Paganism

{{Short description|Polytheistic religious groups}}
{{redirect|Pagan||Pagan (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
[[File:Die Gartenlaube (1887) b 016.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Depiction from 1887 showing two Roman women offering a [[sacrifice]] to the [[List of deities|goddess]] [[Vesta (mythology)|Vesta]]]]

'''Paganism''' (from [[classical Latin]] ''[[wikt:paganus|pāgānus]]'' "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used in the fourth century by [[early Christianity|early Christians]] for people in the [[Roman Empire]] who practiced [[polytheism]],<ref name="Bowersock1999p625">{{cite book|author=Peter Brown|editor1=Glen Warren Bowersock|editor2=Peter Brown|editor3=Oleg Grabar|chapter=Pagan|title=Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World|url=https://archive.org/details/lateantiquitygui00bowe|url-access=registration|year=1999|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-51173-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/lateantiquitygui00bowe/page/625 625]–26}}</ref> or [[ethnic religion]]s other than [[Judaism]]. In the time of the Roman Empire, individuals fell into the pagan class either because they were increasingly rural and provincial relative to the [[Christian]] population, or because they were not ''[[Miles Christianus|milites Christi]]'' (soldiers of Christ).<ref name=CF>J. J. O'Donnell (1977), [http://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/paganus.html ''Paganus'': Evolution and Use] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329170344/http://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/paganus.html |date=29 March 2019 }}, ''Classical Folia'', '''31''': 163–69.</ref><ref>Augustine, Divers. Quaest. 83.</ref> Alternative terms used in Christian texts were ''[[Greeks|hellene]]'', ''[[gentile]]'', and ''[[wikt:heathen|heathen]]''.<ref name="Bowersock1999p625"/> [[Ritual sacrifice]] was an integral part of ancient [[Classical mythology|Graeco-Roman religion]]<ref name="James2014">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Christopher P.|title=Between Pagan and Christian|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0-674-72520-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TG22AgAAQBAJ&q=pagan+sacrifice&pg=PT74}}</ref> and was regarded as an indication of whether a person was pagan or Christian.<ref name="James2014"/> Paganism has broadly connoted the "religion of the [[peasant]]ry".<ref name="Bowersock1999p625"/><ref name="Davies2011p1">{{cite book|author=Owen Davies|title=Paganism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pjP8Cr28GCIC |year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-162001-0|pages=1–2}}</ref>

During and after the [[Middle Ages]], the term ''paganism'' was applied to any non-Christian [[religion]], and the term presumed a belief in "[[false god]]s".<ref>{{cite book|author=Kaarina Aitamurto|title=Paganism, Traditionalism, Nationalism: Narratives of Russian Rodnoverie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5c4eDAAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-08443-3|pages=12–15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Owen Davies|title=Paganism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pjP8Cr28GCIC|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-162001-0|pages=1–6, 70–83}}</ref> The origin of the application of the term ''"pagan"'' to polytheism is debated.<ref name="Davies, Owen 2011">Davies, Owen (2011). ''Paganism: A Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0191620010}}.</ref> In the 19th century, paganism was adopted as a self-descriptor by members of various artistic groups inspired by the [[ancient world]]. In the 20th century, it came to be applied as a self-descriptor by practitioners of [[modern paganism]], [[List of modern pagan movements|modern pagan movements]] and [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|Polytheistic reconstructionists]]. Modern pagan traditions often incorporate beliefs or practices, such as [[nature worship]], that are different from those of the largest world religions.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170305114225/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/paganism Paganism], Oxford Dictionary (2014)</ref><ref>[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199754670.001.0001/acref-9780199754670-e-659?rskey=Uq4ZiB&result=9 Paganism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625021530/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199754670.001.0001/acref-9780199754670-e-659?rskey=Uq4ZiB&result=9 |date=25 June 2018 }}, ''The Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature'', Bron Taylor (2010), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199754670}}</ref>

Contemporary knowledge of old pagan religions and beliefs comes from several sources, including [[Anthropology|anthropological]] [[field research]] records, the evidence of [[Archaeology|archaeological artifacts]], and the historical accounts of ancient writers regarding cultures known to [[Classical antiquity]]. Most [[Modern paganism|modern pagan religions]] existing today express a [[worldview]] that is [[pantheism|pantheistic]], [[panentheism|panentheistic]], polytheistic, or [[animism|animistic]], but some are [[monotheism|monotheistic]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=James R.|title=The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-514986-6|page=13|author-link=James R. Lewis (scholar)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hanegraff|first=Wouter J.|title=New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought|year=1006|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=90-04-10696-0|page=84}}</ref>{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=28, 30}}

==Nomenclature and etymology==
[[File:Akropolis-detail.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the [[Parthenon]], on the [[Acropolis of Athens]], [[Greece]]]]

===Pagan===
{{Details|Pagus}}
{{Blockquote|It is crucial to stress right from the start that until the 20th century, people did not call themselves pagans to describe the religion they practised. The notion of paganism, as it is generally understood today, was created by the early Christian Church. It was a label that Christians applied to others, one of the antitheses that were central to the process of Christian self-definition. As such, throughout history it was generally used in a derogatory sense.|[[Owen Davies (historian)|Owen Davies]]|Paganism: A Very Short Introduction, 2011<ref name="Davies, Owen 2011">Davies, Owen (2011). ''Paganism: A Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0191620010}}.</ref>}}

The term ''pagan'' derives from [[Late Latin]] {{lang|la|[[wikt:paganus|paganus]]}}, revived during the [[Renaissance Latin|Renaissance]]. Itself deriving from [[classical Latin]] {{lang|la|[[wikt:pagus|pagus]]}} which originally meant 'region delimited by markers', {{lang|la|paganus}} had also come to mean 'of or relating to the countryside', 'country dweller', 'villager'; by extension, '[[wikt:rustic|rustic]]', 'unlearned', '[[wikt:yokel|yokel]]', '[[wikt:bumpkin|bumpkin]]'; in Roman military [[jargon]], 'non-combatant', 'civilian', 'unskilled soldier'. It is related to {{lang|la|[[wikt:pangere|pangere]]}} ('to fasten', 'to fix or affix') and ultimately comes from [[Proto-Indo-European]] ''*pag-'' ('to fix' in the same sense):<ref name="etymonline_pagan">{{cite web|last=Harper|first=Douglas|title=pagan (n.)|url=http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=pagan&allowed_in_frame=0|work=The Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=18 July 2013}}</ref>

{{quote|The adoption of ''paganus'' by the Latin Christians as an all-embracing, pejorative term for polytheists represents an unforeseen and singularly long-lasting victory, within a religious group, of a word of Latin slang originally devoid of religious meaning. The evolution occurred only in the Latin west, and in connection with the Latin church. Elsewhere, Hellene or gentile (''[[Wikt:ethnicon|ethnikos]]'') remained the word for pagan; and paganos continued as a purely secular term, with overtones of the inferior and the commonplace.|[[Peter Brown (historian)|Peter Brown]]|''Late Antiquity'', 1999<ref name="Peter Brown 1999">Peter Brown, in Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar, eds., ''Late Antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world'', 1999, ''s.v.'' Pagan.</ref>}}

[[Medieval]] writers often assumed that ''paganus'' as a religious term was a result of the conversion patterns during the [[Christianization of Europe]], where people in towns and cities were converted more easily than those in remote regions, where old ways tended to remain. However, this idea has multiple problems. First, the word's usage as a reference to non-Christians pre-dates that period in history. Second, paganism within the Roman Empire centred on cities. The concept of an urban Christianity as opposed to a rural paganism would not have occurred to Romans during [[Early Christianity]]. Third, unlike words such as [[wikt:rusticitas|''rusticitas'']], ''paganus'' had not yet fully acquired the meanings (of uncultured backwardness) used to explain why it would have been applied to pagans.{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=14–15}}

''Paganus'' more likely acquired its meaning in Christian nomenclature via [[Roman military]] jargon (see above). Early Christians adopted military motifs and saw themselves as ''[[miles Christianus|Milites Christi]]'' (soldiers of Christ).<ref name="etymonline_pagan"/>{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=14–15}} A good example of Christians still using ''paganus'' in a military context rather than a religious one is in [[Tertullian]]'s ''De Corona Militis'' XI.V, where the Christian is referred to as ''paganus'' (''civilian''): {{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=14–15}}
{|
 |style="padding-left: 6em; padding-right: 1em;"|''Apud hunc [Christum] tam miles est paganus fidelis quam paganus est miles fidelis.''<ref>[[s:la:De corona militis#11|''De Corona Militis'' XI.V]]</ref>
 |style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 6em;"|With Him [Christ] the faithful citizen is a soldier, just as the faithful soldier is a citizen.<ref>[[s:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume III/Apologetic/The Chaplet, or De Corona/Chapter XI|Ante-Nicene Fathers III, De Corona XI]]</ref>
 |}

''Paganus'' acquired its religious connotations by the mid-4th century.{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=14–15}} As early as the 5th century, ''paganos'' was metaphorically used to denote persons outside the bounds of the Christian community. Following the [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack of Rome]] by the [[Visigoths]] just over fifteen years after the [[Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I]],<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14577d.htm| title = "Theodosius I",'' The Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1912}}</ref> murmurs began to spread that the old gods had taken greater care of the city than the Christian God. In response, [[Augustine of Hippo]] wrote [[The City of God|''De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos'']] ('The City of God against the Pagans'). In it, he contrasted the fallen "city of Man" with the "city of God", of which all Christians were ultimately citizens. Hence, the foreign invaders were "not of the city" or "rural".<ref>"The City of God". [[Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite DVD]], 2003.</ref><ref>Orosius <u>Histories 1. Prol.</u> ''"ui alieni a civitate dei..pagani vocantur."''</ref><ref>C. Mohrmann, ''Vigiliae Christianae'' 6 (1952) 9ff; [http://dictionary.oed.com ''Oxford English Dictionary'', (online) 2nd Edition (1989)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060625103623/http://dictionary.oed.com/ |date=25 June 2006 }}</ref>

The term pagan was not attested in the English language until the 17th century.<ref>The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]]'' instances [[Edward Gibbon]]'s ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', Vol. II, "Chapter XXI: Persecution of Heresy, State of the Church. Part VII" (1776): "The divisions of Christianity suspended the ruin of {{sic|hide=y|reason=Gibbon capitalized here, though did not do so consistently throughout the work.|Paganism}}."</ref> In addition to ''[[wikt:infidel|infidel]]'' and ''[[wikt:heretic|heretic]]'', it was used as one of several [[pejorative]] Christian counterparts to ''[[wikt:goy|goy]]'' ({{lang|he|[[goy|גוי]]|rtl=yes}} / {{lang|he|נכרי|rtl=yes}}) as used in Judaism, and to ''[[kafir]]'' ({{lang|ar|كافر|rtl=yes}}, 'unbeliever') and ''[[mushrik]]'' ({{lang|ar|مشرك|rtl=yes}}, 'idolater') as in Islam.<ref>Eisenstadt, S.N. (1983). "Transcendental Visions – Other-Worldliness – and Its Transformations: Some More Comments on L. Dumont. ''Religion''" 13:1–17, at p. 3.</ref>

===Hellene===
{{Details|Hellenes (religion)}}

In the Latin-speaking [[Western Roman Empire]] of the newly [[Christianization of the Roman Empire|Christianizing Roman Empire]], [[Koine Greek]] became associated with the [[Religion in ancient Greece|traditional polytheistic religion]] of [[Ancient Greece]] and was regarded as a foreign language (''lingua peregrina'') in the west.<ref>Augustine, ''Confessions'' 1.14.23; Moatii, "Translation, Migration, and Communication", p. 112.</ref> By the latter half of the 4th century in the Greek-speaking [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Empire]], pagans were—paradoxically—most commonly called ''Hellenes'' ({{lang|grc|Ἕλληνες}}, lit. "Greeks") The word had almost entirely ceased being used in a cultural sense.<ref name="Cameron93">{{cite book|last1=Cameron|first1=Alan G.|last2=Long|first2=Jacqueline|last3=Sherry|first3=Lee|title=Barbarians and Politics at the Court of Arcadius|year=1993|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=978-0520065505|pages=66–67|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=9780520065505|chapter=2: Synesius of Cyrene; VI: The ''Dion''}}</ref>{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=16–17}} It retained that meaning for roughly the first millennium of Christianity.

This was influenced by Christianity's early members, who were [[Jewish Christian|Jewish]]. The Jews of the time distinguished themselves from foreigners according to religion rather than [[Ethnicity|ethno]]-[[Culture|cultural]] standards, and early Jewish Christians would have done the same. Since Hellenic culture was the dominant pagan culture in the Roman east, they referred to pagans as Hellenes. Christianity inherited Jewish terminology for non-Jews and adapted it in order to refer to non-Christians with whom they were in contact. This usage is recorded in the [[New Testament]]. In the [[Pauline epistles]], ''Hellene'' is almost always juxtaposed with ''Hebrew'' regardless of actual ethnicity{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=16–17}}

The usage of Hellene as a religious term was initially part of an exclusively Christian nomenclature, but some Pagans began to defiantly call themselves Hellenes. Other pagans even preferred the narrow meaning of the word from a broad cultural sphere to a more specific religious grouping. However, there were many Christians and pagans alike who strongly objected to the evolution of the terminology. The influential [[Archbishop of Constantinople]] [[Gregory of Nazianzus]], for example, took offence at imperial efforts to suppress Hellenic culture (especially concerning spoken and written Greek) and he openly criticized the emperor.<ref name="Cameron93"/>

The growing religious stigmatization of Hellenism had a [[chilling effect]] on Hellenic culture by the late 4th century.<ref name="Cameron93"/>

By late antiquity, however, it was possible to speak Greek as a primary language while not conceiving of oneself as a Hellene.<ref>Simon Swain, "Defending Hellenism: Philostratus, in Honour of Apollonius", in ''Apologetics,'' p. 173.</ref> The long-established use of Greek both in and around the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] as a [[lingua franca]] ironically allowed it to instead become central in enabling the spread of Christianity—as indicated for example, by the use of Greek for the [[Pauline epistles|Epistles of Paul]].<ref>Treadgold, ''A History of the Byzantine State,'' p. 5.</ref> In the first half of the 5th century, Greek was the standard language in which bishops communicated,<ref>Millar, ''A Greek Roman Empire,'' pp. 97–98.</ref> and the ''Acta Conciliorum'' ("Acts of the Church Councils") were recorded originally in Greek and then translated into other languages.<ref>Millar, ''A Greek Roman Empire,'' p. 98.</ref>

===Heathen===
[[Heathenry (new religious movement)|Heathen]] comes from [[Old English]] ''hæðen'' (not Christian or Jewish); cf. [[Old Norse]] {{lang|non|[[wikt:heiðinn|heiðinn]]}}. This meaning for the term originated from [[Gothic language|Gothic]] {{lang|got|[[wikt:haiþno|haiþno]]}} ([[gentile]] woman) being used to translate Hellene<ref>cf. {{bibleverse||Mark|7:26|KJV}}</ref> in [[Gothic Bible|Wulfila's Bible]], the first translation of the [[Bible]] into a [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]]. This may have been influenced by the Greek and Latin terminology of the time used for pagans. If so, it may be derived from Gothic {{lang|got|[[wikt:haiþi|haiþi]]}} (dwelling on the [[heath]]). However, this is not [[attested language|attested]]. It may even be a borrowing of Greek {{lang|grc|[[wikt:ἔθνος|ἔθνος]]}} ({{transl|el|ethnos}}) via [[Armenian language|Armenian]] {{lang|hy|[[wikt:հեթանոս#Armenian|hethanos]]}}.<ref>{{cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |title=heathen (n.) |url=http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=heathen&allowed_in_frame=0 |work=The Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=18 July 2013 }}</ref>

The term has recently been revived in the forms [[Heathenry (new religious movement)|Heathenry]] and Heathenism (often but not always capitalized), as alternative names for the [[Germanic neopaganism|Germanic neopagan]] movement, adherents of which may self-identify as Heathens.

==Definition==
{{quote|It is perhaps misleading even to say that there was such a religion as paganism at the beginning of [the Common Era] ... It might be less confusing to say that the pagans, before their competition with Christianity, had no religion at all in the sense in which that word is normally used today. They had no tradition of discourse about ritual or religious matters (apart from philosophical debate or antiquarian treatise), no organized system of beliefs to which they were asked to commit themselves, no authority-structure peculiar to the religious area, above all no commitment to a particular group of people or set of ideas other than their family and political context. If this is the right view of pagan life, it follows that we should look on paganism quite simply as a religion invented in the course of the second to third centuries AD, in competition and interaction with Christians, Jews and others.|J A North 1992, 187–88|{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=26–27}}}}

Defining paganism is complex and problematic. Understanding the context of its associated terminology is important.{{sfn|Davies|2011|loc=Defining paganism}} [[Early Christian]]s referred to the diverse array of [[Cult (religious practice)|cults]] around them as a single group for reasons of convenience and [[rhetoric]].{{sfn|Cameron|2011|p=26}} While paganism generally implies [[polytheism]], the primary distinction between classical pagans and Christians was not one of [[monotheism]] versus polytheism, as not all pagans were strictly polytheist. Throughout history, many of them believed in a [[Creator deity|supreme deity]]. However, most such pagans believed in a class of subordinate gods/[[daimon]]s—see [[henotheism]]—or divine [[Emanationism|emanation]]s.{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=28, 30}} To Christians, the most important distinction was whether or not someone worshipped the ''[[one true God]]''. Those who did not (polytheist, monotheist, or [[atheist]]) were outsiders to the [[Christian Church|Church]] and thus considered pagan.{{sfn|Cameron|2011|pp=27, 31}} Similarly, classical pagans would have found it peculiar to distinguish groups by the number of [[deities]] followers venerate. They would have considered the priestly colleges (such as the [[College of Pontiffs]] or [[Epulones]]) and cult practices more meaningful distinctions.{{sfn|Cameron|2011|p=29}}

Referring to paganism as a pre-Christian indigenous religion is equally untenable. Not all historical pagan traditions were pre-Christian or indigenous to their places of worship.{{sfn|Davies|2011|loc=Defining paganism}}

Owing to the history of its nomenclature, paganism traditionally encompasses the collective pre- and non-Christian cultures in and around the [[classical world]]; including those of the Greco-Roman, Celtic, Germanic, and Slavic tribes.{{sfn|Cameron|2011|p=28}} However, modern parlance of [[folklorist]]s and [[contemporary pagan]]s in particular has extended the original four millennia scope used by early Christians to include similar religious traditions stretching far into [[prehistory]].{{sfn|Davies|2011|loc=Chapter 1: The ancient world}}

==Perception==
Paganism came to be equated by Christians with a sense of hedonism, representing those who are sensual, materialistic, self-indulgent, unconcerned with the future, and uninterested in more mainstream religions. Pagans were usually described in terms of this worldly [[stereotype]], especially among those drawing attention to what they perceived as the limitations of paganism.<ref>Antonio Virgili, Culti misterici ed orientali a Pompei, Roma, Gangemi, 2008</ref> Thus [[G. K. Chesterton]] wrote: "The {{sic|hide=y|reason=Chesterton used "pagan", lower case; verified with source.|pagan}} set out, with admirable sense, to enjoy himself. By the end of his civilization he had discovered that a man cannot enjoy himself and continue to enjoy anything else."<ref>''[[Heretics (book)|Heretics]]'', G. K. Chesterton, 2007, Hendrickson Publishers Inc., p. 88</ref> In sharp contrast, [[Swinburne]] the poet would comment on this same theme: "Thou hast conquered, O pale Galilean; the world has grown grey from thy breath; We have drunken of things Lethean, and fed on the fullness of death."<ref>'Hymn to Proserpine'</ref>

==Ethnocentrism==
Recently, the [[ethnocentric]] and [[moral absolutist]] origins of the common usage of the term pagan have been proposed,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hanegraaff |first1=Wouter |title=Reconstructing "Religion" from the Bottom Up |journal=Numen |year=2016 |volume=63 |issue=5/6 |pages=576–605 |doi=10.1163/15685276-12341439 |jstor=44505310 |hdl=11245.1/8b66dd94-5e6c-4c56-95ec-dbf822201e46 |s2cid=171686966 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44505310}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Blumberg |first1=Antonia |title=What Not To Say When You Meet Someone Who Is Pagan |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-not-to-say-when-you-meet-someone-who-is-pagan_n_57474735e4b055bb11719b22 |access-date=23 March 2021 |agency=Huffington Post |date=27 May 2016}}</ref> with scholar David Petts noting how, with particular reference to Christianity, "...local religions are defined in opposition to privileged 'world religions'; they become everything that world religions are not, rather than being explored as a subject in their own right."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Petts |first1=David |title=Pagan and Christian: Religious Change in Early Medieval Europe |date=26 May 2011 |publisher=Bristol Classical Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-7156-3754-8 |page=31}}</ref> In addition, Petts notes how various spiritual, religious, and metaphysical ideas branded as "pagan" from diverse cultures were studied in opposition to Abrahamism in early anthropology, a binary he links to ethnocentrism and colonialism.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kourbage |first1=Melanie |title=Kourbage on Petts, 'Pagan and Christian: Religious Change in Early Medieval Europe' |url=https://networks.h-net.org/node/35008/reviews/42650/kourbage-petts-pagan-and-christian-religious-change-early-medieval |website=Humanities and Social Sciences Online |publisher=H-German |access-date=23 March 2021}}</ref>

==History==
===Prehistoric===
*[[Prehistoric religion]]
**[[Paleolithic religion]]

====Bronze Age to Early Iron Age====
* [[Religions of the ancient Near East]]
** [[Ancient Egyptian religion]]
** [[Ancient Semitic religion]]
** [[Ancient Iranian religion]]
** [[Ancient Mesopotamian religion]]

===Ancient history===
====Classical antiquity====
{{main article|Ancient Greek religion|Ancient Roman religion|Hellenistic religion|Roman imperial cult}}
[[Ludwig Feuerbach]] defined the paganism of [[classical antiquity]], which he termed {{lang|de|Heidentum}} ('heathenry') as "the unity of religion and politics, of spirit and nature, of god and man",<ref>cf. the civil, natural and mythical theologies of [[Marcus Terentius Varro]]</ref> qualified by the observation that man in the pagan view is always defined by [[ethnicity]], i.e., As a result, every pagan tradition is also a national tradition. Modern historians define paganism instead as the aggregate of cult acts, set within a civic rather than a national context, without a written creed or sense of [[orthodoxy]].<ref>A summary of the modern view is given in Robin Lane Fox, ''Pagans and Christians'' 1989, pp. 31 ''ff.'': "The modern emphasis on {{sic|hide=y|reason=Fox appears to have used "pagan", lower case, per external sources quoting him.|paganism}}'s cult acts was also acknowledged by {{sic|hide=y|pagans}} themselves. It shaped the way they tried and tested Christians."</ref>

====Late Antiquity and Christianization====
{{further|Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism|Hellenic philosophy and Christianity}}
The developments in the religious thought of the far-flung [[Roman Empire]] during [[Late Antiquity]] need to be addressed separately, because this is the context in which [[Early Christianity]] itself developed as one of several monotheistic cults, and it was in this period that the concept of ''pagan'' developed in the first place. As Christianity emerged from [[Second Temple Judaism]] and [[Hellenistic Judaism]], it stood in competition with other religions advocating pagan monotheism, including the cults of [[Dionysus]],<ref>E. Kessler, ''Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus''
"two monotheistic religions, Dionysian and Christian, existed contemporaneously in Nea Paphos during the 4th century C.E. [...] the particular iconography of Hermes and Dionysos in the panel of the Epiphany of Dionysos [...] represents the culmination of a {{sic|hide=y|reason=Kessler capitalized; verified with source.|Pagan}} iconographic tradition in which an infant divinity is seated on the lap of another divine figure; this {{sic|hide=y|Pagan}} motif was appropriated by early Christian artists and developed into the standardized icon of the Virgin and Child. Thus the mosaic helps to substantiate the existence of {{sic|hide=y|Pagan}} monotheism." [https://books.google.com/books?id=y1-hBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91]</ref> [[Neoplatonism]], [[Mithraism]], [[Gnosticism]], and [[Manichaeanism]].{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} [[Dionysus]] in particular exhibits significant parallels with Christ, so that numerous scholars have concluded that the recasting of [[historical Jesus|Jesus the wandering rabbi]] into the image of [[Christ the Logos]], the divine saviour, reflects the cult of Dionysus directly. They point to the symbolism of wine and the importance it held in the mythology surrounding both Dionysus and Jesus Christ;<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 6. 26. 1–2</ref><ref>[[Athenaeus]], ''Deipnosophistae'' 2. 34a</ref> Wick argues that the use of wine [[religious symbolism|symbolism]] in the [[Gospel of John]], including the story of the [[Marriage at Cana]] at which Jesus turns water into [[wine]], was intended to show Jesus as superior to Dionysus.<ref name="Wick 2004 179–198"/> The scene in ''The Bacchae'' wherein Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated by [[Pontius Pilate]].<ref name="Wick 2004 179–198">{{cite journal |last=Wick |first=Peter |title=Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung des Johannesevangeliums |journal=Biblica |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=179–98 |publisher=Pontifical Biblical Institute |location=Rome |year=2004 |url=http://www.bsw.org/?l=71851&a=Comm06.html |access-date=2007-10-10 }}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0fLPOx1B-AwC&dq=%22dionysus+had+been+at+home+in+palestine+for+a+long+time%22&pg=PA331 Studies in Early Christology], by [[Martin Hengel]], 2005, p. 331 ({{ISBN|0567042804}})</ref><ref name=Powell>Powell, Barry B., ''Classical Myth'' Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998.</ref>

===Postclassical history===
The medieval church accused sects deemed heretical such as the [[Waldensians]] and Cathars of participating in pagan fertility rites.<ref name="Byrne 2017 p. 626">{{cite book | last=Byrne | first=J.P. | title=The World of Renaissance Italy: A Daily Life Encyclopedia [2 volumes] | publisher=ABC-CLIO | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-4408-2960-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_kmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA626 | access-date=2023-05-14 | page=626}}</ref>

====Islam in Arabia====
{{See also|Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia}}
Arab paganism gradually disappeared during [[Muhammad]]'s era through [[Islamization]].<ref name="sealednectar2">{{citation|title=The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA245|first=Saifur Rahman Al|last=Mubarakpuri|year=2005|publisher=Darussalam Publications|isbn=978-9960-899-55-8|pages=245–46}}</ref><ref name="online">Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman, [https://books.google.com/books?id=nmUrN0B8cvQC&pg=PA139 Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz' 2 (Part 2): Al-Baqarah 142 to Al-Baqarah 252 2nd Edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102164909/https://books.google.com/books?id=nmUrN0B8cvQC&pg=PA139 |date=2 January 2023 }}, p. 139, MSA Publication Limited, 2009, {{ISBN|1861796765}}. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090529214150/http://www.fda.gov/fsrscripts/triggerParams.js online])</ref> The sacred months of the Arab pagans were the 1st, 7th, 11th, and 12th months of the Islamic calendar.<ref name="The Sealed Nectar Free Version">Mubarakpuri, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-ppPqzawIrIC&pg=PA129 The Sealed Nectar (Free Version)]{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, p. 129</ref> After Muhammad had conquered [[Mecca]] he set out to convert the pagans.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite book|last=Sa'd|first=Ibn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dfnXAAAAMAAJ&q=Hatim|title=Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir, By Ibn Sa'd, Volume 2|year=1967|publisher=Pakistan Historical Society|asin=B0007JAWMK|page=380}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1>{{citation|title=The Sealed Nectar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ppPqzawIrIC&pg=PA269| first=Saifur|last=Rahman al-Mubarakpuri|year=2005|publisher=Darussalam Publications|page=269|isbn = 9798694145923}}</ref><ref name="Mufti Dec 2007 103">{{citation|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oiAtbfbHgVoC&pg=PA103| first=M. Mukarram Ahmed|last=Mufti|year=2007|publisher=Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd
|isbn=978-81-261-2339-1|page=103}}</ref> One of the last military campaigns that Muhammad ordered against the Arab pagans was the [[Demolition of Dhul Khalasa]]. It occurred in April and May 632 AD, in 10AH of the Islamic Calendar. [[Dhul Khalasa]] is referred to as both an idol and a temple, and it was known by some as the [[Ka'ba]] of Yemen, built and worshipped by polytheist tribes.<ref name=b3>{{cite book| title= Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VHufEXRlR6EC&pg=PA297 | first= William|last= Robertson Smith|year= 2010|publisher= Forgotten Books| isbn= 978-1-4400-8379-2| page = 297}}</ref><ref name=b2>{{cite book|title=Who Was Jesus?: Conspiracy in Jerusalem|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yWzcsddrx_wC&pg=PA146 | first= Kamal|last= S. Salibi|year= 2007|publisher= Tauris Parke Paperbacks|isbn= 978-1-8451-1314-8 | page = 146}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=When the Moon Split|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xJL6gxPUV4EC&pg=PA296 | first=Saifur Rahman Al|last=Mubarakpuri |year=2002|publisher=DarusSalam|isbn=978-9960-897-28-8|page= 296}}</ref>

===Modern history===
====Early Modern Renaissance====
Interest in pagan traditions was first revived during the [[Renaissance]], when [[Renaissance magic]] was practiced as a revival of [[Greco-Roman magic]]. In the 17th century, the description of paganism turned from a theological aspect to an [[ethnology|ethnological]] one, and religions began to be understood as part of the [[ethnic]] identities of peoples, and the study of the religions of so-called primitive peoples triggered questions as to the ultimate historical [[origin of religion]]. [[Jean Bodin]] viewed pagan mythology as a distorted version of Christian truths.<ref name="Franklin 2017 p. 413">{{cite book | last=Franklin | first=J.H. | title=Jean Bodin | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-351-56179-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DkQrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA413 | access-date=2023-01-24 | page=413}}</ref> [[Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc]] saw the pagan [[religions of Africa]] of his day as relics that were in principle capable of shedding light on the historical paganism of Classical Antiquity.<ref>"It would be a great pleasure to make the comparison with what survives to us of ancient {{sic|hide=y|reason=Miller used lower case; verified with online copy found in search results.|paganism}} in our old books, in order to have better [grasped] their spirit." Peter N. Miller, "History of Religion Becomes Ethnology: Some Evidence from Peiresc's Africa" ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 67.4 (2006) 675–96.[http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_history_of_ideas/v067/67.4miller.html]</ref>

====Late Modern Romanticism====
{{rquote|right|Great God! I'd rather be<br>A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn;<br>So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,<br>Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;<br>Have sight of [[Proteus]] rising from the sea;<br>Or hear old [[Triton (mythology)|Triton]] blow his wreathèd horn.|[[William Wordsworth]], "[[The World Is Too Much with Us]]", lines 9–14}}

Paganism resurfaces as a topic of fascination in 18th to 19th-century [[Romanticism]], in particular in the context of the literary [[Celtic Revival|Celtic]], [[Slavic reconstructionism|Slavic]] and [[Viking Revival|Viking]] revivals, which portrayed historical [[Celtic polytheism|Celtic]], [[Slavic paganism|Slavic]] and [[Germanic polytheism|Germanic]] polytheists as [[noble savage]]s.

The 19th century also saw much scholarly interest in the reconstruction of pagan mythology from folklore or fairy tales. This was notably attempted by the [[Brothers Grimm]], especially [[Jacob Grimm]] in his ''Teutonic Mythology'', and [[Elias Lönnrot]] with the compilation of the ''[[Kalevala]]''. The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian [[Alexander Afanasyev]], the Norwegians [[Peter Christen Asbjørnsen]] and [[Jørgen Moe]], and the Englishman [[Joseph Jacobs]].<ref>Jack Zipes, ''The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm'', p. 846, {{ISBN|0-393-97636-X}}</ref>

Romanticist interest in non-classical antiquity coincided with the rise of [[Romantic nationalism]] and the rise of the [[nation state]] in the context of the [[1848 revolutions]], leading to the creation of ''[[national epic]]s'' and [[national myth]]s for the various newly formed states. Pagan or folkloric topics were also common in the [[musical nationalism]] of the period.

==Modern paganism==
{{anchor|Neopaganism}}
{{Main article|Modern paganism}}
[[File:Stonehenge Closeup.jpg|thumb|Some [[megalith]]s are believed to have religious significance.]]
[[File:Lady of Cornwall.jpg|thumb|Children standing with ''The Lady of Cornwall'' in a neopagan ceremony in England]]
[[File:Paganavebury.jpg|thumb|Neopagan [[Handfasting (Neopaganism)|handfasting]] ceremony at Avebury (Beltane 2005)]]

[[Modern paganism]], or Neopaganism, includes [[polytheistic reconstructionism|reconstructed religions]] such as [[Roman Polytheistic Reconstructionism]], [[Hellenism (religion)|Hellenism]], [[Slavic Native Faith]], [[Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism]], or [[Heathenry (new religious movement)|heathenry]], as well as modern eclectic traditions such as [[Wicca]] and its many offshoots, [[Neo-Druidism]], and [[Discordianism]].

However, there often exists a distinction or separation between some polytheistic reconstructionists such as Hellenism and revivalist neopagans like Wiccans. The divide is over numerous issues such as the importance of accurate [[orthopraxy]] according to ancient sources available, the use and concept of magic, which calendar to use and which holidays to observe, as well as the use of the term pagan itself.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecauldron.net/dc-faq.php#4|title=Hellenismos FAQ |work=The Cauldron: A Pagan Forum|access-date=25 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="sceh">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ysee.gr/index-eng.php?type=english&f=faq#24|title=Pagans|access-date=7 September 2007|publisher=Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes}}</ref><ref name="heath">{{Cite web|url=http://www.wyrdwords.vispa.com/heathenry/callusheathen.html|title=Call us Heathens!|access-date=7 September 2007|publisher=Journal of the Pagan Federation|year=1997|author=Arlea Anschütz, Stormerne Hunt|archive-date=12 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712021536/http://www.wyrdwords.vispa.com/heathenry/callusheathen.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1717 [[John Toland]] became the first Chosen Chief of the Ancient Druid Order, which became known as the British Circle of the Universal Bond.<ref name="BBC 2002">{{cite web | title=Religions – Paganism: History of modern Paganism | website=BBC | date=2002-10-02 | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/paganism/history/modern_1.shtml | access-date=2023-01-24}}</ref> Many of the revivals, Wicca and Neo-Druidism in particular, have their roots in 19th century [[Romanticism]] and retain noticeable elements of [[occultism]] or [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]] that were current then, setting them apart from historical rural ({{lang|la|paganus}}) folk religion. Most modern pagans, however, believe in the divine character of the natural world and paganism is often described as an Earth religion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/20693321|title=Pagan beliefs: nature, druids and witches|work=BBC Religion & Ethics|access-date=25 March 2015}}</ref>

[[File:A copy of the Thor's hammer from Skåne - Nachbildung des Thorshammers von Skåne 02.jpg|right|thumb|The hammer [[Mjölnir]] is one of the primary symbols of [[Germanic neopaganism]].]]
There are a number of neopagan authors who have examined the relation of the 20th-century movements of polytheistic revival with historical polytheism on one hand and contemporary traditions of folk religion on the other. [[Isaac Bonewits]] introduced a terminology to make this distinction.<ref name="Defs">[http://www.neopagan.net/PaganDefs.html "Defining Paganism: Paleo-, Meso-, and Neo-"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403210554/http://neopagan.net/PaganDefs.html |date=3 April 2005 }}(Version 2.5.1) 1979, 2007 c.e., Isaac Bonewits</ref>

;Neopaganism: The overarching contemporary pagan revival movement which focuses on nature-revering/living, pre-Christian religions and/or other nature-based spiritual paths, and frequently incorporating contemporary [[liberalism|liberal]] values{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}. This definition may include groups such as [[Wicca]], Neo-Druidism, Heathenry, and Slavic Native Faith.
[[File:Kruszwica kolegiata swastyka.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Tursaansydän]]'' symbol, part of the [[Finnish neopaganism]].]]

;{{vanchor|Paleopaganism}}: A [[retronym]] coined to contrast with [[Neopaganism]], original polytheistic, nature-centered faiths, such as the pre-Hellenistic [[Ancient Greek religion|Greek]] and pre-imperial [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]], pre-Migration period [[Germanic paganism]] as described by [[Tacitus]], or [[Celtic polytheism]] as described by [[Julius Caesar]].
;{{vanchor|Mesopaganism}}: A group, which is, or has been, significantly influenced by monotheistic, dualistic, or nontheistic worldviews, but has been able to maintain an independence of religious practices. This group includes [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|aboriginal Americans]] as well as [[Aboriginal Australians]], [[Viking Age]] [[Norse paganism]] and [[New Age]] spirituality. Influences include: [[Spiritualism (religious movement)|Spiritualism]], and the many Afro-Diasporic faiths like [[Haitian Vodou]], [[Santería]] and Espiritu religion. [[Isaac Bonewits]] includes [[British Traditional Wicca]] in this subdivision.

Prudence Jones and Nigel Pennick in their ''A History of Pagan Europe'' (1995) classify pagan religions as characterized by the following traits:
* [[Polytheism]]: Pagan religions recognise a plurality of divine beings, which may or may not be considered aspects of an underlying unity (the [[Polytheism#Soft versus hard|soft and hard polytheism]] distinction).
* [[Earth religion|Nature-based]]: Some pagan religions have a concept of the divinity of [[nature]], which they view as a manifestation of the divine, not as the fallen creation found in [[dualistic cosmology]].
* [[Sacred feminine]]: Some pagan religions recognize the female divine principle, identified as [[Goddess movement|the Goddess]] (as opposed to individual [[goddesses]]) beside or in place of the male divine principle as expressed in the Abrahamic [[God]].<ref>Jones, Prudence; Pennick, Nigel (1995). ''A History of Pagan Europe''. p. 2. Routledge.</ref>

In modern times, Heathen and Heathenry are increasingly used to refer to those branches of modern paganism inspired by the pre-Christian religions of the Germanic, Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon peoples.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/paganism/subdivisions/heathenry_1.shtml|title=Paganism: Heathenry|work=BBC – Religions|access-date=25 March 2015}}</ref>

In [[Iceland]], the members of ''[[Ásatrúarfélagið]]'' account for 0.4% of the total population,<ref>Statistics Iceland – [http://www.statice.is/?PageID=1180&src=/temp_en/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=MAN10001%26ti=Populations+by+religious+organizations+1990-2008+%26path=../Database/mannfjoldi/Trufelog/%26lang=1%26units=Number Statistics >> Population >> Religious organisations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609140557/http://www.statice.is/?PageID=1180&src=%2Ftemp_en%2FDialog%2Fvarval.asp%3Fma%3DMAN10001%26ti%3DPopulations+by+religious+organizations+1990-2008+%26path%3D..%2FDatabase%2Fmannfjoldi%2FTrufelog%2F%26lang%3D1%26units%3DNumber |date=9 June 2009 }}</ref> which is just over a thousand people. In [[Lithuania]], many people practice [[Romuva (religion)|Romuva]], a revived version of the pre-Christian religion of that country. Lithuania was among the last areas of Europe to be Christianized. [[Odinism]] has been established on a formal basis in [[Australia]] since at least the 1930s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://odinicriteofaustralia.wordpress.com/|title=The Odinic Rite of Australia|access-date=25 March 2015}}</ref>

==Ethnic religions of pre-Christian Europe==
{{further|Christianization}}
{{columns-list|
* [[Proto-Indo-European mythology]]
* [[Albanian mythology]]
* [[Baltic mythology]]
* [[Basque mythology]]
* [[Celtic polytheism]]
* [[Etruscan mythology]]
* [[Finnic mythologies]]
* [[Germanic paganism]]
* [[Ancient Greek religion]]
* [[Minoan religion]]
* [[Mari religion]]
* [[Norse mythology]]
* [[Religion in ancient Rome]]
* [[Sámi shamanism]]
* [[Slavic paganism]]
* [[Thracian religion]]
}}

==See also==
{{columns-list|
* [[Animism]]
* [[Crypto-paganism]]
* [[Indigenous Philippine folk religions|Dayawism]]
* [[Dharmic religions]]
* [[East Asian religions]]
* [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]
* [[Henotheism]]
* [[Analytical psychology|Jungian psychology]]
* [[Kemetism]]
* [[List of pagans]]
* [[List of modern pagan movements]]
* [[List of modern pagan temples]]
* [[List of religions and spiritual traditions]]
* [[Myth and ritual]]
* [[Naturalistic pantheism]]
* [[Nature worship]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[Polytheism]]
* [[Secular paganism]]
* [[Sentientism]]
* [[Totemism]]
* [[Virtuous pagan]]
* [[Worship of heavenly bodies]]
}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book|last=Cameron|first=Alan G.|author-link=Alan Cameron (classical scholar)|title=The Last Pagans of Rome|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=New York|isbn=978-0199780914|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NHgvpINWV_QC|oclc=553365192}}
* {{Cite book|last=Davies|first=Owen|title=Paganism: A Very Short Introduction|year=2011|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=New York|isbn=978-0191620010}}
* Hua, Yih-Fen. book review to: Maria Effinger / Cornelia Logemann / Ulrich Pfisterer (eds): Götterbilder und Götzendiener in der Frühen Neuzeit. Europas Blick auf fremde Religionen. In: sehepunkte 13 (2013), Nr. 5 [15.05.2013], URL: http://www.sehepunkte.de/2013/05/21410.html. (Book review in English).
* Robert, P. & Scott, N. (1995). ''A History of Pagan Europe''. New York, Barnes & Noble Books, {{ISBN|0-7607-1210-7}}.
* York, Michael (2003). ''Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion'' NYU Press, {{ISBN|0-8147-9708-3}}.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* {{Wiktionary-inline|pagan|heathen}}
* {{wikiquote-inline}}

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