korean War.Bayonet charge against Chinese division.jpg|thumb|Painting of a bayonet charge by the [[U.S. 65th Infantry Regiment]], made up of Puerto Rican troops, against a Chinese division during the [[Korean War]]]] ===={{lang|es|Estado Libre Asociado}}==== <!---probably duplicates below. needs editing---> In 1950, the U.S. Congress granted Puerto Ricans the right to organize a [[constitutional convention (political meeting)|constitutional convention]] via a referendum; voters could either accept or reject a proposed U.S. law that would organize Puerto Rico as a "commonwealth" under continued U.S. sovereignty. The [[Constitution of Puerto Rico]] was approved by the constitutional convention on 6 February 1952, and by 82% of voters in a March referendum. It was modified and ratified by the U.S. Congress, approved by President Truman on 3 July of that year, and proclaimed by Governor Muñoz Marín on 25 July 1952—the anniversary of the landing of U.S. troops in the [[Puerto Rican Campaign]] of the [[Spanish–American War]], until then celebrated as an annual Puerto Rico holiday. Puerto Rico adopted the name of {{lang|es|[[Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico]]}} (literally 'Associated Free State of Puerto Rico'<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=DcMh3sI0daAC&pg=PA56 ''Responses from Hon. Luis G. Fortuño to questions from Senator Domenici.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405061748/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcMh3sI0daAC&pg=PA56 |date=5 April 2023 }} Hearing before the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources on the Report by the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status. United States Senate. One Hundredth Ninth Congress. Second Session. U.S. Senate 109–796. 15 November 2006. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2007. p. 56.) Retrieved 13 December 2012.</ref>), officially translated into English as [[Commonwealth (United States insular area)|Commonwealth]], for its [[body politic]].{{efn|However, as Robert William Anderson states on page 14 of his book "Party Politics in Puerto Rico" (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 1965.), "No one disputes the ambiguous status of the current Commonwealth. It is illustrated in the very different images conjured up by the English term "commonwealth" and the Spanish version, Estado Libre Asociado (literally, free associated state). The issue seems to be whether this ambiguity is a purposeful virtue or a disguised colonial vice."}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico – in Spanish |url=http://www.lexjuris.com/lexprcont.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114003340/http://www.lexjuris.com/lexprcont.htm |archive-date=14 November 2011 |access-date=30 October 2011 |publisher=Lexjuris.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico – (English translation) |url=http://topuertorico.org/constitu.shtml |access-date=30 October 2011 |website=ToPuertoRico.org |archive-date=25 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125081800/http://www.topuertorico.org/constitu.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Congress would continue governing fundamental aspects of Puerto Rican society, including citizenship, currency, the postal service, [[foreign policy]], military defense, commerce and finance, and other matters.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book |last1=Levinson |first1=Sanford |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ayINMX_RtkEC&pg=PA166 |title=The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803–1898 |location=Lanham |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |pages=166–67 |last2=Sparrow |first2=Bartholomew H |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-4984-5 |access-date=5 November 2012 |archive-date=11 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111012531/https://books.google.com/books?id=ayINMX_RtkEC&pg=PA166#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1967 Puerto Rico's Legislative Assembly polled the political preferences of the Puerto Rican electorate by passing a [[plebiscite]] act that provided for a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice among three status options (commonwealth, statehood, and independence). In subsequent plebiscites organized by Puerto Rico held in 1993 and 1998 (without any formal commitment on the part of the U.S. government to honor the results), the current political status failed to receive majority support. In 1993, Commonwealth status won by a plurality of votes (48.6% versus 46.3% for statehood), while the "none of the above" option, which was the [[Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)|Popular Democratic Party]]-sponsored choice, won in 1998 with 50.3% of the votes (versus 46.5% for statehood). Disputes arose as to the definition of each of the ballot alternatives, and Commonwealth advocates, among others, reportedly urged a vote for "none of the above".<ref>[https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf ''Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress.'' Report RL32933. By Keith Bea and R. Sam Garrett, Congressional Research Service. Dated {{Nowrap|June 19}}, 2009. p. 29. Table B-1: Puerto Rico Status Votes in Plebiscites and Referenda, 1967–1998. p. 29.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928232129/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf |date=28 September 2019 }}. Retrieved 5 December 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://electionspuertorico.org/1993/summary.html |title=1993 Status Plebiscite Vote Summary |publisher=Electionspuertorico.org |date=14 November 1993 |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=6 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706225746/http://electionspuertorico.org/1993/summary.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://electionspuertorico.org/1998/summary.html |title=1998 Status Plebiscite Vote Summary |publisher=Electionspuertorico.org |date=13 December 1998 |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=27 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027150333/https://electionspuertorico.org/1998/summary.html |url-status=live }}</ref> <!---probably duplicates the above. Needs editing---> In 1950, the U.S. Congress approved ''Public Law 600'' (P.L. 81-600), which allowed for a democratic [[referendum]] in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution.<ref>Act of {{Nowrap|3 July}}, 1950, Ch. 446, 64 Stat. 319.</ref> This Act was meant to be adopted in the "nature of a compact". It required congressional approval of the Puerto Rico Constitution before it could go into effect, and repealed certain sections of the ''Organic Act of 1917''. The sections of this statute left in force were entitled the ''Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act''.<ref name="View">{{cite web |url=http://www.puertoricousa.com/english/views.htm |title=View of Congress, the Courts and the Federal Government |publisher=Puertoricousa.com |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=7 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007182356/http://www.puertoricousa.com/english/views.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2004/vol8n42/CBOnNatureV.html |title=On The Nature of Commonwealth V |publisher=Puertorico-herald.org |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=26 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126131757/http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2004/vol8n42/CBOnNatureV.html |url-status=live }}</ref> U.S. Secretary of the Interior [[Oscar L. Chapman]], under whose Department resided responsibility of Puerto Rican affairs, clarified the new commonwealth status in this manner:{{Blockquote|The bill (to permit Puerto Rico to write its own constitution) merely authorizes the people of Puerto Rico to adopt their own constitution and to organize a local government...The bill under consideration would not change Puerto Rico's political, social, and economic relationship to the United States.<ref>[http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2002/vol6n30/LetPRDecideHow2End-en.html "Let Puerto Rico Decide How to end its Colony Status: True Nationhood Stands on the Pillar of Independence"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914030430/http://www.puertorico-herald.org/issues/2002/vol6n30/LetPRDecideHow2End-en.html |date=14 September 2021 }}. Rosalinda de Jesus. ''The Allentown Morning Call''. Republished by the ''Puerto Rico Herald''. July 21, 2002. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Retrieved June 21, 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.independencia.net/ingles/let_pr_decide "Let Puerto Rico Decide How To End Its Colony Status"] {{dead link|date=May 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. Rosalinda De Jesus. ''The Morning Call''. 21 July 2002. Retrieved 21 June 2012.</ref>}} {{External media | float = right | video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_71hkXrTTf8 Puerto Rico], U.S. Embassy in Vienna, 24 October 2014 | video2 = View newsreel scenes in Spanish of the {{YouTube|RfOJj0nmGEU|''Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s''}} }} On 30 October 1950, Pedro Albizu Campos and other nationalists led a three-day revolt against the United States in various cities and towns of Puerto Rico, in what is known as the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s]]. The most notable occurred in [[Jayuya]] and [[Utuado]]. In the Jayuya revolt, known as the [[Jayuya Uprising]], the Puerto Rican governor declared [[martial law]], and attacked the insurgents in Jayuya with infantry, artillery and bombers under control of the Puerto Rican commander. The [[Utuado Uprising]] culminated in what is known as the Utuado massacre. Albizu Campos served many years in a federal prison in [[Atlanta]], for seditious conspiracy to overthrow the U.S. government in Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web|last=García|first=Marvin|title=Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos|url=http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/campos.cfm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051224214401/http://www3.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/campos.cfm|archive-date=24 December 2005|access-date=28 April 2006|publisher=National-Louis University}}</ref> On 1 November 1950, Puerto Rican nationalists from New York City, [[Griselio Torresola]] and [[Oscar Collazo]], [[Truman assassination attempt|attempted to assassinate]] President [[Harry S. Truman]] at his temporary residence of [[Blair House]]. Torresola was killed during the attack, but Collazo was wounded and captured. He was convicted of murder and sentenced to death, but President Truman commuted his sentence to life. After Collazo served 29 years in a federal prison, President [[Jimmy Carter]] commuted his sentence to time served and he was released in 1979.[[File:Salaried-employees-in-puerto-rico-during-operation-bootstrap.png|thumb|Chart demonstrating how the [[economy of Puerto Rico]] shifted from [[agriculture in Puerto Rico|agriculture]] to [[manufacturing in Puerto Rico|manufacturing]]. It shows how the salaried employees during Operation Bootstrap significantly increased manufacturing jobs (green line) while decreasing agricultural jobs (blue line).]] During the 1950s and 1960s, Puerto Rico experienced rapid industrialization, due in large part to {{lang|es|Operación Manos a la Obra}} ([[Operation Bootstrap]]), an offshoot of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]]. It was intended to transform Puerto Rico's economy from agriculture-based to manufacturing-based to provide more jobs. Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination, as well as a global center for pharmaceutical manufacturing.<ref name="pharma">{{cite web |url=http://www.pharmaceuticalonline.com/article.mvc/Puerto-Ricos-Pharmaceutical-Industry-40-Years-0003 |title=Puerto Rico's Pharmaceutical Industry |date=20 September 2006 |access-date=18 November 2010 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511170716/http://www.pharmaceuticalonline.com/article.mvc/Puerto-Ricos-Pharmaceutical-Industry-40-Years-0003 |url-status=live }}</ref> ====21st century==== {{further|Proposed political status for Puerto Rico|President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status|}} On 15 July 2009, the [[Special Committee on Decolonization|United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization]] approved a draft resolution calling on the government of the United States to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self-determination and independence.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/gacol3193.doc.htm |title=Members Hear Petitioners Speak up for Independence, Statehood, Free Association |publisher=General Assembly of the United Nations |date=15 June 2009 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-date=9 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409222101/https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/gacol3193.doc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> On 6 November 2012, a two-question referendum took place, simultaneous with the general elections.<ref name="oslpr1">[http://www.oslpr.org/2009-2012/leyes/pdf/ley-283-28-Dic-2011.pdf ''Ley Numero 283 del 28 de diciembre de 2011.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412031116/http://www.oslpr.org/2009-2012/leyes/pdf/ley-283-28-Dic-2011.pdf |date=12 April 2019 }} Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico. 28 December 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=62931&ct_id=1 ''Fortuño calls for status vote next August.''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124013232/http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=62931&ct_id=1 |date=24 November 2011 }} John Marino. Caribbean Business. Released on 4 October 2011. Retrieved 8 December 2011.</ref> The first question, voted on in August, asked voters whether they wanted to maintain the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution. 54% voted against the status quo, effectively approving the second question to be voted on in November. The second question posed three alternate status options: statehood, independence, or [[Compact of Free Association|free association]].<ref>{{cite web |author=casiano communications |url=http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=62931&ct_id=1 |title=Fortuño calls for status, legislative reform votes on 12 August 2012 |publisher=Caribbeanbusinesspr.com |date=4 October 2011 |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124013232/http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=62931&ct_id=1 |archive-date=24 November 2011 }}</ref> 61.16% voted for statehood, 33.34% for a sovereign free-associated state, and 5.49% for independence.<ref>{{cite news |title=Puerto Rico votes on whether to change relationship with US, elects governor and legislators |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/puerto-rico-votes-on-whether-to-change-relationship-with-us-elects-governor-and-legislators/2012/11/06/d87278ae-288b-11e2-aaa5-ac786110c486_story.html |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=Washington Post |access-date=6 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114122818/http://www.hispanicmarketinfo.com/2011/12/23/census-2010-puerto-rico-dominicans-and-other-immigrants-a-growing-population/ |archive-date=14 January 2012}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2021}} On 30 June 2016, President [[Barack Obama]] signed into law ''H.R. 5278: [[PROMESA]]'', establishing a Control Board over the Puerto Rican government. This board will have a significant degree of federal control involved in its establishment and operations. In particular, the authority to establish the control board derives from the federal government's constitutional power to "make all needful rules and regulations" regarding U.S. territories; The president would appoint all seven voting members of the board; and the board would have broad sovereign powers to effectively overrule decisions by Puerto Rico's legislature, governor, and other public authorities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://policy.house.gov/legislative/bills/hr-5278-puerto-rico-oversight-management-and-economic-stability-act-2016-promesa |title=H.R. 5278, Puerto Rico Oversight, Management and Economic Stability Act of 2016 (PROMESA) |date=6 June 2016 |website=Policy.house.gov |access-date=14 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819125905/https://policy.house.gov/legislative/bills/hr-5278-puerto-rico-oversight-management-and-economic-stability-act-2016-promesa |archive-date=19 August 2016 }}</ref> Puerto Rico held its [[2020 Puerto Rican status referendum|statehood referendum]] during the 3 November 2020 general elections; the ballot asked one question: "Should Puerto Rico be admitted immediately into the Union [[51st state|as a State]]?" The results showed that 52 percent of Puerto Rico voters answered yes.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://elecciones2020.ceepur.org/Noche_del_Evento_92/index.html#en/default/PLEBISCITO_Resumen.xml |title= 2020 Puerto Rican status referendum |publisher= elecciones2020.ceepur.org |date= 5 November 2020 |access-date= 6 November 2020 |archive-date= 3 November 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201103191716/https://elecciones2020.ceepur.org/Noche_del_Evento_92/index.html#en/default/PLEBISCITO_Resumen.xml |url-status= live }}</ref> ==Environment== {{Main|Geography of Puerto Rico|Geology of Puerto Rico|List of islands of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Patillas Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|Beach and coastline at [[Patillas, Puerto Rico|Patillas]], in southeast Puerto Rico|alt=|left]] Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]], [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra]], [[Mona, Puerto Rico|Mona]], [[Desecheo Island|Desecheo]], and [[Caja de Muertos, Puerto Rico|Caja de Muertos]]. Of these five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona, which has played a key role in maritime history, is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the [[Department of Natural and Environmental Resources (Puerto Rico)|Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ciencia y economía del guano: La isla mona en puerto rico, siglo XIX |author1=Cortés Zavala |author2=María Teresa |author3=José Alfredo Uribe Salas |name-list-style=amp |journal=Memorias: Revista Digital de Historia y Arqueología Desde el Caribe |year=2014 |volume=11 |issue=22 |pages=81–106 |doi=10.14482/memor.22.5948|doi-access=free }}</ref> There are many other even smaller [[islets]], like [[Monito Island|Monito]], located near Mona,<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B_q6VhhkczIYV3NTbkNYMmpIWk0 |title=Marine Managed Areas and Associated Fisheries in the US Caribbean |author=Schärer-Umpierre, Michelle T. |journal=Marine Managed Areas and Fisheries |series=Advances in Marine Biology |year=2014 |volume=69 |page=140 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-800214-8.00004-9 |pmid=25358299 |isbn=978-0-12-800214-8 |display-authors=etal |access-date=10 December 2015 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728043246/https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B_q6VhhkczIYV3NTbkNYMmpIWk0/view?usp=drive_open |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Isla de Cabras]] and [[Isleta de San Juan|La Isleta de San Juan]], both located on the [[San Juan Bay]]. The latter is the only inhabited islet with communities like [[Old San Juan]] and [[Puerta de Tierra]], which are connected to the main island by bridges.<ref>{{cite journal |title=La ciudad contemporanea, una polis sin politica? |author=Helmer, Etienne |journal=Boletin Cientifico Sapiens Research |year=2011 |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=88}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Edenes insostenibles: El campo de la ciudad en la intentona cultural de los cincuenta |author=Esterrich, Carmelo |journal=CENTRO: Journal of the Center for Puerto Rican Studies |year=2009 |volume=21 |issue=1 |page=180}}</ref> [[File:NOAA Bathymetry Image of Puerto Rico (2020).png|thumb|NOAA Bathymetry Image of Puerto Rico (2020)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bathymetric Data Viewer|url=https://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/bathymetry/|access-date=23 February 2021|website=maps.ngdc.noaa.gov|archive-date=9 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709195021/https://maps.ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/bathymetry/|url-status=live}}</ref>]] The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of {{convert|5320|sqmi|km2|sp=us}}, of which {{convert|3420|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} is land and {{convert|1900|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} is water.<ref name=ciafactbook>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/ |title=The World Factbook – Puerto Rico#Geography |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=5 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105163943/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Puerto Rico is larger than [[Delaware]] and [[Rhode Island]] but smaller than [[Connecticut]]. The maximum length of the main island from east to west is {{convert|110|mi|km|abbr=on}}, and the maximum width from north to south is {{convert|40|mi|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name=topuertorico.com>{{cite web |url=http://www.topuertorico.org/descrip.shtml |title=Welcome to Puerto Rico! |publisher=topuertorico.org |access-date=30 December 2007 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224225019/http://www.topuertorico.org/descrip.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> Puerto Rico is the smallest of the [[Greater Antilles]]. It is 80% of the size of [[Jamaica]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jamaica/ |title=The World Factbook – Jamaica |publisher=[[CIA]] |access-date=24 April 2008 |archive-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111023238/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jamaica |url-status=live }}</ref> just over 18% of the size of [[Hispaniola]] and 8% of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/ |title=The World Factbook – Cuba |publisher=CIA |access-date=24 April 2008 |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202182827/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The topography of the island is mostly mountainous with large flat areas in the northern and southern coasts. The main mountain range that crosses the island from east to west is called the [[Cordillera Central (Puerto Rico)|Cordillera Central]] (also known as the Central Mountain Range in English). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, [[Cerro de Punta]] {{convert|4390|ft|m}},<ref name="ciafactbook"/> is located in this range. Another important peak is [[El Yunque, Puerto Rico|El Yunque]], one of the highest in the [[Sierra de Luquillo]] at the [[El Yunque National Forest]], with an elevation of {{convert|3494|ft|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gorp.com/parks-guide/travel-ta-caribbean-national-forest-hiking-fishing-puerto-rico-sidwcmdev_066593.html |title=Caribbean National Forest – El Yunque Trail # 15 |publisher=GORP.com |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818050917/http://www.gorp.com/parks-guide/travel-ta-caribbean-national-forest-hiking-fishing-puerto-rico-sidwcmdev_066593.html |archive-date=18 August 2010 }}</ref>[[File:Map of Highways, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Routes in Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|Map by USGIS]] Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, and more than [[List of Puerto Rico rivers|50 rivers]], most of which originate in the Cordillera Central.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gobierno.pr/DRNA/ReservasNaturales/LagosRiosLagunas/Lagos/Lagos_I.htm |title=Los Lagos de Puerto Rico |access-date=29 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041225032628/http://www.gobierno.pr/DRNA/ReservasNaturales/LagosRiosLagunas/Lagos/Lagos_I.htm |archive-date=25 December 2004 }} (archived from on 29 June 2007). {{in lang|es}}</ref> Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher [[Volumetric flow rate|water flow rates]] than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions. Puerto Rico is composed of [[Cretaceous]] to [[Eocene]] [[volcanic]] and [[plutonic]] rocks, overlain by younger [[Oligocene]] and more recent [[carbonate]]s and other [[sedimentary rocks]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3790/is_200605/ai_n17177064 |title=Late Cretaceous Siliceous Sponges From El Rayo Formation, Puerto Rico |author1=Andrzej Pisera |author2=Michael Martínez |author3=Hernan Santos |publisher=[[Journal of Paleontology]] |date=May 2006 |access-date=6 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105065534/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3790/is_200605/ai_n17177064 |archive-date=5 January 2009 }}</ref> Most of the [[caverns]] and [[karst]] topography on the island occurs in the northern region. The oldest rocks are approximately {{Nowrap|190 million}} years old ([[Jurassic]]) and are located at [[Sierra Bermeja]] in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the [[oceanic crust]] and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm. Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the [[Caribbean Plate|Caribbean]] and [[North American Plate|North American Plates]] and is being deformed by the [[tectonics|tectonic]] stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause [[earthquakes]] and [[tsunami]]s. These [[seismic]] events, along with [[landslide]]s, represent some of the most dangerous [[geologic hazards]] in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean. The [[1918 San Fermín earthquake]] occurred on {{Nowrap|11 October}}, 1918 and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the [[Richter magnitude scale|Richter scale]].<ref name="1918 quake">{{cite web |url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/puerto_rico/puerto_rico_history.php |title=Earthquake History of Puerto Rico |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=11 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714105156/https://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/puerto_rico/puerto_rico_history.php |archive-date=14 July 2007}}</ref> It originated off the coast of [[Aguadilla]], several kilometers off the northern coast, and was accompanied by a [[tsunami]]. It caused extensive property damage and widespread losses, damaging infrastructure, especially bridges. It resulted in an estimated 116 deaths and $4 million in property damage. The failure of the government to move rapidly to provide for the general welfare contributed to political activism by opponents and eventually to the rise of the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]]. On 7 January 2020,<ref>[https://www.usgs.gov/news/morning-update-puerto-rico-january-7-2020 ''Morning Update for Puerto Rico - January 7, 2020: On Jan. 7, a magnitude 6.4 earthquake struck the region at 4:24 am local time (08:24:26 UTC). Significant damage is possible. Over the past several weeks, hundreds of small earthquakes have occurred in the Puerto Rico region, beginning in earnest with a M 4.7 earthquake late on December 28 and a M 5.0 event a few hours.''] Puerto Rico Earthquakes. 7 January 2020. Accessed 9 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220210022037/https://www.usgs.gov/news/morning-update-puerto-rico-january-7-2020 Archived.]</ref> the country experienced [[2019–20 Puerto Rico earthquakes|its largest earthquake]] since 1918,<ref>[https://reporter.lcms.org/2020/puerto-rico-hit-by-largest-earthquake-in-100-years/ ''Puerto Rico hit by largest earthquake in 100 years.''] Cheryl Magness. Reporter. 8 January 2020. Accessed 9 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220210021015/https://reporter.lcms.org/2020/puerto-rico-hit-by-largest-earthquake-in-100-years/ Archived.]</ref> estimated at magnitude 6.4.<ref>[https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/6-5-quake-strikes-puerto-rico-amid-heavy-seismic-activity-n1111666 ''6.4-magnitude quake strikes Puerto Rico, killing at least 1 amid heavy seismic activity: "We've never been exposed to this kind of emergency in 102 years," Gov. Wanda Vázquez said as the island grapples with ongoing aftershocks and assesses the damage.''] Nicole Acevedo and Ben Kesslen. NBC News. 7 January 2020. Accessed 7 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220210022858/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/6-5-quake-strikes-puerto-rico-amid-heavy-seismic-activity-n1111666 Archived.]</ref> Economic losses were estimated to be more than $3.1 billion.<ref>[https://www.cnn.com/us/live-news/puerto-rico-earthquake-01-07-2020/index.html ''Analyst says earthquakes could cost Puerto Rico's economy up to $3.1 billion.''] Kate Trafecante. CNN. 7 January 2020. Accessed 9 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220210015803/https://www.cnn.com/us/live-news/puerto-rico-earthquake-01-07-2020/index.html Archived.]</ref> The [[Puerto Rico Trench]], the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about {{convert|71|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates.<ref name="trench">{{cite web |author=Uri ten Brink |url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html |title=Explorations: Puerto Rico Trench 2003 – Cruise Summary and Results |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |access-date=20 November 2009 |archive-date=24 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724090028/http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It is {{convert|170|mi|km|abbr=on}} long.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html |title=NOAA Ocean Explorer: Puerto Rico Trench |publisher=Oceanexplorer.noaa.gov |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-date=24 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724090028/http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench/welcome.html |url-status=live }}</ref> At its deepest point, named the [[Milwaukee Deep]], it is almost {{convert|27600|ft|m|abbr=on}} deep.<ref name="trench" /> The [[Mona Canyon]], located in the [[Mona Passage]] between Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, is another prominent oceanic landform with steep walls measuring between 1.25 and 2.17 miles (2-3.5 km) in height from bottom to top.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mondziel |first=Steven A. |year=2007 |title=Morphology, Structure, and Tectonic Evolution of the Mona Canyon, Puerto Rico |url=https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncw/f/mondziels2007-1.pdf |website=uncg.edu |publisher=University of North Carolina Wilmington |via=Journal of Marine Geology |access-date=20 August 2023 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820221315/https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncw/f/mondziels2007-1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Climate=== {{Main|Climate of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Puerto Rico Köppen.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Köppen climate types in Puerto Rico indicating that the island primarily has rainforest and monsoon climate types]] The climate of Puerto Rico in the [[Köppen climate classification]] is mostly [[tropical rainforest]]. Temperatures are warm to hot year round, averaging near 85 °F (29 °C) in lower elevations and 70 °F (21 °C) in the mountains. Easterly [[trade winds]] pass across the island year round. Puerto Rico has a [[Wet season|rainy season]], which stretches from April into November, and a [[dry season]] stretching from December to March. The mountains of the Cordillera Central create a [[rain shadow]] and are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances. The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects, adding to the climatic variation. Daily temperature changes seasonally are quite small in the lowlands and coastal areas. Between the dry and wet seasons, there is a temperature change of around {{convert|6|F-change|1}}. This change is due mainly to the warm waters of the tropical [[Atlantic Ocean]], which significantly modify cooler air moving in from the north and northwest. Coastal water temperatures during the year are about {{convert|75|°F|°C|abbr=on}} in February and {{convert|85|°F|°C|abbr=on}} in August. The highest temperature ever recorded was {{convert|110|F}} at [[Arecibo, Puerto Rico|Arecibo]],<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |last=Stillman |first=Dan |date=2023-06-07 |title=Historic heat is roasting Puerto Rico, where it feels like 125 degrees |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2023/06/07/puerto-rico-heat-wave-caribbean/ |access-date=2023-06-09 |archive-date=17 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017040357/https://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2023/06/07/puerto-rico-heat-wave-caribbean/ |url-status=live }}</ref> while the lowest temperature ever recorded was {{convert|40|F}} in the mountains at [[Adjuntas, Puerto Rico|Adjuntas]], [[Aibonito, Puerto Rico|Aibonito]], and [[Corozal, Puerto Rico|Corozal]].<ref name="NOAA-PR">{{cite web |url=http://nowdata.rcc-acis.org/SJU/pubACIS_results |title=NOWData – NOAA Online Weather Data |publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |access-date=27 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009161414/http://nowdata.rcc-acis.org/SJU/pubACIS_results |archive-date=9 October 2011}}</ref> The average yearly precipitation is {{convert|66|in|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Daly2003">{{cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=Christopher |last2=Helmer |first2=Eileen H. |last3=Quiñonez |first3=Maya |year=2003 |title=Mapping the Climate of Puerto Rico, Vieques and Culebra |journal=International Journal of Climatology |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=1359–81 |doi=10.1002/joc.937 |bibcode=2003IJCli..23.1359D|doi-access=free }}</ref> ==== Hurricanes ==== Puerto Rico experiences the [[Atlantic hurricane season]], similar to the rest of the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic Ocean. On average, a quarter of its annual rainfall is contributed from [[Tropical cyclone|tropical cyclones]], which are more prevalent during periods of [[La Niña]] than [[El Niño]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodgers |first1=Edward B. |last2=Adler |first2=Robert F. |last3=Pierce |first3=Harold F. |title=Contribution of Tropical Cyclones to the North Atlantic Climatological Rainfall as Observed from Satellites |journal=Journal of Applied Meteorology |date=November 2001 |volume=40 |issue=11 |pages=1785–1800 |doi=10.1175/1520-0450(2001)040<1785:COTCTT>2.0.CO;2|bibcode=2001JApMe..40.1785R |doi-access=free }}</ref> A cyclone of tropical storm strength passes near Puerto Rico, on average, every five years. A hurricane passes in the vicinity of the island, on average, every seven years. Since 1851, the [[1928 Okeechobee Hurricane|Lake Okeechobee Hurricane]] (also known as the San Felipe Segundo hurricane in Puerto Rico) of September 1928 is the only hurricane to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane.<ref>Aurelio Mercado and Harry Justiniano. [http://coastalhazards.uprm.edu/ Coastal Hazards of Puerto Rico.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006134919/http://coastalhazards.uprm.edu/ |date=6 October 2011 }} Retrieved on 23 January 2008.</ref> In the busy [[2017 Atlantic hurricane season]], Puerto Rico avoided a direct hit by the Category 5 [[Hurricane Irma]] on 6 September 2017, as it passed about {{cvt|60|mi}} north of Puerto Rico, but high winds caused a loss of electrical power to some one million residents. Almost 50% of hospitals were operating with power provided by generators.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/damage-hurricane-irma-caribbean-49703893 |title=A look at the damage from Hurricane Irma in the Caribbean |work=ABC News |language=en |access-date=20 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910132716/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/damage-hurricane-irma-caribbean-49703893 |archive-date=10 September 2017 }}</ref> The Category 4 [[Hurricane Jose (2017)|Hurricane Jose]], as expected, veered away from Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ketv.com/article/katia-strengthens-jose-maintains-wind-speed-in-the-atlantic/12197516 |title=Jose remains dangerous Category 4 hurricane |date=9 September 2017 |website=KETV |language=en |access-date=20 September 2017 |archive-date=10 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910193530/http://www.ketv.com/article/katia-strengthens-jose-maintains-wind-speed-in-the-atlantic/12197516 |url-status=live }}</ref> A short time later, the devastating [[Hurricane Maria]] made landfall on Puerto Rico on Wednesday, 20 September, near the [[Yabucoa]] municipality at 10:15 UTC (6:15 am local time) as a high-end Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 155 mph (250 km/h), powerful rains and widespread flooding causing tremendous destruction, including the electrical grid, which would remain out for 4–6 months in many portions of the island.<ref name="MariaDisc18">{{cite web |url=http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2017/al15/al152017.discus.018.shtml |title=Hurricane Maria |last=Berg |first=Robbie |date=20 September 2017 |publisher=National Hurricane Center |access-date=20 September 2017 |archive-date=21 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921001351/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2017/al15/al152017.discus.018.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/weather/hurricane-maria-makes-landfall-puerto-rico-category-4-storm-n802911|title=Hurricane Maria cuts all electricity as it crushes Puerto Rico|website=NBC News|date=21 September 2017|access-date=21 September 2017|archive-date=21 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921235245/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/weather/hurricane-maria-makes-landfall-puerto-rico-category-4-storm-n802911|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2017/9/23/16354564/puerto-rico-hurricane-maria-electricity-relief-dam-breaking |title=The entire island of Puerto Rico may be without electricity for months |date=23 September 2017 |access-date=28 September 2017 |archive-date=28 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170928103436/https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2017/9/23/16354564/puerto-rico-hurricane-maria-electricity-relief-dam-breaking |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2019, [[Hurricane Dorian]] became the third hurricane in three years to hit Puerto Rico. The recovering infrastructure from the 2017 hurricanes, as well as new governor [[Wanda Vázquez Garced]], were put to the test against a potential humanitarian crisis.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://triblive.com/local/pittsburgh-allegheny/pittsburgh-army-corps-teams-in-puerto-rico-florida-ahead-of-dorian-arrival/|title=Pittsburgh Army Corps teams in Puerto Rico, Florida ahead of Dorian's mainland arrival | TribLIVE.com|website=triblive.com|date=28 August 2019|access-date=28 August 2019|archive-date=28 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828171706/https://triblive.com/local/pittsburgh-allegheny/pittsburgh-army-corps-teams-in-puerto-rico-florida-ahead-of-dorian-arrival/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/puerto-rico-dorian-s-bullseye-three-things-know-island-braces-n1047196|title=Puerto Rico is in Dorian's bull's-eye: Three things to know as island braces for the storm|website=NBC News|date=28 August 2019|access-date=28 August 2019|archive-date=28 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828171913/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/puerto-rico-dorian-s-bullseye-three-things-know-island-braces-n1047196|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Tropical Storm Karen (2019)|Tropical Storm Karen]] also caused impacts to Puerto Rico during 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/09/24/763750825/tropical-storm-karen-bears-down-on-puerto-rico-virgin-islands|title=Tropical Storm Karen's Squalls Hit Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands|author=Barbara Campbell, Paolo Ziaclita|newspaper=NPR|date=24 September 2019|access-date=28 January 2021|archive-date=1 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201095554/https://www.npr.org/2019/09/24/763750825/tropical-storm-karen-bears-down-on-puerto-rico-virgin-islands|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== Climate change ==== {{Excerpt|Climate change in Puerto Rico|file=2}} ===Biodiversity=== {{main|Fauna of Puerto Rico|Flora of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Common Coquí.jpg|thumb|right|alt=In this image there is a brown coquí. The species resembles a small frog.|[[Eleutherodactylus coqui|Common coquí]]]] Puerto Rico is home to three terrestrial ecoregions: [[Puerto Rican moist forests]], [[Puerto Rican dry forests]], and [[Greater Antilles mangroves]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> Puerto Rico has two biosphere reserves recognized by the [[UNESCO]] [[Man and the Biosphere Programme]]: Luquillo Biosphere Reserve represented by [[El Yunque National Forest]] and the [[Guánica State Forest|Guánica Biosphere Reserve]]. Species [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the archipelago number 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 [[amphibian]]s/[[reptile]]s, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://islands.unep.ch/ISV.htm#459 |title=Island Directory |publisher=Islands.unep.ch |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=7 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907000405/http://islands.unep.ch/ISV.htm#459 }}</ref> The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the ''[[coquí]]'', a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, from which it gets its name. Most ''coquí'' species (13 of 17) live in the [[El Yunque National Forest]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coquí in the Rainforest |url=https://www.discoverpuertorico.com/coqui |access-date=2023-03-30 |website=Discover Puerto Rico |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330103426/https://www.discoverpuertorico.com/coqui |url-status=live }}</ref> the only [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rainforest]] in the [[United States Forest Service|U.S. Forest Service]] system, located in the northeast of the island. It was previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered [[Puerto Rican amazon]]. In addition to El Yunque National Forest, the Puerto Rican moist forest ecoregion is represented by protected areas such as the [[Maricao State Forest|Maricao]] and [[Toro Negro State Forest|Toro Negro]] [[List of Puerto Rico state forests|state forests]]. These areas are home to endangered endemic species such as the Puerto Rican boa (''[[Puerto Rican boa|Chilabothrus inornatus]]''), the Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk (''[[Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk|Accipiter striatus venator]]''), the Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk (''[[Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk|Buteo platypterus brunnescens]]'') and the elfin woods warbler ([[Elfin woods warbler|Setophaga angelae]]). The [[Northern Karst]] country of Puerto Rico is also home to one of the remaining rainforest tracts in the island, with the [[Río Abajo State Forest]] being the first focus for the reintroduction of the highly endangered Puerto Rican parrot outside of the Sierra de Luquillo.<ref>{{cite web |title=Iguaca Aviary Techniques used in the Puerto Rican Parrot Recovery Program |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd699768.pdf |access-date=23 July 2022 |website=US Fish & Wildlife Services |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208022640/https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd699768.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=View of News of the Rio Abajo Aviary for Puerto Rican Parrot |url=https://jco.birdscaribbean.org/index.php/jco/article/view/1133/879 |access-date=July 23, 2022 |journal=Journal of Caribbean Ornithology |date=18 December 1990 |volume=3 |issue=3 |page=4 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820221314/https://jco.birdscaribbean.org/index.php/jco/article/view/1133/879 |url-status=live }}</ref> In the southwest, the Guánica State Forest and Biosphere Reserve contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 that are endemic to Puerto Rico, and is considered a prime example of the Puerto Rican dry forest ecoregion and the best-preserved dry forest in the Caribbean.<ref>Ewel, J.L. & J.L. Whitmore. 1973. The ecological life zones of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. ITF-18.</ref> Other protected dry forests in Puerto Rico can be formed within the [[Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex|Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge complex]] at the [[Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge|Cabo Rojo]], [[Desecheo National Wildlife Refuge|Desecheo]], [[Culebra National Wildlife Refuge|Culebra]] and [[Vieques National Wildlife Refuge|Vieques National Wildlife Refuges]], and in the [[Caja de Muertos Nature Reserve|Caja de Muertos]] and [[Mona and Monito Islands Nature Reserve]]s.<ref name="Ewel">{{Cite book |last1=Ewel |first1=J. J. |url=https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/rp/rp_itf018.pdf |title=The Ecological Life Zones of Puerto Rico and the U. S. Virgin Islands |last2=Whitmore |first2=J. L. |id=Forest Service Research Paper ITF-18 |publisher=USDA Forest Service Institute of Tropical Forestry |year=1973 |author-link=John Ewel |access-date=20 August 2023 |archive-date=20 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230820221316/https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/rp/rp_itf018.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Examples of endemic species found in this ecoregion are the higo chumbo (''[[Harrisia portoricensis]]''), the Puerto Rican crested toad (''[[Puerto Rican crested toad|Peltophryne lemur]]''), and the Mona ground iguana (''[[Mona ground iguana|Cyclura stejnegeri]]''), the largest land animal native to Puerto Rico.<ref name="alberts">{{citation |last1=Alberts |first1=Allison |title=Testing the Utility of Headstarting as a Conservation Strategy for West Indian Iguanas |work=Iguanas: Biology and Conservation |page=210 |year=2004 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23854-1 |last2=Lemm |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Grant |first3=Tandora |last4=Jackintell |first4=Lori}}</ref> Puerto Rico has three of the seven year-long [[Bioluminescent bay|bioluminescent bays]] in the Caribbean: [[Las Cabezas de San Juan (Puerto Rico)|Laguna Grande]] in [[Fajardo, Puerto Rico|Fajardo]], [[La Parguera Nature Reserve|La Parguera]] in [[Lajas, Puerto Rico|Lajas]] and [[Puerto Mosquito]] in [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]]. These are unique bodies of water surrounded by [[Mangrove|mangroves]] that inhabited by the [[dinoflagellate]] ''[[Pyrodinium bahamense]]''.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last1=Soler-Figueroa |first1=Brenda María |last2=Otero |first2=Ernesto |date=2015-01-01 |title=The Influence of Rain Regimes and Nutrient Loading on the Abundance of Two Dinoflagellate Species in a Tropical Bioluminescent Bay, Bahía Fosforescente, La Parguera, Puerto Rico |journal=Estuaries and Coasts |language=en |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=84–92 |doi=10.1007/s12237-014-9827-0 |bibcode=2015EstCo..38...84S |issn=1559-2731 |s2cid=85305359}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/bioluminescent-bay-puerto-rico-unique-places-around-the-world.html|title=Bioluminescent Bay, Puerto Rico - Unique Places around the World|website=WorldAtlas|access-date=15 February 2020|archive-date=15 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215211706/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/bioluminescent-bay-puerto-rico-unique-places-around-the-world.html}}</ref> However, tourism, pollution, and hurricanes have highly threatened these unique ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Yancey-Bragg|first=N'dea|title=After Hurricane Maria, Puerto Rico's rare bioluminescent bays may go dark|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/09/22/after-hurricane-maria-puerto-ricos-rare-bioluminescent-bays-may-go-dark/694833001/|access-date=29 June 2020|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US|archive-date=27 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227163632/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/09/22/after-hurricane-maria-puerto-ricos-rare-bioluminescent-bays-may-go-dark/694833001/|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Demographics== {{US Census population <!--|1765=44883 |1775=70250--> |1800=155426 <!--|1815=220892 |1832=350051 |1846=447914--> |1860=583308 <!--|1877=731648 |1887=798565--> |1900=953243 |1910=1118012 |1920=1299809 |1930=1543913 |1940=1869255 |1950=2210703 |1960=2349544 |1970=2712033 |1980=3196520 |1990=3522037 |2000=3808610 |2010=3725789 |2020=3285874 |estyear= |estimate= |align-fn=center |footnote=1765–2020 (*1899 shown as 1900)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://welcome.topuertorico.org/reference/pophistory.shtml |title=Population History, 1765–2010 |publisher=Welcome to Puerto Rico! |access-date=7 September 2014 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417091032/https://welcome.topuertorico.org/reference/pophistory.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Census2020-Tab2"/>}} {{Main|Demographics of Puerto Rico|Cultural diversity in Puerto Rico}} The population of Puerto Rico has been shaped by initial [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian settlement]], [[Spanish Empire|European colonization]], [[slavery]], economic migration, and Puerto Rico's status as unincorporated territory of the United States. ===Population makeup=== {{main|Puerto Ricans}} {{bar box |title=Racial and Ethnic Composition in Puerto Rico (2020 Census)<ref name="2020CensusData"/> |title bar=#fff |left1=Ethnicity |float=left |bars= {{bar percent|[[White Puerto Ricans|White]]|Blue|17.1}} {{bar percent|[[Afro-Puerto Ricans|Black]]|Black|7.0}} {{bar percent|[[Asian Puerto Ricans|Asian]]|yellow|0.1}} {{bar percent|[[Multiracial Americans|Two or more races]]|green|49.8}} {{bar percent|[[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]]|red|0.5}} {{bar percent|[[Pacific Islander Americans|Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander]]|orange|0.0}} {{bar percent|Other races|#9999FF|25.5}} }} Puerto Rico was 98.9% Hispanic or Latino in 2020, of that 95.5% were [[Puerto Ricans|Puerto Rican]] and 3.4% were Hispanic of non-Puerto Rican origins. Only 1.1% of the population was non-Hispanic.<ref>{{cite web | author= ((U.S. Census Bureau)) | title= Profile of general population and housing characteristics | date= 2020 | work= Decennial Census, DEC Demographic Profile, Table DP1, 2020 | type= data table | access-date= November 5, 2023 | url= https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020.DP1?text=Decennial+census&t=Race+and+Ethnicity&g=040XX00US72 | archive-date= 4 October 2023 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231004045500/https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDP2020.DP1?text=Decennial+census&t=Race+and+Ethnicity&g=040XX00US72 | url-status= live }}</ref> The population of Puerto Rico according to the 2020 census was 3,285,874, an 11.8% decrease since the [[2010 United States Census]].<ref name="Census2020-Tab2"/> The commonwealth's population peaked in 2000, when it was 3,808,610, before declining (for the first time in census history) to 3,725,789 in 2010.<ref name="Wall">{{cite web |url=http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/wall-street-eyes-pr-population-loss-79553.html |title=Wall Street eyes PR population loss |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105165520/http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/wall-street-eyes-pr-population-loss-79553.html |archive-date=5 November 2013 |work=Caribbean Business |date=14 December 2012 |access-date=14 December 2012}}</ref> Emigration due to economic difficulties and natural disasters, coupled with a low birth rate, have caused the population decline to continue in recent years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/puerto-rico-us-territory-crisis |title=Puerto Rico: A U.S. Territory in Crisis |last1=Cheatham |first1=Amelia |last2=Roy |first2=Diana |work=Council on Foreign Relations |date=29 September 2022 |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=3 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103042405/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/puerto-rico-us-territory-crisis |url-status=live }}</ref> Censuses of Puerto Rico were completed by Spain in 1765, 1775, 1800, 1815, 1832, 1846 and 1857, yet some of the data remained untabulated and was not considered to reliable, according to [[Irene Barnes Taeuber]], an American demographer who worked for the [[Office of Population Research]] at [[Princeton University]].<ref name="Taeuber">{{cite book | last=Taeuber | first=Irene B. | title=General Censuses and Vital Statistics in the Americas | publisher=United States Bureau of the Census | year=1943 | isbn=978-0-87917-036-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvHgRN6N_aMC&pg=PA147 | access-date=24 March 2023 | page=147 | archive-date=24 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324133921/https://books.google.com/books?id=rvHgRN6N_aMC&pg=PA147 | url-status=live }}</ref> Continuous European immigration and high [[natural increase]] helped the population of Puerto Rico grow from 155,426 in 1800 to almost a million by the close of the 19th century. A census conducted by royal decree on 30 September 1858, gave the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at that time: 341,015 were [[free people of color|free colored]]; 300,430 were [[white people|white]]; and 41,736 were [[slaves]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Van Middeldyk |first=R. A |title=The History of Puerto Rico |url=http://www.fullbooks.com/The-History-of-Puerto-Rico.html |access-date=29 May 2008 |chapter=Part 4 |chapter-url=http://www.fullbooks.com/The-History-of-Puerto-Rico4.html |isbn=978-0-405-06241-4 |year=1975 |publisher=Arno Press |archive-date=7 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080507104158/http://www.fullbooks.com/The-History-of-Puerto-Rico.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A census in 1887 found a population of around 800,000, of which 320,000 were black.<ref name="Trove">{{cite news | title=Puerto Rico | newspaper=Kalgoorlie Western Argus (WA : 1896 - 1916) | date=28 April 1898 | url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article32192140 | access-date=29 October 2019 | archive-date=28 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728043247/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/32192140 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Puerto Rico single age population pyramid 2020.png|thumb|[[Demographics of Puerto Rico|Population age pyramid]] of Puerto Rico in 2020.]] During the 19th century, hundreds of families arrived in Puerto Rico, primarily from the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Andalusia]], but also from other parts of Spain such as [[Catalonia]], [[Asturias]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and the [[Balearic Islands]] and numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America. Settlers from outside Spain also arrived in the islands, including from [[Corsica]], [[France]], [[Lebanon]], [[Portugal]], [[Irish immigration to Puerto Rico|Ireland]], [[Scotland]], [[German immigration to Puerto Rico|Germany]] and [[Italian people|Italy]]. This immigration from non-Hispanic countries was the result of the ''Real Cédula de Gracias de 1815'' ([[Royal Decree of Graces of 1815]]), which allowed European Catholics to settle in the island with land allotments in the interior of the island, provided they paid taxes and continued to support the Catholic Church. Between 1960 and 1990, the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or ethnicity. The [[2000 United States Census]] included a racial self-identification question in Puerto Rico. According to the census, most Puerto Ricans identified as white and Latino; few identified as black or some other race. ====Population genetics==== [[File:Population Density, PR, 2000 (sample).jpg|thumb|Population density, Census 2000]] A group of researchers from Puerto Rican universities conducted a study of [[mitochondrial DNA]] that revealed that the modern population of Puerto Rico has a high genetic component of Taíno and [[Guanches|Guanche]] (especially of the island of [[Tenerife]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://lacomunidad.elpais.com/amazonasfilm/2009/7/12/un-estudio-del-genoma-taino-y-guanche-adn-o-dna-primera-parte|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206133647/http://lacomunidad.elpais.com/amazonasfilm/2009/7/12/un-estudio-del-genoma-taino-y-guanche-adn-o-dna-primera-parte|archive-date=6 February 2010|title=La Comunidad » Documentales Gratis » Un Estudio del Genoma Taino y Guanche. ADN o DNA. Primera parte|date=6 February 2010}}</ref> Other studies show Amerindian ancestry in addition to the Taíno.<ref name="native">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1353/hub.2001.0056 |last1=Martínez-Cruzado |first1=J. C. |last2=Toro-Labrador |first2=G. |last3=Ho-Fung |first3=V. |last4=Estévez-Montero |first4=M. A. |last5=Lobaina-Manzanet |first5=A. |last6=Padovani-Claudio |first6=D. A. |last7=Sánchez-Cruz |first7=H. |last8=Ortiz-Bermúdez |first8=P. |last9=Sánchez-Crespo |first9=A. |title=Mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals substantial Native American ancestry in Puerto Rico |journal=Human Biology |volume=73 |issue=4 |pages=491–511 |year=2001 |pmid=11512677|s2cid=29125467 }}</ref><ref name="Madrigal">{{cite book |first=Lorena |last=Madrigal |title=Human biology of Afro-Caribbean populations |publisher=Cambridge University Press, 2006 |page=121 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ddnkIaZRHxEC&pg=PA121 |isbn=978-0-521-81931-2 |year=2006 |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=11 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111012531/https://books.google.com/books?id=ddnkIaZRHxEC&pg=PA121#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonilla |year=2004 |title=Ancestral proportions and their association with skin pigmentation and bone mineral density in Puerto Rican women from New York City |journal=Hum Genet |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=57–58 |doi=10.1007/s00439-004-1125-7|display-authors=etal |pmid=15118905|title-link=New York City |s2cid=13708800 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martinez-Cruzado |year=2005 |title=Reconstructing the population history of Puerto Rico by means of mtDNA phylogeographic analysis |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=131–55 |pmid=15693025 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.20108|display-authors=etal}}</ref> One genetic study on the racial makeup of Puerto Ricans (including all races) found them to be roughly around 61% [[West Eurasian]]/[[North Africa]]n (overwhelmingly of Spanish provenance), 27% [[Sub-Saharan African]] and 11% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720133124/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations/ |archive-date=20 July 2014 |work=The Genographic Project |title=Your Regional Ancestry: Reference Populations}}</ref> Another genetic study, from 2007, claimed that "the average genomewide individual (i.e., Puerto Rican) ancestry proportions have been estimated as 66%, 18%, and 16%, for European, West African, and Native American, respectively."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=Hua |last2=Choudhry |first2=Shweta |last3=Mei |first3=Rui |last4=Morgan |first4=Martin |last5=Rodríguez-Clintron |first5=William |last6=González Burchard |first6=Esteban |last7=Risch |first7=Neil |title=Recent Genetic Selection in the Ancestral Admixture of Puerto Ricans |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |date=1 August 2007 |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=626–633 |doi=10.1086/520769 |pmid=17701908 |pmc=1950843}}</ref> Another study estimates 63.7% European, 21.2% (Sub-Saharan) African, and 15.2% Native American; European ancestry is more prevalent in the West and in Central Puerto Rico, African in Eastern Puerto Rico, and Native American in Northern Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Via |first1=Mark |last2=Gignoux |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Roth |first3=Lindsey |last4=Fejerman |first4=Laura |last5=Galander |first5=Joshua |last6=Choudhry |first6=Shweta |last7=Toro-Labrador |first7=Gladys |last8=Viera-Vera |first8=Jorge |last9=Oleksyk |first9=Taras K.|last10=Beckman|first10=Kenneth |last11=Ziv |first11=Elad |last12=Risch |first12=Neil |last13=González Burchard |first13=Esteban |last14=Nartínez-Cruzado |first14=Juan Carlos |title=History Shaped the Geographic Distribution of Genomic Admixture on the Island of Puerto Rico |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=e16513 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0016513 |pmid=21304981 |pmc=3031579 |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...616513V|doi-access=free }}</ref> ====Literacy==== A [[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]] survey indicated an adult literacy rate of 90.4% in 2012 based on data from the [[United Nations]].<ref name="auto3">{{cite web |url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/puerto-rico#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010 |title=Demography – Puerto Rico |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=January 2017 |website=Pew Research |publisher=Pew Research, DC |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=11 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511221913/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/puerto-rico#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> ====Life expectancy==== Puerto Rico has a life expectancy of approximately 81.0 years according to the CIA World Factbook, an improvement from 78.7 years in 2010. This means Puerto Rico has the second-highest life expectancy in the United States, if territories are taken into account.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/|title=The World Factbook: Central America: Puerto Rico |website=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=28 December 2019|archive-date=5 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105163943/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Immigration and emigration=== {| style="float:center;" class="wikitable" |- | colspan="7" style="text-align: center;" | Racial groups |- ! Year !! Population !! White !! Mixed (mainly biracial white European and black African) !! Black !! Asian !! Other |- | 2000 | 3,808,610 | 80.5% (3,064,862) | 11.0% (418,426) | 8.0% (302,933) | 0.2% (7,960) | 0.4% (14,429) |- | 2010 | 3,725,789 | 75.8% (2,824,148) | 11.1% (413,563) | 12.4% (461,998) | 0.2% (7,452) | 0.6% (22,355) |- | 2016 | 3,195,153 | 68.9% (2,201,460) | n/a (n/a) | 9.8% (313,125) | 0.2% (6,390) | 0.8% (25,561) |} The vast majority of recent immigrants, both legal and illegal, come from [[Latin America]], over half come from the [[Dominican Republic immigration to Puerto Rico|Dominican Republic]]. Dominicans represent 53% of non-Puerto Rican Hispanics, about 1.8% of Puerto Rico's population.<ref name="refworld.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749cc7c.html |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Puerto Rico: Dominicans |publisher=[[Minority Rights Group International]] |year=2008 |access-date=6 September 2013 |archive-date=17 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917070025/http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749cc7c.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Some illegal immigrants, particularly from Haiti, Dominican Republic,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://latinousa.org/2014/03/28/border-puerto-ricos-seas/ |title=The Other Border: Puerto Rico's Seas |work=Latino USA |date=28 March 2014 |access-date=12 October 2014 |archive-date=24 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724041327/http://latinousa.org/2014/03/28/border-puerto-ricos-seas/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.havenscenter.org/files/Dominican%20Migration%20to%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf |title=Portadilla de Revista<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=17 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525013730/http://www.havenscenter.org/files/Dominican%20Migration%20to%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 }}</ref> and Cuba{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}, use Puerto Rico as a temporary stop-over point to get to the U.S. mainland. Other major sources of recent immigrants include [[Cuba]], [[Colombia]], [[Mexico]], [[Venezuela]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Panama]], [[Ecuador]], [[Spain]], and [[Jamaica]].<ref name="factfinder.census.gov">[https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_14_5YR_B05006PR&prodType=table PLACE OF BIRTH FOR THE FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION IN PUERTO RICO] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719105515/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_14_5YR_B05006PR&prodType=table |date=19 July 2018 }} Universe: Foreign-born population in Puerto Rico excluding population born at sea. 2010–2014 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insightcrime.org/news-briefs/dominican-people-smugglers-trafficked-cubans-to-puerto-rico |title=Dominican People Smugglers Trafficked Cubans to Puerto Rico |author=James Bargent |date=27 March 2017 |access-date=12 October 2014 |archive-date=21 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021022301/http://www.insightcrime.org/news-briefs/dominican-people-smugglers-trafficked-cubans-to-puerto-rico |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, there are many non-Puerto Rican U.S. citizens settling in Puerto Rico from the mainland United States, majority of which are [[Non-Hispanic Whites|White Americans]] and a smaller number are [[African Americans| Black Americans]]. In fact, non-hispanic people represent 1.1% and majority of them are from the mainland United States. Smaller numbers of U.S. citizens come from the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]]. There are also large numbers of [[Nuyorican]]s and other [[stateside Puerto Ricans]] coming back, as many Puerto Ricans engage in 'circular migration'.<ref>{{cite news |title=Puerto Rico's population swap: The middle class for millionaires |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-32344131 |access-date=3 June 2015 |work=BBC |date=5 May 2015 |archive-date=23 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623111651/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-32344131 |url-status=live }}</ref> Small numbers of non-Puerto Rican Hispanics in Puerto Rico are actually American-born migrants from the mainland United States and not recent immigrants. Most recent immigrants settle in and around the San Juan metropolitan area. [[Emigration]] is a major part of contemporary Puerto Rican history. Starting soon after [[World War II]], poverty, cheap airfares, and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States mainland, particularly to the [[Northeastern United States|northeastern states]] and nearby [[Florida]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_S0201&prodType=table |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212210049/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_S0201&prodType=table |archive-date=12 February 2020 |title=American FactFinder – Results |author=Data Access and Dissemination Systems (DADS) |access-date=5 April 2020 }}</ref> This trend continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and its birth rate declined. Puerto Ricans continue to follow a pattern of "[[circular migration]]", with some migrants returning to the island. In recent years, the population has declined markedly, falling nearly 1% in 2012 and an additional 1% (36,000 people) in 2013 due to a falling birthrate and emigration.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/us/economy-and-crime-spur-new-puerto-rican-exodus.html |title=Economy and Crime Spur New Puerto Rican Exodus |date=9 February 2014 |work=The New York Times |access-date=12 February 2017 |archive-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627005409/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/us/economy-and-crime-spur-new-puerto-rican-exodus.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The impact of hurricanes [[Hurricane Maria|Maria]] and [[Hurricane Irma|Irma]] in 2017, combined with the unincorporated territory's worsening economy, led to its greatest population decline since the U.S. acquired the archipelago. According to the 2010 Census, the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States outside of Puerto Rico far exceeds those living in Puerto Rico. Emigration exceeds immigration. As those who leave tend to be better educated than those who remain, this accentuates the drain on Puerto Rico's economy. Based on 1 July 2019 estimate by the [[U.S. Census Bureau]], the population of the Commonwealth had declined by 532,095 people since the 2010 Census data had been tabulated.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/pr|title=QuickFacts Puerto Rico|work=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=20 April 2019|archive-date=30 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210330054937/https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/PR|url-status=live}}</ref> ===Population distribution=== {{Main|List of cities in Puerto Rico}} The most populous municipality is the capital, [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]], with 342,259 people based on the [[2020 United States census|2020 Census]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bureau |first=US Census |title=Puerto Rico Population Declined 11.8% From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/state-by-state/puerto-rico-population-change-between-census-decade.html |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=Census.gov |archive-date=1 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201231936/https://www.census.gov/library/stories/state-by-state/puerto-rico-population-change-between-census-decade.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Other major cities include [[Bayamón, Puerto Rico|Bayamón]], [[Carolina, Puerto Rico|Carolina]], [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]], and [[Caguas, Puerto Rico|Caguas]]. Of the ten most populous cities on the island, eight are located within what is considered [[San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo metropolitan area|San Juan's metropolitan area]], while the other two are located in the south ([[Ponce metropolitan area|Ponce]]) and west ([[Mayagüez metropolitan area|Mayagüez]]) of the island. {{clear}} {{Largest cities |country = Puerto Rico |stat_ref = 2020 Census<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/state-by-state/puerto-rico-population-change-between-census-decade.html|title=Puerto Rico Population Declined 11.8% from 2010 to 2020|access-date=29 November 2022|archive-date=1 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201231936/https://www.census.gov/library/stories/state-by-state/puerto-rico-population-change-between-census-decade.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |list_by_pop = List of cities in Puerto Rico |div_name = Metropolitan Statistical Area |div_link = Metropolitan Statistical Area<!-- the template will automatically create a link for "div_name of country" (e.g. Provinces of Chile), if this doesn't work you can use this field --> |city_1 = San Juan, Puerto Rico{{!}}San Juan | div_1 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_1 = 342,259 | img_1 = Puerto Rico 07.jpg |city_2 = Bayamón | div_2 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_2 = 185,187 | img_2 = Bayamon Puerto Rico aerial view.jpg | city_3 = Carolina, Puerto Rico{{!}}Carolina | div_3 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_3 = 154,815 | img_3 = Islaverdeskyline.jpg | city_4 = Ponce, Puerto Rico{{!}}Ponce | div_4 = Ponce metropolitan area{{!}}Ponce | pop_4 = 137,491 | img_4 = Partial view of the City of Ponce, looking SSW from Cerro El Vigía, Barrio Portugués Urbano, Ponce, Puerto Rico.jpg | city_5 = Caguas | div_5 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_5 = 127,244 | city_6 = Guaynabo | div_6 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_6 = 89,780 | city_7 = Arecibo | div_7 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_7 = 87,754 | city_8 = Toa Baja | div_8 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_8 = 75,293 | city_9 = Mayagüez | div_9 = Mayagüez metropolitan area{{!}}Mayagüez | pop_9 = 73,077 | city_10 = Trujillo Alto | div_10 = San Juan–Caguas–Guaynabo metropolitan area{{!}}San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo | pop_10 = 67,740 }} {{clear}} ===Languages=== {{Main|Puerto Rican Spanish|English language in Puerto Rico}} The [[official language]]s<ref>"Official Language", ''Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language'', Ed. Tom McArthur, Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref> of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico<ref>Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior, 92 D.P.R. 596 (1965). Translation taken from the English text, 92 P.R.R. 580 (1965), pp. 588–89. See also LOPEZ-BARALT NEGRON, "Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior: Espanol: Idioma del proceso judicial", 36 Revista Juridica de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. 396 (1967), and VIENTOS-GASTON, "Informe del Procurador General sobre el idioma", 36 Rev. Col. Ab. (P.R.) 843 (1975).</ref> are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. Spanish is, and has been, the only official language of the entire Commonwealth judiciary system, despite a 1902 English-only language law.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120426041859/http://muniz-arguelles.com/resources/The%2Bstatus%2Bof%2Blanguages%2Bin%2BPuerto%2BRico.pdf ''The Status of Languages in Puerto Rico.''] Muniz-Arguelles, Luis. University of Puerto Rico. c. 1988. Page 466. Retrieved 4 December 2012.</ref> However, all official business of the [[U.S. District Court]] for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. English is the primary language of less than 10% of the population. Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on the island, spoken by nearly 95% of the population.<ref name="factfinder.census.gov2">{{cite web |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US72&-context=adp&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-tree_id=307&-_lang=en&-_caller=geoselect&-format= |title=U.S. Census Annual Population Estimates 2007 |publisher=Factfinder.census.gov |access-date=18 April 2014 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170524214928/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/searchresults.xhtml?refresh=t |archive-date=24 May 2017 }}</ref> Out of people aged five and older, 94.3% speak only Spanish at home, 5.5% speak English, and 0.2% speak other languages.<ref name=":0" /> In Puerto Rico, public school instruction is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There have been pilot programs in about a dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only. Objections from teaching staff are common, perhaps because many of them are not fully fluent in English.<ref>[https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/08/puerto-rico-governor-fortuno-bilingual_n_1501225.html ''Puerto Rico Governor Luis Fortuño Proposes Plan For Island's Public Schools To Teach In English Instead Of Spanish.''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831055841/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/08/puerto-rico-governor-fortuno-bilingual_n_1501225.html |date=31 August 2012 }} Danica Coto. Huffington Latino Voices. 05/08/12 (8 May 2012). Retrieved 4 December 2012.</ref> English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school. The languages of the deaf community are [[American Sign Language]] and its local variant, [[Puerto Rican Sign Language]]. The [[Puerto Rican Spanish|Spanish of Puerto Rico]] has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from the Spanish spoken elsewhere. As a product of Puerto Rican history, the island possesses a unique Spanish dialect. Puerto Rican Spanish utilizes many [[Taíno language|Taíno]] words, as well as English words. The largest influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico is [[Canarian Spanish|that of the Canary Islands]]. Taíno [[loanword]]s are most often used in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena, and native musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily [[Niger–Congo languages|West African languages]] were adopted in the contexts of foods, music, and dances, particularly in coastal towns with concentrations of descendants of Sub-Saharan Africans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.languageeducationpolicy.org/lepbyworldregion/caribbeanpuertorico.html |title=Language Education Policy in Puerto Rico |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2013 |website=Language Education Policy Studies |publisher=International Association for Language Education Policy Studies |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-date=22 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222112048/http://www.languageeducationpolicy.org/lepbyworldregion/caribbeanpuertorico.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Religion=== {{Pie chart |thumb = right |caption = Religious affiliation in Puerto Rico (2014)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/03/29/key-findings-about-puerto-rico/ |title=Key findings about Puerto Rico |date=29 March 2017 |access-date=12 September 2017 |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327063019/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/03/29/key-findings-about-puerto-rico/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2014/11/13/religion-in-latin-america/#religious-affiliations-of-latin-americans-and-u-s-hispanics |title=Religion in Latin America |date=13 November 2014 |access-date=12 September 2017 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330015000/https://www.pewforum.org/2014/11/13/religion-in-latin-america/#religious-affiliations-of-latin-americans-and-u-s-hispanics |url-status=live }}</ref> |label1 = [[Roman Catholicism]] |value1 = 56 |color1 = Blue |label2 = [[Protestantism]] |value2 = 33 |color2 = DeepSkyBlue |label3 = Other |value3 = 3 |color3 = Red |label4 = [[Irreligious]] |value4 = 8 |color4 = Black }} [[Catholic Church in Puerto Rico|Catholicism]] was brought by Spanish colonists and gradually became the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. The first [[dioceses]] in the Americas, including [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Juan de Puerto Rico|that of Puerto Rico]], were authorized by [[Pope Julius II]] in 1511.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Porto Rico}}</ref> In 1512, priests were established for the parochial churches. By 1759, there was a priest for each church.<ref name="Puerto Rico Office of Historian 1949">{{cite book | author=Puerto Rico. Office of Historian | title=Tesauro de datos historicos: indice compendioso de la literatura histórica de Puerto Rico, incluyendo algunos datos inéditos, periodísticos y cartográficos | publisher=Impr. del Gobierno de Puerto Rico | issue=v. 2 | year=1949 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVRnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA306 | language=es | access-date=4 January 2020 | page=306 | archive-date=11 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111012634/https://books.google.com/books?id=IVRnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA306#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}</ref> One Pope, [[John Paul II]], visited Puerto Rico in October 1984. All [[Municipalities of Puerto Rico|municipalities]] in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic church, most of which are located at the town center, or [[plaza]]. [[Protestantism in Puerto Rico|Protestantism]], which was suppressed under the Spanish Catholic regime, has reemerged under United States rule, making contemporary Puerto Rico more interconfessional than in previous centuries, although Catholicism continues to be the dominant religion. The first Protestant church, [[Iglesia de la Santísima Trinidad]], was established in Ponce by the [[Anglican]] [[Diocese of Antigua]] in 1872.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://episcopalpr.org/sobre_nosotros/sobre_nosotros.html |title=Sobre Nosotros |publisher=Episcopalpr.org |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100317153425/http://www.episcopalpr.org/sobre_nosotros/sobre_nosotros.html |archive-date=17 March 2010}}</ref> It was the first non-Catholic church in the entire [[Spanish Empire]] in [[the Americas]].<ref>Luis Fortuño Janeiro. ''Album Histórico de Ponce (1692–1963).'' Page 165. Ponce, Puerto Rico: Imprenta Fortuño. 1963.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.preb.com/articulos/aleman2.htm |title=La presencia Germanica en Puerto Rico |publisher=Preb.com |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-date=17 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717075107/http://www.preb.com/articulos/aleman2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Pollster Pablo Ramos stated in 1998 that the population was 38% Roman Catholic, 28% Pentecostal, and 18% were members of independent churches, which would give a Protestant percentage of 46% if the last two populations are combined. Protestants collectively added up to almost two million people. Another researcher gave a more conservative assessment of the proportion of Protestants: <blockquote>Puerto Rico, by virtue of its long political association with the United States, is the most Protestant of Latin American countries, with a Protestant population of approximately 33 to 38 percent, the majority of whom are [[Pentecostal]]. David Stoll calculates that if we extrapolate the growth rates of evangelical churches from 1960 to 1985 for another twenty-five years Puerto Rico will become 75 percent evangelical. (Ana Adams: "Brincando el Charco..." in ''Power, Politics and Pentecostals in Latin America'', Edward Cleary, ed., 1997. p. 164).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.english.turkcebilgi.com/Protestants+in+Puerto+Rico |title=Protestants in Puerto Rico |publisher=english.turkcebilgi.com |access-date=April 21, 2013}}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref></blockquote> An [[Associated Press]] article in March 2014 stated that "more than 70 percent of whom identify themselves as Catholic" but provided no source for this information.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2014/03/12/catholic-church-and-puerto-rico-officials-at-odds-in-widening-sex-abuse.html |title=Catholic Church and Puerto Rico officials at odds in widening sex abuse investigation |author=Associated Press<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=12 March 2014 |website=FOX News |access-date=17 February 2017 |archive-date=18 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218145958/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2014/03/12/catholic-church-and-puerto-rico-officials-at-odds-in-widening-sex-abuse.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[CIA World Factbook]] reports that 85% of the population of Puerto Rico identifies as Roman Catholic, while 15% identify as Protestant and Other. Neither a date or a source for that information is provided and may not be recent.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/ |title=Puerto Rico People and Society |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2015 |website=CIA Library |publisher=CIA |access-date=17 February 2017 |quote=Roman Catholic 85%, Protestant and other 15% |archive-date=5 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105163943/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2013 Pew Research survey found that only about 45% of Puerto Rican adults identified themselves as Catholic, 29% as Protestant and 20% as unaffiliated with a religion. The people surveyed by Pew consisted of Puerto Ricans living in the 50 states and DC and may not be indicative of those living in the Commonwealth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/15/hispanics-of-puerto-rican-origin-in-the-united-states-2013/ |title=Hispanics of Puerto Rican Origin in the United States, 2013 |last=LÓPEZ |first=Gustavo |date=15 September 2015 |website=Pew Research |publisher=Pew Research Center, DC |access-date=17 February 2017 |quote=Puerto Ricans in this statistical profile are people who self-identified as Hispanics of Puerto Rican origin; this means either they themselves were born in Puerto Rico1 or they were born in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia or elsewhere, but trace their family ancestry to Puerto Rico. |archive-date=10 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010153809/http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/15/hispanics-of-puerto-rican-origin-in-the-united-states-2013/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:Catedral de San Juan Bautista a.jpg|thumb|[[Catedral Metropolitana Basílica de San Juan Bautista|Cathedral of San Juan]], built between 1535 and 1802.|alt=]] By 2014, a Pew Research report, with the sub-title ''Widespread Change in a Historically Catholic Region'', indicated that only 56% of Puerto Ricans were Catholic, 33% were Protestant, and 8% were unaffiliated; this survey was completed between October 2013 and February 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2014/11/13/religion-in-latin-america/ |title=Religion in Latin America |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=13 November 2014 |website=Pew Research |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330015000/https://www.pewforum.org/2014/11/13/religion-in-latin-america/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="auto3" /> An [[Eastern Orthodox]] community, the Dormition of the Most Holy Theotokos / St. Spyridon's Church is located in Trujillo Alto, and serves the small Orthodox community in the area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.orthodoxchurchpr.org/|title=Orthodox Church PR|website=www.orthodoxchurchpr.org|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=7 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107101903/https://www.orthodoxchurchpr.org/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2017, the church entered communion with the Roman Catholic Church, becoming the first [[Eastern Catholic Church]] in Puerto Rico.<ref>[https://parma.org/news/puerto-rico-welcomes-first-ever-eastern-catholic-parish ''PUERTO RICO WELCOMES FIRST-EVER EASTERN CATHOLIC PARISH''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406163941/https://parma.org/news/puerto-rico-welcomes-first-ever-eastern-catholic-parish |date=6 April 2023 }} Martin Barillas. As published in Horizons, 10 September 2017. Accessed 1 November 2020.</ref> This affiliation accounted for under 1% of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research report.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://parish.orthodoxtheologicalinstitute.org/Dormition_of_the_Theotokos/Welcome.html |title=Welcome |publisher=Parish.orthodoxtheologicalinstitute.org |access-date=25 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304223521/http://parish.orthodoxtheologicalinstitute.org/Dormition_of_the_Theotokos/Welcome.html |archive-date=4 March 2011 }}</ref> There are two [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] in the territory the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia|Russian Orthodox]] [[Missionary|Mission]] Saint John Climacus in [[San Germán, Puerto Rico|San German]] which is expected to become a full Parish within the coming years and the Saint George [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch|Antiochian Orthodox Church]] in [[Carolina, Puerto Rico|Carolina]], both have services in English and Spanish and on available visiting clergy Arabic and Russian might be also used.[https://misionsanjuanclimaco.org/][https://iglesia-ortodoxa-patriarcado-de-antioquia.business.site/] There is a small [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac]] Orthodox church in [[Aguada, Puerto Rico|Aguada]] which is also the only [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]] in the Island and serves a small growing community in the area. In 1940, [[Juanita García Peraza]] founded the [[Mita Congregation]], the first religion of Puerto Rican origin.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://webpub.allegheny.edu/group/LAS/LatinAmIssues/Articles/Vol13/LAI_vol_13_section_I.html |title=Latin American issues Vol. 3 |publisher=Webpub.allegheny.edu |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202221418/http://webpub.allegheny.edu/group/LAS/LatinAmIssues/Articles/Vol13/LAI_vol_13_section_I.html |archive-date=2 December 2010}}</ref> [[Taíno people|Taíno religious practices]] have been rediscovered/reinvented to a degree by a handful of advocates.<ref>[https://globalpressjournal.com/americas/puerto-rico/puerto-rican-indigenous-communities-seek-recognition-return-ancestral-lands/en/ ''Puerto Rican Indigenous Communities Seek Recognition, Return of Their Ancestral Lands: The Jíbaro and Taíno indigenous communities are not recognized by the Puerto Rican government. But two organizations dedicated to preserving their respective history and traditions are working to gain recognition as indigenous groups, as well as unrestricted access to their ancestral lands.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023151251/https://globalpressjournal.com/americas/puerto-rico/puerto-rican-indigenous-communities-seek-recognition-return-ancestral-lands/en/ |date=23 October 2020 }} Coraly Cruz Mejias. Global Press Journal. Washington, DC. 14 October 2019. Accessed 23 October 2020.</ref> Similarly, some aspects of African religious traditions have been kept by some adherents. African slaves brought and maintained various ethnic African religious practices associated with different peoples; in particular, the [[Yoruba religion|Yoruba]] beliefs of [[Santería]] or [[Ifá]], and the [[Kongo people|Kongo]]-derived [[Palo Mayombe]]. Some aspects were absorbed into syncretic Christianity. In 1952, a handful of [[American Jews]] established the island's first [[synagogue]]; this religion accounts for under 1% of the population in 2010 according to the Pew Research report.<ref name="EG">''Eduardo Giorgetti Y Su Mundo: La Aparente Paradoja De Un Millonario Genio Empresarial Y Su Noble Humanismo''; by [[Delma S. Arrigoitia]]; Publisher: Ediciones Puerto; {{ISBN|978-0-942347-52-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prairieschooltraveler.com/html/world/pr/Korber.html |title=Korber House |publisher=Prairieschooltraveler.com |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511203424/http://www.prairieschooltraveler.com/html/world/pr/Korber.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The synagogue, called ''Sha'are Zedeck'', hired its first rabbi in 1954.<ref name="JVL"/> Puerto Rico has the largest Jewish community in the Caribbean, numbering 3000 people,<ref>{{cite news |title=The Jewish Palate: The Jews of Puerto Rico |url=http://www.jpost.com/Food-Index/The-Jewish-Palate-The-Jews-of-Puerto-Rico |author=Dennis Wasko |date=11 July 2011 |access-date=18 February 2017 |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |archive-date=23 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223130050/http://www.jpost.com/Food-Index/The-Jewish-Palate-The-Jews-of-Puerto-Rico |url-status=live }}</ref> and is the only Caribbean island in which the [[Conservative Jews|Conservative]], [[Reform Jews|Reform]] and [[Orthodox Jews|Orthodox Jewish]] movements all are represented.<ref name="JVL">{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Puerto_Rico.html |title=The Virtual Jewish History Tour Puerto Rico |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-date=26 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226202626/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Puerto_Rico.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="LN">{{cite web |url=http://www.luxner.com/cgi-bin/view_article.cgi?articleID=1237 |title=Luxner News |publisher=Luxner.com |date=3 August 2004 |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051107203700/http://www.luxner.com/cgi-bin/view_article.cgi?articleID=1237 |archive-date=7 November 2005 }}</ref> In 2007, there were about 5,000 [[Muslims]] in Puerto Rico, representing about 0.13% of the population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iiie.net/index.php?q=node/65 |title=Number of Muslims and Percentage in Puero Rico |publisher=Institute of Islamic Information and Education |date=8 February 2006 |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=27 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927003145/http://www.iiie.net/index.php?q=node/65 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=29 |title=Percent Puerto Rican population that are Muslims |access-date=14 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194154/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=29 |archive-date=27 September 2007 }} Retrieved {{Nowrap|8 June}}, 2009.</ref> Eight [[mosques]] are located throughout the island, with most Muslims living in [[Río Piedras]] and [[Caguas]]; most Muslims are of Palestinian and Jordanian descent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pupr.edu/msa/mosques.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002214355/http://www.pupr.edu/msa/mosques.html |archive-date=2 October 2011 |title=Muslim mosques in Pto. Rico |publisher=Pupr.edu |access-date=30 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198706/muslims.in.the.caribbean.htm |title=Muslims concentrated in Rio Piedras |publisher=Saudiaramcoworld.com |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505090834/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198706/muslims.in.the.caribbean.htm |archive-date=5 May 2012 }}</ref> There is also a [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]] community.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bahaipr.org/index.php/en/|title=Home|website=Bahá'ís of Puerto Rico|access-date=8 May 2018|archive-date=7 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707012751/https://bahaipr.org/index.php/en/}}</ref> In 2023, [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] dedicated a [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] in [[San Juan Puerto Rico Temple|San Juan]],<ref>{{cite web |title=San Juan Puerto Rico Temple {{!}} ChurchofJesusChristTemples.org |url=https://churchofjesuschristtemples.org/san-juan-puerto-rico-temple/ |website=Temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |access-date=4 May 2023 |archive-date=3 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403182924/https://churchofjesuschristtemples.org/san-juan-puerto-rico-temple/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and reported having a membership of approximately 23,000 in the commonwealth.<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistics and Church Facts {{!}} Total Church Membership |url=https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/facts-and-statistics/country/puerto-rico |website=newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org |language=en |access-date=4 May 2023 |archive-date=17 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517132219/https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/facts-and-statistics/country/puerto-rico |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2015, the 25,832 [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] represented about 0.70% of the population, with 324 congregations.<ref>''2016 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses'', pp. 184–85</ref> Buddhism in Puerto Rico is represented with [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]], [[Zen]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]], with the [[Khenchen Palden Sherab Rinpoche|New York Padmasambhava Buddhist Center]] for example having a branch in San Juan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhanet.net/l_tibet.htm |title=Budda Net |publisher=Buddhanet.net |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-date=12 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312005910/http://www.buddhanet.net/l_tibet.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> There are several atheist activist and educational organizations, and an atheistic parody religion called the [[Pastafarian]] Church of Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/IglesiaPastafarianaPuertoRico |title=Iglesia Pastafariana de Puerto Rico |publisher=Facebook |access-date=29 June 2018 |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728043318/https://www.facebook.com/IglesiaPastafarianaPuertoRico |url-status=live }}</ref> An [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|ISKCON]] temple in Gurabo is devoted to [[Krishna]], with two preaching centers in the San Juan metropolitan area. ==Government== {{Main|Government of Puerto Rico|Politics of Puerto Rico}} Puerto Rico has a [[Republic|republican form of government]] based on the [[Republicanism in the United States|American model]], with [[separation of powers]] subject to the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United States.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web |url=http://www.oslpr.org/english/PDF/The%20Constitution%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Puerto%20Rico.pdf |title=Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Article I, Section 2 |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229150849/http://www.oslpr.org/english/pdf/the%20constitution%20of%20the%20commonwealth%20of%20puerto%20rico.pdf |archive-date=29 December 2009}}</ref><ref name=ussd>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/inr/rls/10543.htm |title=U.S. Department of State. Dependencies and Areas of Special Sovereignty |publisher=State.gov |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621161149/https://2009-2017.state.gov/s/inr/rls/10543.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> All governmental powers are delegated by the [[United States Congress]], with the head of state being [[president of the United States]]. As an [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated territory]], Puerto Rico lacks full protection under the [[United States Constitution]].<ref name="U.S. Department of State">{{cite web |url=https://fam.state.gov/FAM/07FAM/07FAM1120.html |title=U.S. Department of State. Foreign Affairs Manual: Volume 7 – Consular Affairs (7 FAM 1120), 'Acquisition of U.S. Nationality in U.S. Territories and Possessions', pp. 1–3. |format=PDF |access-date=13 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222081013/https://fam.state.gov/FAM/07FAM/07FAM1120.html |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> The government of Puerto Rico is composed of three branches. The executive is headed by the [[governor of Puerto Rico|governor]], currently [[Pedro Pierluisi Urrutia]]. The [[Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico|legislative branch]] consists of the [[bicameral]] [[Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico|Legislative Assembly]], made up of a [[Senate of Puerto Rico|Senate]] as its upper chamber and a [[House of Representatives of Puerto Rico|House of Representatives]] as its lower chamber; the Senate is headed by a [[President of the Senate of Puerto Rico|president]], currently [[José Luis Dalmau]], while the House is headed by the [[Speaker of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico|speaker of the House]], currently [[Tatito Hernández]]. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years, with [[Puerto Rican general election, 2020|the last election held in November 2020]]. The [[judiciary of Puerto Rico|judicial branch]] is headed by the [[Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico|chief justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico]], currently [[Maite Oronoz Rodríguez]]. Members of the judiciary are appointed by the governor with the [[advice and consent]] of the Senate. Puerto Rico is represented in the U.S. Congress by a nonvoting delegate to the House of Representatives, the [[Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico|resident commissioner]], currently [[Jenniffer González]]. Current congressional rules have removed the commissioner's power to vote in the [[Committee of the Whole (United States House of Representatives)|Committee of the Whole]], but the commissioner can vote in committee.<ref name="rhg">[http://clerk.house.gov/legislative/house-rules.pdf Rules of the House of Representatives. Rule III] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005220012/http://clerk.house.gov/legislative/house-rules.pdf/ |date=5 October 2015 }}.</ref> Puerto Rican elections are governed by the [[Federal Election Commission]] and the [[State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico]].<ref>{{cite web|date=25 July 2018|title=Help America Vote Act (HAVA) 2018 ELECTION SECURITY GRANT|url=https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/5676842/Puerto-Rico-State-Elections-Commission-Help.pdf|access-date=30 October 2011|publisher=Puerto Rico State Elections Commission|archive-date=29 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729065604/https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/sites/default/files/documents/5676842/Puerto-Rico-State-Elections-Commission-Help.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/2008pdates.pdf |title=2008 Presidential Primary Dates and Candidates Filling Datelines for Ballot Access |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-date=28 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028170649/http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/2008pdates.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Residents of Puerto Rico, including other U.S. citizens, cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, but can vote in [[United States presidential primary|primaries]]. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a [[U.S. state]] or [[Washington, D.C.]] can vote in presidential elections. Puerto Rico has [[Puerto Rico senatorial districts|eight senatorial districts]], [[Puerto Rico representative districts|40 representative districts]], and [[Municipalities of Puerto Rico|78 municipalities]]; there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government. Municipalities are subdivided into wards or [[barrio]]s, and those into sectors. Each municipality has a [[Mayors of Puerto Rico|mayor]] and a municipal legislature elected for a four-year term. The municipality of [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]] is the oldest, founded in 1521;<ref name="linktopr.com">{{cite web|title=Consulados. ''Link to Puerto Rico''|url=http://www.linktopr.com/consulados.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040411192635/http://www.linktopr.com/consulados.html|archive-date=11 April 2004|access-date=3 February 2009}}</ref> the next earliest settlements are [[San Germán]] in 1570, [[Coamo]] in 1579, [[Arecibo]] in 1614, [[Aguada, Puerto Rico|Aguada]] in 1692 and [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] in 1692. Increased settlement in the 18th century saw 30 more communities established, following 34 in the 19th century. Six were founded in the 20th century, the most recent being [[Florida, Puerto Rico|Florida]] in 1971.<ref name="fundacion">{{cite web |url=http://www.linktopr.com/fundacion.html |title=LinktoPR.com – Fundación de los Pueblos |access-date=21 April 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040421093959/http://www.linktopr.com/fundacion.html |archive-date=21 April 2004 }}</ref> ===Political parties and elections=== {{main|Political party strength in Puerto Rico}} [[File:Political-party-strength-in-puerto-rico-2012.png|thumb|right|The difference between the incumbent party, the PPD, and its opponent, the PNP, was a mere 0.6% in the last election. This difference is common as the political landscape experiences political cycles between both parties, with the PPD ruling all branches of government for 36 of the past 64 years. The PNP, on the other hand, has ruled both the executive and legislative branch concurrently for 16 years. The other 12 years experienced a [[Divided government in the United States|divided government]].]] Since 1952, Puerto Rico has had three main political parties: the [[Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico)|Popular Democratic Party]] (PPD in Spanish), the [[New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico)|New Progressive Party]] (PNP in Spanish) and the [[Puerto Rican Independence Party]] (PIP). The three parties stand for different political status. The PPD, for example, seeks [[status quo movement in Puerto Rico|to maintain the island's status with the U.S. as a commonwealth]], while the PNP, on the other hand, seeks [[statehood movement in Puerto Rico|to make Puerto Rico a state of the United States]]. The PIP, in contrast, seeks a complete separation from the United States by seeking [[independence movement in Puerto Rico|to make Puerto Rico a sovereign nation]]. In terms of party strength, the PPD and PNP usually hold about 47% of the vote each while the PIP holds about 5%. After 2007, other parties emerged on the island. The first, the [[Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party]] (PPR in Spanish) was registered that same year. The party claims that it seeks to address the islands' problems from a status-neutral platform. But it ceased to remain as a registered party when it failed to obtain the required number of votes in the 2008 general election. Four years later, the 2012 election saw the emergence of the [[Movimiento Unión Soberanista]] (MUS; English: ''Sovereign Union Movement'') and the [[Partido del Pueblo Trabajador]] (PPT; English: ''Working People's Party'') but none obtained more than 1% of the vote. Other non-registered parties include the [[Puerto Rican Nationalist Party]], the [[Socialist Workers Movement (Puerto Rico)|Socialist Workers Movement]], and the [[Hostosian National Independence Movement]]. ===Law=== {{main|Constitution of Puerto Rico|Law of Puerto Rico}} The insular legal system is a blend of [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and the [[common law]] systems. Puerto Rico is the only current U.S. jurisdiction whose legal system operates primarily in a language other than American English: namely, [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. Because the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]] operates primarily in English, all Puerto Rican attorneys must be bilingual in order to litigate in English in [[United States federal courts|U.S. federal courts]], and litigate federal preemption issues in Puerto Rican courts.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hunter |first=Britt |title=Research Guides: Commonwealth Caribbean Law Research Guide: Puerto Rico |url=https://guides.law.fsu.edu/caribbean/puertorico |access-date=2024-01-19 |website=guides.law.fsu.edu |language=en |archive-date=19 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119165910/https://guides.law.fsu.edu/caribbean/puertorico |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Original research inline|date=March 2021}} [[Title 48 of the United States Code]] outlines the role of the United States Code to United States territories and insular areas such as Puerto Rico. After the U.S. government assumed control of Puerto Rico in 1901, it initiated legal reforms resulting in the adoption of codes of criminal law, criminal procedure, and civil procedure modeled after those then in effect in [[California]]. Although Puerto Rico has since followed the federal example of transferring criminal and civil procedure from [[statutory law]] to rules promulgated by the judiciary, several portions of its criminal law still reflect the influence of the [[California Penal Code]]. The judicial branch is headed by the [[Chief Justice|chief justice]] of the [[Puerto Rico Supreme Court]], which is the only appellate court required by the Constitution. All other courts are created by the [[Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wilson|first=Steven H.|title=The U.S. Justice System An Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2021|isbn=978-1-59884-305-7}}</ref> There is also a [[United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico|Federal District Court for Puerto Rico]], and someone accused of a criminal act at the federal level may not be accused for the same act in a Commonwealth court, and vice versa, since Puerto Rico as an unincorporated territory lacks sovereignty separate from Congress as a state does.<ref name="Martínez Torres">{{cite web |url=http://www.ramajudicial.pr/ts/2015/2015tspr25.pdf |title=Opinión del Tribunal emitida por el Juez Asociado señor Martínez Torres |publisher=El Tribunal Supremo de Puerto Rico |work=Legal Document |date=20 March 2015 |access-date=7 February 2016 |author=Martínez Torres, Juez (Judge) |archive-date=22 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122145414/http://www.ramajudicial.pr/ts/2015/2015tspr25.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Such a parallel accusation would constitute [[double jeopardy]]. ===Political status=== {{Main|Political status of Puerto Rico|Proposed political status for Puerto Rico}} The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of [[Political status of Puerto Rico#Controversies|ongoing debate]] in Puerto Rico, the [[United States Congress]], and the [[United Nations]].<ref name="sdc">{{cite press release |title=Special committee on decolonization approves text calling on United States to expedite Puerto Rican self-determination process |date=13 June 2006 |publisher=Department of Public Information, United Nations General Assembly |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gacol3138.doc.htm |access-date=1 October 2007 |archive-date=9 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409222103/https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/gacol3138.doc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Specifically, the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should remain an [[Territories of the United States|unincorporated territory of the U.S.]], become a [[U.S. state]], or become an independent country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf |title=Political Status of Puerto Rico: Background, Options, and Issues in the 109th Congress |date=25 May 2005 |author=Keith Bea |publisher=Congressional Research Service |access-date=1 October 2007 |archive-date=28 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928232129/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32933.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[File:PR Capitol, south side.JPG|thumb|The [[Capitol of Puerto Rico]], home of the Legislative Assembly in Puerto Rico|alt=|left]] Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the [[plenary powers]] of the [[United States Congress]] under the [[territorial clause]] of [[Article Four of the United States Constitution|Article IV of the U.S. Constitution]].<ref>U.S. Const. art. IV, § 3, cl. 2 ("The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States ...").</ref> [[U.S. federal law|Laws enacted at the federal level in the United States]] apply to Puerto Rico as well, regardless of its political status. Their residents [[Federal voting rights in Puerto Rico|do not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress]]. Puerto Rico lacks "the full sovereignty of an independent nation", for example, the power to manage its "external relations with other nations", which is held by the U.S. federal government. The Supreme Court of the United States has indicated that once the U.S. Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the courts), its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is".<ref>[[Downes v. Bidwell]], 182 U.S. 244, 261 (1901), commenting on an earlier Supreme Court decision, Loughborough v. Blake, 18 U.S. (5 Wheat.) 317 (1820); Rasmussen v. United States, 197 U.S. 516, 529–530, 536 (1905)(concurring opinions of Justices Harlan and Brown), that once the Constitution has been extended to an area, its coverage is irrevocable; [[Boumediene v. Bush]] – That where the Constitution has been once formally extended by Congress to territories, neither Congress nor the territorial legislature can enact laws inconsistent therewith. The Constitution grants Congress and the President the power to acquire, dispose of, and govern territory, not the power to decide when and where its terms apply.</ref> Puerto Ricans "were collectively made [[U.S. citizenship#Birthright citizenship|U.S. citizens]]" in 1917 as a result of the [[Jones-Shafroth Act]].<ref>''The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion: 1803–1898''. By Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2005. pp. 166, 178. "U.S. citizenship was extended to residents of Puerto Rico by virtue of the Jones Act, chap. 190, 39 Stat. 951 (1971)(codified at 48 U.S.C. § 731 (1987)")</ref> U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, though both major parties, Republican and Democratic, hold primary elections in Puerto Rico to choose delegates to vote on the parties' presidential candidates. Since Puerto Rico is an [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated territory]] (see above) and not a U.S. state, the [[United States Constitution]] does not fully [[enfranchise]] [[U.S. citizen]]s residing in Puerto Rico.<ref name="U.S. Department of State"/><ref name="Constitutional Topic: Citizenship">{{cite web |url=http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_citi.html |title=Constitutional Topic: Citizenship |publisher=U.S. Constitution Online |access-date=6 June 2009 |archive-date=11 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211130139/http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_citi.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Only [[fundamental right]]s under the American federal constitution and adjudications are applied to Puerto Ricans. Various other U.S. Supreme Court decisions have held which rights apply in Puerto Rico and which ones do not. Puerto Ricans have a long history of service in the U.S. Armed Forces and, since 1917, they have been included in the U.S. [[compulsory draft]] whensoever it has been in effect. Though the Commonwealth government has its own tax laws, residents of Puerto Rico, contrary to a popular misconception, do pay U.S. federal taxes: customs taxes (which are subsequently returned to the Puerto Rico Treasury), import/export taxes, federal commodity taxes, social security taxes, etc. Residents pay federal [[payroll tax]]es, such as [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] and [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]], as well as Commonwealth of Puerto Rico income taxes. All federal employees, those who do business with the federal government, Puerto Rico-based corporations that intend to send funds to the U.S., and some others, such as Puerto Rican residents that are members of the U.S. military, and Puerto Rico residents who earned income from sources outside Puerto Rico also pay federal income taxes. In addition, because the cutoff point for income taxation is lower than that of the U.S. IRS code, and because the per-capita income in Puerto Rico is much lower than the average per-capita income on the mainland, more Puerto Rico residents pay income taxes to the local taxation authority than if the IRS code were applied to the island. This occurs because "the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico government has a wider set of responsibilities than do U.S. State and local governments."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stanford.wellsphere.com/healthcare-industry-policy-article/puerto-rico/267827 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401034052/http://stanford.wellsphere.com/healthcare-industry-policy-article/puerto-rico/267827 |archive-date=1 April 2010 |title=Puerto Ricans pay federal commodity taxes |publisher=Stanford.wellsphere.com |access-date=30 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irs.gov/taxtopics/tc903.html |title=Internal Revenue Service. ', Topic 903 – Federal Employment Tax in Puerto Rico' |publisher=Irs.gov |date=18 December 2009 |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-date=3 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703133155/https://www.irs.gov/taxtopics/tc903.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=reuters2009-09-24>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSTRE58N5X320090924 |title=Reuters, 'Puerto Rico hopes to gain from U.S. healthcare reform', 24 September 2009 |work=Reuters |date=24 September 2009 |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130062125/https://www.reuters.com/article/healthNews/idUSTRE58N5X320090924 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Schaefer |first=Brett |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2009/03/dc-voting-rights-no-representation-no-taxation |title=The Heritage Foundation, 11 March 2009. "D.C. Voting Rights: No Representation? No Taxation!", By Robert A. Book, PhD |publisher=Heritage.org |access-date=16 October 2010 |archive-date=29 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429113102/http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2009/03/dc-voting-rights-no-representation-no-taxation |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mcvpr.com/CM/CurrentEvents/CEOsummitarticle.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515142411/http://www.mcvpr.com/CM/CurrentEvents/CEOsummitarticle.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2011 |title=Puerto Rico Manufacturers Association, CEO Summit, Federal and Local Incentives: Where we are, Where We Want to be. Amaya Iraolagoitia, Partner, Tax Dept. |access-date=14 August 2010 }}</ref><ref name=jct>{{cite web |url=http://www.jct.gov/x-24-06.pdf |title=Joint Committee on Taxation. ''An Overview of the Special Tax Rules Related to Puerto Rico and an Analysis of the Tax and Economic Policy Implications of Recent Legislative Options'' |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-date=3 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090903121058/http://www.jct.gov/x-24-06.pdf }}</ref>{{#Tag:Ref|Members of the military must pay federal income tax<ref name=reuters2009-09-24 /><ref name=jct />}} In 2009, Puerto Rico paid {{Nowrap|$3.742 billion}} into the [[U.S. Treasury]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-soi/09db05co.xls |title=Table 5. Internal Revenue Gross Collections, by Type of Tax and State, Fiscal year 2009 |publisher=[[Internal Revenue Service]] |format=XLS |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-date=9 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709062753/https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-soi/09db05co.xls |url-status=live }}</ref> Residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, and are thus eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. They are excluded from the [[Supplemental Security Income]] (SSI), and the island actually receives a smaller fraction of the [[Medicaid]] funding it would receive if it were a U.S. state.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-healthcare-puertorico-idUSTRE58N5X320090924 ''Puerto Rico hopes to gain from U.S. healthcare reform.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016022450/http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/24/us-healthcare-puertorico-idUSTRE58N5X320090924 |date=16 October 2015 }} Reuters. 24 September 2009. Retrieved 19 July 2012.</ref> Also, Medicare providers receive less-than-full state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prfaa.com/news/?p=252 |title=News & Media |publisher=PRFAA |date=6 July 2009 |access-date=30 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511054048/http://www.prfaa.com/news/?p=252 |archive-date=11 May 2011 }}</ref> Puerto Rico's authority to enact a criminal code derives from Congress and not from local sovereignty as with the states. Thus, individuals committing a crime can only be tried in federal or territorial court, otherwise it would constitute double jeopardy and is constitutionally impermissible.<ref name="Martínez Torres" /> In 1992, President [[George H. W. Bush]] issued a memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations. Many federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, including the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]], [[Transportation Security Administration]], [[Social Security Administration]], and others. While Puerto Rico has its own [[judiciary of Puerto Rico|Commonwealth judicial system]] similar to that of a U.S. state, there is also a U.S. federal district court in Puerto Rico, and Puerto Ricans have served as judges in that Court and in other federal courts on the U.S. mainland regardless of their residency status at the time of their appointment. [[Sonia Sotomayor]], a [[Nuyorican|New Yorker of Puerto Rican descent]], serves as an [[Associate Justice|associate justice]] of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. Puerto Ricans have also been frequently appointed to high-level federal positions, including serving as [[Ambassadors of the United States|United States ambassadors]] to other nations. ===Foreign and intergovernmental relations=== {{more citations needed section|date=November 2017}} {{main|Foreign and intergovernmental relations of Puerto Rico}} Puerto Rico is subject to the [[Commerce Clause|Commerce]] and [[Territorial Clause]] of the U.S. Constitution and is thus restricted on how it can engage with other nations, sharing the opportunities and limitations that state governments have albeit not being one. As is the case with state governments, it has established several trade agreements with other nations, particularly with Latin American countries such as Colombia and Panamá.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/colombiaypuertoricosedanlamano-1556164.html |title=Colombia y Puerto Rico se dan la mano |date=20 July 2013 |access-date=11 August 2013 |language=es |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] |archive-date=24 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824132404/http://www.elnuevodia.com/colombiaypuertoricosedanlamano-1556164.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icesi.edu.co/blogs/paises/2013/07/23/puerto-rico/ |title=Relaciones comerciales entre Colombia y Puerto Rico |date=23 July 2013 |access-date=11 August 2013 |language=es |publisher=[[Universidad ICESI]] |archive-date=2 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002064317/http://www.icesi.edu.co/blogs/paises/2013/07/23/puerto-rico/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It has also established trade promotion offices in many foreign countries, all Spanish-speaking, and within the United States itself, which now include Spain, the Dominican Republic, [[Panama]], [[Colombia]], [[Washington, D.C.]], New York City and Florida, and has included in the past offices in [[Chile]], [[Costa Rica]], and [[Mexico]]. Such agreements require permission from the U.S. Department of State; most are simply allowed by existing laws or trade treaties between the United States and other nations which supersede trade agreements pursued by Puerto Rico and different U.S. states. Puerto Rico hosts [[Consul (representative)|consulates]] from 41 countries, mainly from the [[Americas]] and Europe, with most located in San Juan.<ref name="linktopr.com"/> At the local level, Puerto Rico established by law that the international relations which states and territories are allowed to engage must be handled by the [[Department of State of Puerto Rico]], an [[executive departments of the government of Puerto Rico|executive department]], headed by the [[Secretary of State of Puerto Rico|secretary of state of Puerto Rico]], who also serves as the unincorporated territory's lieutenant governor. It is also charged to liaise with general [[consul (representative)|consuls]] and [[honorary consul]]s based in Puerto Rico. The [[Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration]], along with the [[Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico|Office of the Resident Commissioner]], manages all its intergovernmental affairs before entities of or in the United States (including the federal government of the United States, local and state governments of the United States, and public or private entities in the United States). Both entities frequently assist the Department of State of Puerto Rico in engaging with Washington, D.C.-based ambassadors and federal agencies that handle Puerto Rico's foreign affairs, such as the U.S. Department of State, the [[Agency for International Development]], and others. The current secretary of state is [[Larry Seilhamer Rodríguez]] from the [[New Progressive Party (Puerto Rico)|New Progressive Party]], while the current [[List of Directors of the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration|director of the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration]] is [[Jennifer M. Stopiran]] also from the NPP and a member of the Republican Party of the United States. The [[Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico|resident commissioner of Puerto Rico]], the [[delegate (United States Congress)|delegate]] elected by Puerto Ricans to represent them before the federal government, including the U.S. Congress, sits in the United States House of Representatives, serves and votes on congressional committees, and functions in every respect as a legislator except being denied a vote on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor. The current resident commissioner is [[Jenniffer González|Jenniffer González-Colón]], a Republican, elected in 2016. She received more votes than any other official elected in Puerto Rico that year.<ref name="wines19">{{cite news |last=Wines |first=Michael |title=She's Puerto Rico's Only Link to Washington. She Could Be Its Future Governor. |newspaper=New York Times |date=26 July 2019 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/26/us/Jenniffer-Gonzalez-Colon-puerto-rico.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726173211/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/26/us/Jenniffer-Gonzalez-Colon-puerto-rico.html |archive-date=2019-07-26 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |quote=She noted that her campaign to become resident commissioner garnered more votes in 2016 than any other candidate for office in the unincorporated territory.}}</ref> Many Puerto Ricans have served as United States ambassadors to different nations and international organizations, such as the [[Organization of American States]], mostly but not exclusively in Latin America. For example, Maricarmen Aponte, a Puerto Rican and now an acting assistant secretary of state, previously served as [[List of ambassadors of the United States to El Salvador|U.S. ambassador to El Salvador]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/148343.htm |title=Mari Carmen Aponte |website=State.gov |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=21 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521205719/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/biog/148343.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Military=== {{main|Military of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Federal lands in Puerto Rico and VI.JPG|upright=2.00|thumb|U.S. military installations and other federal lands in Puerto Rico (including the United States Virgin Islands) throughout the 20th century|alt=]] As it is an unincorporated territory of the United States, the defense of Puerto Rico is provided by the United States as part of the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] with the president of the United States as its [[commander-in-chief]]. Puerto Rico has its own [[Puerto Rico National Guard|National Guard]], and its own [[state defense force]], the [[Puerto Rico State Guard]], which by local law is under the authority of the Puerto Rico National Guard. The [[commander-in-chief]] of both local forces is the [[governor of Puerto Rico]] who delegates his authority to the [[Puerto Rico Adjutant General|Puerto Rico adjutant general]], currently [[Major General]] [[José J. Reyes]]. The Adjutant General, in turn, delegates the authority over the State Guard to another officer but retains the authority over the Puerto Rico National Guard as a whole. U.S. military installations in Puerto Rico were part of the [[United States Atlantic Command|U.S. Atlantic Command]] (LANTCOM after 1993 USACOM), which had authority over all U.S. military operations that took place throughout the Atlantic. Puerto Rico had been seen as crucial in supporting LANTCOM's mission until 1999, when U.S. Atlantic Command was renamed and given a new mission as [[United States Joint Forces Command]]. Puerto Rico is currently under the responsibility of [[United States Northern Command]]. Both the Naval Forces Caribbean (NFC) and the Fleet Air Caribbean (FAIR) were formerly based at the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. The NFC had authority over all U.S. Naval activity in the waters of the Caribbean while FAIR had authority over all U.S. military flights and air operations over the Caribbean. With the closing of the Roosevelt Roads and Vieques Island training facilities, the U.S. Navy has basically exited from Puerto Rico, except for the ships that steam by, and the only significant military presence in the island is the [[U.S. Army]] at [[Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico|Ft Buchanan]], the [[Puerto Rican Army]] and Air National Guards, and the [[U.S. Coast Guard]]. Protests over the noise of bombing practice forced the closure of the naval base. This resulted in a loss of 6,000 jobs and an annual decrease in local income of $300 million.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/03/national/after-closing-of-navy-base-hard-times-in-puerto-rico.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003005620/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/03/national/after-closing-of-navy-base-hard-times-in-puerto-rico.html |archive-date=2017-10-03 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=After Closing of Navy Base, Hard Times in Puerto Rico |date=3 April 2005 |work=The New York Times| access-date=31 October 2017}}</ref> A branch of the [[United States Army National Guard|U.S. Army National Guard]] is stationed in Puerto Rico – known as the [[Puerto Rico Army National Guard]] – which performs missions equivalent to those of the Army National Guards of the different [[states of the United States]], including ground defense, disaster relief, and control of civil unrest. The local National Guard also incorporates a branch of the [[United States Air National Guard|U.S. Air National Guard]] – known as the [[Puerto Rico Air National Guard]] – which performs missions equivalent to those of the Air National Guards of each one of the U.S. states. [[File:USS Maryland (SSBN-738) 1997.jpg|thumb|{{sclass|Ohio|submarine|0}} [[ballistic missile submarine]] USS ''Maryland'', [[Roosevelt Roads Naval Station]], 1997|alt=]] At different times in the 20th century, the U.S. had about 25 military or naval installations in Puerto Rico, some very small ones,<ref name="WQS">OSD, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports (DIOR); "Atlas/Data Abstract for the United States and Selected Areas – Fiscal Year 1997;" Department of Defense; 1998. Note: The count of 25 military installations included the branch component of the Roosevelt Roads Naval facility on the island of Vieques, as distinct from the Roosevelt Roads Naval station in Cieba</ref> as well as large installations. The largest of these installations were the former [[Roosevelt Roads Naval Station]] in [[Ceiba, Puerto Rico|Ceiba]], the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facility (AFWTF) on [[Vieques]], the National Guard training facility at [[Camp Santiago]] in [[Salinas, Puerto Rico|Salinas]], [[Fort Allen, Puerto Rico|Fort Allen]] in [[Juana Diaz]], the Army's [[Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico|Fort Buchanan]] in San Juan, the former U.S. Air Force's Ramey Air Force Base in Aguadilla, and the Puerto Rico Air National Guard's [[Muñiz Air National Guard Base]] in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]].<ref name="CD">Meléndez, Edwin; Meléndez, Edgardo; Colonial Dilemma; [[South End Press]]; Boston; 1993</ref> The former U.S. Navy facilities at Roosevelt Roads, Vieques, and Sabana Seca have been deactivated and partially turned over to the local government. Other than [[U.S. Coast Guard]] and Puerto Rico National Guard facilities, there are only two remaining military installations in Puerto Rico: the U.S. Army's small Ft. Buchanan (supporting local veterans and reserve units) and the PRANG (Puerto Rico Air National Guard) Muñiz Air Base (the C-130 Fleet). In recent years, the [[U.S. Congress]] has considered their deactivations, but these have been opposed by diverse public and private entities in Puerto Rico – such as retired military who rely on Ft. Buchanan for the services available there. Puerto Ricans have participated in many United States military conflicts, including the [[American Revolution]], when volunteers from Puerto Rico, [[Cuba]], and [[Mexico]] fought the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] in 1779 under the command of General [[Bernardo de Gálvez]] (1746–1786).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mlis.state.md.us/1997rs/billfile/sj0002.htm |title=Participation of Hispanics in the American Revolution |work=SJR2 |author=Maryland General Assembly |date=8 April 1997 |access-date=9 August 2012 |archive-date=5 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105051722/http://mlis.state.md.us/1997rs/billfile/sj0002.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> They continue to be disproportionately represented in present-day conflicts in [[Iraq]] and [[Afghanistan]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Danny Nieves |url=http://www.valerosos.com/anouncements.html |title=Special Announcements |publisher=Valerosos.com |access-date=18 April 2014 |archive-date=13 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713064457/http://www.valerosos.com/anouncements.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The most notable example is the [[65th Infantry Regiment]] of the [[United States Army]], nicknamed ''The Borinqueneers,'' from the original Taíno name of the island (Borinquen). The all-[[Puerto Rican people|Puerto Rican]] regiment participated in [[World War I]], [[World War II]], the [[Korean War]], and the [[War on Terror]]; in 2014, it was awarded the [[Congressional Gold Medal]] for its heroism during the Korean War. A significant number of Puerto Ricans serve in the U.S. Armed Forces, largely as [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] members and civilian employees. The size of the overall military-related community is estimated to be 100,000, including retired personnel.<ref name="CD"/> Fort Buchanan has about 4,000 military and civilian personnel. In addition, approximately 17,000 people are members of the Puerto Rico Army and Air National Guards, or the U.S. Reserve forces.<ref name="OSD">Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, Reserve Affairs; "Official Guard and Reserve Manpower Strengths and Statistics – Summary End Fiscal Year 1996;" 1996</ref> ===Administrative divisions=== [[File:USA Puerto Rico labeled.svg|thumb|A map of Puerto Rico showing its 78 municipalities; the islands of Vieques and Culebra have their own municipal governments.|alt=]] {{Main|Municipalities of Puerto Rico}} Unlike the vast majority of U.S. states, Puerto Rico has no first-order administrative divisions akin to [[County (United States)|counties]], but has 78 [[Municipality|municipalities]] or [[Municipio|''municipios'']] as the secondary unit of administration; for [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census]] purposes, the municipalities are considered [[County (United States)#County equivalents|county equivalents]]. Municipalities are subdivided into ''[[barrio]]s'', and those into sectors. Each municipality has a [[mayor]] and a municipal legislature elected for four-year terms, per the [[Autonomous Municipalities Act of 1991]]. ==Economy== {{Main|Economy of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico government-debt crisis}} [[File:GDP_per_capita_development_in_Puerto_Rico.svg|thumb|300px|right|Real [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita development of Puerto Rico]] Puerto Rico is classified as a [[high income economy]] by the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]].<ref name="Advanced economies" /> It is considered the most competitive economy in [[Latin America]] by the [[World Economic Forum]] and ranks highly on the [[Human Development Index]]. According to [[World Bank]], [[gross national income]] per capita in Puerto Rico in 2020 was $21,740.<ref>{{Cite web|title=GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) - Puerto Rico {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD?locations=PR|access-date=2021-12-12|website=data.worldbank.org|archive-date=12 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212054854/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD?locations=PR|url-status=live}}</ref> Puerto Rico's economy is mainly driven by [[Manufacturing in Puerto Rico|manufacturing]] (primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals and electronics) followed by services (primarily finance, insurance, [[real estate in Puerto Rico|real estate]] and [[tourism in Puerto Rico|tourism]]); agriculture represents less than 1% of GNP.<ref>{{cite web|title=PUERTO RICO FACT SHEET|url=http://www.gdb-pur.com/economy/documents/PREconomicFactSheet-March2016.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525013719/http://www.gdb-pur.com/economy/documents/PREconomicFactSheet-March2016.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017|access-date=26 August 2017|website=Gdb-pur.com}}</ref>{{efn|pr.gov (in Spanish) "La manufactura es el sector principal de la economía de Puerto Rico."<ref name="manufacturing-by-pr.gov"/>}}{{efn|pr.gov (in Spanish) "Algunas de las industrias más destacadas dentro del sector de la manufactura son: las farmacéuticas, los textiles, los petroquímicos, las computadoras, la electrónica y las compañías dedicadas a la manufactura de instrumentos médicos y científicos, entre otros."<ref name="manufacturing-by-pr.gov" />}} In recent years, it has also become a popular destination for MICE ([[meetings, incentives, conferencing, exhibitions]]), with a modern [[Isla Verde, Puerto Rico|convention center district]] overlooking the [[Port of San Juan]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.businessdestinations.com/destinations/puerto-ricos-tourism-industry-continues-to-expand/ |title=Puerto Rico's tourism industry continues to expand |work=Business Destinations |access-date=27 April 2017 |archive-date=28 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428053343/http://www.businessdestinations.com/destinations/puerto-ricos-tourism-industry-continues-to-expand/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Responsibility for San Juan [[port]] inspections lies with [[Plant Protection and Quarantine|PPQ]].<ref name="Interceptions" /> So high is the volume of [[cargo]] traffic that between 1984{{endash}}2000 the San Juan PPQ station recorded 7.74% of all [[pest surveillance|interceptions]], #4 in the country, #2 for insects and #3 for [[agricultural pathogen|pathogens]].<ref name="Interceptions" /> Most species are originally from [[South America]] or elsewhere in the [[Caribbean]] due to PR's position as an intermediary on the way to the mainland.<ref name="Interceptions" /> This is one of the worst locations for [[cut flowers]] and other plant parts {{endash}} both in terms of number of problems and diversity of species {{endash}} for insects in plant parts in [[baggage]], and for pathogens in plant parts in baggage and cargo.<ref name="Interceptions" /> Pathogen interceptions were dramatically (17%) higher 1999{{endash}}2000 than in 1985{{endash}}1986.<ref name="Interceptions">{{Unbulleted list citebundle |{{*}} {{cite journal | date=2006 | publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]] | first5=David | pages=611–630 | title=Interceptions of nonindigenous plant pests at US ports of entry and border crossings over a 17-year period | first1=Deborah G. | last1=McCullough | first2=Timothy T. | last2=Work | first3=Joseph F. | last3=Cavey | first4=Andrew M. | last4=Liebhold | last5=Marshall | journal=[[Biological Invasions]] | volume=8 | issue=4 | doi=10.1007/s10530-005-1798-4 | bibcode=2006BiInv...8..611M | s2cid=23684940}} |{{*}} {{cite journal | year=2009 | issue=1 | volume=46 | publisher=[[Wiley Publishing]] ([[British Ecological Society]]) | journal=[[Journal of Applied Ecology]] | issn=0021-8901 | last=Hulme | first=Philip E. | title=Trade, transport and trouble: managing invasive species pathways in an era of globalization | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2008.01600.x | pages=10–18 | bibcode=2009JApEc..46...10H | s2cid=1620024| doi-access=free }} |{{*}} {{cite journal | date=2016 | issue=1 | volume=7 | publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] | journal=[[Nature Communications]] | issn=2041-1723 | first3=Jeffrey S. | last1=Early | first1=Regan | last2=Bradley | first2=Bethany A. | last3=Dukes | last4=Lawler | first4=Joshua J. | last5=Olden | first5=Julian D. | last6=Blumenthal | first6=Dana M. | last7=Gonzalez | first7=Patrick | last8=Grosholz | first8=Edwin D. | last9=Ibañez | first9=Ines | last10=Miller | first10=Luke P. | last11=Sorte | first11=Cascade J. B. | last12=Tatem | first12=Andrew J. | title=Global threats from invasive alien species in the twenty-first century and national response capacities | page=12485 | doi=10.1038/ncomms12485 | s2cid=1053793 | pmid=27549569 | pmc=4996970| bibcode=2016NatCo...712485E }} |{{*}} {{cite journal | date=2014 | issue=1 | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=59 | pages=13–30 | journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] | issn=0066-4170 | last1=Herms | first1=Daniel A. | last2=McCullough | first2=Deborah G. | title=Emerald Ash Borer Invasion of North America: History, Biology, Ecology, Impacts, and Management | doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162051 | s2cid=207608918 | pmid=24112110| doi-access=free }} |{{*}} {{cite journal | date=2008 | issue=1 | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=53 | journal=[[Annual Review of Entomology]] | issn=0066-4170 | last1=Liebhold | first1=Andrew M. | last2=Tobin | first2=Patrick C. | title=Population Ecology of Insect Invasions and Their Management | doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091401 | pages=387–408 | s2cid=11688227 | pmid=17877456}} |{{*}} {{cite journal | date=2012 | issue=3 | volume=10 | publisher=[[Wiley Publishing]] ([[Ecological Society of America]]) | journal=[[Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment]] | issn=1540-9295 | last1=Liebhold | first1=Andrew M | last2=Brockerhoff | first2=Eckehard G | last3=Garrett | first3=Lynn J | last4=Parke | first4=Jennifer L | last5=Britton | first5=Kerry O | title=Live plant imports: the major pathway for forest insect and pathogen invasions of the US | doi=10.1890/110198 | pages=135–143 | bibcode=2012FrEE...10..135L | s2cid=86218354}} |{{*}} {{cite journal | year=2010 | volume=60 | issue=11 | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] ([[American Institute of Biological Sciences]]) | journal=[[BioScience]] | issn=1525-3244 | first3=Betsy | pages=886–897 | last1=Aukema | first1=Juliann E. | last2=McCullough | first2=Deborah G. | last3=Von Holle | last4=Liebhold | first4=Andrew M. | last5=Britton | first5=Kerry | last6=Frankel | first6=Susan J. | title=Historical Accumulation of Nonindigenous Forest Pests in the Continental United States | doi=10.1525/bio.2010.60.11.5 | s2cid=28154739}} |{{*}} {{cite journal | date=2021 | volume=31 | issue=7 | last6=James | publisher=[[Wiley Publishing]] ([[Ecological Society of America]]) | journal=[[Ecological Applications]] | issn=1051-0761 | last1=Turner | first1=Rebecca M. | last2=Brockerhoff | first2=Eckehard G. | last3=Bertelsmeier | first3=Cleo | last4=Blake | first4=Rachael E. | last5=Caton | first5=Barney | first6=Alex | last7=MacLeod | first7=Alan | last8=Nahrung | first8=Helen F. | last9=Pawson | first9=Stephen M. | last10=Plank | first10=Michael J. | last11=Pureswaran | first11=Deepa S. | last12=Seebens | first12=Hanno | last13=Yamanaka | first13=Takehiko | last14=Liebhold | first14=Andrew M. | title=Worldwide border interceptions provide a window into human-mediated global insect movement | pages=e02412 | doi=10.1002/eap.2412 | s2cid=235809250 | pmid=34255404 | bibcode=2021EcoAp..31E2412T | url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/wsl/islandora/object/wsl%3A28309 | access-date=28 September 2022 | archive-date=22 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022013917/https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/wsl/islandora/object/wsl:28309 | url-status=live }} }}</ref> [[geography of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico's geography]] and [[political status of Puerto Rico|political status]] are both determining factors for its economic prosperity, primarily due to its relatively small size; [[Natural resource economics|lack of natural resources]] and subsequent dependence on [[import]]s; and vulnerability to U.S. [[foreign policy]] and trading restrictions, particularly concerning [[transportation in Puerto Rico|its shipping industry]]. Puerto Rico experienced a recession from 2006 to 2011, interrupted by four quarters of economic growth, and entered into recession again in 2013, following growing fiscal imbalance and the expiration of the IRS Section 936 corporate incentives that the [[Internal Revenue Code|U.S. Internal Revenue Code]] had applied to Puerto Rico. This IRS section was critical to the economy, as it established [[tax exemption]]s for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico and allowed their insular subsidiaries to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. Puerto Rico has been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade while maintaining a [[purchasing power parity]] per capita higher than 80% of the rest of the world.<ref>[[Alan Heston]], [[Robert Summers]] and Bettina Aten, [https://web.archive.org/web/20120822040945/http://pwt.econ.upenn.edu/php_site/pwt71/pwt71_form.php Penn World Table Version 7.1], Center for International Comparisons of Production, Income and Prices at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], July 2012. Accessed on 19 August 2012. Note: GDP per capita data are "PPP Converted GDP Per Capita, average GEKS-CPDW, at current prices (in I$)", labeled as variable "cgdp2".</ref> [[File:Puerto-rico-gdp-by-sector.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Puerto Rico's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] by [[economic sector]]]] Academically, most of Puerto Rico's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; its inability to become self-sufficient and self-sustainable throughout history;{{efn|Torrech San Inocencio (2011; in Spanish) "Con los más de $1,500 millones anuales que recibimos en asistencia federal para alimentos podríamos desarrollar una industria alimentaria autosuficiente en Puerto Rico."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/voz-titulo-1137663.html |title=La autosuficiencia alimentaria |first=Rafael |last=Torrcech San Inocencio |date=7 December 2011 |access-date=19 September 2013 |language=es |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106153646/http://www.elnuevodia.com/voz-titulo-1137663.html |archive-date=6 November 2013 }}</ref>}} its highly politicized public policy which tends to change [[political party strength in Puerto Rico|whenever a political party gains power]];{{efn|Millán Rodriguez (2013; in Spanish) "Los representantes del Pueblo en la Junta de Gobierno de la Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica [...] denunciaron ayer que la propuesta del Gobernador para hacer cambios en la composición del organismo institucionaliza la intervención político partidista en la corporación pública y la convierte en una agencia del Ejecutivo.."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.vocero.com/denuncian-politizacion-de-junta-aee/ |title=Denuncian politización de Junta AEE |first=Yamilet |last=Millán Rodríguez |newspaper=[[El Vocero]] |date=4 April 2013 |access-date=19 September 2013 |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104002045/http://www.vocero.com/denuncian-politizacion-de-junta-aee/ |archive-date=4 November 2013 }}</ref>}} as well as [[government of Puerto Rico|its highly inefficient local government]]{{efn|Vera Rosa (2013; in Spanish) "Aunque Puerto Rico mueve entre el sector público y privado $15 billones en el área de salud, las deficiencias en el sistema todavía no alcanzan un nivel de eficiencia óptimo."<ref name="el-vocero-inefficient-health-2013">{{cite news |url=http://www.vocero.com/ineficiencia-arropa-a-los-recursos-economicos-de-salud/ |title=Ineficiencia arropa a los recursos económicos de salud |date=17 May 2013 |access-date=19 September 2013 |language=es |newspaper=[[El Vocero]] |first=Ileanexis |last=Vera Rosado |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104000540/http://www.vocero.com/ineficiencia-arropa-a-los-recursos-economicos-de-salud/ |archive-date=4 November 2013 }}</ref>}}{{efn|Vera Rosado (2013; in Spanish) "Para mejorar la calidad de servicio, que se impacta principalmente por deficiencias administrativas y no por falta de dinero[...]"<ref name="el-vocero-inefficient-health-2013" />}} which has accrued a [[public debt of Puerto Rico|public debt]] equal to 68% of its [[gross domestic product]] throughout time.{{efn|González (2012; in Spanish) "[...] al analizarse la deuda pública de la Isla contra el Producto Interno Bruto (PIB), se ubicaría en una relación deuda/PIB de 68% aproximadamente."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/debemosmasdeloqueproducimos-1278143.html |title=Debemos más de lo que producimos |first=Jenisabel |last=González |date=13 June 2012 |access-date=19 September 2013 |language=es |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106153626/http://www.elnuevodia.com/debemosmasdeloqueproducimos-1278143.html |archive-date=6 November 2013 }}</ref>}}{{efn|Bauzá (2013; in Spanish) "La realidad de nuestra situación económica y fiscal es resultado de años de falta de acción. Al Gobierno le faltó creatividad, innovación y rapidez en la creación de un nuevo modelo económico que sustentara nuestra economía. Tras la eliminación de la Sección 936, debimos ser proactivos, y no lo fuimos."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/garciapadillainsisteenqueheredounpaisencantos-1657317.html |title=García Padilla insiste en que heredó un país "en cantos" |first=Nydia |last=Bauzá |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] |date=2 December 2013 |access-date=2 December 2013 |language=es |archive-date=4 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131204214520/http://www.elnuevodia.com/garciapadillainsisteenqueheredounpaisencantos-1657317.html }}</ref>}} Puerto Rico currently has a public debt of $72.204 billion (equivalent to 103% of GNP), and a government deficit of $2.5 billion.<ref>{{cite web|author1=World Bank Indicators|author2=World Bank|title=World Bank Indicators 2012: Puerto Rico|url=http://data.worldbank.org/country/puerto-rico|access-date=5 February 2012|archive-date=15 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215065629/https://data.worldbank.org/country/puerto-rico|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="wef-gcr-2013">{{cite web|last=Schwab|first=Klaus|year=2013|title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2013–2014|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2013-14.pdf|access-date=7 September 2013|publisher=[[World Economic Forum]]|archive-date=20 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920154137/http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2013-14.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> By American standards, Puerto Rico is underdeveloped: It is poorer than Mississippi, the poorest state of the U.S., with 41% of its population below the [[poverty threshold|poverty line]].{{efn|Quintero (2013; in Spanish) "Los indicadores de una economía débil son muchos, y la economía en Puerto Rico está sumamente debilitada, según lo evidencian la tasa de desempleo (13.5%), los altos niveles de pobreza (41.7%), los altos niveles de quiebra y la pérdida poblacional."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.noticel.com/noticia/148055/las-estadisticas-hablan-puerto-rico-camino-a-ser-el-detroit-del-caribe.html |title=Las estadísticas hablan: Puerto Rico camino a ser el "Detroit del Caribe" |first=Laura |last=Quintero |date=14 September 2013 |access-date=22 January 2014 |language=es |newspaper=[[NotiCel]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201150906/http://www.noticel.com/noticia/148055/las-estadisticas-hablan-puerto-rico-camino-a-ser-el-detroit-del-caribe.html |archive-date=1 February 2014 }}</ref>}} However, it has the highest [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita in Latin America. Puerto Rico's main trading partners are the United States, [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], and [[Japan]], with most products coming from [[East Asia]], mainly [[China]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Taiwan]]. Puerto Rico's dependency on oil for [[transportation in Puerto Rico|transportation]] and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in [[global economy|the world economy]] and [[climate]]. === Tourism === [[File:Beach in Coto, Isabela, Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|Beach in Coto, [[Isabela, Puerto Rico|Isabela]]]] {{Main|Tourism in Puerto Rico}} [[Tourism in Puerto Rico]] is also an important part of the economy. In 2017, [[Hurricane Maria]] caused severe damage to the island and its infrastructure, disrupting tourism for many months. The damage was estimated at $100 billion. An April 2019 report indicated that by that time, only a few hotels were still closed, that life for tourists in and around the capital had, for the most part, returned to normal.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/news/2019/04/02/puerto-rico-breaks-tourism-record-while-rebuilding-hurricane-maria/3346139002/ |title=Nearly two years after Hurricane Maria devastation, Puerto Rico welcomes record number of tourists |date=2 April 2019 |publisher=USA Today |access-date=27 November 2019 |quote=Brief power outages still hit occasionally as the government prepares to privatize an aging and poorly maintained grid that was destroyed by the hurricane, and water shortages have hit parts of Puerto Rico's north coast since 30 percent of the island is experiencing a moderate drought that is affecting 791,000 of its 3.2 million inhabitants. |archive-date=27 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127164315/https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/news/2019/04/02/puerto-rico-breaks-tourism-record-while-rebuilding-hurricane-maria/3346139002/ |url-status=live }}</ref> By October 2019, nearly all of the popular amenities for tourists, in the major destinations such as San Juan, Ponce and Arecibo, were in operation on the island and tourism was rebounding. This was important for the economy, since tourism provides up to 10% of Puerto Rico's GDP, according to Discover Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.viahero.com/travel-to-puerto-rico/puerto-rico-tourism-update |title=Nearly two years after Hurricane Maria devastation, Puerto Rico welcomes record number of tourists |date=2 April 2019 |publisher=ViaHero |access-date=16 October 2019 |quote=Almost all of Puerto Rico's hotels are open for business. The beaches are ready for swimming and sunbathing, and even remote places to visit like El Yunque rainforest are receiving visitors. |archive-date=27 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127164436/https://www.viahero.com/travel-to-puerto-rico/puerto-rico-tourism-update |url-status=live }}</ref> A tourism campaign was launched by Discover Puerto Rico in 2018 intended to highlight the island's culture and history, branding it distinct, and different from other Caribbean destinations. In 2019, Discover Puerto Rico planned to continue that campaign.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://skift.com/2019/04/24/culture-is-central-in-puerto-ricos-new-marketing-campaign/ |title=Culture Is Central in Puerto Rico's New Marketing Campaign |date=24 April 2019 |publisher=Skift |access-date=27 November 2019 |archive-date=27 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191127164352/https://skift.com/2019/04/24/culture-is-central-in-puerto-ricos-new-marketing-campaign/ |url-status=live }}</ref> === Fiscal debt === In early 2017, the [[Puerto Rican government-debt crisis]] posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/latestnews/2017/01/18/Puerto-Rico-oversight-board-favors-more-time-restructuring-talks |title=Puerto Rico oversight board favors more time for restructuring talks |author=Nick Brown |agency=Reuters |date=18 January 2017 |work=The Fiscal Times |access-date=16 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217145557/http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/latestnews/2017/01/18/Puerto-Rico-oversight-board-favors-more-time-restructuring-talks |url-status=live }}</ref> The debt had been increasing during a decade-long recession.<ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=http://www.starherald.com/news/nation_world/puerto-rico-gets-more-time-to-propose-fiscal-plan/article_b805f0e6-f333-5d33-8d94-d29a610d820a.html|title=Puerto Rico Gets More Time|date=29 January 2017|newspaper=Star Herald|access-date=16 February 2017|agency=Associated Press|location=Scottsbluff, ME}}{{dead link|date=May 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. With debt payments due, the governor was facing the risk of a government shutdown and failure to fund the managed health care system.<ref>{{cite news |last=Platt |first=Eric |date=19 January 2017 |title=New Puerto Rico governor seeks amicable debt crisis resolution |url=https://www.ft.com/content/d9551584-de66-11e6-86ac-f253db7791c6 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/d9551584-de66-11e6-86ac-f253db7791c6 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |newspaper=Financial Times |location=New York |access-date=17 February 2017}}</ref><ref name="Watson">{{cite web |url=https://www.treasury.gov/connect/blog/Pages/Secretary-Lew-Sends-Letter-to-115th-Congress-on-Puerto-Rico.aspx |title=Secretary Lew Sends Letter to 115th Congress on Puerto Rico |last=Watson |first=Dan |date=17 January 2017 |website=Department of the Treasury |access-date=16 February 2017 |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217062856/https://www.treasury.gov/connect/blog/Pages/Secretary-Lew-Sends-Letter-to-115th-Congress-on-Puerto-Rico.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> "Without action before April, Puerto Rico's ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico", according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico's inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth."<ref name="Watson"/> Initially, the oversight board created under [[PROMESA]] called for Puerto Rico's governor [[Ricardo Rosselló]] to deliver a fiscal turnaround plan by 28 January. Just before that deadline, the control board gave the Commonwealth government until 28 February to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors for restructuring debt) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to 31 May.<ref name="auto"/> It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy-like process under [[PROMESA]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/latestnews/2017/01/18/Puerto-Rico-oversight-board-favors-more-time-restructuring-talks |title=Puerto Rico oversight board favors more time for restructuring talks |author=Nick Brown |agency=Reuters |date=18 January 2017 |work=The Fiscal Times |access-date=16 February 2017 |quote=The bipartisan, seven-member oversight board was created under the federal Puerto Rico rescue law known as PROMESA, passed by the U.S. Congress last year. It is charged with helping the island manage its finances and navigate its way out of the economic jam, including by negotiating restructuring deals with creditors. |archive-date=17 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217145557/http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/latestnews/2017/01/18/Puerto-Rico-oversight-board-favors-more-time-restructuring-talks |url-status=live }}</ref> An internal survey conducted by the Puerto Rican Economists Association revealed that the majority of Puerto Rican economists reject the policy recommendations of the Board and the Rosselló government, with more than 80% of economists arguing in favor of auditing the debt.<ref>{{cite news |title=Economistas se Oponen a las Reformas para 'estimular la economía' |newspaper=El Nuevo Día |date=20 February 2017}}</ref> In early August 2017, the island's financial oversight board (created by PROMESA) planned to institute two days off without pay per month for government employees, down from the original plan of four days per month; the latter had been expected to achieve $218 million in savings. Governor Rossello rejected this plan as unjustified and unnecessary. Pension reforms were also discussed including a proposal for a 10% reduction in benefits to begin addressing the $50 billion in unfunded pension liabilities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/08/04/reuters-america-puerto-rico-to-furlough-workers-proposes-pension-plan-reform.html |title=Puerto Rico to furlough workers, proposes pension plan reform |first=Daniel |last=Bases |date=4 August 2017 |website=Cnbc.com |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806222116/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/08/04/reuters-america-puerto-rico-to-furlough-workers-proposes-pension-plan-reform.html |archive-date=6 August 2017 }}</ref> ===Public finances=== {{main|Puerto Rico government-debt crisis|Budget of the Government of Puerto Rico|public debt of Puerto Rico}} Puerto Rico has an [[operating budget]] of about U.S.$9.8 billion with expenses at about $10.4 billion, creating a structural deficit of $775 million (about 7.9% of the budget).<ref name="el-vocero-la-estadidad-es-uniforme">{{cite news |url=http://elvocero.com/la-estadidad-es-una-unica-uniforme-e-irreversible/ |title=La Estadidad es una, única, uniforme e irreversible |first=José |last=Castrodad |newspaper=[[El Vocero]] |date=7 April 2014 |access-date=8 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409052840/http://elvocero.com/la-estadidad-es-una-unica-uniforme-e-irreversible/ |archive-date=9 April 2014 }}</ref> The practice of approving budgets with a structural deficit has been done for {{years ago|2000}} consecutive years starting in 2000. Throughout those years, including present time, all budgets contemplated issuing bonds to cover these projected deficits rather than making structural adjustments. This practice increased Puerto Rico's cumulative debt, as the government had already been issuing bonds [[Puerto Rico government budget balance|to balance its actual budget]] for four decades beginning in 1973.{{efn|Walsh (2013) "In each of the last six years, Puerto Rico sold hundreds of millions of dollars of new bonds just to meet payments on its older, outstanding bonds – a red flag. It also sold $2.5 billion worth of bonds to raise cash for its troubled pension system – a risky practice – and it sold still more long-term bonds to cover its yearly budget deficits."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://dealbook.nytimes.com/2013/10/07/worsening-debt-crisis-threatens-puerto-rico/ |title=Worsening Debt Crisis Threatens Puerto Rico |first=Mary |last=Walsh |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=7 October 2013 |access-date=8 October 2013 |archive-date=2 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102003355/http://dealbook.nytimes.com/2013/10/07/worsening-debt-crisis-threatens-puerto-rico/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/comopuertoricollegoatenercreditochatarra-1704621.html |title=¿Cómo Puerto Rico llegó a tener crédito chatarra? |newspaper=[[El Nuevo Día]] |date=4 February 2014 |access-date=2 March 2014 |language=es |archive-date=2 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302003237/http://www.elnuevodia.com/comopuertoricollegoatenercreditochatarra-1704621.html }}</ref> [[File:Budget-of-the-government-of-puerto-rico-2012-percentage.png|thumb|upright=1.8|The 2012 Budget of the government of Puerto Rico]] Projected deficits added substantial burdens to an already indebted nation which accrued [[Public debt of Puerto Rico|a public debt]] of $71B or about 70% of Puerto Rico's gross domestic product. This sparked [[Puerto Rico government-debt crisis|an ongoing government-debt crisis]] after Puerto Rico's general obligation bonds were downgraded to speculative non-investment grade ("junk status") by three credit-rating agencies. In terms of financial control, almost 9.6%—or about $1.5 billion—of Puerto Rico's central government budget expenses for FY2014 is expected to be spent on debt service.{{efn|PRGDB "Financial Information and Operating Data Report to 18 October 2013" p. 142<ref name="gdb-report-2013">{{cite web |url=http://www.gdb-pur.com/spa/documents/commonwealthreport.pdf |title=Financial Information and Operating Data Report to October 18, 2013 |publisher=[[Puerto Rico Government Development Bank]] |date=18 October 2013 |access-date=4 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140422202646/http://www.gdb-pur.com/spa/documents/commonwealthreport.pdf |archive-date=22 April 2014 }}</ref>}} Harsher budget cuts are expected as Puerto Rico must now repay larger chunks of debts in the coming years.{{update inline|date=July 2016}} For practical reasons the budget is divided into two aspects: a "general budget" which comprises the assignments funded exclusively by the [[Department of Treasury of Puerto Rico]], and the "consolidated budget" which comprises the assignments funded by the general budget, by [[List of government-owned corporations of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico's government-owned corporations]], by revenue expected from loans, by the sale of government bonds, by subsidies extended by the [[federal government of the United States]], and by other funds. Both budgets contrast each other drastically, with the consolidated budget being usually thrice the size of the general budget; currently $29B and $9.0B respectively. Almost one out of every four dollars in the consolidated budget comes from U.S. federal subsidies while government-owned corporations compose more than 31% of the consolidated budget. The critical aspects come from the sale of bonds, which comprise 7% of the consolidated budget – a ratio that increased annually due to the government's inability to prepare a balanced budget in addition to being incapable of generating enough income to cover all its expenses. In particular, the government-owned corporations add a heavy burden to the overall budget and public debt, as none is self-sufficient. For example, in FY2011 the government-owned corporations reported aggregated losses of more than $1.3B with the [[Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority]] (PRHTA) reporting losses of $409M, the [[Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority]] (PREPA; the government monopoly that controls all electricity on the island) reporting losses of $272M, while the [[Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority]] (PRASA; the government monopoly that controls all water utilities on the island) reported losses of $112M.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://grupocne.org/2013/01/31/san-juan-2023-o-la-decadencia-de-un-pais/ |title=San Juan 2023 o la decadencia de un País |work=Centro Para Una Nueva Economía |publisher=Center for a New Economy |date=31 January 2013 |access-date=28 April 2014 |archive-date=29 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429045551/http://grupocne.org/2013/01/31/san-juan-2023-o-la-decadencia-de-un-pais/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Losses by government-owned corporations have been defrayed through the issuance of bonds compounding more than 40% of Puerto Rico's entire public debt today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.pr.gov/presupuestos/presupuesto2011-2012/Resumen%20del%20Presupuesto/Servicio%20de%20la%20Deuda.pdf |title=SERVICIO DE LA DEUDA |website=".pr.gov |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525014050/http://www2.pr.gov/presupuestos/presupuesto2011-2012/Resumen%20del%20Presupuesto/Servicio%20de%20la%20Deuda.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 }}</ref> Holistically, from FY2000–FY2010 Puerto Rico's debt grew at a [[compound annual growth rate]] (CAGR) of 9% while GDP remained stagnant.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gdbpr.com/spa/investors_resources/documents/2011-07-12-DeudaPublicaDic2010-GS.pdf |title=Reporte General sobre Deuda Pública |website=".pr.gov |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525013905/http://gdbpr.com/spa/investors_resources/documents/2011-07-12-DeudaPublicaDic2010-GS.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 }}</ref> This has not always provided a long-term solution. In early July 2017 for example, the PREPA power authority was effectively bankrupt after defaulting in a plan to restructure $9 billion in bond debt; the agency planned to seek Court protection.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/02/business/puerto-ricos-electric-power-authority-effectively-files-for-bankruptcy.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703030726/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/02/business/puerto-ricos-electric-power-authority-effectively-files-for-bankruptcy.html |archive-date=2017-07-03 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Puerto Rico's Power Authority Effectively Files for Bankruptcy |first=Mary Williams |last=Walsh |date=2 July 2017 |access-date=26 August 2017 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> In terms of protocol, the governor, together with the [[Puerto Rico Office of Management and Budget]] (OGP in Spanish), formulates the budget he believes is required to operate all government branches for the ensuing fiscal year. He then submits this formulation as a budget request to the Puerto Rican legislature before 1 July, the date established by law as the beginning of Puerto Rico's fiscal year. While the constitution establishes that the request must be submitted "at the beginning of each regular session", the request is typically submitted during the first week of May as the regular sessions of the legislature begin in January and it would be impractical to submit a request so far in advance. Once submitted, the budget is then approved by the legislature, typically with amendments, through a [[joint resolution]] and is referred back to the governor for his approval. The governor then either approves it or vetoes it. If vetoed, the legislature can then either refer it back with amendments for the governor's approval or approve it without the governor's consent by two-thirds of the bodies of each chamber.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.pr.gov/presupuestos/PresupuestoAprobado2013-2014/Informacin%20General/Proceso%20Presupuestario.pdf |title=PROCESO PRESUPUESTARIO |website=2.pr.gov |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525014054/http://www2.pr.gov/presupuestos/PresupuestoAprobado2013-2014/Informacin%20General/Proceso%20Presupuestario.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2017 }}</ref> Once the budget is approved, the Department of Treasury disburses funds to the Office of Management and Budget which in turn disburses the funds to the respective agencies, while the [[Puerto Rico Government Development Bank]] (the government's intergovernmental bank) manages all related banking affairs including those related to the government-owned corporations. ===Cost of living=== [[File:Map-of-jones-act-carrier-routes-for-puerto-rico.png|thumb|upright=1.6|A map of the [[Merchant Marine Act of 1920|Jones Act]] merchant marine shipping routes for Puerto Rico|alt=|left]] The [[cost of living]] in Puerto Rico is high and has increased over the past decade.{{efn|MRGI (2008) "Many female migrants leave their families behind due to the risk of illegal travel and the high cost of living in Puerto Rico."<ref name="refworld.org"/>}}<ref>[https://archive.today/20140618035840/http://www.militaryinstallations.dod.mil/pls/psgprod/f?p=132:CONTENT:618940367579001::NO::P4_INST_ID,P4_INST_TYPE:4150,INSTALLATION "Fort Buchanan, Puerto Rico"]. ''Military Installations''. Department of Defense. Retrieved 17 June 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/29/puerto-ricos-cost-of-livi_n_4013350.html |title=Puerto Rico's Cost of Living Skyrockets |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |date=29 September 2013 |access-date=14 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140313113741/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/29/puerto-ricos-cost-of-livi_n_4013350.html |archive-date=13 March 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/us/economy-and-crime-spur-new-puerto-rican-exodus.html?_r=0 |work=The New York Times |first=Lizette |last=Alvarez |title=Economy and Crime Spur New Puerto Rican Exodus |date=8 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elnuevodia.com/sigueenaumentoelcostodevidaenpuertorico-1585599.html |title=Home – El Nuevo Día |publisher=Elnuevodia.com |date=31 August 2013 |access-date=14 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208121032/http://www.elnuevodia.com/sigueenaumentoelcostodevidaenpuertorico-1585599.html |archive-date=8 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.primerahora.com/noticias/gobierno-politica/nota/midaconcluyealtocostodevidaeslapreocupacionmayordelboricua-399279/ |title=MIDA concluye alto costo de vida es la preocupación mayor del boricua |publisher=Primerahora.com |date=13 February 2013 |access-date=14 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Dougherty |first=Conor |url=https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB118705864479596908 |title=Puerto Rico's Economic Slump Weighs Hard on Consumers |publisher=Online.wsj.com |date=14 August 2007 |access-date=14 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Coto |first=Danica |url=http://nbclatino.com/2013/09/29/life-in-puerto-rico-becomes-costlier-amid-crisis/ |title=Life in Puerto Rico becomes costlier amid crisis |publisher=Nbclatino.com |date=29 September 2013 |access-date=14 April 2014 |archive-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413160122/http://nbclatino.com/2013/09/29/life-in-puerto-rico-becomes-costlier-amid-crisis/ }}</ref> Statistics used for cost of living sometimes do not take into account certain costs, such as the high cost of electricity, which has hovered in the 24¢ to 30¢ range per kilowatt-hour, two to three times the national average, increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States". While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Puerto Rico, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and other United States territories. The household median income is stated as $19,350 and the mean income as $30,463 in the U.S. Census Bureau's 2015 update. The report also indicates that 45.5% of individuals are below the poverty level.<ref name="census1">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov |title=Puerto Rico 2012–2016 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2016 |website=US Census |publisher=Department of Commerce |access-date=25 September 2017 }}</ref> The median home value in Puerto Rico ranges from U.S.$100,000 to U.S.$214,000, while the national median home value sits at $119,600.{{efn|FRBNY (2011) "...home values vary considerably across municipios: for the metro area overall, the median value of owner-occupied homes was estimated at $126,000 (based on data for 2007–09), but these medians ranged from $214,000 in Guaynabo to around $100,000 in some of the outlying municipios. The median value in the San Juan municipio was estimated at $170,000."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newyorkfed.org/regional/profile_puertorico.html |title=Puerto Rico |publisher=[[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] |date=August 2011 |access-date=6 September 2013}}</ref>}} [[File:Flying into San Juan-Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|Flying into San Juan]] One of the most cited contributors to the high cost of living in Puerto Rico is the [[Merchant Marine Act of 1920]], also known as the [[Merchant Marine Act of 1920|Jones Act]], which prevents foreign-flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports, a practice known as [[cabotage]].<ref name="erg-trade">{{cite web |url=http://graduados.uprrp.edu/planificacion/facultad/elias-gutierrez/ERGTRADE.pdf |title=Impact of the Coastwise Trade Laws on the Transportation System of the United States of America |first=Elías |last=Gutierrez |access-date=6 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002122312/http://graduados.uprrp.edu/planificacion/facultad/elias-gutierrez/ERGTRADE.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2013 }}</ref> Because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with goods from [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], [[Western Europe]], and [[Africa]] cannot stop in Puerto Rico, offload Puerto Rico-bound goods, load mainland-bound Puerto Rico-manufactured goods, and continue to U.S. ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to U.S. ports, where distributors [[break bulk cargo|break bulk]] and send Puerto Rico-bound manufactured goods to Puerto Rico across the ocean by U.S.-flagged ships.<ref name="erg-trade" /> The [[government of Puerto Rico|local government of Puerto Rico]] has requested several times to the [[U.S. Congress]] to exclude Puerto Rico from the Jones Act restrictions without success.{{efn|Santiago (2021) "Local detractors of the Jones Act [...] for many years have unsuccessfully tried to have Puerto Rico excluded from the law's provisions[...]"<ref>{{cite news |title=Jones Act requirement comes under new light |first=Jaime |last=Santiago |newspaper=[[Caribbean Business]] |url=http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/prnt_ed/news02.php?nw_id=7877&ct_id=0 |date=29 November 2012 |access-date=6 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308221156/http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/prnt_ed/news02.php?nw_id=7877&ct_id=0 |archive-date=8 March 2014 }}</ref>}} The most recent measure has been taken by the [[17th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico]] through R. Conc. del S. 21.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oslpr.org/files/docs/{A8F2DF0C-A03D-40C7-A198-ED9C945F81C4}.doc |title=R. Conc. del S. 21 |format=[[Microsoft Word]] |publisher=[[Puerto Rico Office of Legislative Services]] |date=6 May 2013 |access-date=6 September 2013 |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.noticel.com/noticia/141423/senado-aprueba-proyecto-para-pedir-trato-preferencial-en-leyes-de-cabotaje.html |title=Senado aprueba proyecto para pedir trato preferencial en leyes de cabotaje |newspaper=[[NotiCel]] |date=5 June 2013 |access-date=6 September 2013 |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113112757/http://www.noticel.com/noticia/141423/senado-aprueba-proyecto-para-pedir-trato-preferencial-en-leyes-de-cabotaje.html |archive-date=13 November 2013 }}</ref> These measures have always received support from all the [[Political party strength in Puerto Rico|major local political parties]]. In 2013 the [[Government Accountability Office]] published a report which concluded that "repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs" and that "shippers believed that opening the trade to non-U.S.-flag competition could lower costs".{{efn|name=joc-gao-report-repeal-quote|JOC (2013) "Repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs"<ref name="joc-gao-report"/>}}{{efn|name=joc-gao-report-lower-costs-quote|JOC (2013) "The GAO report said its interviews with shippers indicated they [...] believed that opening the trade to non-U.S.-flag competition could lower costs."<ref name="joc-gao-report" />}} The same GAO report also found that "[shippers] doing business in Puerto Rico that GAO contacted reported that the freight rates are often—although not always—lower for foreign carriers going to and from Puerto Rico and foreign locations than the rates shippers pay to ship similar cargo to and from the United States, despite longer distances. Data were not available to allow us to validate the examples given or verify the extent to which this difference occurred."<ref name="gao-report-pdf">{{cite web |url=http://www.gao.gov/assets/660/653046.pdf |title=GAO-13-260, Puerto Rico: Characteristics of the Island's Maritime Trade and Potential Effects of Modifying the Jones Act |publisher=[[Government Accountability Office|United States Government Accountability Office]] |date=March 2013}}</ref> Ultimately, the report concluded that "[the] effects of modifying the application of the Jones Act for Puerto Rico are highly uncertain" for both Puerto Rico and the United States, particularly for the [[United States Merchant Marine|U.S. shipping industry]] and the military preparedness of the United States.<ref name="joc-gao-report">{{cite news |url=http://www.joc.com/regulation-policy/transportation-regulations/united-states/gao%27s-jones-act-report-inconclusive_20130320.html |title=GAO's Jones Act Report Is Inconclusive |newspaper=[[The Journal of Commerce]] |date=20 March 2013 |access-date=6 September 2013}}{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="gao-report-pdf" /> A 2018 study by economists at Boston-based Reeve & Associates and Puerto Rico-based Estudios Tecnicos has concluded that the [[Merchant Marine Act of 1920|1920 Jones Act]] has no impact on either retail prices or the cost of livings on Puerto Rico. The study found that Puerto Rico received very similar or lower shipping freight rates when compared to neighboring islands, and that the transportation costs have no impact on retail prices on the island. The study was based in part on actual comparison of consumer goods at retail stores in San Juan, Puerto Rico, and Jacksonville, Florida, finding: no significant difference in the prices of either grocery items or durable goods between the two locations.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://3snn221qaymolkgbj4a0vpey-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Report_Impact-of-the-Jones-Act-on-Puerto-Rico_FINAL2.pdf|title=Impact of the U.S. Jones Act on Puerto Rico|date=June 2018|author1=Reeve & Associates|author2=Estudios Técnicos, Inc.|access-date=27 August 2018|archive-date=21 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121210412/https://3snn221qaymolkgbj4a0vpey-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Report_Impact-of-the-Jones-Act-on-Puerto-Rico_FINAL2.pdf}}</ref> ==Education== {{Main|Education in Puerto Rico}} The first school in Puerto Rico was the {{lang|es|Escuela de Gramática}} (Grammar School). It was established by Bishop [[Alonso Manso]] in 1513, in the area where the [[Catedral Metropolitana Basílica de San Juan Bautista|Cathedral of San Juan]] was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were [[Latin|Latin language]], literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.<ref>Nicolas Kanellos, "Hispanic Firsts", Visible Ink Press ({{ISBN|0-7876-0519-0}}), p. 40.</ref> Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels—Primary (elementary school grades 1–6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7–12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1%; by gender, it was 93.9% for males and 94.4% for females.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/ |title=CIA FactBook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=6 February 2011}}</ref> According to the 2000 Census, 60.0% of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3% has a bachelor's degree or higher. Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18. {{As of|2010}}, there are 1539 public schools and 806 private schools.<ref>{{cite web |title=Perfil del Sistema Educativo – Año Escolar 2010–2011 |url=http://www.estadisticas.gobierno.pr/iepr/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=JmyeNRFU1ZI%3d&tabid=186 |website=estadisticas.gobierno.pr |access-date=8 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091542/http://www.estadisticas.gobierno.pr/iepr/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=JmyeNRFU1ZI%3D&tabid=186 |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}</ref> The largest and oldest university system is the public [[University of Puerto Rico]] (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the {{lang|es|[[Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez]]|italic=no}} which operates the {{lang|es|[[University of Turabo|Universidad del Turabo]]|italic=no}}, [[Metropolitan University (Puerto Rico)|Metropolitan University]] and {{lang|es|[[Universidad del Este]]|italic=no}}. Other private universities include the multi-campus [[Inter American University of Puerto Rico|Inter American University]], the [[Catholic University of Puerto Rico|Pontifical Catholic University]], {{lang|es|[[Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico|Universidad Politécnica de Puerto Rico]]|italic=no}}, and the {{lang|es|[[University of the Sacred Heart (Puerto Rico)|Universidad del Sagrado Corazón]]|italic=no}}. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and three [[American Bar Association|ABA]]-approved Law Schools. ==Public health and safety== [[File:Old Dr. Pila Hospital in Barrio Primero, Ponce, Puerto Rico (IMG 2923).jpg|thumb|200px|Old Hospital Doctor Pila in Barrio Primero, [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] city.]] In 2017, there were 69 hospitals in Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite news |first=Oren |last=Dorell |title=Puerto Rico's health system 'on life support' after blow |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/10/05/puerto-rico-health-system-life-support-two-weeks-after-hurricane-maria/734130001/ |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |location=[[Melbourne, Florida]] |pages=1B, 2B |date=5 October 2017 |access-date=6 October 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814141555/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2017/10/05/puerto-rico-health-system-life-support-two-weeks-after-hurricane-maria/734130001/ |archive-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> {{lang|es|Reforma de Salud de Puerto Rico}} ([[Puerto Rico Health Reform]]) – locally referred to as {{lang|es|La Reforma}} ('The Reform') – is a government-run program which provides medical and health care services to the indigent and [[impoverished]], by means of contracting private [[health insurance]] companies, rather than employing government-owned hospitals and emergency centers. The Reform is administered by the Puerto Rico Health Insurance Administration.<ref name="Form_10K">[https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1171662/000095014406002885/g00487e10vk.htm Triple-S Management Corporation Annual Report (Form 10-K)] for the fiscal year ended on 31 December 2005, pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, accessed on 4 November 2006.</ref> ===Crime=== {{see also|Crime in Puerto Rico|Illegal drugs in Puerto Rico}} The homicide rate of 19.2 per 100,000 inhabitants was significantly higher than any U.S. state in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2014/crime-in-the-u.s.-2014/tables/table-5/table_5_crime_in_the_united_states_by_state_2014.xls|title=Table 5|website=FBI}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2012/jul/22/gun-homicides-ownership-world-list |title=Gun homicides and gun ownership listed by country |first=Mona |last=Chalabi |date=22 July 2012 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Most homicide victims are gang members and drug traffickers with about 80% of homicides in Puerto Rico being drug related.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId=345039&CategoryId=14092 |title=Latin American Herald Tribune – 80% of Puerto Rico Murders Called Drug-Related |website=Laht.com |access-date=22 November 2016 |archive-date=23 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123055804/http://www.laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId=345039&CategoryId=14092 }}</ref> In 1992, the FBI made armed [[carjacking]] a federal crime and rates decreased per statistics,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/07/31/us/after-carjacking-surge-puerto-rico-is-wary-behind-the-wheel.html|title=After Carjacking Surge, Puerto Rico Is Wary Behind the Wheel|first=Mireya|last=Navarro|date=31 July 1994|access-date=23 June 2019|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> but as of 2019, the problem continued in municipalities like Guaynabo and others.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.metro.pr/pr/noticias/2018/02/08/sacan-familia-auto-carjacking-guaynabo.html|title=Sacan familia de auto para hacer carjacking en Guaynabo|first=Metro Puerto|last=Rico|website=Metro|date=8 February 2018 |language=es|access-date=23 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telemundopr.com/noticias/destacados/Video-Carjacking-en-centro-comercial-de-Guaynabo-415767433.html|title=Video: Carjacking en centro comercial de Guaynabo|website=Telemundo PR|date=9 March 2017 |language=es|access-date=23 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.elvocero.com/ley-y-orden/investigan-carjacking-en-guaynabo/article_10c65766-3100-11e8-a045-d7c8b1099ad8.html|title=Investigan carjacking en Guaynabo|author=Nicole Candelaria |newspaper=El Vocero de Puerto Rico|date=26 March 2018 |language=es|access-date=23 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.primerahora.com/noticias/policia-tribunales/nota/mujervictimadecarjackingapuntadepistolaenguaynabo-1322156/|title=Mujer víctima de carjacking a punta de pistola en Guaynabo|date=19 January 2019|website=Primera Hora|language=es|access-date=23 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fbi.gov/sanjuan/press-releases/2014/arrests-of-elvin-manuel-otero-tarzia-sebastian-angelo-saldana-kevin-rivera-ruiz-and-a-male-juvenile|title=Arrests of Elvin Manuel Otero Tarzia, Sebastian Angelo Saldana, Kevin Rivera Ruiz, and a Male Juvenile|website=FBI|access-date=23 June 2019}}</ref> From 1 January 2019 to 14 March 2019, thirty carjackings had occurred on the island.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.notiuno.com/noticias/seguridad-y-justicia/alarmante-la-cifra-de-carjackings-en-la-isla/article_8aca3e14-4604-11e9-abb1-83bb825a5e77.html|title=Alarmante la cifra de "carjackings" en la Isla|publisher=Redacción Digital|website=UNO Radio Group|date=14 March 2019 |access-date=23 June 2019}}</ref> ==Culture== {{Main|Culture of Puerto Rico}} Modern Puerto Rican culture is a unique mix of cultural antecedents: including European (predominantly Spanish, [[Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico|Italian]], [[French immigration to Puerto Rico|French]], [[German immigration to Puerto Rico|German]] and [[Irish immigration to Puerto Rico|Irish]]), African, and, more recently, some North American and many South Americans. Many Cubans and Dominicans have relocated to the island in the past few decades. From the Spanish, Puerto Rico received the Spanish language, the [[Catholic]] religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. The United States added English-language influence, the university system and the adoption of some holidays and practices. On 12 March 1903, the [[University of Puerto Rico]] was officially founded, branching out from the "Escuela Normal Industrial", a smaller organization that was founded in Fajardo three years earlier. Much of Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music and has been shaped by other cultures combining with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of Spanish and African traditions were most noticeable. The cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences which have reached Puerto Rico.<ref>Giovannetti, Jorge L. "Popular Music and Culture in Puerto Rico: Jamaican and Rap Music as Cross-Cultural Symbols", in ''Musical Migrations: Transnationalism and Cultural Hybridity in the Americas'', ed. Frances R. Aparicio and Cándida F. Jáquez, 81–98.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.puertoricanmusictv.com/ |title=Puerto Rican Music TV |publisher=Puerto Rican Music TV |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-date=22 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100722043541/http://www.puertoricanmusictv.com/ }}</ref> Puerto Rico has many symbols, but only the [[Thespesia grandiflora|Flor de Maga]] has been made official by the Government of Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web | title= Entre leyes y múltiples indultos |author-last=López Maldonado | author-first=Cesiach | publisher=Primera Hora | url=https://www.primerahora.com/noticias/gobierno-politica/notas/entre-leyes-y-multiples-indultos/ | date=21 August 2019 | access-date=16 March 2021 | language=es |trans-title=Between laws and multiple pardons}}</ref> Other popular, traditional, or unofficial symbols of Puerto Rico are the [[Puerto Rican spindalis]], the [[Ceiba pentandra|kapok tree]], the [[Coquí|coquí frog]], the [[Jíbaro (Puerto Rico)|jíbaro]], the [[Taíno|Taíno Indian]], and [[Cerro Las Tetas]] with its [[Monumento al Jíbaro Puertorriqueño|jíbaro culture monument]].<ref>{{cite web | title= Debate por el Ave Nacional (primera parte) |author-last=Pérez Rivera | author-first=Raúl | publisher=CienciaPR | url=https://www.cienciapr.org/es/external-news/debate-por-el-ave-nacional-primera-parte | date=2 December 2015 | access-date=16 March 2021 | language=es |trans-title=Debate for the National Bird (first part)}} </ref><ref>{{cite web | title=¿Tenemos o no un ave nacional? | author-last=Sánchez Martínez | author-first=Héctor | publisher=La Perla del Sur | url=https://www.periodicolaperla.com/tenemos-no-ave-nacional/ | date=20 January 2017 | access-date=16 March 2021 | language=es | trans-title=Do we or do we not have a national bird? | archive-date=5 May 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505231620/https://www.periodicolaperla.com/tenemos-no-ave-nacional/ | url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> ===Architecture=== {{main|Architecture of Puerto Rico}} The architecture of Puerto Rico demonstrates a broad variety of traditions, styles and national influences accumulated over four centuries of Spanish rule, and a century of American rule. [[Spanish colonial architecture]], [[Islamic architecture|Ibero-Islamic]], [[art deco]], [[Post-modern architecture|post-modern]], and many other architectural forms are visible throughout the island. From town to town, there are also many regional distinctions. [[File:The Colors of Old San Juan (28488284470).jpg|thumb|Street-lined homes in [[Old San Juan]]]] Old San Juan is one of the two ''barrios'', in addition to [[Santurce, San Juan, Puerto Rico|Santurce]], that made up the [[municipality]] of San Juan from 1864 to 1951, at which time the former independent municipality of [[Río Piedras]] was annexed. With its abundance of shops, historic places, museums, open air cafés, restaurants, gracious homes, tree-shaded plazas, and its old beauty and architectonical peculiarity, Old San Juan is a main spot for local and internal tourism. The district is also characterized by numerous public plazas and churches including [[San José Church]] and the [[Catedral Metropolitana Basílica de San Juan Bautista (San Juan, Puerto Rico)|Cathedral of San Juan Bautista]], which contains the tomb of the Spanish explorer [[Juan Ponce de León]]. It also houses the oldest Catholic school for elementary education in Puerto Rico, the Colegio de Párvulos, built in 1865. The oldest parts of the district of Old San Juan remain partly enclosed by massive walls. Several defensive structures and notable [[fort]]s, such as the emblematic [[Fort San Felipe del Morro]], [[Castillo San Cristóbal (San Juan)|Fort San Cristóbal]], and [[El Palacio de Santa Catalina]], also known as [[La Fortaleza]], acted as the primary defenses of the settlement which was subjected to numerous attacks. [[La Fortaleza]] continues to serve also as the executive mansion for the [[governor of Puerto Rico]]. Many of the historic fortifications are part of [[San Juan National Historic Site]]. During the 1940s, sections of Old San Juan fell into disrepair, and many renovation plans were suggested. There was even a strong push to develop Old San Juan as a "small [[Manhattan]]". Strict remodeling codes were implemented to prevent new constructions from affecting the common colonial Spanish architectural themes of the old city. When a project proposal suggested that the old Carmelite Convent in San Juan be demolished to erect a new hotel, the Institute had the building declared as a historic building, and then asked that it be converted to a hotel in a renewed facility. This was what became the ''Hotel El Convento'' in Old San Juan. The paradigm to reconstruct and renovate the old city and revitalize it has been followed by other cities in the Americas, particularly [[Havana]], [[Lima]] and [[Cartagena de Indias]]. [[File:Parque de Bombas - Ponce Puerto Rico.jpg|thumb|[[Parque de Bombas]], a landmark of [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]], a former fire station built in 1882.]] [[Ponce Creole]] is a unique [[architectural style]] created in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico]], in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This style of Puerto Rican buildings is found predominantly in residential homes in Ponce that developed between 1895 and 1920. Ponce Creole architecture borrows heavily from the traditions of France, Spain and the Caribbean vernacular to create houses that were especially built to withstand the hot and dry climate of the region, and to take advantage of the sun and sea breezes characteristic of the southern Puerto Rico's [[Caribbean Sea]] coast.<ref>{{cite book|author=Randall Peffer|title=Puerto Rico, a Travel Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MjXG2vg5YFsC&pg=PA225|year=2002|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74059-274-1|page=225}}</ref> It is a blend of wood and masonry, incorporating architectural elements of other styles, from [[Classical revival]] and [[Spanish Revival]] to [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/articles/1056puerto_rico.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100302194306/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/traveler/articles/1056puerto_rico.html|title=National Geographic Traveler Article: Puerto Rico|archive-date=2 March 2010|website=www.nationalgeographic.com}}</ref> ===Arts=== {{main|Puerto Rican art}} [[File:José Campeche (Puerto Rican, 1751-1809). Doña María de los Dolores Gutiérrez del Mazo y Pérez, ca. 1796..jpg|upright|thumb|[[Criollo people|Criolla]] María de los Dolores Gutiérrez, in colonial Puerto Rico, in 1796, by the [[mulatto]] Rococo painter [[José Campeche]]. Painting currently housed in the [[Brooklyn Museum]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/209953|title=Doña María de los Dolores Gutiérrez del Mazo y Pérez|author=[[José Campeche]]|year=1796|website=[[Brooklyn Museum]] website|location=New York}}</ref>]] Puerto Rican art reflects many influences, much from its ethnically diverse background. A form of [[folk art]], called ''santos'' evolved from the Catholic Church's use of [[sculpture]]s to convert indigenous Puerto Ricans to [[Christianity]]. ''Santos'' depict figures of saints and other religious icons and are made from native wood, clay, and stone. After shaping simple, they are often finished by painting them in vivid colors. ''Santos'' vary in size, with the smallest examples around eight inches tall and the largest about twenty inches tall. Traditionally, santos were seen as messengers between the earth and Heaven. As such, they occupied a special place on household [[altar]]s, where people prayed to them, asked for help, or tried to summon their protection. Also popular, ''caretas'' or ''vejigantes'' are masks worn during [[carnival]]s. Similar masks signifying evil spirits were used in both Spain and Africa, though for different purposes. The Spanish used their masks to frighten lapsed [[Christians]] into returning to the church, while tribal Africans used them as protection from the evil spirits they represented. True to their historic origins, Puerto Rican ''caretas'' always bear at least several horns and fangs. While usually constructed of [[papier-mâché]], coconut shells and fine metal screening are sometimes used as well. Red and black were the typical colors for ''caretas'' but their palette has expanded to include a wide variety of bright hues and patterns. ===Cuisine=== {{main|Puerto Rican cuisine}} [[File:Arroz con gandules.jpg|thumb|260px|[[Arroz con gandules]], widely regarded as "Puerto Rico's national dish"<ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/image/555749450/ ''Reporter's Notebook.''] York Daily Record (York, Pennsylvania). 15 December 2003. Page 35. Accessed 24 January 2021.</ref><ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/image/655608371 ''El Gusto Boricua en el Sur de la Florida.''] Yined Ramírez-Hendrix. El Nuevo Herald (Miami, Florida). 27 July 2011. Page D12. Accessed 24 January 2021.</ref><ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/image/641731265/ ''Sofrito, imprescindible para latinos.''] Viviana Caraballo. El Nuevo Herald (Miami, Florida). 6 January 1999. p. 19. Accessed 24 January 2021.</ref>]] Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of Europe (Spain), Africa and the native [[Taíno]]s. Basic ingredients include [[grain]]s and [[legume]]s, [[herb]]s and [[spice]]s, starchy tropical [[tuber]]s, vegetables, meat and poultry, seafood and shellfish, and fruits. Main dishes include ''[[mofongo]]'', ''[[arroz con gandules]]'', ''[[pasteles]]'', and [[pig roast]] (or [[Suckling pig|lechón]]). Beverages include ''[[mauby|maví]]'' and ''[[piña colada]]''. Desserts include flan, ''arroz con dulce'' (sweet [[rice pudding]]), ''[[Piragua (food)|piraguas]]'', ''[[brazo gitano]]s'', ''[[tembleque]]'', ''[[Polvorón|polvorones]]'', and ''[[dulce de leche]]''. From the diet of the [[Taíno]] people come many tropical roots and tubers like ''[[taro|yautía]]'' (taro) and especially ''Yuca'' (cassava), from which thin cracker-like ''[[casabe]]'' bread is made. Ajicito or cachucha pepper, a slightly hot habanero pepper, ''[[culantro|recao/culantro]]'' (spiny leaf), ''[[annatto|achiote]]'' (annatto), ''[[Capsicum|peppers]]'', [[allspice]], ''[[ají caballero]]'' (the hottest pepper native to Puerto Rico), peanuts, [[guava]]s, [[pineapple]]s, ''[[cocoplum|jicacos]]'' (cocoplum), ''[[mamoncillo|quenepas]]'' (mamoncillo), ''[[Calathea allouia|lerenes]]'' (Guinea arrowroot), ''[[calabaza]]s'' (tropical pumpkins), and ''[[soursop|guanabanas]]'' (soursops) are all Taíno foods. Spanish / European influence can be seen in the use of wheat, [[chickpea]]s, [[caper]]s, [[olive]]s, onions, garlic, rice, [[cilantro]], [[oregano]], [[basil]], [[sugarcane]], [[citrus]], [[eggplant]], [[Chicken (food)|chicken]], salted cod, beef, pork, lamb, dairy and a variety of other fruits, herbs and spices all came to Puerto Rico from Spain. ===Literature=== {{main|Puerto Rican literature}} [[File:Retrato de EMdeHostos por Francisco Oller.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Eugenio María de Hostos]]]] Puerto Rican literature evolved from the art of [[oral literature|oral story telling]] to its present-day status. Written works by the native islanders of Puerto Rico were prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government. Only those who were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island were allowed to write. [[Diego de Torres Vargas]] was allowed to circumvent this strict prohibition for three reasons: he was a priest, he came from a prosperous Spanish family, and his father was a Sergeant Major in the Spanish Army, who died while defending Puerto Rico from an invasion by the [[Dutch people|Dutch]] armada. In 1647, Torres Vargas wrote {{lang|es|Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico}} ("Description of the Island and City of Puerto Rico"). This historical book was the first to make a detailed geographic description of the island.<ref name="DT">{{cite web |url=http://newdeal.feri.org/pr/pr03.htm |title=Puerto Rico in the Great Depression |publisher=Newdeal.feri.org |access-date=18 April 2014}}</ref> The book described all the fruits and commercial establishments of the time, mostly centered in the towns of San Juan and Ponce. The book also listed and described every mine, church, and hospital in the island at the time. The book contained notices on the State and Capital, plus an extensive and erudite bibliography. {{lang|es|Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico}} was the first successful attempt at writing a comprehensive history of Puerto Rico.<ref name="DT"/> Some of Puerto Rico's earliest writers were influenced by the teachings of [[Rafael Cordero (educator)|Rafael Cordero]]. Among these was [[Manuel A. Alonso]], the first Puerto Rican writer of notable importance. In 1849 he published {{lang|es|El Gíbaro}}, a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. [[Eugenio María de Hostos]] wrote {{lang|es|La peregrinación de Bayoán}} in 1863, which used [[Bartolomé de las Casas]] as a springboard to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change. In the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. After the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War and the island was ceded to the Americans as a condition of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, writers and poets began to express their opposition to the new colonial rule by writing about patriotic themes. [[Alejandro Tapia y Rivera]], also known as the Father of Puerto Rican Literature, ushered in a new age of [[historiography]] with the publication of ''The Historical Library of Puerto Rico''. [[Cayetano Coll y Toste]] was another Puerto Rican historian and writer. His work ''The Indo-Antillano Vocabulary'' is valuable in understanding the way the [[Taínos]] lived. [[Manuel Zeno Gandía]] in 1894 wrote {{lang|es|La Charca}} and talked about the harsh life in the remote and mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. [[Antonio S. Pedreira]], described in his work {{lang|es|Insularismo}} the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the American invasion. With the Puerto Rican diaspora of the 1940s, Puerto Rican literature was greatly influenced by a phenomenon known as the [[Nuyorican Movement]]. Puerto Rican literature continued to flourish, and many Puerto Ricans have since distinguished themselves as authors, journalists, poets, novelists, playwrights, essayists, and screenwriters. The influence of Puerto Rican literature has transcended the boundaries of the island to the United States and the rest of the world. Over the past fifty years, significant writers include [[Ed Vega]] ([[The Lamentable Journey of Omaha Bigelow into the Impenetrable Loisaida Jungle|Omaha Bigelow]]), [[Miguel Piñero]] ([[Short Eyes (play)|Short Eyes]]), [[Piri Thomas]] ([[Down These Mean Streets]]), [[Giannina Braschi]] ([[Yo-Yo Boing!]]), [[Rosario Ferré|Rosario Ferrer]] (Eccentric Neighborhoods). and [[Esmeralda Santiago]] (''[[When I was Puerto Rican]]).''<ref>{{Cite book|last=Acosta Cruz|first=María|title=Dream Nation: Puerto Rican Culture and the Fictions of Independence|year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4619-5820-8|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey |publisher=Rutgers University Press |oclc=871424250}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Zimmerman|first=Marc|title=Defending Their Own in the Cold: The Cultural Turns of U.S. Puerto Ricans|date=2020|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-08558-1|oclc=1142708953}}</ref> ===Media=== {{main|Media in Puerto Rico}} The [[mass media]] in Puerto Rico includes local [[radio stations]], [[television stations]] and [[newspapers]], the majority of which are conducted in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. There are also three stations of the [[American Forces Network|U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service]]. Newspapers with daily distribution are {{lang|es|[[El Nuevo Día]]}}, {{lang|es|[[El Vocero]]}} and {{lang|es|[[Índice (newspaper)|Índice]]}}, {{lang|es|[[Metro (Puerto Rico)|Metro]]}}, and {{lang|es|[[Primera Hora (Puerto Rico)|Primera Hora]]}}. {{lang|es|El Vocero}} is distributed free of charge, as are {{lang|es|Índice}} and {{lang|es|Metro}}. Newspapers distributed on a weekly or regional basis include {{lang|es|[[Claridad]]}}, {{lang|es|[[La Perla del Sur]]}}, {{lang|es|[[La Opinión]]}}, {{lang|es|[[Visión (Puerto Rico)|Visión]]}}, and {{lang|es|[[La Estrella del Norte]]}}, among others. Several television channels provide local content in the island. These include [[WIPR-TV]], {{lang|es|[[Telemundo Puerto Rico (TV channel)|Telemundo]]}}, Univision affiliate [[WLII-DT]] ({{lang|es|Teleonce}}), [[WAPA-TV]], and [[WKAQ-TV]]. ===Music=== {{main|Music of Puerto Rico}} [[File:Bomba-1.ogv|thumb|A dancer performs typical ''[[bomba (Puerto Rico)|bomba]]'' choreography.]] The music of Puerto Rico has evolved as a heterogeneous and dynamic product of diverse cultural resources. The most conspicuous musical sources have been Spain and West Africa, although many aspects of Puerto Rican music reflect origins elsewhere in Europe and the Caribbean and, over the last century, from the U.S. Puerto Rican music culture today comprises a wide and rich variety of genres, ranging from indigenous genres like [[Bomba (Puerto Rico)|bomba]], [[plena]], [[aguinaldo (music)|aguinaldo]], [[danza]] and the popular [[Salsa music|salsa]] to recent hybrids like [[reggaeton]]. Puerto Rico has some national instruments, like the [[Puerto Rican cuatro|cuatro]] (Spanish for "four"). The cuatro is a local instrument that was made by the "Jibaro" or people from the mountains. Originally, the Cuatro consisted of four steel strings, hence its name, but currently the Cuatro consists of five double steel strings. It is easily confused with a guitar, even by locals. When held upright, from right to left, the strings are G, D, A, E, B. In the realm of [[classical music]], the island hosts two main orchestras, the [[Orquesta Sinfónica de Puerto Rico]] and the Orquesta Filarmónica de Puerto Rico. The [[Casals Festival]] takes place annually in San Juan, drawing in classical musicians from around the world. With respect to [[opera]], the legendary Puerto Rican tenor [[Antonio Paoli]] was so celebrated, that he performed private recitals for [[Pope Pius X]] and Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia]]. In 1907, Paoli was the first operatic artist in world history to record an entire opera – when he participated in a performance of ''[[Pagliacci]]'' by [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] in [[Milan, Italy]]. ===Philately=== {{main|Puerto Rico on stamps}} [[File:San Juan 1971 U.S. stamp.1.jpg|thumb|upright|San Juan 450th 1971 issue, depicting one of the [[:File:Lookout Station.JPG|garitas]] of El Morro]] Puerto Rico has been commemorated on four U.S. postal stamps and four personalities have been featured. Insular Territories were commemorated in 1937, the third stamp honored Puerto Rico featuring '[[La Fortaleza]]', the Spanish Governor's Palace.<ref>[http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&img=&mode=1&pg=1&tid=2033211 3-cent Puerto Rico Issue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317194928/http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&img=&mode=1&pg=1&tid=2033211 |date=17 March 2014 }} Arago: people, postage & the post. Viewed 4 March 2014.</ref> The first free election for governor of the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico was honored on 27 April 1949, at San Juan, Puerto Rico. 'Inauguration' on the 3-cent stamp refers to the election of [[Luis Muñoz Marín]], the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico.<ref name="Puerto Rico Election Issue">Rod, Steven J. [http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&img=&mode=1&pg=1&tid=2028823 Puerto Rico Election Issue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728043302/https://postalmuseum.si.edu/search-the-collection |date=28 July 2020 }} Arago: people, postage & the post. Viewed 4 March 2014.</ref> San Juan, Puerto Rico was commemorated with an 8-cent stamp on its 450th anniversary issued 12 September 1971, featuring a sentry box from [[Castillo San Felipe del Morro]].<ref>[http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2038993 San Juan Issue] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140317211951/http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&cmd=1&tid=2038993 |date=17 March 2014 }} Arago: people, postage & the post. Viewed 17 March 2014.</ref> In the "Flags of our nation series" 2008–2012, of the fifty-five, five territorial flags were featured. Forever stamps included the [[Flags of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico Flag]] illustrated by a bird issued 2011.<ref>"Flags of our nation series 2008–2012, Arago: people, postage & the post", National Postal Museum. Viewed 7 March 2014.</ref> Four Puerto Rican personalities have been featured on U.S. postage stamps. These include [[Roberto Clemente]] in 1984 as an individual and in the Legends of Baseball series issued in 2000.<ref>"Roberto Clemente (1934–1972)" p. 178, "Legends of Baseball" p. 254, Scott's Specialized Catalogue, 2013, {{ISBN|0-89487-475-6}}</ref> [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] in the Great Americans series,<ref>"Great Americans Issue" Scott's Specialized Catalogue, 2013, {{ISBN|0-89487-475-6}}, p. 183</ref> on 18 February 1990,<ref name="Puerto Rico Election Issue"/> [[Julia de Burgos]] in the Literary Arts series, issued 2010,<ref>"Literary Arts" Scott's Specialized Catalogue, 2013, {{ISBN|0-89487-475-6}}, p. 308</ref> and [[José Ferrer]] in the Distinguished American series, issued 2012.<ref>"Distinguished Americans" Scott's Specialized Catalogue, 2013, {{ISBN|0-89487-475-6}}, p. 317</ref> ===Sports=== [[File:DR_vs_PR._World_Baseball_Classic.jpg|thumb|250px|[[2013 World Baseball Classic championship]] between [[Puerto Rico national baseball team|Puerto Rico]] and [[Dominican Republic national baseball team|Dominican Republic]], March 20, 2013]] {{Main|Sports in Puerto Rico}} [[Baseball]] was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The [[Puerto Rico Baseball League]] serves as the only active professional league, operating as a winter league. No [[Major League Baseball]] franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico; however, San Juan hosted the [[Montreal Expos]] for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C., and became the [[Washington Nationals]]. The [[Puerto Rico national baseball team]] has participated in the [[World Cup of Baseball]] winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals, the [[Caribbean Series]] (winning fourteen times) and the [[World Baseball Classic]]. In {{Nowrap|March 2006}}, San Juan's [[Hiram Bithorn Stadium]] hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed [[World Baseball Classic]]. Puerto Rican baseball players include [[Hall of Fame]]rs [[Roberto Clemente]], [[Orlando Cepeda]] and [[Roberto Alomar]], enshrined in 1973, 1999, and 2011 respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://baseballhall.org/hof/clemente-roberto |title=Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Roberto Clemente |publisher=Baseballhall.org |access-date=30 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://baseballhall.org/hof/cepeda-orlando |title=Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Orlando Cepeda |publisher=Baseballhall.org |access-date=30 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://baseballhall.org/hof/alomar-roberto |title=Baseball Hall of Fame entry for Roberto Alomar |newspaper=Baseball Hall of Fame |publisher=Baseballhall.org |access-date=30 October 2011}}</ref> [[Boxing]], [[basketball]], and [[volleyball]] are considered popular sports as well. [[Wilfredo Gómez]] and [[McWilliams Arroyo]] have won their respective divisions at the [[World Amateur Boxing Championships]]. Other medalists include [[José Pedraza (boxer)|José Pedraza]], who holds a silver medal, and three boxers who finished in third place, José Luis Vellón, [[Nelson Dieppa]] and [[McJoe Arroyo]]. In the professional circuit, Puerto Rico has the third-most [[List of Puerto Rican boxing world champions|boxing world champions]] and it is the global leader in champions per capita. These include [[Miguel Cotto]], [[Félix Trinidad]], [[Wilfred Benítez]] and Gómez among others. The [[Puerto Rico national basketball team]] joined the [[International Basketball Federation]] in 1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions, including gold in three [[FIBA Americas Championship]]s and the 1994 [[Goodwill Games]] 8 August 2004, became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the [[United States men's national basketball team|United States]] in an Olympic tournament since the integration of [[National Basketball Association]] players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92–73 as part of the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] organized in [[Athens]], Greece.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics_2004/basketball/3567344.stm |title=Olympics 2004 – Basketball – Shock defeat for USA |work=BBC News |date=15 August 2004 |access-date=30 October 2011}}</ref> [[Baloncesto Superior Nacional]] acts as the top-level professional basketball league in Puerto Rico and has experienced success since its beginning in 1930. [[File:Orangestarsultra.jpg|thumb|[[Puerto Rico Islanders]] fans at a soccer game|alt=|left]] [[Puerto Rico national football team|Puerto Rico]] is also a member of [[FIFA]] and [[CONCACAF]]. In 2008, the archipelago's first unified league, the [[Puerto Rico Soccer League]], was established. Other sports include [[professional wrestling]] and [[road running]]. The [[World Wrestling Council]] and [[International Wrestling Association (Puerto Rico)|International Wrestling Association]] are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The [[World's Best 10K]], held annually in San Juan, has been ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally. The "Puerto Rico All Stars" team, which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.primerahora.com/boricuasluciosenunarueda-boricuazo-especial-nota-243205.html |title=Boricuas lucíos en una rueda |author=Jesús Omar Rivera |newspaper=Primera Hora |language=es |date=29 October 2008 |access-date=16 October 2010 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514223446/http://www.primerahora.com/boricuasluciosenunarueda-boricuazo-especial-nota-243205.html }}</ref> Organized [[Streetball]] has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball" competing against established organizations including the [[Arecibo Captains|Capitanes de Arecibo]] and [[AND1]]'s [[AND1 Mixtape Tour|Mixtape Tour Team]]. Six years after the first visit, AND1 returned as part of their renamed Live Tour, losing to the Puerto Rico Streetballers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.boricuasballers.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=2542:and1-and-pr-streetball-put-on-a-show |title=AND1 & PR Streetball Put on a Show! |author=Raul Sosa |publisher=BoricuaBallers.com |date=27 July 2012 |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016022449/http://www.boricuasballers.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=2542%3Aand1-and-pr-streetball-put-on-a-show |archive-date=16 October 2015 }}</ref> Consequently, practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams, including [[Orlando Melendez|Orlando "El Gato" Meléndez]], who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the [[Harlem Globetrotters]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/hispanicheritage2008/news/story?id=3641638 |title=Melendez adds a new country to Globetrotters' resume |author=Joshua Hammann |publisher=[[ESPN]] |date=14 October 2008 |access-date=7 November 2008}}</ref> [[Orlando Antigua]], whose mother is Puerto Rican, in 1995 became the first Latino and the first non-black in 52 years to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9900E3DD1239F93BA15751C1A963958260 |title=A Non-Black Player Joins Globetrotters |location=Antigua & Barbuda |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=28 December 1995 |access-date=14 August 2010}}</ref> Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the [[Summer Olympics|Summer]] and [[Winter Olympics]], the [[Pan American Games]], the [[Caribbean World Series]], and the [[Central American and Caribbean Games]]. Puerto Rico hosted the Pan Am Games in 1979 (officially in San Juan), and The [[Central American and Caribbean Games]] were hosted in [[1993 Central American and Caribbean Games|1993]] in [[Ponce, Puerto Rico|Ponce]] and in [[2010 Central American and Caribbean Games|2010]] in [[Mayagüez]]. Puerto Rican athletes have won ten medals in Olympic competition (two gold, two silver, six bronze), the first one in 1948 by boxer [[Juan Evangelista Venegas]]. [[Monica Puig]] won the first gold medal for Puerto Rico in the Olympic Games by winning the [[Tennis at the 2016 Summer Olympics#Medal events|Women's Tennis singles title in Rio 2016]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rio2016.com/en/news/who-is-monica-puig-the-puerto-rico-puerto-rican-tennis-player-at-rio-2016-olympic-games |title=Who is Mónica Puig the Puerto Rico player who won the gold medal in the Rio 2016 Olympic Games women's tennis final? |date=14 August 2016 |website=Rio2016.com |publisher=[[Rio 2016 Organising Committee for the Olympic and Paralympic Games]] |access-date=14 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826095633/https://www.rio2016.com/en/news/who-is-monica-puig-the-puerto-rico-puerto-rican-tennis-player-at-rio-2016-olympic-games |archive-date=26 August 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/26/sports/tennis/monica-puig-puerto-rico-olympics-gold-medalist.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826101224/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/26/sports/tennis/monica-puig-puerto-rico-olympics-gold-medalist.html |archive-date=2016-08-26 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Monica Puig, Puerto Rico's Favorite Daughter (and Only Gold Medalist) |first=David |last=Waldstein |date=25 August 2016 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> ==Infrastructure== {{Main|Transportation in Puerto Rico|Communications in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority|Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority}} === Transportation === [[File:Puerto Rico Interstates.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|left|[[List of highways in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico interstate highways]]]] Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, [[freeway]]s, [[limited-access road|expressways]], and [[highway]]s maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the [[U.S. Department of Transportation]], and patrolled by the [[Puerto Rico Police Department]]. The island's [[San Juan metropolitan area]] is served by a [[Autoridad Metropolitana de Autobuses|public bus transit system]] and a [[rapid transit|metro system]] called {{lang|es|[[Tren Urbano]]}} ('Urban Train'). Other forms of Puerto Rican public transport include seaborne ferries that serve Puerto Rico's archipelago as well as {{lang|es|carros públicos}} ([[Share taxi|private mini buses]]). Puerto Rico has three [[international airport]]s, the [[Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport]] in [[Carolina, Puerto Rico|Carolina]], [[Mercedita International Airport]] in Ponce, and the [[Rafael Hernández International Airport]] in Aguadilla, and 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean.<ref name=PRPA2008-07-28>{{cite web |url=http://www.prpa.gobierno.pr/APMain.aspx |title=Aeropuertos Internacionales y Regionales (Spanish) |publisher=Puerto Rico Ports Authority |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007181239/http://www.prpa.gobierno.pr/apmain.aspx |archive-date=7 October 2009}}</ref> [[File:Tren Urbano in Bayamón (Puerto Rico).jpg|thumb|A {{lang|es|[[Tren Urbano]]}} train at Bayamón Station]] Puerto Rico has nine [[port]]s in different cities across the main island. The [[San Juan Port]] is the largest in Puerto Rico, and the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively.<ref name=PRPA2008-07-28 /> The second largest port is the [[Port of the Americas]] in Ponce, currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to {{Nowrap|1.5 million}} twenty-foot containers ([[Twenty-foot equivalent unit|TEUs]]) per year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.portoftheamericas.com/about.project/overview.htm |title=About the Project – Overview |publisher=Port of the Americas Authority |access-date=28 July 2008}}</ref> === Utilities === ==== Electricity ==== The [[Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority]] (PREPA, {{lang-es|Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica, AEE}})—is an [[electric power company]] and the [[List of government-owned corporations of Puerto Rico|government-owned corporation of Puerto Rico]] responsible for [[electricity generation]], [[electric power transmission|power transmission]], and [[electric power distribution|power distribution]] in Puerto Rico.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.presupuesto.gobierno.pr/PresupuestosAnteriores/af2008_2009/Tomo_II/suppdocs/baselegal/169/169.pdf |title=Ley de la Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica de Puerto Rico |website=Presupuesto.gobierno.pr |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924081627/http://www.presupuesto.gobierno.pr/PresupuestosAnteriores/af2008_2009/Tomo_II/suppdocs/baselegal/169/169.pdf }}</ref> PREPA was, by law, the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, effectively making it a [[government monopoly]] until 2018. The Authority is ruled by a governing board appointed by the governor with the [[advice and consent]] of the [[Senate of Puerto Rico]], and is run by an executive director. On 20 July 2018, Puerto Rico Law 120-2018 ({{lang|es|Ley para Transformar el Sistema Eléctrico de Puerto Rico}}) was signed. This law authorized PREPA to sell infrastructure and services to other providers. As a result, a contract was signed on 22 June 2020, making [[LUMA Energy]] the new operator of the energy distribution and transmission infrastructure, as well as other areas of PREPA's operations, in effect partially privatizing the Puerto Rican power grid. The takeover was set for 1 June 2021, amidst protests and uncertainty from the point of view of the general public and the former-PREPA workers and [[Trade union|union members]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pagán|first=José Karlo|date=2021-05-18|title=Empleados de la AEE se manifiestan contra LUMA en el Tribunal federal y en la sede de la Junta|trans-title=AEE Employees Protest Against LUMA at the Federal Courthouse and Fiscal Oversight Management Board Headquarters|url=https://www.primerahora.com/noticias/puerto-rico/notas/empleados-de-la-aee-se-manifiestan-contra-luma-en-el-tribunal-federal-y-en-la-sede-de-la-junta/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610184853/https://www.primerahora.com/noticias/puerto-rico/notas/empleados-de-la-aee-se-manifiestan-contra-luma-en-el-tribunal-federal-y-en-la-sede-de-la-junta/|archive-date=2021-06-10|access-date=2021-06-10|website=[[Primera Hora (Puerto Rico)|Primera Hora]]|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Rivera Clemente|first=Yaritza|date=2021-06-04|title=Se organizan más protestas para exigir la salida de LUMA|trans-title=More Protests Are Organized to Demand LUMA's Departure|url=https://www.elvocero.com/gobierno/se-organizan-m-s-protestas-para-exigir-la-salida-de-luma/article_c3fa4e7c-c4f1-11eb-84b5-838499c5c700.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610185832/https://www.elvocero.com/gobierno/se-organizan-m-s-protestas-para-exigir-la-salida-de-luma/article_c3fa4e7c-c4f1-11eb-84b5-838499c5c700.html|archive-date=2021-06-10|access-date=2021-06-10|website=[[El Vocero]]|language=es}}</ref> ==== Water and sewage ==== Similarly, the [[Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority]] (PRASA, {{lang-es|Autoridad de Acueductos y Alcantarillados, AAA}})—is a water company and the government-owned corporation responsible for [[water quality]], [[water resource management|management]], and [[water supply|supply]] in Puerto Rico.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Inicio - Acueductospr|url=https://acueductospr.com/web/guest|access-date=2021-05-17|website=acueductospr.com|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517064319/https://acueductospr.com/web/guest}}</ref> It is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, effectively making it a government monopoly. Its existence is designated by Law No. 40 of 1 May 1945, including the corresponding amendments.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Asamblea Legislativa de Puerto Rico|author-link=Puerto Rico Legislative Assembly|date=2020-10-02|title=Ley de Acueductos y Alcantarillados de Puerto Rico|url=https://bvirtualogp.pr.gov/ogp/Bvirtual/leyesreferencia/PDF/Agua/40-1945.pdf|access-date=2021-05-17|website=Biblioteca Virtual del Gobierno de Puerto Rico}}</ref> === Telecommunications === Telecommunications in Puerto Rico includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Broadcasting in Puerto Rico is regulated by the [[Federal Communications Commission|U.S. Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC).<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-17140680 "Puerto Rico profile"], ''BBC News'', 23 May 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2014.</ref> {{As of|2007}}, there were 30 TV stations, 125 radio stations and roughly 1 million TV sets on the island. Cable TV subscription services are available, and the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service also broadcast on the island.<ref name="CIAWFB-PuertoRico-2013">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/ "Communications: Puerto Rico"], ''World Factbook'', U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 9 December 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2014.</ref> Puerto Rico also has its own [[Amateur radio|amateur radio prefixes]], which differ from those of the contiguous United States in that there are two letter before the number. The most well-known prefix is KP4, but others separated for use on the [[archipelago]] (including Desecheo and Mona) are: KP3/KP4/NP3/NP4/WP3/WP4 (Puerto Rico, [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]] and [[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra]]) and KP5/NP5/WP5 ([[Desecheo Island]]).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-09-28|title=Amateur Call Sign Systems|url=https://www.fcc.gov/wireless/bureau-divisions/mobility-division/amateur-radio-service/amateur-call-sign-systems|access-date=2021-05-17|website=Federal Communications Commission|language=en}}</ref> Amateur radio operators (also known as ham radio operators) are a well-known group in the island and can obtain special vehicle license plates with their callsign on them.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ley de Vehículos y Tránsito de Puerto Rico del 2000|url=https://www.lexjuris.com/lexlex/lextransito/lextransitocap02.htm|access-date=2021-05-17|website=www.lexjuris.com}}</ref> They have been a key element in disaster relief.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Murphy|first1=Paul P.|last2=Krupa|first2=Michelle|date=2017-09-27|title=Ham radio operators are saving Puerto Rico one transmission at a time|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/09/27/us/puerto-rico-maria-ham-radio-operators-trnd/index.html|access-date=2021-05-17|website=[[CNN]]}}</ref> ==See also== * [[Index of Puerto Rico-related articles]] * [[Outline of Puerto Rico]] * [[Stateside Puerto Ricans]], living on mainland * [[List of islands of Puerto Rico]] {{clear}} ==Footnotes== {{Reflist|group=Note}} ==Notes== {{Notelist}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== {{Main|History of Puerto Rico#Further reading}} * Ayala, César J. and Rafael Bernabe. ''Puerto Rico in the American Century: A History since 1898'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2009), a major scholarly history. [https://books.google.com/books?id=RYK87EBJWSMC&dq=*+Ayala,+Cesar+J.+and+Rafael+Bernabe.+&pg=PR7 online]; see also [https://www.academia.edu/download/66643382/37720123.pdf online review]{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * Benach, Joan, et al. "What the Puerto Rican hurricanes make visible: Chronicle of a public health disaster foretold." ''Social Science & Medicine'' 238 (2019): 112367. * Bonilla, Yarimar, and Marisol LeBrón, eds. ''Aftershocks of disaster: Puerto Rico before and after the storm'' (Haymarket Books, 2019) [https://books.google.com/books?id=OhWUDwAAQBAJ&dq=Puerto+Rico&pg=PT7 online]. * Delano, Jack. ''Puerto Rico mío: four decades of change= cuatro décadas de cambio'' (Smithsonian, 1990), history in photographs; captions in English and Spanish.. [https://archive.org/details/puertoricomiofou00dela online] * Delilah Roque, Anais, David Pijawka, and Amber Wutich. "The role of social capital in resiliency: Disaster recovery in Puerto Rico." ''Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy'' 11.2 (2020): 204-235. * Dietz, James L. ''Economic history of Puerto Rico: institutional change and capitalist development'' (Princeton University Press, 1986) [https://books.google.com/books?id=7lUqqXjo9csC&dq=).+James+Dietz%27s+Economic+History+of+Puerto+Rico:+Institutional+Change+and+Capitalist+Development+(Princeton:+Princeton+University+Press,+1986)+is&pg=PR9 online]. * Garriga-López, Adriana. "Puerto Rico: The future in question." ''Shima'' 13.2 (2019): 174-192. [https://www.academia.edu/download/60977342/Puerto_Rico_the_Future_in_Question_Shima_Journal_AMGL20191021-64279-z66sq5.pdf online]{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * Godreau, Isar P. ''[https://www.press.uillinois.edu/books/?id=p080456 Scripts of Blackness: Race, Cultural nationalism, and U.S. Colonialism in Puerto Rico.]'' Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2015. ==External links== <!--======================================================== DO not ADD SPAM LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE WIKIPEDIA IS ''not'' A COLLECTION OF LINKS OR ADVERTISEMENTS * If you think that your link might be useful, do not add it here, put it on this article's discussion page first * Links about organizations and people from Puerto Rico belong in their own articles or sub-topics * Links of local political parties belong in the Politics of Puerto Rico, List of political parties in Puerto Rico, and/or their individual articles Links identified as spam WILL BE REMOVED ========================================================--> * {{official website|http://www2.pr.gov/}} {{in lang|es}} ** {{official website|http://www.businessinpuertorico.com/|Investment}} ** {{official website|http://www.seepuertorico.com/|Tourism}} ** [http://www.ddec.pr.gov/ Department of Economic Development and Commerce] * {{gnis|1848460}} * {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/3593469.stm |title=Puerto Rico |publisher=BBC |work=Country profiles}} * {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/482879/Puerto-Rico |title=Puerto Rico |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|date=24 August 2023 }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.tendenciaspr.com/ |title=Datos y Estadisticas de Puerto Rico y sus Municipios |trans-title= Data and Statistics about Puerto Rico and Its Municipalities |language=es |website=Tendencias PR}} * {{curlie|Regional/Caribbean/Puerto_Rico}} ===Geography=== * {{wikiatlas|Puerto Rico}} * {{osmrelation|4422604}} ===United States government=== * {{cite web |url=http://www.gao.gov/archive/1998/og98005.pdf |title=Application of the U.S. Constitution in U.S. Insular Areas |date=November 1997}} * {{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/puertorico/index.html |title=Puerto Rico: Resource Guide |publisher=[[Library of Congress|LOC]]}} ===United Nations (U.N.) Declaration on Puerto Rico=== * {{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2007/gacol3160.doc.htm |archive-date= 26 December 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071226070939/https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/gacol3160.doc.htm |title=Special Committee on Decolonization Calls Upon United States to Expedite Puerto Rico's Self-Determination Process |publisher=U.N. General Assembly |work=Special Committee on Decolonization |series=Press release |date=14 June 2007}} {{Puerto Rican topics}} {{Puerto Rico subdivisions}} {{Countries of North America}} {{United States political divisions}} {{Territories of the United States}} {{Subject bar |portal1=Puerto Rico |portal2=United States |portal3=Caribbean |portal4=Islands |voy=Puerto Rico |n=Category:Puerto Rico |s=Category:Puerto Rico |d=Q1183 |b=no |v=no }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|18.2|-66.5|dim:300000_region:US-PR_type:adm1st|name=Commonwealth of Puerto Rico|display=title}} [[Category:Puerto Rico| ]] [[Category:Caribbean islands of the United States]] [[Category:Island countries]] [[Category:Dependent territories in the Caribbean]] [[Category:Greater Antilles]] [[Category:Former colonies in North America]] [[Category:Former Spanish colonies]] [[Category:Insular areas of the United States]] [[Category:Islands of Puerto Rico|*]] [[Category:New Spain]] [[Category:Spanish Caribbean]] [[Category:Spanish colonization of the Americas]] [[Category:Spanish-speaking countries and territories]] [[Category:Spanish West Indies]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1898]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:1493 establishments in the Spanish West Indies]] [[Category:1898 disestablishments in the Spanish West Indies]] [[Category:Small Island Developing States]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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