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Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Founding prophet of Islam (c.570–632)}} {{About|the Islamic prophet|other people named Muhammad|Muhammad (name)|other uses|Muhammad (disambiguation)|the Islamic view and perspective|Muhammad in Islam}} {{Pp|small=yes|expiry=indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}} {{Infobox religious biography | honorific_prefix = <!-- see [[MOS:PBUH]] --> | name = Muhammad | native_name = مُحَمَّد | native_name_lang = ar | image = Dark vignette Al-Masjid AL-Nabawi Door800x600x300.jpg | caption = "Muhammad, the Messenger of God"<br />inscribed on the gates of the [[Prophet's Mosque]] in [[Medina]] | alt = Inscription proclaiming Muhammad as the messenger of God | birth_date = {{Circa|570}} [[Common Era|CE]] (53 [[Hijri year|BH]]){{sfn|Conrad|1987}} | birth_place = {{Longitem|[[Mecca]], Hejaz, Arabia}} | death_date = {{Death date|632|6|8|df=y}} CE (11 AH; aged 61–62) | death_place = {{Longitem|[[Medina]], Hejaz, Arabia}} | resting_place = {{Longitem|style=white-space; |[[Green Dome]] at the [[Prophet's Mosque]], Medina, Arabia}} | resting_place_coordinates = {{coord|24|28|03|N|39|36|41|E|type:landmark_scale:5000_region:SA|display=inline|name=Green Dome}} | other_names = {{plainlist| *Rasul Allah ('Messenger of God') *''See'' [[Names and titles of Muhammad]] }} | known_for = Establishing [[Islam]] | spouse = ''See'' [[Wives of Muhammad]] | children = ''See'' [[Children of Muhammad]] | parents = {{plainlist| *[[Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] (father) *[[Amina bint Wahb]] (mother) }} | relatives = {{plainlist| *[[Ahl al-Bayt]] ('Family of the House') *''See'' [[Family tree of Muhammad]] }} | module = {{Infobox Arabic name|embed=yes |ism=Muḥammad |ism-ar=مُحَمَّد |nasab=Ibn [[Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib|ʿAbd Allāh]] ibn [[Abd al-Muttalib|ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib]] ibn [[Hashim ibn Abd Manaf|Hāshim]] ibn [[Abd Manaf ibn Qusai|ʿAbd Manāf]] ibn [[Qusai ibn Kilab|Quṣayy]] ibn [[Kilab ibn Murrah|Kilāb]] |nasab-ar=ٱبْن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه بْن عَبْد ٱلْمُطَّلِب بْن هَاشِم بْن عَبْد مَنَاف بْن قُصَيّ بْن كِلَاب |kunya=[[Abu al-Qasim|Abū al-Qāsim]] |kunya-ar=أَبُو ٱلْقَاسِم |laqab=[[Seal of the Prophets|Khātam al-Nabiyyīn]] ('Seal of the Prophets') |laqab-ar=خَاتَم ٱلنَّبِيِّين }} }} {{Muhammad}} '''Muhammad'''{{efn|He is referred to by many appellations, including '''Muhammad ibn Abd Allah''', '''Messenger of God''', '''Prophet Muhammad''', '''God's Apostle''', '''Last Prophet of Islam''', and others; there are also variant spellings of Muhammad, such as '''Mohamet''', '''Mohammed''', '''Mahamad''', '''Muhamad''', '''Mohamed''', and many others.}} ({{Lang-ar|مُحَمَّد|translit=Muḥammad}}; {{IPA|en|moʊˈhɑːməd|lang}}; {{IPA|ar|mʊˈħæm.mæd|lang}}; {{circa}} 570 – 8 June 632 [[Common Era|CE]]){{efn|{{harvnb|Goldman|1995|p=63}}, gives 8 June 632 CE, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier (primarily non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant#Conquest of Palestine|Muslim conquest of Palestine]].}} was an [[Arab]] religious, social, and political leader and the founder of [[Islam]].{{efn|According to {{harvnb|Welch|Moussalli|Newby|2009}}, writing for the Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World: "The Prophet of Islam was a religious, political, and social reformer who gave rise to one of the great civilizations of the world. From a modern, historical perspective, Muḥammad was the founder of Islam. From the perspective of the Islamic faith, he was God's Messenger (''rasūl Allāh''), called to be a "warner," first to the Arabs and then to all humankind."}} According to [[Muhammad in Islam|Islamic doctrine]], he was a prophet [[Divine inspiration|divinely inspired]] to preach and confirm the [[tawhid|monotheistic]] teachings of [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]], [[Moses in Islam|Moses]], [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]], and other [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophets]].{{sfn|Welch|Moussalli|Newby|2009}}{{sfn|Esposito|2002|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Esposito|1998|p=9,12}} He is believed to be the [[Seal of the Prophets]] within Islam, with the [[Quran]] as well as his [[Hadith|teachings]] and [[Sunnah|practices]] forming the basis for Islamic religious belief. Muhammad was born in approximately 570{{nbsp}}CE in [[Mecca]].{{sfn|Conrad|1987}} He was the son of [[Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] and [[Amina bint Wahb]]. His father, Abdullah, the son of [[Quraysh]] tribal leader [[Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim]], died around the time Muhammad was born. His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|pp=38, 41–3}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=22}} He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, [[Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abu Talib]].{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=7}} In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named [[Jabal al-Nour|Hira]] for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, circa 610{{nbsp}}CE, Muhammad reported being visited by [[Gabriel]] in the cave{{sfn|Conrad|1987}} and receiving [[Muhammad's first revelation|his first revelation]] from God. In 613,<ref name=":2">Howarth, Stephen. ''Knights Templar.'' 1985. {{ISBN|978-0-8264-8034-7}} p. 199.</ref> Muhammad started [[Dawah|preaching]] these revelations publicly,<ref name="Al-A'zami2">[[Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami]] (2003), ''The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments'', pp. 26–27. UK Islamic Academy. {{ISBN|978-1-872531-65-6}}.</ref> proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "submission" (''[[Islam#Etymology|islām]]'') to [[God in Islam|God]] (''[[Allah]]'') is the right way of life (''[[dīn]]''),{{sfn|Ahmad|2009}} and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other [[Prophets in Islam#Table of prophets/messengers in the Quran|prophets in Islam]].{{sfn|Esposito|2002|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=9}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} [[Companions of the Prophet|Muhammad's followers]] were initially few in number, and experienced [[Persecution of Muslims by Meccans|hostility from Meccan polytheists]] for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he [[Migration to Abyssinia|sent some of his followers]] to [[Kingdom of Aksum|Abyssinia]] in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to [[Medina]] (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the [[Hijrah]], marks the beginning of the [[Islamic calendar]], also known as the Hijri calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the [[Constitution of Medina]]. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and [[Conquest of Mecca|marched on the city of Mecca]]. The conquest went largely uncontested, and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the [[Farewell Pilgrimage]], he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] had [[conversion to Islam|converted to Islam]].{{sfn|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=57}}{{sfn|Lapidus|2002|pp=31–32}} The revelations (''[[ayat]]'') that Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim "Word of God" on which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad's teachings and practices (''[[sunnah]]''), found in transmitted reports ([[hadith]]) and in his biography (''[[sīrah]]''), are also upheld and used as [[sources of sharia|sources]] of [[Islamic law]]. ==Sources of biographical information== {{Main|Historiography of early Islam|Historicity of Muhammad}} [[File:Birmingham Quran manuscript.jpg|thumb|left|Two folios of the [[Birmingham Quran manuscript]], an [[Early Quranic manuscripts|early manuscript]] written in [[Hijazi script]] likely dated within Muhammad's lifetime between {{circa|568–645}}]] ===Quran=== {{Main|Muhammad in the Quran}} The [[Quran]] is the central [[religious text]] of [[Islam]]. Muslims believe it represents the words of [[God in Islam|God]] revealed by the archangel [[Gabriel]] to Muhammad.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Qurʾān |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quran |access-date=24 September 2013 |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |date=2007 |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505001543/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Quran |archive-date=5 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=LivRlgP338>''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths'', Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, p. 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.</ref><ref>{{qref|17|106|b=y}}</ref> The Quran is mainly addressed to a single "Messenger of God" who is referred to as Muhammad in a number of verses. The Quranic text also describes the settlement of his followers in [[Medina|Yathrib]] after their expulsion by the Quraysh, and briefly mentions military encounters such as the [[Battle of Badr|Muslim victory at Badr]].<ref name=":0">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Muhammad |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad |access-date=4 February 2023 |last=Watt |first=William Montgomery |date=4 January 2024 |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt }}</ref> The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammad's chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context and timeline.{{Sfn|Bennett|1998|p=18–19}}{{sfn|Peters|1994|p=261}} Almost none of Muhammad's [[Companions of the Prophet|companions]] are mentioned by name in the Quran, hence not providing sufficient information for a concise biography.<ref name=":0" /> The Quran is considered to be contemporary with Muhammad, and the [[Birmingham Quran manuscript|Birmingham manuscript]] has been [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to his lifetime, its discovery largely disproving [[Revisionist school of Islamic studies|Western revisionist theories]] about the Quran's origins.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bora |first=Fozia |date=2015-07-22 |title=Discovery of 'oldest' Qur'an fragments could resolve enigmatic history of holy text |url=http://theconversation.com/discovery-of-oldest-quran-fragments-could-resolve-enigmatic-history-of-holy-text-45066 |access-date=2024-02-04 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Lumbard-24-7-2015">{{cite news |last1=Lumbard |first1=Joseph E. B. |author-link1=Joseph E. B. Lumbard |date=24 July 2015 |title=New Light on the History of the Quranic Text? |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/new-light-on-the-history_b_7864930 |access-date=24 March 2021 |agency=Huffington Post}}</ref> ===Early biographies=== {{Main|Prophetic biography}} [[File:PERF No. 665.jpg|thumb|right|280x280px|An early manuscript of [[Ibn Hisham]]'s [[Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah (Ibn Hisham)|a''l-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah'']], believed to have been transmitted by his students shortly after his death in 833]] Important sources regarding Muhammad's life may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the [[Hijri year|Hijri era]] (around the 8th and 9th century CE respectively).{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=xi}} These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which provide additional information about his life.<ref name="Reeves">{{cite book |last=Reeves |first=Minou|author-link=Minou Reeves |date= 2003|title= [[Muhammad in Europe]]: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making |url= |location= |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |pages=6–7 |isbn= 0814775640}}</ref> The earliest written ''sira'' (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is [[Ibn Ishaq]]'s ''[[Prophetic biography|Life of God's Messenger]]'' written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the original work was lost, this ''sira'' survives as extensive excerpts in works by [[Ibn Hisham]] and to a lesser extent by [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|Al-Tabari]].{{sfn|Nigosian|2004|p=6}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Donner |first=Fred |author-link=Fred Donner |date= 1998|title=[[Narratives of Islamic Origins]]: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing |url= |location= |publisher=Darwin Press |page=132 |isbn= 0878501274}}</ref> However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of Muhammad that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq's biography that "would distress certain people".<ref>{{cite book |last=Holland |first=Tom |title=In the Shadow of the Sword |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5u3Ukw7AftwC&pg=PT28 |date=2012 |publisher=Doubleday |pages=42|isbn=978-0-7481-1951-6 |quote=Things which it is disgraceful to discuss; matters which would distress certain people; and such reports as I have been told are not to be accepted as trustworthy – all these things have I omitted. [Ibn Hashim, p. 691.]}}</ref> Another early historical source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by [[al-Waqidi]] ({{died in|207}} AH), and [[The Book of the Major Classes|the work]] of Waqidi's secretary [[Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi]] ({{died in|230}} AH).{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=xi}} Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic, though their accuracy is unascertainable.{{sfn|Nigosian|2004|p=6}} Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions touching legal matters and purely historical events. In the legal group, traditions could have been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional cases, may have been subject only to "tendential shaping".{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=xv}} ===Hadith=== {{Main|Hadith}} [[File:PERF No. 732.jpg|thumb|left|An early manuscript of the [[Muwatta Imam Malik|''Muwatta'']] of [[Malik ibn Anas]], dated within his lifetime in {{circa|780}}]] Other important sources include the [[hadith]] collections, accounts of verbal and physical teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad. Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by Muslims including [[Muhammad al-Bukhari]], [[Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj]], [[Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi]], [[Al-Nasa'i|Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai]], [[Abu Dawood]], [[Ibn Majah]], [[Malik ibn Anas]], [[al-Daraqutni]].<ref name="Lewis 1993, pp. 33–34">{{cite book |last=Lewis |first= Bernard|author-link=Bernard Lewis |date=1993 |title= [[Islam and the West]]|url= |location= |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]]|pages=33–34 |isbn= 978-0195090611}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=A.C. Brown |last1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan A.C. Brown |date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyMKDEAb4GsC&pg=PA9 |title=The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon |page=9 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-15839-9 |quote=We can discern three strata of the Sunni ḥadīth canon. The perennial core has been the ''Ṣaḥīḥayn''. Beyond these two foundational classics, some fourth-/tenth-century scholars refer to a four-book selection that adds the two ''Sunans'' of Abū Dāwūd (d. 275/889) and al-Nāsaʾī (d. 303/915). The Five Book canon, which is first noted in the sixth/twelfth century, incorporates the ''Jāmiʿ'' of al-Tirmidhī (d. 279/892). Finally, the Six Book canon, which hails from the same period, adds either the ''Sunan'' of Ibn Mājah (d. 273/887), the ''Sunan'' of al-Dāraquṭnī (d. 385/995) or the ''Muwaṭṭaʾ'' of Mālik b. Anas (d. 179/796). Later ḥadīth compendia often included other collections as well. None of these books, however, has enjoyed the esteem of al-Bukhārīʼs and Muslimʼs works. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018150501/https://books.google.com/books?id=nyMKDEAb4GsC |archive-date=18 October 2017 }}</ref> Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical sources.<ref name="Lewis 1993, pp. 33–34" /> Scholars such as [[Wilferd Madelung]] do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.{{sfn|Madelung|1997|pp=xi, 19–20}} Muslim scholars, in contrast, typically place a greater emphasis on the hadith literature instead of the biographical literature, since hadiths maintain a traditional chain of transmission ([[isnad]]); the lack of such a chain for the biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes.{{sfn|Ardic|2012|p=99}} ==Pre-Islamic Arabia== {{Main|Pre-Islamic Arabia|Jahiliyyah|Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia}} [[File:Tribes english.png|thumb|left|Main tribes and settlements of Arabia in Muhammad's lifetime]] The [[Arabian Peninsula]] was, and still is, largely arid with volcanic soil, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Towns and cities dotted the landscape, two of the most prominent being [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.{{sfn|Watt|1953|pp=1–2}} In the desert, communal life was crucial for survival. Indigenous tribes relied on each other to endure the challenging conditions and way of life. Tribal affiliation, whether through family ties or alliances, played a significant role in fostering social unity.{{sfn|Watt|1953|pp=16–18}} Indigenous Arabs were either [[nomad]]ic or [[Sedentism|sedentary]]. Nomadic groups constantly traveled seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the sedentary settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases; nomads did not view this as a crime.<ref name="Rue">Loyal Rue, ''Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological'', 2005, p. 224.</ref> In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits associated with sacred trees, [[Baetylus|stones]], springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the [[Kaaba]] shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities. Three goddesses were worshipped, in some places as daughters of Allah: [[Allāt]], [[Manāt]] and [[al-'Uzzá]]. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and [[Jewish tribes of Arabia|Jews]].{{efn|See Quran 3:95}} [[Hanif]]s – native pre-Islamic Arabs who "professed a rigid monotheism"<ref>{{cite book |last=Ueberweg |first=Friedrich |title=History of Philosophy, Vol. 1: From Thales to the Present Time |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |page=409 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZfL4GsU3JAC&q=Hanifs&pg=PA409 |isbn=978-1-4400-4322-2}}</ref> – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although scholars dispute their [[historicity (philosophy)|historicity]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kochler |first=Hans |author-link=Hans Kochler |date=1982 |title= The Concept of Monotheism in Islam and Christianity |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zMuipwd5MTEC |location= |publisher=[[International Progress Organization]] |page= 29|isbn= 3700303394}}</ref><ref>cf. [[Uri Rubin]], ''Hanif'', Encyclopedia of the Qur'an.</ref> According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of [[Ishmael]], son of [[Abraham]].<ref>Louis Jacobs (1995), p. 272</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Colin|author-link= |date=2005 |title=Islam: The Basics (Volume 1) |url= |location= |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=16 |isbn= 9780415341066}}</ref> The second half of the sixth century was a period of political disorder in Arabia and communication routes were no longer secure.{{sfn|Robin|2012|pp=297-299}} Religious divisions were an important cause of the crisis.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=302}} Judaism became the dominant religion in [[Yemen]] while Christianity took root in the [[Persian Gulf]] area.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=302}} In line with broader trends of the ancient world, the region witnessed a decline in the practice of polytheistic cults and a growing interest in a more spiritual form of religion. While many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=302}} During the early years of Muhammad's life, the [[Quraysh]] tribe to which he belonged became a dominant force in western Arabia.{{sfn|Robin|2012|pp=286–287}} They formed the cult association of ''hums'', which tied members of many tribes in western Arabia to the [[Kaaba]] and reinforced the prestige of the Meccan sanctuary.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=301}} To counter the effects of anarchy, Quraysh upheld the institution of sacred months during which all violence was forbidden, and it was possible to participate in pilgrimages and fairs without danger.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=301}} Thus, although the association of ''hums'' was primarily religious, it also had important economic consequences for the city.{{sfn|Robin|2012|p=301}} {{Clear}} ==Life== === Meccan years === {{main|Muhammad in Mecca}} ==== Childhood and early life ==== {{See also|Mawlid|Family tree of Muhammad}} {{Muhammad timeline in Mecca}} [[File:Siyer-i_Nebi_223b.jpg|thumb|The birth of Muhammad in the 16th-century [[Siyer-i Nebi]]]] Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim<ref name="auto">[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad Muhammad] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209125352/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad|date=9 February 2017}} [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]. Retrieved 15 February 2017.</ref> was born in [[Mecca]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rodinson |first1=Maxime |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LqR_mU0qpE4C&pg=PA38 |title=Muhammad: Prophet of Islam |publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-86064-827-4 |page=38 |author-link1=Maxime Rodinson |access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref> about the year 570,{{sfn|Conrad|1987}} and [[Mawlid|his birthday]] is believed to be in the month of [[Rabi' al-Awwal]].{{sfn|Esposito|2003}} He belonged to the [[Quraysh]] tribe's [[Banu Hashim]] clan, which was one of the more distinguished families in the city, although the clan seems to have experienced a lack of prosperity during his early years.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}{{efn|See also {{qref|43|31|b=y}} cited in EoI; Muhammad.}} The name Muhammad means "praiseworthy" in Arabic and it appears four times in the [[Quran]].<ref name=":4">Jean-Louis Déclais, ''Names of the Prophet'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]].</ref> He was also known as al-Amin ({{literal translation|faithful}}) when he was young; however, historians differ as to whether it was given by people as a reflection of his nature{{sfn|Esposito|1998|p=6}} or was simply a given name from his parents, i.e., a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina".{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=361}} Muhammad acquired the ''[[Kunya (Arabic)|kunya]]'' of Abu al-Qasim later in his life after the birth of his son Qasim, who died two years afterwards.{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=51}} Islamic tradition states that Muhammad's birth year coincided with Yemeni King [[Abraha]]'s unsuccessful attempt to conquer Mecca.<ref>Marr J.S., Hubbard E., Cathey J.T. (2014): The Year of the Elephant. <!-- figshare. --> {{doi|10.6084/m9.figshare.1186833}} Retrieved 21 October 2014 (GMT).</ref> Recent studies, however, challenge this notion, as other evidence suggests that the expedition, if it had occurred, would have transpired substantially before Muhammad's birth.{{sfn|Conrad|1987}}{{Sfn|Reynolds|2023|p=16}}{{Sfn|Johnson|2015|p=286}}{{sfn|Peters|2010|p=61}}{{Sfn|Muesse|2018|p=213}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=361}} Later Muslim scholars presumably linked Abraha's renowned name to the narrative of Muhammad's birth to elucidate the unclear passage about "the men of elephants" in Quran 105:1–5.{{Sfn|Reynolds|2023|p=16}}<ref>{{harv|Gibb et al.|1986|p=102}}</ref> ''The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity'' deems the tale of Abraha's war elephant expedition as a myth.{{Sfn|Johnson|2015|p=286}} <!------------ PLEASE NOTE: The consensus to include images of Muhammad emerged after extensive months-long discussions and efforts on both sides to balance multiple competing interests. Please do not remove or reposition these images because you feel they are against your religion. Please do not add more images or reposition the current ones to prove a point. To avoid pointless revert-warring, blocking and page protection, please discuss any prospective changes on the talk page. Thank you for contributing to Wikipedia. -------------> Muhammad's father, [[Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abdullah]], died almost six months before he was born.<ref name="Meri2004">{{cite book |last=Meri |first=Josef W. |author-link=Josef W. Meri |title=Medieval Islamic civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC |access-date=3 January 2013 |volume=1 |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |page=525 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114153019/http://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC |archive-date=14 November 2012 }}</ref> Muhammad then stayed with his foster-mother, [[Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb]], and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother [[Aminah|Amina]] to illness and became an orphan.{{sfn|Watt|1971}}{{sfn|Watt|1960}} For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather, [[Abd al-Muttalib]], until the latter's death. He then came under the care of his uncle, [[Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abu Talib]], the new leader of the Banu Hashim.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=7}} The historical record of Mecca during Muhammad's early life is limited and fragmentary, making it difficult to distinguish between fact and legend.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=8}} Several Islamic narratives relate that Muhammad, as a child, went on a trading trip to Syria with his uncle Abu Talib and met a monk named [[Bahira]], who is said to have then foretold his prophethood.{{sfn|Roggema|2008|p=38–46}} There are multiple versions of the story with details that contradict each other.{{sfn|Roggema|2008|p=46}} All accounts of Bahira and his meeting with Muhammad have been considered fictitious by modern historians{{sfn|Roggema|2008|p=52}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=56}}{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=9}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=362}}{{sfn|Anthony|2020|p=73}} as well as by some medieval Muslim scholars such as [[al-Dhahabi]].{{sfn|Anthony|2020|p=73}} Sometime later in his life, Muhammad proposed marriage to his cousin and first love, [[Fakhitah bint Abi Talib|Fakhita bint Abi Talib]]. But likely owing to his poverty, his proposal was rejected by her father, Abu Talib, who chose a more illustrious suitor.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=49}}{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=100}} Life took a favorable turn for Muhammad at the age of 25 when he was asked for marriage by [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]], a wealthy 40-year-old businesswoman. He accepted her offer and remained monogamous with her until her death.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=50, 55}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=362}} <div class="depiction">[[File:Mohammed kaaba 1315.jpg|thumb|left|Miniature from [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]]'s ''[[Jami al-Tawarikh]]'', {{c.|lk=no|1315}}, illustrating the story of Muhammad's role in re-setting the [[Black Stone]] in 605 ([[Ilkhanate]] period)<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ali |first=Wijdan |author-link=Wijdan Ali |date=August 1999 |journal=Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art |title=From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art |number=7 |url=http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041203232347/http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 December 2004 |page=3 |issn=0928-6802 }}</ref>]]</div> In 605, the Quraysh decided to roof the [[Kaaba]], which had previously consisted only of walls. A complete rebuild was needed to accommodate the new weight. Amid concerns about upsetting the deities, a man stepped forth with a pickaxe and exclaimed, "O goddess! Fear not! Our intentions are only for the best." With that, he began demolishing it. The anxious Meccans awaited divine retribution overnight, but his unharmed continuation the next day was seen as a sign of heavenly approval. According to a narrative collected by [[Ibn Ishaq]], when it was time to reattach the [[Black Stone]], a dispute arose over which clan should have the privilege. It was determined that the first person to step into the Kaaba's court would arbitrate. Muhammad took on this role, asking for a cloak. He placed the stone on it, guiding clan representatives to jointly elevate it to its position. He then personally secured it within the wall.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=79-81}}{{sfn|Wensinck|Jomier|1990|p=319}} ==== Beginnings of the Quran ==== {{See also|Muhammad's first revelation|History of the Quran|Wahy}} [[File:Cave Hira.jpg|right|upright|thumb|The cave [[Cave of Hira|Hira]] in the mountain [[Jabal al-Nour]] where, according to Muslim belief, Muhammad received his first revelation]] The financial security Muhammad enjoyed from [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]], his wealthy wife, gave him plenty of free time to spend in solitude in the [[Jabal al-Nour|cave of Hira]].{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=35}}{{sfn|Netton|2013|p=235}} According to Islamic tradition, one day in 610 CE, when he was 40 years old, the angel [[Gabriel]] appeared to him during his visit to the cave. The angel showed him a cloth with [[Āyah|Quranic verses]] on it and instructed him to read. When Muhammad confessed his illiteracy, Gabriel choked him forcefully, nearly suffocating him, and repeated the command. As Muhammad reiterated his inability to read, Gabriel choked him again in a similar manner. This sequence took place once more before Gabriel finally recited the verses, allowing Muhammad to memorize them.{{Sfn|Peterson|2007|p=51}}{{sfn|Klein|1906|p=7}}{{sfn|Wensinck|Rippen|2002}} These verses later constituted [[Quran 96:1-5]].{{sfn|Rosenwein|2018|p=148}} The experience terrified Muhammad, but he was soon reassured by his wife [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]] and her Christian cousin [[Waraqah ibn Nawfal|Waraqa ibn Nawfal]].{{sfn|Brown|2003|p=73}} Khadija instructed Muhammad to let her know if Gabriel returned. When he appeared during their private time, Khadija conducted tests by having Muhammad sit on her left thigh, right thigh, and lap, inquiring Muhammad if the being was still present each time. After Khadija removed her clothes with Muhammad on her lap, he reported that Gabriel left at that very moment. Khadija thus told him to rejoice as she concluded it was not a [[Satan]] but an angel visiting him.{{Sfn|Phipps|2016|p=37}}{{sfn|Rosenwein|2018|p=146}}{{sfn|Brown|2003|p=73}} Muhammad's demeanor during his moments of inspiration frequently led to allegations from his contemporaries that he was under the influence of a [[jinn]], a soothsayer, or a magician, suggesting that his experiences during these events bore resemblance to those associated with such figures widely recognized in ancient Arabia. Nonetheless, these enigmatic seizure events might have served as persuasive evidence for his followers regarding the divine origin of his revelations. Some historians posit that the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition in these instances are likely genuine, as they are improbable to have been concocted by later Muslims.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=363}}{{Sfn|Peterson|2007|p=53–4}} [[File:Miniatura_Maometto.jpg|thumb|left|A 16th-century [[Siyer-i Nebi]] image of angel [[Gabriel]] visiting Muhammad]] Shortly after Waraqa's death, the revelations ceased for a period, causing Muhammad great distress and thoughts of suicide.{{sfn|Wensinck|Rippen|2002}}{{efn|''See:'' * Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 7. * Rodinson (2002), p. 71.}} On one occasion, he reportedly climbed a mountain intending to jump off. However, upon reaching the peak, Gabriel appeared to him, affirming his status as the true Messenger of God. This encounter soothed Muhammad, and he returned home. Later, when there was another long break between revelations, he repeated this action, but Gabriel intervened similarly, calming him and causing him to return home.{{Sfn|Murray|2011|p=552}}{{Sfn|Rāshid|2015|p=11}} Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.<ref>Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 31.</ref> The early Quranic revelations utilized approaches of cautioning non-believers with divine punishment, while promising rewards to believers. They conveyed potential consequences like famine and killing for those who rejected Muhammad's God and alluded to past and future calamities. The verses also stressed the imminent final judgment and the threat of hellfire for skeptics.{{sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=40–2}} According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]] was the first to believe he was a prophet.{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=86}} She was followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin [[Ali|Ali ibn Abi Talib]], close friend [[Abu Bakr]], and adopted son [[Zayd ibn Harithah|Zaid]].{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=86}} ==== Opposition in Mecca ==== {{See also|Persecution of Muslims by Meccans}} Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public.<ref name="Al-A'zami2" />{{sfn|Ramadan|2007|pp=37–39}} Initially, he had no serious opposition from the inhabitants of [[Mecca]], who were indifferent to his proselytizing activities, but when he started to attack their beliefs, tensions arose.{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=364}}{{sfn|Lewis|2002|p=35–36}}{{Sfn|Muranyi|1998|p=102}}{{Sfn|Gordon|2005|p=120-121}} The [[Quraysh]] challenged [[Miracles of Muhammad|him to perform miracles]], such as bringing forth springs of water, yet he declined, reasoning that the regularities of nature already served as sufficient proof of God's majesty. Some satirized his lack of success by wondering why God had not bestowed treasure upon him. Others called on him to visit Paradise and return with tangible parchment scrolls of the [[Quran|Qur'an]]. But Muhammad asserted that the Quran, in the form he conveyed it, was already an extraordinary proof.{{Sfn|Phipps|2016|p=40}}{{Sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=45–6}} According to [[Amr ibn al-As]], several of the Quraysh gathered at [[Hijr Ismail|Hijr]] and discussed how they had never faced such serious problems as they were facing from Muhammad. They said that he had derided their culture, denigrated their ancestors, scorned their faith, shattered their community, and cursed their gods. Sometime later, Muhammad came, kissing the [[Black Stone]] and performing the ritual [[tawaf]]. As Muhammad passed by them, they reportedly said hurtful things to him. The same happened when he passed by them a second time. On his third pass, Muhammad stopped and said, "Will you listen to me, O Quraysh? By Him (God), who holds my life in His hand, I bring you slaughter." They fell silent and told him to go home, saying that he was not a violent man. The next day, a number of Quraysh approached him, asking if he had said what they had heard from their companions. He answered yes, and one of them seized him by his cloak. [[Abu Bakr]] intervened, tearfully saying, "Would you kill a man for saying God is my Lord?" And they left him.{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=113–4}}{{Sfn|Deming|2014|p=68}}{{Sfn|Ibn Kathir|Gassick|2000|p=342–3}} The [[Quraysh]] attempted to entice Muhammad to quit preaching by giving him admission to the merchants' inner circle as well as an advantageous marriage, but he refused both of the offers.<ref name="Cambridge 1977 362">Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'' (1977), p. 36.</ref> A delegation of them then, led by the leader of the [[Banu Makhzum|Makhzum]] clan, known by the Muslims as [[Amr ibn Hisham|Abu Jahl]], went to Muhammad's uncle [[Abu Talib]], head of the [[Banu Hashim|Hashim]] clan and Muhammad's caretaker, giving him an ultimatum:{{Sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=125}} {{Blockquote|text="By God, we can no longer endure this vilification of our forefathers, this derision of our traditional values, this abuse of our gods. Either you stop Muhammad yourself, Abu Talib, or you must let us stop him. Since you yourself take the same position as we do, in opposition to what he’s saying, we will rid you of him."{{sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=125–6}}{{sfn|Ibn Kathir| Gassick|2000|p=344}}}} Abu Talib politely dismissed them at first, thinking it was just a heated talk. But as Muhammad grew more vocal, Abu Talib requested Muhammad to not burden him beyond what he could bear, to which Muhammad wept and replied that he would not stop even if they put the sun in his right hand and the moon in his left. When he turned around, Abu Talib called him and said, "Come back nephew, say what you please, for by God I will never give you up on any account."{{Sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=125–7}}{{Sfn|Ibn Kathir|Gassick|2000|p=344–5}} While a group of Muslims were praying in a ravine, some Quraysh ran into them and blamed them for what they were doing. One of the Muslims, [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas]], then took a camel's jawbone and struck a Quraysh, splitting his head open, in what is reported to be the first bloodshed in Islam.{{Sfn|Williams|2013|loc=Prelude to the call}}{{Sfn|Lewis|2009|p=73}} The initial persecution by the Meccans has been described by modern historians as "mostly mild",{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=119}}{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010|p=406}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=39}} being constrained by the clan system, the main guarantee of security within Mecca.{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=119}} By ensuring that any inter-clan violence would be considered an attack on the honor of the whole clan, the threat of retributive action largely prevented instances of serious violence against professed Muslims, who were instead principally subject to economic sanctions and verbal insults.{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=119}}{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2010|p=406}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=126}} The most notable instances of bodily violence against Muslims in this period were against slaves, famously [[Bilal ibn Rabah]] and [[Amir ibn Fuhayra]], who lacked clan protection.{{sfn|Watt|1953|p=119}} The Qur'an does not mention the persecution, with this material being found instead in the [[prophetic biography]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=364–5}} ====Quraysh delegation to Yathrib==== {{See also|Seven Sleepers|Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran}} The leaders of the Quraysh sent [[Nadr ibn al-Harith]] and [[Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt]] to [[Yathrib]] to seek the opinions of the Jewish [[rabbi]]s regarding Muhammad. The rabbis advised them to ask Muhammad three questions: recount the tale of young men who ventured forth in the first age; narrate the story of a traveler who reached both the eastern and western ends of the earth; and provide details about the spirit. If Muhammad answered correctly, they stated, he would be a Prophet; otherwise, he would be a liar. When they returned to [[Mecca]] and asked Muhammad the questions, he told them he would provide the answers the next day. However, 15 days passed without a response from his God, leading to gossip among the Meccans and causing Muhammad distress. At some point later, the angel [[Gabriel]] came to Muhammad and provided him with the answers.{{sfn|Ṣallābī|2005|p=460–1}}{{sfn|Peterson|2007|p=75}} In response to the first query, the Qur'an tells a story about a group of men sleeping in a cave (Qur'an 18:9–25), which scholars generally link to the legend of the [[Seven Sleepers|Seven Sleepers of Ephesus]]. For the second query, the Qur'an speaks of [[Dhu al-Qarnayn]], literally "he of the two horns" (Qur'an 18:93–99), a tale that academics widely associate with the [[Alexander Romance]].{{sfn|Peterson|2007|p=75–6}}{{sfn|Beeston|1983|p=210}} As for the third query, concerning the nature of the spirit, the Qur'anic revelation asserted that it was beyond human comprehension. Neither the Jews who devised the questions nor the Quraysh who posed them to Muhammad converted to Islam upon receiving the answers.{{sfn|Peterson|2007|p=75}} Nadr and Uqba were later executed on Muhammad's orders after the [[Battle of Badr]], while other captives were held for ransom. As Uqba pleaded, "But who will take care of my children, Muhammad?" Muhammad responded, "Hell!"{{Sfn|Phipps|2016|p=114}}{{Sfn|Schroeder|2002|p=86}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=167–8}}{{sfn|Margoliouth|2010|p=135}} ==== Migration to Abyssinia and the incident of Satanic Verses ==== {{Main|Migration to Abyssinia|Satanic Verses}} In 615, fearful that his followers would be seduced from their religion,{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=173}} Muhammad sent some of them to [[Migration to Abyssinia|emigrate]] to the Abyssinian [[Kingdom of Aksum]] and found a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor [[Aṣḥama ibn Abjar]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} Among those who departed were [[Umm Habiba]], the daughter of one of the Quraysh chiefs, [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]], and her husband.{{Sfn|Cheikh|2015|p=32}} The Quraysh then sent two men to retrieve them. Because leatherwork at the time was highly prized in Abyssinia, they gathered a lot of skins and transported them there so they could distribute some to each of the kingdom's generals. But the king firmly rejected their request.{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=173–4}} While [[Al-Tabari|Tabari]] and [[Ibn Hisham]] mentioned only one migration to Abyssinia, there were two sets according to [[Ibn Sa'd]]. Of these two, the majority of the first group returned to [[Mecca]] before the event of [[Hijrah|Hijra]], while the majority of the second group remained in Abyssinia at the time and went directly to [[Medina]] after the event of Hijra. These accounts agree that persecution played a major role in Muhammad sending them there. According to historian [[W. Montgomery Watt|W. M. Watt]], the episodes were more complex than the traditional accounts suggest; he proposes that there were divisions within the embryonic Muslim community, and that they likely went there to trade in competition with the prominent merchant families of Mecca. In [[Urwa ibn al-Zubayr|Urwa]]'s letter preserved by Tabari, these emigrants returned after the conversion to Islam of a number of individuals in positions such as [[Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Hamza]] and [[Umar]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=365}} Along with many others,<ref name="Ahmed" /> Tabari recorded that Muhammad was desperate, hoping for an accommodation with his tribe. So, while he was in the presence of a number of [[Quraysh]], after delivering verses mentioning three of their favorite deities (Quran 53:19–20), [[Satan]] put upon his tongue two short verses: "These are the high flying ones / whose intercession is to be hoped for." This led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Muslims in Abyssinia began to return home. However, the next day, Muhammad retracted these verses at the behest of [[Gabriel]], claiming that they had been cast by Satan to his tongue and God had abrogated them. Instead, verses that revile those goddesses were then revealed.<ref>The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad (2010), p. 35.</ref>{{efn|The aforementioned Islamic [[Satanic Verses#Tabarī's account|histories recount]] that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel [[Gabriel]], Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166.}}{{efn|"Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism." (The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35).}} The returning Muslims thus had to make arrangements for clan protection before they could re-enter Mecca.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}{{Sfn|Al-Tabari|1987|p=107–112}} This [[Satanic Verses|Satanic verses]] incident was reported ''en masse'' and documented by nearly all of the major biographers of Muhammad in Islam's first two centuries,{{Sfn|Ahmed|2017|p=256–7}} which according to them corresponds to Quran 22:52. But since the rise of the [[hadith]] movement and systematic theology with its new doctrines, including the ''[[Ismah|isma]]'', which claimed that Muhammad was infallible and thus could not be fooled by Satan, the historical memory of the early community has been reevaluated. As of the 20th century CE, Muslim scholars unanimously rejected this incident.<ref name="Ahmed">{{cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Shahab |date=1998 |title=Ibn Taymiyyah and the Satanic Verses |journal=Studia Islamica |publisher=Maisonneuve & Larose |volume=87 |issue=87 |pages=67–124 |doi=10.2307/1595926 |jstor=1595926}}</ref> On the other hand, most European biographers of Muhammad recognize the veracity of this incident of satanic verses on the basis of the [[criterion of embarrassment]]. Historian Alfred T. Welch proposes that the period of Muhammad's turning away from strict monotheism was likely far longer but was later encapsulated in a story that made it much shorter and implicated Satan as the culprit.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=365}} In 616, an agreement was established whereby all other Quraysh clans were to enforce a ban on the [[Banu Hashim]], prohibiting trade and marriage with them.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=125–6, 129}} Nevertheless, Banu Hashim members could still move around the town freely. Despite facing increasing verbal abuse, Muhammad continued to navigate the streets and engage in public debates without being physically harmed.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=126}} At a later point, a faction within Quraysh, sympathizing with Banu Hashim, initiated efforts to end the sanctions, resulting in a general consensus in 619 to lift the ban.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=129}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=365}} ==== Attempt to establish himself in Ta'if ==== {{Main|Muhammad's visit to Ta'if}} In 619, Muhammad faced a period of sorrow. His wife, [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadija]], a crucial source of his financial and emotional support, died.{{sfn|Lapidus|2012|p=184}} In the same year, his uncle and guardian, [[Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Abu Talib]], also died.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=134}}{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=22}} Despite Muhammad's persuasions to Abu Talib to embrace Islam on his deathbed, he clung to his polytheistic beliefs until the end.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=135}}{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=22}} Muhammad's other uncle, [[Abu Lahab]], who succeeded the [[Banu Hashim]] clan leadership, was initially willing to provide Muhammad with protection. However, upon hearing from Muhammad that Abu Talib and [[Abd al-Muttalib]] were destined for hell due to not believing in Islam, he withdrew his support.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=135}}<ref name="Holt" /> Muhammad then went to [[Taif|Ta'if]] to try to establish himself in the city and gain aid and protection against the Meccans,{{Sfn|Towghi|1991|p=572}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=365}}{{Sfn|Adil|2002|p=145}} but he was met with a response: "If you are truly a prophet, what need do you have of our help? If God sent you as his messenger, why doesn’t He protect you? And if [[Allah]] wished to send a prophet, couldn’t He have found a better person than you, a weak and fatherless orphan?"{{Sfn|Adil|2002|p=145–6}} Realizing his efforts were in vain, Muhammad asked the people of Ta'if to keep the matter a secret, fearing that this would embolden the hostility of the Quraysh against him. However, instead of accepting his request, they pelted him with stones, injuring his limbs.{{Sfn|Adil|2002|p=146}} On Muhammad's return journey to Mecca, news of the events in Ta'if had reached the ears of [[Amr ibn Hisham|Abu Jahl]], and he said, "They did not allow him to enter Ta'if, so let us deny him entry to Mecca as well." Knowing the gravity of the situation, Muhammad asked a passing horseman to deliver a message to [[Al-Akhnas ibn Shurayq|Akhnas ibn Shariq]], a member of his mother's clan, requesting his protection so that he could enter in safety. But Akhnas declined, saying that he was only a confederate of the house of [[Quraysh]]. Muhammad then sent a message to [[Suhayl ibn Amir]], who similarly declined on the basis of tribal principle. Finally, Muhammad dispatched someone to ask [[Muṭʽim ibn ʽAdi|Mut'im ibn 'Adiy]], the chief of the [[Banu Nawfal]]. Mut'im agreed, and after equipping himself, he rode out in the morning with his sons and nephews to accompany Muhammad to the city. When Abu Jahl saw him, he asked if Mut'im was simply giving him protection or if he had already converted to his religion. Mut'im replied, "Granting him protection, of course." Then Abu Jahl said, "We will protect whomever you protect."{{Sfn|Adil|2002|p=148}} ==== Isra' and Mi'raj ==== {{Main|Isra' and Mi'raj}} [[File:Domeoftherock1.jpg|thumb|Quranic inscriptions on the [[Dome of the Rock]]. It marks the spot where Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have ascended to [[Jannah|heaven]].<ref name="BloomBlair2009">{{cite book |author1=Jonathan M. Bloom |author2=Sheila Blair |title=The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76 |access-date=26 December 2011 |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |page=76 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615020218/http://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76 |archive-date=15 June 2013 }}</ref>]] It is at this low point in Muhammad's life that the accounts in the [[Prophetic biography|''Sira'']] lay out the famous Isra' and Mi'raj. Nowadays, Isra' is believed by Muslims to be the journey of Muhammad from [[Mecca]] to [[Jerusalem]], while Mi'raj is from Jerusalem to the heavens.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=366}} There is considered no substantial basis for the Mi'raj in the Quran, as the Quran does not address it directly.<ref name="Sells, Michael p.176">Sells, Michael. ''Ascension'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]], vol.1, p.176.</ref> Quranic verse 17:1 recounts Muhammad's night journey from a revered place of prayer to the most distant place of worship. The [[Kaaba]], holy enclosure in Mecca, is widely accepted as the starting point, but there is disagreement among Islamic traditions as to what constitutes "the farthest place of worship". Some modern scholars maintain that the earliest tradition saw this faraway site as a celestial twin of the Kaaba, so that Muhammad's journey took him directly from Mecca through the heavens. A later tradition, however, refers to it as ''Bayt al-Maqdis'', which is generally associated with Jerusalem. Over time, these different traditions merged to present the journey as one that began in Mecca, passed through Jerusalem, and then ascended to heaven.<ref>Sells, Michael. ''Ascension'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]], vol.1, p.176–7.</ref> The dating of the events also differs from account to account. [[Ibn Sa'd]] recorded that Muhammad's Mi'raj took place first, from near the Kaaba to the heavens, on the 27th of [[Ramadan]], 18 months before the [[Hijrah]], while the Isra' from Mecca to ''Bayt al-Maqdis'' took place on the 17th night of the [[Rabi' al-Thani|Last Rabi’ul]] before the hijrah. As is well known, these two stories were later combined into one. In [[Ibn Hisham]]'s account, the Isra' came first and then the Mi'raj, and he put these stories before the deaths of Khadija and Abu Talib. In contrast, [[al-Tabari]] included only the story of Muhammad's ascension from the sanctuary in Mecca to "the earthly heaven". Tabari placed this story at the beginning of Muhammad's public ministry, between his account of Khadija becoming "the first to believe in the Messenger of God" and his account of "the first male to believe in the Messenger of God".{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=366}} ==== Migration to Medina (''Hijrah'') ==== {{Main|Hijrah}} <!------------ PLEASE NOTE: The consensus to include images of Muhammad emerged after extensive months-long discussions and efforts on both sides to balance multiple competing interests. Please do not remove or reposition these images because you feel they are against your religion. Please do not add more images or reposition the current ones to prove a point. To avoid pointless revert-warring, blocking and page protection, please discuss any prospective changes on the talk page. Thank you for contributing to Wikipedia. -------------> [[Medina]], located over {{convert|200|mi|km}} to the north of [[Mecca]], is a lush oasis.<ref name="Holt">{{harv|Holt et al.|1977|p=39}}</ref> According to Muslim sources, the city was established by Jews who had survived the revolt against the Romans.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=11}} While agriculture was far from being the domain of the Arab tribes, the Jews were outstanding farmers, cultivating the land in the oases.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=11}} There were reportedly around 20 Jewish tribes residing in the city, with the three most prominent being [[Banu Nadir]], [[Banu Qaynuqa]] and [[Banu Qurayza]].{{Sfn|Zeitlin|2007|p=82}} In time, Arab tribes from southern Arabia migrated to the city and settled down alongside the Jewish community.{{sfn|Gil|1997|p=11}} The Arab tribes consisted of [[Banu Aws]] and [[Banu Khazraj]], both collectively known as Banu Qayla.<ref>{{harv|Gibb et al.|1986|p=514}}</ref> Before 620, there had been fighting among the two Arab tribes for almost a hundred years,<ref name="Holt" /> with each of them attempting to court the assistance of the Jewish tribes,{{Sfn|Peters|1994|p=194}} which occasionally led to infighting between the latter.<ref name="Holt" /> Having lost all hope of winning converts among his fellow townspeople, Muhammad limited his efforts to non-Meccans who attended fairs or made pilgrimages.{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=244}} During these endeavors, Muhammad had an encounter with six individuals from the Banu Khazraj. These men had a history of raiding Jews in their locality, who in turn would warn them that a prophet would be sent to punish them. On hearing Muhammad's religious message, they said to each other, "This is the very prophet of whom the Jews warned us. Don't let them get to him before us!" Upon embracing Islam, they returned to Medina and shared their encounter, hoping that by having their people—the Khazraj and the Aws, who had been at odds for so long—accept Islam and adopt Muhammad as their leader, unity could be achieved between them.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=143}}{{sfn|Peters|2021|p=211}} The next year, five of the earlier converts revisited Muhammad, bringing with them seven newcomers, three of whom were from the Banu Aws. At Aqaba, near Mecca, they pledged their loyalty to him.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=143}} Muhammad then entrusted [[Mus'ab ibn Umayr]] to join them on their return to Medina to promote Islam. Come June 622, a significant clandestine meeting was convened, again at Aqaba. In this gathering, seventy-five individuals from Medina attended, including two women, representing all the converts of the oases.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=144}} Muhammad asked them to protect him as they would protect their wives and children. They concurred and gave him their oath,{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=245}} commonly referred to as the second pledge of Aqaba or the pledge of war. Paradise was Muhammad's promise to them in exchange for their loyalty.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=144}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=61}} Subsequently, Muhammad called upon the Meccan Muslims to relocate to Medina.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=144}}{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=245–7}} This event is known as the [[Hijrah]], which basically means "severing of kinship ties."<ref>{{harv|Schacht et al.|1998|p=366}}</ref>{{Sfn|Nigosian|2004|p=10}} The departures spanned approximately three months. To avoid arriving in Medina by himself with his followers remaining in Mecca, Muhammad chose not to go ahead and instead stayed back to watch over them and persuade those who were reluctant.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=144}} Some were held back by their families from leaving, but in the end, there were no Muslims left in Mecca.{{Sfn|Fontaine|2022|p=246}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=49}} Muhammad regarded this migration as an expulsion by the Quraysh.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=49}} Islamic tradition recounts that in light of the unfolding events, [[Amr ibn Hisham|Abu Jahl]] proposed a joint assassination of Muhammad by representatives of each clan. Having been informed about this by the angel [[Gabriel]], Muhammad asked his cousin [[Ali]] to lie in his bed covered with his green hadrami mantle, assuring that it would safeguard him. After staying hidden for three days, Muhammad subsequently departed with [[Abu Bakr]] for Medina,{{sfn|Peters|1994|p=186–7}} which at the time was still named Yathrib. The Meccan Muslims who undertook the migration were then called the [[Muhajirun]], while the Medinan Muslims were dubbed the [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=367}} ===Medinan years=== {{main|Muhammad in Medina}} According to the 19th-century orientalist [[Julius Wellhausen]], when Muhammad arrived in the city in 622, the Jewish tribes were allied with the two Arab tribes as subordinates. However, 21st-century historian Russ Rodgers disagrees. He argues that during Muhammad's [[Second pledge at al-Aqabah|second pledge of Aqaba]], members of the Arab tribes stated they had to break certain alliances with the Jews due to the nature of the pledge. Rodgers infers it was the Arab tribes who held a subservient or, at most, an equal position to the Jews, since otherwise, the Jews would have been drawn into the covenant.{{Sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=56–7}} ====Constitution of Medina==== {{See also|Constitution of Medina}} [[Ibn Ishaq]], following his narration of the ''[[hijrah]]'', maintains that Muhammad penned a text now referred to as the [[Constitution of Medina]] and divulges its assumed content without supplying any ''[[Hadith studies|isnad]]'' or corroboration.{{Sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}} The appellation is generally deemed imprecise, as the text neither established a state nor enacted Quranic statutes,{{Sfn|Arjomand|2022|p=111}} but rather addressed tribal matters.{{Sfn|Rubin|2022|p=8}} While scholars from both the West and the Muslim world agree on the text's authenticity, disagreements persist on whether it was a treaty or a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, the number of documents it comprised, the primary parties, the specific timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), whether it was drafted before or after Muhammad's removal of the three leading Jewish tribes of Medina, and the proper approach to translating it.{{Sfn|Humphreys|1991|p=92}}{{Sfn|Watt|1956|p=227}} ====Beginning of armed conflict==== {{Main|Battle of Badr}} {{See also|Military career of Muhammad|List of expeditions of Muhammad}} {{Campaignbox Campaigns of Muhammad}} In the early stages of his time in [[Medina]], Muhammad was optimistic that the Jewish people would acknowledge him as a Prophet and strove to obtain converts from their community.{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=367}} However, his efforts were unsuccessful and even faced ridicule, as the Jews perceived inconsistencies between the [[Quran]] and [[Hebrew Bible|their own scriptures]]. Consequently, the Quran accused the Jews of [[Tahrif|hiding and modifying]] parts of their holy texts. The Jewish criticism and refusal presented a danger to his prophetic claims, and, as a result, the views of Muhammad and the Quran towards them worsened.{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=367–8, 374}}{{Sfn|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p=212–3}}{{Sfn|Hodgson|2009|p=177}} This then led to the reorientation of the Muslim prayer direction, the ''[[qibla]]'', from [[Jerusalem]] to the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]].{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=368}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=69}} Muhammad's designation of Mecca as the center of Islam, coupled with his need to settle scores with the Meccans after his threats of divine punishment against them never materialized,{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=369}} as well as the economic hardships he and the [[Muhajirun]] faced in Medina,{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=161–2}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=71–3}} culminated in a new divine directive—to fight the polytheists.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=369}} Muhammad thus dispatched his followers to perform raids on the [[Quraysh]]'s [[Caravan (travellers)|trading caravans]].{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=369}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=162}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=73}} Certain Meccan followers of his were reluctant to participate, as it would mean attacking their own tribespeople. This vexed Muhammad, resulting in the revelation of Quran verse 2:216, among others, which asserts that fighting is good and has been made obligatory for them.{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=369}} After several months of failures, Muhammad managed to achieve his first successful raid, [[Raid on Nakhla|at Nakhla]], during a month that the pagans forbade themselves from shedding blood.{{sfn|Bogle|1998|p=12}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=76–83}} When the bountiful plunder was being brought back to him in Medina,{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=369}} Muhammad was met with censure from the locals. He contended that his followers had misconstrued his command, and he postponed taking his one-fifth portion of the spoil until a verse was ultimately revealed, legitimizing the attack.{{efn|See: *{{harvnb|Rodgers|2012|pp=85–86}} *{{harvnb|Gabriel|2014|p=83}} *{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|p=163}} *{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=101}}}} {{Quote box|quoted=true|bgcolor=#ffeeaa|align=right|width=25%|salign=right|quote=''Permission has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give them victory. Those who have been evicted from their homes without right—only because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished [[monastery|monasteries]], churches, synagogues, and mosques in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him. Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might.''|source=— Quran (22:39–40)}} Two months hence, a grand Quraysh trade caravan, representing the investments of all Meccans, traveled home from [[Gaza City|Gaza]].{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=164}} Muhammad had tried to ambush it on its departure from Mecca but had failed.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=179}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=88}} When [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]], the leader of the caravan, learned in [[Zarqa]] that Muhammad was preparing to raid the caravan again, he sent a messenger to Mecca for aid,{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=179}} and about 950 Meccans set out in response.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=164}} As the caravan approached the watering place of [[Badr, Saudi Arabia|Badr]], Abu Sufyan reconnoitred the town himself and confirmed his suspicion that Muhammad would launch his attack there. He thus diverted the caravan to the more difficult coastal road to the west, even though it meant depriving them of fresh water.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=181–2}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=90}} Upon the caravan's safe escape, part of the relief column withdrew, leaving behind 600–700 men.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=92}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=91}} Muhammad, upon discovering the presence of the remaining Meccans through their water carriers, ordered his troops to cover all the wells with sand and stones, on the advice of [[Habab ibn Mundhir|Hubab ibn al-Mundhir]],{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=95}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=93}} reserving one for themselves. And thus forcing the Meccans to fight for water.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=166}}{{sfn|Watt|1998|p=868}} [[Battle of Badr|The battle]] commenced with individual duels between warriors from both sides, which then escalated into a chaotic melee.{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=185}} Although not participating in the combat, Muhammad inspired his followers with the promise of paradise if they died fighting. Many of the Quraysh were reluctant to kill their own kin, and just prior to midday, they succumbed to panic and ran away.{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=167}} Muhammad ordered the search for [[Amr ibn Hisham|Abu Jahl]]. A Muslim found him, beheaded him, and threw the head to Muhammad's feet who jubilantly exclaimed: "The head of the enemy of God. Praise God, for there is no other but He!"{{efn|see: *{{harvnb|Glubb|2001|p=186}} *{{harvnb|Forward|1997|p=23}} *{{harvnb|Rodgers|2012|p=98}} *{{harvnb|Gabriel|2014|p=101}}}} The battle concluded with the Quraysh suffering 49 to 70 losses, while the Muslims had 14 casualties.{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=186}} The Muslims obtained considerable war spoils and a number of prisoners. [[Umar]] desired that all of them be slain, yet Muhammad resolved that ransom must be requested first, and afterwards, they could execute any for whom no one was willing to pay.{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=167}} Upon his return to Medina, Muhammad immediately worked to solidify his authority. He instructed the removal of [[Asma bint Marwan]], who had criticized him in poetry.{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=104}} One of his followers executed her while she slept with her children, the youngest still nursing in her arms. Upon learning of the deed, Muhammad lauded the act as a service to God and his Messenger.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=171}}{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=104}}{{Sfn|Phipps|2016|p=114–5}} Shortly after, he called upon his followers to end the life of the centenarian poet [[Abu 'Afak|Abu Afak]].{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=104}} Simultaneously, Muhammad employed poets like [[Hassan ibn Thabit]] to circulate his propaganda among the tribes.{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=104}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=175}} When inquired if he could shield Muhammad from his foes, Ibn Thabit is reported to have extended his tongue and claimed there was no defense against his verbal prowess.{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=104}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=196}} ==== Conflicts with Jewish tribes ==== {{further|Muhammad's views on Jews}} Following the [[Battle of Badr]], Muhammad revealed his intention to expel the Jews from the land.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=149}}{{Sfn|Al-Bukhari|1997|loc=Vol. 9, no. 6944}}{{Sfn|Muslim|Al-Khattab|2007|loc=Vol. 5, no. 1765 & 1767}} Once the ransom arrangements for the Meccan captives were finalized, he initiated a siege on the [[Banu Qaynuqa]],{{Sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} regarded as the weakest and wealthiest of Medina's three main Jewish tribes.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=173}}{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=197}} Muslim sources provide different reasons for the siege, including an altercation involving [[Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib|Hamza]] and [[Ali]] in the Banu Qaynuqa market, and another version by [[Ibn Ishaq]], which tells the story of a Muslim woman being pranked by a Qaynuqa goldsmith.{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=197}}{{sfn|Lassner|2012|p=143}} Regardless of the cause, the Banu Qaynuqa sought refuge in their fort, where Muhammad blockaded them, cutting off their access to food supplies. After roughly two weeks, they capitulated without engaging in combat.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=173}}{{Sfn|Glubb|2001|p=197}} At first, Muhammad planned to annihilate the surrendered tribe, but [[Abd Allah ibn Ubayy|Abdullah ibn Ubayy]], a [[Banu Khazraj|Khazraj]] chieftain who had embraced Islam, stepped in. Previously, the Qaynuqa had protected him during multiple conflicts. Ibn Ubayy implored Muhammad to show leniency, but Muhammad turned away without responding. Undeterred, Ibn Ubayy grasped Muhammad's cloak, causing his face to darken with anger and demanding his release. Ibn Ubayy refused unless Muhammad agreed to treat them leniently, threatening him, "I am a man who fears that circumstances may change." Muhammad thus spared their lives, stipulating that they must depart Medina within three days and relinquish their property to the Muslims, with Muhammad retaining a fifth.{{efn|See: *{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|p=173}} *{{harvnb|Glubb|2001|p=197}} *{{harvnb|Brockopp|2010|p=72}} *{{harvnb|Rodgers|2012|pp=109–10}}}} Having dealt with the Qaynuqa, Muhammad moved on to another personal matter. His staunch critic, [[Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf|Ka'b ibn Ashraf]], a wealthy half-Jewish man from [[Banu Nadir]], had just come back from Mecca after producing poetry that mourned the death of the Quraysh at Badr and aroused them to retaliate.{{Sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=107}}{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=176}} Muhammad asked his followers, "Who is ready to kill Ka'b, who has hurt God and His apostle?"{{Sfn|Al-Bukhari|1997|loc=Vol. 5, no. 4037}}{{Sfn|Bukay|2017|loc=List of Muhammad’s Orders to Murder People}} [[Muhammad ibn Maslamah|Ibn Maslama]] offered his services, explaining that the task would require deception. Muhammad did not contest this. He then gathered accomplices, including Ka'b's foster brother, Abu Naila. They pretended to complain about their post-conversion hardships, persuading Ka'b to lend them food. On the night of their meeting with Ka'b, they murdered him when he was caught off-guard.{{efn|See: *{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|p=176}} *{{harvnb|Gabriel|2007|pp=112–4}} *{{harvnb|Al-Bukhari|1997|loc=Vol. 5, no. 4037}}}} ====Meccan retaliation==== {{Main|Battle of Uhud}} [[File:The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the Battle of Uhud, from the Siyer-i Nebi, 1595.jpg|thumb|"The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the [[Battle of Uhud]]", from a 1595 edition of the [[Mamluk]]-Turkic ''[[Siyer-i Nebi]]'']] In 625, the [[Quraysh]], wearied by Muhammad's continuous attacks on their caravans, decided to take decisive action. Led by [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]], they assembled an army to oppose Muhammad.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=110}} Upon being alerted by his scout about the impending threat, Muhammad convened a war council. Initially, he considered defending from the city center, but later decided to meet the enemy in open battle at [[Mount Uhud|Uhud]] Hill, following the insistence of the younger faction of his followers.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=113}} As they prepared to depart, the remaining Jewish allies of [[Abd Allah ibn Ubayy|Abdullah ibn Ubayy]] offered their help, which Muhammad declined.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=113–4}} Despite being outnumbered, the Muslims initially held their ground but lost advantage when some archers disobeyed orders.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} As rumors of Muhammad's death spread, the Muslims started to flee, but he had only been injured and managed to escape with a group of loyal adherents. Satisfied they had restored their honor, the Meccans returned to [[Mecca]].{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=120–3}} Sometime later, Muhammad found himself needing to pay blood money to [[Banu 'Amir|Banu Amir]]. He sought monetary help from the Jewish tribe of [[Banu Nadir]],{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=137}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=191}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=127}} and they agreed to his request.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=191}} However, while waiting, he departed from his companions and disappeared. When they found him at his home, according to [[Ibn Ishaq]], Muhammad disclosed that he had received a divine revelation of a planned assassination attempt on him by the Banu Nadir, which involved dropping a boulder from a rooftop. Muhammad then initiated a siege on the tribe,{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=192}}{{Sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=127–8}} during which he also commanded the felling and burning of their palm groves.{{sfn|Peters|1994|p=219}} After a fortnight or so, the Banu Nadir capitulated.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=193}} They were directed to vacate their land and permitted to carry only one camel-load of goods for every three people.{{sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=240}} From the spoils, Muhammad claimed a fertile piece of land where barley sprouted amongst palm trees.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=194}} ==== Raid on the Banu Mustaliq ==== Upon receiving a report that the [[Banu Mustaliq]] were planning an attack on [[Medina]], Muhammad's troops executed a surprise attack on them at their watering place, causing them to flee rapidly. In the confrontation, the Muslims lost one man, while the enemy suffered ten casualties.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=196}} As part of their triumph, the Muslims seized 2,000 camels, 500 sheep and goats, and 200 women from the tribe.{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=130}} The Muslim soldiers desired the captive women, but they also sought ransom money. They asked Muhammad about using ''[[coitus interruptus]]'' to prevent pregnancy, to which Muhammad replied, "You are not under any obligation to forbear from that..."{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=197}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=262}} Later, envoys arrived in Medina to negotiate the ransom for the women and children. Despite having the choice, all of them chose to return to their country instead of staying.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=197}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=262}} ==== Assassination of Khaybar leaders and the Banu Uraynah affair ==== Muhammad's northward raids of [[Medina]] had by now caused significant opposition. Many, including Abu Rafi, one of [[Khaybar]]'s key chieftains, were part of this resistance.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=181}} He was then killed in his room by the Muslims at night.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=182–3}} Sometime later, Khaybar people selected Usayr ibn Razim as their ''[[emir]]''.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=184}} Muhammad extended an invitation for him to come to Medina for a settlement. He agreed, but during the journey, the Muslims killed him along with his companions by surprise. Muhammad praised the commandos' leader for his work when he came back to Medina.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021||p=249}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=129}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=184}} Around this particular time, eight men from the Banu Uraynah tribe sought to embrace Islam. They conveyed their discomfort with the city's climate to Muhammad. As a solution, he ordered them to drink the urine and milk of his camels. However, they opted to steal the camels, killing the caretakers in the process. Upon their capture, Muhammad had their eyes gouged out and their limbs cut off. They were then left to die in the desert.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=185}}{{sfn|Williams|1961|p=83}} ====Battle of the Trench==== {{Main|Battle of the Trench}} Realizing that their victory at [[Battle of Uhud|Uhud]] had failed to substantially weaken Muhammad's position as he continued to orchestrate raids on their [[Caravan (travellers)|trade caravans]], the [[Quraysh]] finally saw the imperative of capturing [[Medina]], a move they had previously neglected.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} This decision, according to Muslim sources, was partly influenced by some leaders of the [[Banu Nadir]], who were distressed over the loss of their lands.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=142}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} However, that account may simply have been Muslim propaganda.{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=132}} Aware of their limited warfare skills as city merchants, the Quraysh initiated extensive negotiations with various [[Bedouin]] tribes, amassing a force believed to number around 10,000 men.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} Informed early by his allies in Mecca, Muhammad ordered his followers to fortify Medina with trenches, on the advice of [[Salman the Persian]].{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=143}} The Jews of [[Banu Qurayza]] assisted with this effort by digging the trenches and lending their tools to the Muslims.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=209}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=136}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=145}} The approaching Quraysh and their allies, unfamiliar with trench warfare, were drawn into a protracted siege. Muhammad exploited this situation, using covert negotiations with the [[Ghatafan]] tribe to create discord among his enemies. As the weather deteriorated, morale among the Quraysh and their allies waned, leading to their withdrawal.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=370}} The siege saw minimal casualties, with five to six on the Muslims' side and three among the besiegers.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=138}} ==== Massacre of the Banu Qurayza ==== {{Main|Invasion of Banu Qurayza}} On the exact day the [[Quraysh]] forces and their allies withdrew, Muhammad, while bathing at his wife's abode, received a visit from the angel [[Gabriel]], who instructed him to attack the Jewish tribe of [[Banu Qurayza]].{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=148}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=141}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=249}} Islamic sources recount that during the [[Battle of the Trench|preceding Meccan siege]], [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]], the Quraysh leader, incited the Qurayza to attack the Muslims from their compound, but the Qurayza demanded the Quraysh to provide 70 hostages from among themselves to ascertain their commitment to their plans, as proposed by Muhammad's secret agent [[Nuaym ibn Masud|Nu'aym ibn Mas'ud]]. Abu Sufyan refused their requirement.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=147–8}} Nevertheless, later accounts claim that 11 Jewish individuals from the Qurayza were indeed agitated and acted against Muhammad, but no evidence substantiates such an attack, and the tradition had every reason to dramatize the incident as a justification for the subsequent massacre.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=211}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=141}} Muhammad besieged the tribe, alleging they had taken sides against him, which they firmly denied.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=211–2}} As the situation turned dire, they proposed to leave their land but asked to be allowed to take movable goods, the load of a camel per person; Muhammad refused. They then offered to leave without taking anything, but Muhammad rejected this as well. He insisted on their unconditional surrender.{{sfn|Kister|2022|p=62}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|pp=211–212}} The Qurayza subsequently requested to confer with one of their [[Banu Aws|Aws]] allies who had embraced Islam, leading to the arrival of [[Abu Lubaba ibn Abd al-Mundhir|Abu Lubaba]]. When asked about Muhammad's intentions, he gestured towards his throat, indicating an imminent massacre. He immediately regretted his indiscretion and tied himself to one of the Mosque pillars as a form of penance.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=212}}{{sfn|Kister|2022|p=62}} After a 25-day siege, the Banu Qurayza surrendered.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=251}} The Muslims of Banu Aws entreated Muhammad for leniency, prompting him to suggest that one of their own should serve as the judge, which they accepted. Muhammad assigned the role to [[Sa'd ibn Mu'adh|Sa'd ibn Muadh]], a man nearing death from an infection in his wounds from the previous Meccan siege.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=251}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=212}}{{sfn|Nagel|2020|p=119}} He pronounced that all the men should be put to death, their possessions to be distributed among Muslims, and their women and children to be taken as captives. Muhammad declared, "You have judged according to the very sentence of God above the seven heavens."{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=212}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=251}} Consequently, 600–900 men of Banu Qurayza were executed. The women and children were distributed as slaves, with some being transported to [[Najd]] to be sold. The proceeds were then utilized to purchase weapons and horses for the Muslims.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=252}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=152}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=213}}{{sfn|Hazleton|2014|p=235}} ==== Incidents with the Banu Fazara ==== After a few months of rest following the annihilation of the [[Banu Qurayza|Qurayza]], Muhammad prepared to conduct numerous operations. The sources no longer frequently report him receiving word of impending attacks against the Muslims in Medina, suggesting that Muhammad, recognizing his newfound strength, felt capable enough to discard any pretenses and directly confront potential rivals.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=168}} Several tribes, finding no other defensive option, eventually joined the Muslims, understanding from Muhammad's clear decree that Muslims could only raid non-Muslims, thus the most efficient way to avoid the raids was to join the raiders.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=172}} During this period, Muhammad organized a caravan, presumably stocked with recent spoils, to conduct trade in [[Levant|Syria]]. [[Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi|Zayd ibn Harithah]] was tasked with guarding the convoy. However, when they journeyed through the territory of [[Banu Fazara]], whom Zayd had raided in the past, the tribe seized the opportunity for revenge, attacked the caravan, and injured him. Upon his return to [[Medina]], Muhammad decided that a punitive expedition was necessary. Zayd led this operation, successfully capturing [[Umm Qirfa]], the esteemed Fazara matriarch. As punishment, Zayd ordered Qays ibn al-Musahhar to execute her. He did so by tying each of her legs to separate camels, which were then driven in opposite directions, leading to her brutal death.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=179}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=248}} ==== Treaty of Hudaybiyya ==== {{Main|Treaty of al-Hudaybiya}} [[File:Kaaba_Masjid_Haraam_Makkah.jpg|thumb|The [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]] long held a major economic and religious role for the area. Seventeen months after Muhammad's arrival in Medina, it became the Muslim [[Qibla]], or direction for prayer ([[salat]]). The Kaaba has been rebuilt several times; the present structure, built in 1629, is a reconstruction of an earlier building dating to 683.{{sfn|Peters|2003b|p=88}}]] Early in 628, following a dream of making an unopposed pilgrimage to [[Mecca]], Muhammad embarked on the journey. He was dressed in his customary pilgrim attire and was accompanied by a group of followers.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=265–6}} Upon reaching [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah|Hudaybiyya]], they encountered Quraysh emissaries who questioned their intentions. Muhammad explained they had come to venerate the [[Kaaba]], not to fight.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=267}} He then sent [[Uthman]], [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]]'s second cousin, to negotiate with the Quraysh. As the negotiations were prolonged, rumors of Uthman's death began to spark, prompting Muhammad to call his followers to renew their oaths of loyalty. Uthman returned with news of a negotiation impasse. Muhammad remained persistent. In the end, the Quraysh sent [[Suhayl ibn Amr]], an envoy with full negotiation powers. Following lengthy discussions, a treaty was finally enacted,{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=251–2}} with terms: # A ten-year truce was established between both parties. # If a Qurayshite came to Muhammad's side without his guardian's allowance, he was to be returned to the Quraysh; yet, if a Muslim came to the Quraysh, he would not be surrendered to Muhammad. # Any tribes interested in forming alliances with Muhammad or the Quraysh were free to do so. These alliances were also protected by the ten-year truce. # Muslims were then required to depart back to Medina, however, they were permitted to make the [[Umrah]] pilgrimage in the coming year.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=251–2}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=267}} ==== Invasion of Khaybar ==== {{Main|Battle of Khaybar}} Roughly ten weeks subsequent to his return from Hudaybiyya, Muhammad expressed his plan to invade [[Khaybar]], a flourishing oasis about {{convert|75|mi|km}} north of Medina. The city was populated by Jews, including those from the [[Banu Nadir]], who had previously been expelled by Muhammad from [[Medina]]. With the prospect of rich spoils from the mission, numerous volunteers answered his call.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=280}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=253}} To keep their movements hidden, the Muslim military chose to march during the nighttime. As dawn arrived and the city folks stepped out of their fortifications to harvest their dates, they were taken aback by the sight of the advancing Muslim forces. Muhammad cried out, "[[Takbir|Allahu Akbar]]! Khaybar is destroyed. For when we approach a people's land, a terrible morning awaits the warned ones."{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=197}} After a strenuous battle lasting more than a month, the Muslims successfully captured the city.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=200}} The loss in the confrontation was 15–17 Muslims and 93 Jews.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=200}} The spoils, inclusive of the wives of the slain warriors, were distributed among the Muslims.{{sfn|Phipps|2016|p=65}} Muhammad claimed [[Safiyya bint Huyayy]], a beautiful 17-year-old girl, from among the captives.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}} Following the battle, her husband, [[Kenana ibn al-Rabi|Kinana ibn al-Rabi]], was put through torture by Muhammad's decree for declining to reveal his tribe's hidden wealth, and subsequently beheaded.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=200–1}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}}{{sfn|Bukay|2017|loc=List of Muhammad's Orders to Murder People}} Her father and brother had been executed during the [[Invasion of Banu Qurayza|massacre of the Banu Qurayza]].{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=282–3}} Overwhelmed by her beauty, Muhammad had sex with her the very night, contradicting his own mandate that his followers should wait for the captives' next menstrual cycle to begin before having intercourse.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}}{{Sfn|Swarup|2011|p=75}}{{Sfn|Morgan|2009|p=128}} Following their defeat by the Muslims, some of the Jews proposed to Muhammad that they stay and serve as tenant farmers, given the Muslims' lack of expertise and labor force for date palm cultivation. They agreed to give half of the annual produce to the Muslims. Muhammad consented to this arrangement with the caveat that he could displace them at any time. While they were allowed to farm, he demanded the surrender of all gold or silver, executing those who secreted away their wealth.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=202}}{{Sfn|Sa'd|1972|p=139–40}} Taking a cue from what transpired in Khaybar, the Jews in [[Fadak]] immediately sent an envoy to Muhammad and agreed to the same terms of relinquishing 50% of their annual harvest. However, since no combat occurred, the rank and file had no claim to a portion of the spoils. Consequently, all the loot became Muhammad's exclusive wealth.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=283–4}} At the feast following the battle, the meal served to Muhammad was reportedly poisoned. His companion, Bishr, fell dead after consuming it, while Muhammad himself managed to vomit it out after tasting it.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}}{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=48}} The perpetrator was [[Zaynab bint Al-Harith|Zaynab bint al-Harith]], a Jewish woman whose father, uncle, and husband had been killed by the Muslims.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}} When asked why she did it, she replied, "You know what you've done to my people... I said to myself: If he is truly a prophet, he will know about the poison. If he's merely a king, I'll be rid of him."{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=254}} One account suggests Muhammad forgave her, but in other more accepted reports, she was killed thereafter.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=203}} Muhammad suffered illness for a period due to the poison he ingested, and he endured sporadic pain from it until his death.{{sfn|Brown|2011|p=49}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=283}} ==== Fulfilled umrah and the Battle of Mu'tah ==== A year after the treaty of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad took some of his followers to perform the ''[[umrah]]'' in Mecca.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=204}} The Quraysh moved out of the city for the nearby mountain and allowed the Muslims to complete the ritual.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=205}} Taking the opportunity of his stay, Muhammad married [[Maymunah bint al-Harith]], a 27-year-old sister of the wife of his uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|al-Abbas]].{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=255}} On the fourth day, when his allotted time by the treaty was over, Muhammad offered the Quraysh to join his wedding feast he was planning to hold in the city, but they refused and told him to depart immediately.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=206}} Upon returning to Medina, Muhammad launched four raids on tribes in the vicinity. Two of these ended in defeat, while the remaining two yielded plunder. Muhammad then directed his army to move northwards, towards the frontier of the [[Byzantine Empire]].{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=206}} Although outnumbered, the Muslim army advanced to confront their adversaries, with victory or martyrdom as their aim. The two parties [[Battle of Mu'tah|clashed at Mu'tah]] and it ended in defeat for the Muslims. [[Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi|Zayd ibn Haritha]], Muhammad's adopted son, died as a commander at the battle.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=208}} Khalid ibn Walid, who had now embraced Islam, gathered the surviving Muslims to retreat.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=209}} ===Final years=== ====Conquest of Mecca==== {{Main|Conquest of Mecca|Muhammad after the occupation of Mecca}} <!------------ PLEASE NOTE: The consensus to include images of Muhammad emerged after extensive months-long discussions and efforts on both sides to balance multiple competing interests. Please do not remove or reposition these images because you feel they are against your religion. Please do not add more images or reposition the current ones to prove a point. To avoid pointless revert-warring, blocking and page protection, please discuss any prospective changes on the talk page. Thank you for contributing to Wikipedia. -------------> <div class="depiction"> [[File:Siyer-i Nebi 298a.jpg|thumb|upright|A depiction of Muhammad (with veiled face) advancing on Mecca from [[Siyer-i Nebi]], a 16th-century [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] manuscript. The angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail, are also shown.]] </div> After amassing a powerful alliance, Muhammad once more set his sights on his hometown, [[Mecca]]. He leveraged his covert agent, Budayl ibn Warqa, to fan the flames of discord between [[Banu Bakr]], supported by the [[Quraysh]], and [[Banu Khuza'ah]], his ally.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=211}} Taking the ensuing conflict as a ''[[casus belli]]'', Muhammad led his forces towards Mecca.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=211–3}} Upon nearing the city, he ordered the creation of individual fires to magnify the perceived size of his army. He sent [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|al-Abbas]], his uncle, to warn the Meccan chief [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]] that if they were to invade the city, it could result in the slaughter of the [[Quraysh]], including himself.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=216}} Abu Sufyan then went to meet Muhammad and converted to Islam. He subsequently went back to the city and told the citizens that their lives and property would be safe as long as they did not resist and remained in their homes, went to the [[Kaaba]], or stayed with him.{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=259–60}} Muhammad sent out his forces with a short list of six men and four women to be killed on sight. Among those targeted was his former scribe, [[Abd Allah ibn Sa'd|Abdullah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Sarh]].{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=261}} While transcribing the [[Quran]]ic verses from Muhammad's dictation, Abdullah filled a brief pause by Muhammad by vocalizing his own version of the rest of the verse. Absentmindedly, Muhammad instructed him to include it.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=219}} He also professed to have intermittently modified the substance of the Quran's dictation, which Muhammad failed to detect. These factors led him to abandon Islam and return to Mecca. Later, during the conquest, Abdullah, in the company of his foster brother [[Uthman]], implored Muhammad for mercy, which was eventually given. However, as they left, Muhammad rebuked his companions, "I was silent for a long time. Why did not one of you kill this dog?" When inquired why he did not signal, Muhammad irritably retorted, "One does not kill by signs." After Muhammad's death, Abdullah became a top official in the Islamic state.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=261}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=219}} Ibn Khatal al-Adrami, another apostate, was not as fortunate. He authored verses critical of Muhammad and had two girls sing them at a party he held. Amid the conquest, he desperately clung to the [[Kiswah|Kaaba's curtain]]. Muhammad, upon hearing this, ordered his execution, nonetheless. One of the songstresses was later found and similarly executed.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=261}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=219}} In sum, only three out of the ten targets were located and eliminated. The remainder were able to secure a form of pardon for their past deeds and were allowed to join the ranks of Islam.{{Sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=218–9}} In their advances, the Muslim forces faced only little resistance from one sector of Mecca, which was effortlessly defeated by [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]].{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=260}} Eventually, Muhammad visited the Kaaba and had it cleared of all idols and images, except, reportedly, the paintings of [[Abraham]], Jesus, and [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]].{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=260}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=219}} All of Mecca's residents were then gathered and made to pledge their allegiance to him and convert to Islam.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=260}} ==== Subduing the Hawazin and Thaqif and the expedition to Tabuk ==== {{Main|Battle of Hunayn|Expedition of Tabuk}} [[File:Muslim Conquest.PNG|thumb|Conquests of Muhammad (green lines) and the Rashidun caliphs (black lines). Shown: Byzantine empire (North and West) & Sassanid-Persian empire (Northeast).]]Upon learning that Mecca had fallen to the Muslims, the [[Hawazin|Banu Hawazin]] gathered their entire tribe, including their families, to fight.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=320–1}} They are estimated to have around 4,000 warriors.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=321}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=181}} Muhammad led 12,000 soldiers to raid them, but they surprised him at Wadi Hunayn.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=182}} The Muslims overpowered them and took their women, children and animals.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=186}} Muhammad then turned his attention to [[Taif]], a city that was famous for its vineyards and gardens. He ordered them to be destroyed and besieged the city, which was surrounded by walls. After 15–20 days of failing to breach their defenses, he abandoned the attempts.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=325}}{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=225}} When he divided the plentiful loot acquired at Hunayn among his soldiers, the rest of the Hawazin converted to Islam{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=263–4}} and implored Muhammad to release their children and women, reminding him that he had been nursed by some of those women when he was a baby. He complied but held on to the rest of the plunder. Some of his men opposed giving away their portions, so he compensated them with six camels each from subsequent raids.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=326}} Muhammad distributed a big portion of the booty to the new converts from the [[Quraysh]]. [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]] and two of his sons, [[Mu'awiya I|Muawiyya]] and [[Yazid I|Yazid]], got 100 camels individually.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=264}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=327}} The [[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]], who had fought bravely in the battle, but received close to nothing, were unhappy with this.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=328}}{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=189}} One of them remarked, "It is not with such gifts that one seeks God's face." Disturbed by this utterance, Muhammad retorted, "He changed color."{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=264}} Roughly 10 months after he captured Mecca, Muhammad took his army to attack the wealthy border provinces of [[Syria Prima|Byzantine Syria]].{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=274}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=191}} Several motives are proposed, including avenging the defeat at Mu'tah and earning vast booty.{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=192–4}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=274–5}} Because of the drought and severe heat at that time, some of the Muslims refrained from participating. This led to the revelation of Quran 9:38 which rebuked those slackers.{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=192–3}} When Muhammad and his army reached [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabuk]], there were no hostile forces present.<ref>M.A. al-Bakhit, ''Tabuk'', [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]].</ref> However, he was able to force some of the local chiefs to accept his rule and pay [[jizya]]. A group under [[Khalid ibn al-Walid|Khalid ibn Walid]] that he sent for a raid also managed to acquire some booty including 2,000 camels and 800 cattle.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=230}} The Hawazin's acceptance of Islam resulted in Taif losing its last major ally.{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=188}} After enduring a year of unrelenting thefts and terror attacks from the Muslims following the siege, the people of Taif, known as the [[Banu Thaqif]], finally reached a tipping point and acknowledged that embracing Islam was the most sensible path for them.{{sfn|Rodgers|2012|p=226}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=269}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2007|p=189}} ====Farewell pilgrimage==== <!------------ PLEASE NOTE: The consensus to include images of Muhammad emerged after extensive months-long discussions and efforts on both sides to balance multiple competing interests. Please do not remove or reposition these images because you feel they are against your religion. Please do not add more images or reposition the current ones to prove a point. To avoid pointless revert-warring, blocking and page protection, please discuss any prospective changes on the talk page. Thank you for contributing to Wikipedia. -------------> {{Main|Farewell Pilgrimage}} {{See also|Ghadir Khumm}} <div class="depiction"> [[File:Maome.jpg|thumb|Anonymous illustration of [[Abu Rayhan Biruni|al-Bīrūnī]]'s ''[[The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries]]'', depicting Muhammad [[Islamic calendar#Prohibiting Nasī'|prohibiting Nasī']] during the [[Farewell Pilgrimage]], 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century ([[Ilkhanate]]) manuscript (Edinburgh codex)]] </div>On February 631, Muhammad received a revelation granting idolaters four months of grace, after which the Muslims would attack, kill, and plunder them wherever they met.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=344–5, 359}}{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=200}} During the 632 pilgrimage season, Muhammad personally led the ceremonies and gave a sermon. Among the key points highlighted are said to have been the prohibition of usury and vendettas related to past murders from the pre-Islamic era; the brotherhood of all Muslims; and the adoption of twelve lunar months without [[Intercalation (timekeeping)|intercalation]].{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=358}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=285–6}} He also reaffirmed that husbands had the right to discipline and strike their wives without excessive force if they were unfaithful or misbehaved. He explained that wives were entrusted to their husbands and, if obedient, deserved to be provided with food and clothing, as they were gifts from God for personal enjoyment.{{sfn|Phipps|2016|p=140}} ===={{anchor|Death and tomb|Death}}Death and tomb==== [[File:Siyer-i Nebi 414a.jpg|thumb|The death of Muhammad. From the {{transliteration|ar|[[Siyer-i Nebi]]}}, {{c.|1595}}.]] After praying at the burial site in June 632, Muhammad suffered a dreadful headache that made him cry in pain.{{sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=203}}{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=286}} He continued to spend the night with each of his wives one by one,{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=286–7}} but he fainted in [[Maymunah bint al-Harith|Maymunah]]'s hut.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=360}} He requested his wives to allow him to stay in [[Aisha]]'s hut. He could not walk there without leaning on [[Ali]] and [[Fadl ibn Abbas]], as his legs were trembling. His wives and his uncle [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib|al-Abbas]] fed him an Abyssinian remedy when he was unconscious.{{sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=287}} When he came to, he inquired about it, and they explained they were afraid he had [[pleurisy]]. He replied that God would not afflict him with such a vile disease, and ordered all the women to also take the remedy.{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=361}} According to various sources, including {{transliteration|ar|[[Sahih al-Bukhari]]}}, Muhammad said that he felt his aorta being severed because of the food he ate at Khaybar.{{sfn|Katz|2022|p=147}}{{sfn|Glubb|2001|p=283}} On 8 June 632, Muhammad died. In his last moments, he reportedly uttered: {{Blockquote|O God, forgive me and have mercy on me; and let me join the highest companions.{{Sfn|Cole|1996|p=268}}{{Sfn|Borup|Fibiger|Kühle|2019|p=132}}{{Sfn|Ibn Kathīr|1998|p=344}}|Muhammad}} Historian Alfred T. Welch speculates that Muhammad's death was caused by Medinan fever, which was aggravated by physical and mental fatigue.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|p=374}} Muhammad was buried where he died in Aisha's house.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}<ref>Leila Ahmed (1986), 665–91 (686)</ref>{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=90}} During the reign of the Umayyad caliph [[al-Walid I]], [[al-Masjid an-Nabawi]] (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to include the site of [[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi|Muhammad's tomb.]]<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Penerbit UTM |isbn=978-983-52-0373-2 |last=Ariffin |first=Syed Ahmad Iskandar Syed |title=Architectural Conservation in Islam: Case Study of the Prophet's Mosque |date=2005 |page=88}}</ref> The [[Green Dome]] above the tomb was built by the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] sultan [[Al Mansur Qalawun]] in the 13th century, although the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=10061 |title=Prophet's Mosque |publisher=Archnet.org |date=2 May 2005 |access-date=26 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323131933/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=10061 |archive-date=23 March 2012 }}</ref> Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his companions ([[Sahabah]]), the first two Muslim caliphs [[Abu Bakr]] and [[Umar]], and an empty one that [[Jesus in Islam#Second Coming|Muslims believe awaits Jesus]].{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=90}}<ref>"Isa", ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''.</ref><ref name="Al-HaqqaniKabbani2002">{{cite book |first1=Shaykh Adil |last1=Al-Haqqani |first2=Shaykh Hisham |last2=Kabbani |author-link2=Hisham Kabbani |title=The Path to Spiritual Excellence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzpV0QnOVxsC&pg=PA65 |date=2002 |publisher=ISCA |isbn=978-1-930409-18-7 |pages=65–66 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924043430/https://books.google.com/books?id=mzpV0QnOVxsC&pg=PA65 |archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> When [[Saud bin Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad bin Saud|Saud bin Abdul-Aziz]] took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation.<ref name="Weston2008" /> Adherents to [[Wahhabism]], Saud's followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration,<ref name="Weston2008">{{cite book |first=Mark |last=Weston |author-link=Mark Weston (journalist) |title=Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA102 |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-470-18257-4 |pages=102–03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101063555/https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA102 |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> and the one of Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped.<ref name="Behrens-AbouseifVernoit2006">{{cite book |first1=Doris |last1=Behrens-Abouseif |first2=Stephen |last2=Vernoit |title=Islamic art in the 19th century: tradition, innovation, and eclecticism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4q58Af5zAoC&pg=PA22 |date=2006 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-14442-2 |page=22 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930145617/https://books.google.com/books?id=A4q58Af5zAoC&pg=PA22 |archive-date=30 September 2015}}</ref> Similar events took place in 1925, when the [[Ikhwan|Saudi militias]] retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.<ref name="Weston2008b">{{cite book |first=Mark |last=Weston |title=Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA136 |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-470-18257-4 |page=136 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101063555/https://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA136 |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="Cornell2007">{{cite book |first=Vincent J. |last=Cornell |title=Voices of Islam: Voices of the spirit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dNKFLJVvNkC&pg=PA84 |date=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-98734-3 |page=84 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101063555/https://books.google.com/books?id=8dNKFLJVvNkC&pg=PA84 |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="Ernst2004">{{cite book |first=Carl W. |last=Ernst |author-link=Carl W. Ernst |title=Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the contemporary world |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOWn22EkJsQC&pg=PA1173 |date=2004 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-5577-5 |pages=173–74 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101063555/https://books.google.com/books?id=DOWn22EkJsQC&pg=PA1173 |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.<ref name="Behrens-AbouseifVernoit2006" /> Although the practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a {{transliteration|ar|[[ziyarat]]}}—a ritual visit—to the tomb.{{Sfn|Bennett|1998|p=182–83}}<ref name="Clark2011">{{cite book |first=Malcolm |last=Clark |title=Islam For Dummies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT165 |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-1-118-05396-6 |page=165 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035138/https://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT165 |archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> {{wide image|Madina Haram at evening.jpg|800px|[[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi]] ("the Prophet's mosque") in [[Medina]], Saudi Arabia, with the [[Green Dome]] built over Muhammad's tomb in the center|left}} ===After Muhammad=== {{further|Succession to Muhammad|Rashidun|Early Muslim conquests}} [[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|thumb|right|Expansion of the caliphate, 622–750 CE: {{legend|#a1584e|Muhammad, 622–632 CE.}} {{legend|#ef9070|Rashidun caliphate, 632–661 CE.}} {{legend|#fad07d|Umayyad caliphate, 661–750 CE.}}]] With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be.{{sfn|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=57}}{{sfn|Lapidus|2002|pp=31–32}} [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated [[Abu Bakr]], Muhammad's friend and collaborator. With additional support, Abu Bakr was confirmed as the first [[caliph]]. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad at [[Event of Ghadir Khumm|Ghadir Khumm]]. Abu Bakr immediately moved to strike against the [[Byzantine]] (or [[Eastern Roman Empire]]) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an event that Muslim historians later referred to as the [[Ridda wars]], or "Wars of Apostasy".{{efn|See: *{{harvnb|Holt|Lambton|Lewis|1977|p=57}}. *{{harvnb|Hourani|Ruthven|2003|p=22}}. *{{harvnb|Lapidus|2002|p=32}}. *{{harvnb|Esposito|1998|p=36}}.}} The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanian]] empires. The [[Roman–Persian Wars]] between the two had devastated the region, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by Muslims, many Christians ([[Nestorian Church|Nestorians]], [[Monophysite]]s, [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Jacobites]] and [[Copt]]s) were disaffected from the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] which deemed them heretics. Within a decade Muslims conquered [[Mesopotamia]], [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Byzantine Syria]], [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Byzantine Egypt]],{{sfn|Esposito|1998|pp=35–36}} large parts of [[Greater Iran|Persia]], and established the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. =={{anchor|household}}Household== {{Further|Muhammad's wives|Ahl al-Bayt}} [[File:Mrs Aisha room.jpg|thumb|The tomb of Muhammad is located in the quarters of his third wife, [[Aisha]] ([[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi]], [[Medina]]).]] Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: [[Muhammad in Mecca|pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca]] (from 570 to 622), and [[Muhammad in Medina|post-hijra in Medina]] (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, [[Rayhana bint Zayd]] and [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]], as wife or concubine{{efn|See for example Marco Schöller, ''Banu Qurayza'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]] mentioning the differing accounts of the status of [[Rayhana]]}}<ref name="Barbara Freyer">Barbara Freyer Stowasser, ''Wives of the Prophet'', [[Encyclopedia of the Quran]].</ref>). At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy [[Khadijah bint Khuwaylid]] who was 40 years old.<ref>{{cite book |last=Subhani |first=Jafar |title=The Message |chapter-url=http://www.al-islam.org/message |publisher=Ansariyan Publications, Qom |chapter=Chapter 9 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007221418/http://www.al-islam.org/message/ |archive-date=7 October 2010 }}</ref> The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.<ref name="Esp2">Esposito (1998), p. 18.</ref> Muhammad did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.<ref name="Bullough 1998 119">Bullough (1998), p. 119.</ref><ref name="Reeves46">Reeves (2003), p. 46.</ref> After Khadijah's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry [[Sawdah bint Zam'ah]], a Muslim widow, or [[Aisha]], daughter of [[Umm Ruman]] and [[Abu Bakr]] of [[Mecca]]. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both.<ref name="Watt-encyc-online">Watt, ''Aisha'', [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]].</ref> According to classical sources, Muhammad married Aisha when she was 6–7 years old; the marriage was consummated later, when she was 9 years old and he was 53 years old.{{efn|See: *{{harvnb|Nagel|2020|p=301}} *{{harvnb|Kloppenborg|Hanegraaff|2018|p=89}} *{{harvnb|Rodinson|2021|pp=150–1}} *{{harvnb|Forward|1997|pp=88–9}} *{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|pp=96–7}} *{{harvnb|Brown|2011|pp=76–7}} *{{harvnb|Phipps|2016|p=142}} *{{harvnb|Morgan|2009|p=134}} *{{harvnb|El-Azhari|2019|pp=24–5}} *{{harvnb|Anthony|2020|p=115}}}} Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.{{sfn|Ramadan|2007|pp=168–69}}<ref>Asma Barlas (2002), p. 125.</ref><ref>Armstrong (1992), p. 157.</ref> Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad ([[Ruqayyah bint Muhammad]], [[Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad]], [[Zainab bint Muhammad]], [[Fatimah|Fatimah Zahra]]) and two sons ([[Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad]] and [[Qasim ibn Muhammad]], who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him.<ref name="Nich" /> Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.<ref>Ordoni (1990), pp. 32, 42–44.</ref> [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]] bore him a son named [[Ibrahim ibn Muhammad]], who died at two years old.<ref name="Nich">Nicholas Awde (2000), p. 10.</ref> Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him.<ref name="Barbara Freyer" /> Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favorite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.<ref name="Watt-encyc-online" /> [[Zayd ibn Harithah|Zayd ibn Haritha]] was a slave that Khadija gave to Muhammad. He was bought by her nephew [[Hakim ibn Hizam|Hakim bin Hizam]] at the market in [[Ukaz, Arabia|Ukaz]].<ref>{{harv|Bearman et al.|2002|p=475}}</ref> Zayd then became the couple's adopted son, but was later disowned when Muhammad was about to marry Zayd's ex-wife, [[Zaynab bint Jahsh]].{{Sfn|Powers|2014|p=100-101}} According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml |title=Slavery in Islam |publisher=BBC |access-date=16 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624234057/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml |archive-date=24 June 2017 }}</ref> ==Legacy== ===Islamic tradition=== {{Main|Muhammad in Islam}} Following the attestation to the [[Tawhid|oneness of God]], the belief in Muhammad's prophethood is the main aspect of the [[Aqidah|Islamic faith]]. Every Muslim proclaims in the ''[[Shahadah]]'': "I testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of God". The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of [[Islam]]. Islamic belief is that ideally the Shahadah is the first words a newborn will hear; children are taught it immediately and it will be recited upon death. Muslims repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (''[[adhan]]'') and the [[salat|prayer]] itself. Non-Muslims wishing to [[Conversion to Islam|convert to Islam]] are required to recite the creed.<ref>Farah (1994), p. 135.</ref> [[File:Mohamed peace be upon him.svg|thumb|right|179px|Calligraphic rendering of "may God honor him and grant him peace", customarily added after Muhammad's name, encoded as a [[Typographic ligature|ligature]] at [[Unicode]] code point [[Arabic script in Unicode|U+FDFA]]<ref name="unicode">{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/Unicode-3.1/U31-FB50.pdf |title=Arabic Presentation Forms-A |date=1 October 2009 |website=The Unicode Standard, Version 5.2 |publisher=Unicode, Inc. |location=Mountain View, Ca. |access-date=9 May 2010}}</ref> {{script|Arab|ﷺ}}]] In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet sent by God.<ref name="espos12">Esposito (1998), p. 12.</ref>{{sfn|Nigosian|2004|p=17}} The [[Quran]] affirms that the only miracle given to Muhammad was the Quran itself,<ref name="Sells, Michael p.176"/>{{sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=39}}<ref name="EoI-Miracle">A.J. Wensinck, ''Muʿd̲j̲iza'', [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]. Vol. 7, p. 295</ref> and offers various reasons for why he was unable to perform any other miracles when his enemies requested them.{{Sfn|Phipps|2016|p=40}}{{Sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=45–6}} However, later writings such as ''[[hadith]]'' and ''[[Prophetic biography|sira]]'' attribute several miracles or supernatural events to Muhammad after his death.<ref name="EoI-Miracle" /> One of these is the [[Splitting of the Moon|splitting of the moon]], which according to a report from Muhammad's cousin [[Ibn Abbas]], was in fact a [[lunar eclipse]], but this event was transformed into a literal splitting of the moon in later interpretations.{{Sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=45–6}} The [[Sunnah]] represents the actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as [[Hadith]]) and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, and burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, "may peace be upon you" (Arabic: ''[[As-Salamu Alaykum|as-salamu 'alaykum]]'') is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran.<ref>''Muhammad'', Encyclopædia Britannica, p. 9.</ref> [[File:Sahadah-Topkapi-Palace.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Muslim]] [[Profession (religious)|profession]] of faith, the [[Shahadah]], illustrates the Muslim conception of the role of Muhammad: "There is no god except [[Allah|the God]]; Muhammad is the [[Prophets in Islam|Messenger of God]]", in [[Topkapı Palace]], [[Istanbul]], Turkey.]] Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles have permeated popular Muslim thought and [[Na`at|poetry]]. Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, [[Qaṣīda al-Burda|Qasidat al-Burda]] ("Poem of the Mantle") by the Egyptian [[Sufi]] [[al-Busiri]] (1211–1294) is particularly well-known, and widely held to possess a healing, spiritual power.<ref name="Stetkevych2010">{{cite book |author=Suzanne Pinckney Stetkevych |title=The mantle odes: Arabic praise poems to the Prophet Muḥammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-nY3_DXo-gC&pg=PR12 |access-date=27 January 2012 |date=24 May 2010 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-22206-0 |page=xii |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615211359/http://books.google.com/books?id=F-nY3_DXo-gC&pg=PR12 |archive-date=15 June 2013 }}</ref> The Quran refers to Muhammad as "a mercy (''rahmat'') to the worlds".<ref>{{qref|21|107|b=y}}</ref>{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth.{{efn|See, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} [[Mawlid|Muhammad's birthday]] is celebrated as a major feast throughout the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]], excluding [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]]-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.<ref name="Nasr-Muhammad">[[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]], Encyclopædia Britannica, ''Muhammad'', p. 13.</ref> When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with the Arabic phrase ''ṣallā llahu ʿalayhi wa-sallam'' (''may God honor him and grant him peace'') or the English phrase ''[[Peace be upon him (Islam)|peace be upon him]]''.<ref name="Ann Goldman 2006 p. 212">Ann Goldman, Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006), p. 212.</ref> In casual writing, the abbreviations SAW (for the Arabic phrase) or PBUH (for the English phrase) are sometimes used; in printed matter, a small calligraphic rendition is commonly used ({{lang|ar|ﷺ}}). ====<!--Please leave the following "anchor" here, as a number of pages link to this section using it (see WP:ANCHOR):-->{{anchor|Islamic depictions of Muhammad}} Appearance and depictions==== {{Main|Depictions of Muhammad}} Various sources present a probable description of Muhammad in the prime of his life. He was slightly above average in height, with a sturdy frame and wide chest. His neck was long, bearing a large head with a broad forehead. His eyes were described as dark and intense, accentuated by long, dark eyelashes. His hair, black and not entirely curly, hung over his ears. His long, dense beard stood out against his neatly trimmed mustache. His nose was long and aquiline, ending in a fine point. His teeth were well-spaced. His face was described as intelligent, and his clear skin had a line of hair from his neck to his navel. Despite a slight stoop, his stride was brisk and purposeful.{{Sfn|Bennett |1998|p=36}} Muhammad's lip and cheek were ripped by a slingstone during the [[battle of Uhud]].{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=120}}{{Sfn|Rodinson|2021|p=181}} The wound was later [[Cauterization|cauterized]], leaving a scar on his face.{{Sfn|Gabriel|2014|p=121}} However, since the [[Aniconism in Islam|hadith prohibits the creation of images of sentient living beings]], Islamic religious art mainly focuses on the word.<ref name="Plas1987" />{{sfn|Esposito|2011|pp=14–15}} Muslims generally avoid [[depictions of Muhammad]], and instead decorate mosques with calligraphy, Quranic inscriptions, or geometrical designs.<ref name="Plas1987">{{cite book |editor=Dirk van der Plas |author=Kees Wagtendonk |title=Effigies dei: essays on the history of religions |chapter=Images in Islam |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ops3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA120 |access-date=1 December 2011 |date=1987 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-08655-5 |pages=119–24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615040436/http://books.google.com/books?id=ops3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA120 |archive-date=15 June 2013 }}</ref>{{sfn|Peters|2010|pp=159-161}} Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and [[Ahmadiyya]] Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%).<ref name="Safi20102010">{{cite book |last=Safi|first=Omid|title=Memories of Muhammad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s63i21E9dr8C |access-date=29 December 2011 |date=2 November 2010 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-123135-3 |page=32 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614191323/http://books.google.com/books?id=s63i21E9dr8C |archive-date=14 June 2013 }}</ref> While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past,<ref name="Omid" /> Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare.<ref name="Plas1987" /> They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.{{sfn|Peters|2010|pp=159–161}}<ref name="Bakker2009" /> [[File:Muhammad destroying idols - L'Histoire Merveilleuse en Vers de Mahomet BNF.jpg|thumb|right|Muhammad's entry into Mecca and the destruction of idols. Muhammad is shown as a flame in this manuscript. Found in Bazil's ''Hamla-i Haydari'', [[Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)|Jammu and Kashmir]], India, 1808.]] The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century [[Anatolian Seljuks|Anatolian Seljuk]] and [[Ilkhanid]] [[Persian miniature]]s, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad.<ref name="Bakker2009" /><ref name="Gruber2009">{{cite book |author=Christiane Gruber |chapter=Between Logos (Kalima) and Light (Nur): Representations of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad in Islamic Painting |editor=Gulru Necipoglu |title=Muqarnas |chapter-url=https://umich.academia.edu/ChristianeGruber/Papers/443477/_Between_Logos_Kalima_and_Light_Nur_Representations_of_the_Prophet_Muhammad_in_Islamic_Painting_ |volume=26 |date=2009 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-17589-1 |pages=234–35 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120711133658/http://umich.academia.edu/ChristianeGruber/Papers/443477/_Between_Logos_Kalima_and_Light_Nur_Representations_of_the_Prophet_Muhammad_in_Islamic_Painting_ |archive-date=11 July 2012 }}</ref> During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events.<ref name="Elverskog2010" /> Influenced by the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a "broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward representation" in "mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and metalwork" besides books.<ref>{{cite book |author=Johan Elverskog |title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhismislamons0000elve |url-access=registration |date=2010 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4237-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/buddhismislamons0000elve/page/164 164]–69 }}</ref> In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted through the [[Timurid dynasty]] until the [[Safavids]] took power in the early 16th century.<ref name="Elverskog2010" /> The Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad's face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous essence.<ref name="Gruber2011">{{cite book |chapter=When Nubuvvat encounters Valayat: Safavid painting of the "Prophet" Mohammad's Mi'raj, c. 1500–50 |author=Christiane Gruber |editor=Pedram Khosronejad |title=The Art and Material Culture of Iranian Shi'ism: Iconography and Religious Devotion in Shi'i Islam |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/1176067 |date=2011 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-84885-168-9 |pages=46–47 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102103545/http://www.academia.edu/1176067/When_Nubuvvat_Encounters_Valayat_Safavid_Paintings_of_the_Prophet_Muhammads_Miraj_ca._1500-50 |archive-date=2 January 2017 }}</ref> Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were defaced.<ref name="Elverskog2010">{{cite book |author=Johan Elverskog |title=Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhismislamons0000elve |url-access=registration |date=2010 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4237-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/buddhismislamons0000elve/page/167 167] }}</ref><ref name="EdwardsBhaumik2008">{{cite book |author1=Elizabeth Edwards |author2=Kaushik Bhaumik |title=Visual sense: a cultural reader |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bhxPW9B8s1oC&pg=PA344 |date=2008 |publisher=Berg |isbn=978-1-84520-741-0 |page=344 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923141751/https://books.google.com/books?id=bhxPW9B8s1oC&pg=PA344 |archive-date=23 September 2015 }}</ref><ref name="Ruggles2011">{{cite book |author=D. Fairchild Ruggles |author-link=D. Fairchild Ruggles |title=Islamic Art and Visual Culture: An Anthology of Sources |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Te5QRi35W5EC&pg=PA56 |date=2011 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-5401-7 |page=56 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924021048/https://books.google.com/books?id=Te5QRi35W5EC&pg=PA56 |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> Later images were produced in [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad.<ref name="Omid">{{cite news |last=Safi |first=Omid |author-link=Omid Safi |date=5 May 2011 |url=http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/guestvoices/2010/05/why_islam_does_not_ban_images_of_the_prophet.html |title=Why Islam does (not) ban images of the Prophet |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |access-date=27 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202195337/http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/guestvoices/2010/05/why_islam_does_not_ban_images_of_the_prophet.html |archive-date=2 February 2012 }}</ref> Illustrated accounts of the night journey (''mi'raj'') were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era.<ref name="GruberColby2010" /> During the 19th century, [[Iran]] saw a boom of printed and illustrated ''mi'raj'' books, with Muhammad's face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the manner of [[graphic novels]]. Reproduced through [[lithography]], these were essentially "printed manuscripts".<ref name="GruberColby2010">{{cite book |editor1=Christiane J. Gruber |editor2=Frederick Stephen Colby |title=The Prophet's ascension: cross-cultural encounters with the Islamic mi'rāj tales |chapter=Persian illustrated lithographed books on the miʻrāj: improving children's Shi'i beliefs in the Qajar period |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sjLHirJmvPUC&pg=PA252 |date=2010 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-35361-0 |pages=252–54 |author=Ali Boozari |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016005841/https://books.google.com/books?id=sjLHirJmvPUC&pg=PA252 |archive-date=16 October 2015 }}</ref> Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are available in some Muslim-majority countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on posters, postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in most other parts of the Islamic world, and when encountered by Muslims from other countries, they can cause considerable consternation and offense.<ref name="Omid" /><ref name="Bakker2009">{{cite book |author=Freek L. Bakker |title=The challenge of the silver screen: an analysis of the cinematic portraits of Jesus, Rama, Buddha and Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4KNSp-uEO18C&pg=PA207 |access-date=1 December 2011 |date=15 September 2009 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-16861-9 |pages=207–09 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615043959/http://books.google.com/books?id=4KNSp-uEO18C&pg=PA207 |archive-date=15 June 2013 }}</ref> === Islamic social reforms === {{Main|Early social changes under Islam}} According to [[William Montgomery Watt]], religion for Muhammad was not a private and individual matter but "the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]... to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject."<ref>Cambridge History of Islam (1970), p. 30.</ref> [[Bernard Lewis]] says there are two important political traditions in Islam—Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad as a rebel in Mecca. In his view, Islam is a great change, akin to a revolution, when introduced to new societies.<ref name="LewisNYRB">Lewis [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4557 (1998)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408105440/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4557|date=8 April 2010}}</ref> Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as [[social security]], family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the ''status quo'' of Arab society.<ref name="LewisNYRB" />{{efn|See: *{{harvnb|Watt|1974|p=234}}. *{{harvnb|Robinson|2004|p=21}}. *{{harvnb|Esposito|1998|p=98}}. * R. Walzer, ''Ak̲h̲lāḳ'', [[Encyclopaedia of Islam Online]].}} For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced [[Aristocracy (class)|aristocratic]] privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents".<ref name="LewisNYRB" /> Muhammad's message transformed society and [[Islamic ethics|moral orders]] of life in the Arabian Peninsula; society focused on the changes to perceived identity, [[world view]], and the hierarchy of values.<ref>''Islamic ethics'', [[Encyclopedia of Ethics]].</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2014}} Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in [[Jahiliyyah|pre-Islamic]] Mecca.<ref>Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p. 34.</ref> The Quran requires payment of an alms tax ([[zakat]]) for the benefit of the poor; as Muhammad's power grew he demanded that tribes who wished to ally with him implement the zakat in particular.{{sfn|Esposito|1998|p=30}}<ref>Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p. 52.</ref> ===European appreciation=== <!------------ PLEASE NOTE: The consensus to include images of Muhammad emerged after extensive months-long discussions and efforts on both sides to balance multiple competing interests. Please do not remove or reposition these images because you feel they are against your religion. Please do not add more images or reposition the current ones to prove a point. To avoid pointless revert-warring, blocking and page protection, please discuss any prospective changes on the talk page. Thank you for contributing to Wikipedia. -------------> <div class="depiction"> [[File:La.Vie.de.Mahomet.jpg|thumb|upright|Muhammad in ''La vie de Mahomet'' by M. Prideaux (1699). He holds a sword and a crescent while trampling on a [[globe]], a [[Christian cross|cross]], and the [[Ten Commandments]].]] </div> [[Guillaume Postel]] was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad when he argued that Muhammad should be esteemed by Christians as a valid prophet.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}}<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |isbn=978-1-61592-020-4 |last=Warraq |first=Ibn |title=Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism |date=2007 |page=147 |quote=Indeed, [Postel's] greater tolerance for other religions was much in evidence in Πανθενωδια: ''compostio omnium dissidiorum'', where, astonishingly for the sixteenth century, he argued that Muhammad ought to be esteemed even in Christendom as a genuine prophet.}}</ref> [[Gottfried Leibniz]] praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from the [[natural religion]]".{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} [[Henri de Boulainvilliers]], in his ''Vie de Mahomed'' which was published posthumously in 1730, described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} He presents him as a divinely inspired messenger whom God employed to confound the bickering Oriental Christians, to liberate the Orient from the despotic rule of the [[Byzantine Empire|Romans]] and [[Sasanian Empire|Persians]], and to spread the knowledge of the unity of God from India to Spain.{{sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=240–2}} Voltaire had a mixed opinion on Muhammad: in his play ''[[Mahomet (play)|Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète]]'' he vilifies Muhammad as a symbol of fanaticism, and in an essay in 1748 he calls him "a sublime and hearty charlatan". But in Voltaire's historical survey ''Essai sur les mœurs'', he presents Mohammed as a legislator and conqueror and calls him an "enthusiast".{{sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=240–2}} [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], in his ''[[The Social Contract|Social Contract]]'' (1762), "brushing aside hostile legends of Muhammad as a trickster and impostor, presents him as a sage legislator who wisely fused religious and political powers".{{sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=240–2}} [[Claude-Emmanuel de Pastoret|Emmanuel Pastoret]] published in 1787 his ''Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad'', in which he presents the lives of these three "great men", "the greatest legislators of the universe", and compares their careers as religious reformers and lawgivers. He rejects the common view that Muhammad is an impostor and argues that the Quran proffers "the most sublime truths of cult and morals"; it defines the unity of God with an "admirable concision". Pastoret writes that the common accusations of his immorality are unfounded: on the contrary, his law enjoins sobriety, generosity, and compassion on his followers: the "legislator of Arabia" was "a great man".{{sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=240–2}} [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] admired Muhammad and Islam,<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/talkofnapoleonat007678mbp#page/n321/mode/2up ''Talk Of Napoleon At St. Helena''] (1903), pp. 279–80.</ref> and described him as a model lawmaker and conqueror.{{sfn|Brockopp|2010|p=244}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Younos |first=Farid |title=Islamic Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NUEaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT31 |series=Cambridge Companions to Religion |date=2010 |publisher=AuthorHouse |page=15 |isbn=978-1-4918-2344-6}}</ref> [[Thomas Carlyle]] in his book ''[[On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History]]'' (1841) describes "Mahomet" as "A silent great soul; he was one of those who cannot ''but'' be in earnest".<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas |last=Carlyle |date=1841 |title=On heroes, hero worship and the heroic in history |url=https://archive.org/details/onheroesherowor08carlgoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/onheroesherowor08carlgoog/page/n95 87] |publisher=James Fraser |place=London}}</ref> Carlyle's interpretation has been widely cited by Muslim scholars as a demonstration that Western scholarship validates Muhammad's status as a great man in history.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kecia Ali |title=The Lives of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-oWYBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |date=2014 |publisher=Harvard UP |page=48 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904001211/https://books.google.com/books?id=-oWYBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |archive-date=4 September 2015 |isbn=978-0-674-74448-6 }}</ref> [[Ian Almond]] says that [[German Romantic]] writers generally held positive views of Muhammad: "[[Goethe]]'s 'extraordinary' poet-prophet, [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]]'s nation builder (...) [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Schlegel]]'s admiration for Islam as an aesthetic product, enviably authentic, radiantly holistic, played such a central role in his view of Mohammed as an exemplary world-fashioner that he even used it as a scale of judgement for the classical (the dithyramb, we are told, has to radiate pure beauty if it is to resemble 'a Koran of poetry')".<ref>Ian Almond, ''History of Islam in German Thought: From Leibniz to Nietzsche'', Routledge (2009), p. 93.</ref> After quoting [[Heinrich Heine]], who said in a letter to some friend that "I must admit that you, the great prophet of Mecca, are the greatest poet and that your Quran... will not easily escape my memory", [[John V. Tolan|John Tolan]] goes on to show how Jews in Europe in particular held more nuanced views about Muhammad and Islam, being an [[ethnoreligious]] minority feeling discriminated, they specifically lauded [[Al-Andalus]], and thus, "writing about Islam was for Jews a way of indulging in a fantasy world, far from the persecution and [[pogroms]] of nineteenth-century Europe, where Jews could live in harmony with their non-Jewish neighbors".<ref>Tolan, John. "The Prophet Muhammad: A Model of Monotheistic Reform for Nineteenth-Century Ashkenaz." ''Common Knowledge'', vol. 24 no. 2, 2018, pp. 256–279.</ref> Recent writers such as [[William Montgomery Watt]] and [[Richard Bell (Arabist)|Richard Bell]] dismiss the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad "was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith"<ref>Watt, Bell (1995) p. 18.</ref> and Muhammad's readiness to endure hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no rational basis for hope, shows his sincerity.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=232}} Watt, however, says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: in contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his subconscious for divine revelation.{{sfn|Watt|1974|p=17}} Watt and [[Bernard Lewis]] argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam's development.<ref>Watt, ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', p. 37.</ref><ref>Lewis (1993), p. 45.</ref> [[Alford T. Welch]] holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993}} ===Criticism=== {{Main|Criticism of Muhammad}} {{see also|Criticism of Islam|Criticism of the Quran}} [[Criticism of Muhammad]] has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad was decried by his [[Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia|non-Muslim Arab]] contemporaries for preaching [[monotheism]], and by the [[Jewish tribes of Arabia]] for his perceived appropriation of [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical narratives]] and [[Biblical Figures|figures]] and proclamation of himself as the "[[Seal of the Prophets]]."{{sfn|Gottheil|Montgomery|Grimme|1906}}{{sfn|Stillman|1979}}{{sfn|Goddard|2000}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|pp=360–376}} In the [[Middle Ages]], [[Christianity in the Middle Ages|Western]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] labeled him a [[False prophet#Christianity|false prophet]], the [[Antichrist]], or portrayed him as a [[Heresy in Christianity|heretic]] as he was frequently portrayed in [[Christendom]].{{sfn|Quinn|2008}}{{sfn|Goddard|2000}}{{sfn|Curtis|2009}}{{sfn|Buhl|Welch|1993|pp=360–376}} Contemporary criticism involves questioning Muhammad's legitimacy as a prophet, his moral conduct, [[Muhammad's wives|marriages]], [[Slavery in Islam|ownership of slaves]], treatment of enemies, approach to doctrinal matters, and psychological well-being.{{sfn|Quinn|2008}}{{sfn|Cimino|2005}}{{sfn|Willis|2013}}{{sfn|Spellberg|1996}} ===Sufism=== {{See also|Sufism}} The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.<ref>J. Schacht, ''Fiḳh'', Encyclopaedia of Islam.</ref> Muslim mystics, known as [[Sufi]]s, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being. All Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad.<ref>''Muhammad'', Encyclopædia Britannica, pp. 11–12.</ref> Some notable Sufis, such as [[Yusuf Abu al-Haggag]], are directly descended from Muhammad.<ref name="Sufi">{{Cite web |title= Sufis celebrate birthday of Sheikh Abu El-Haggag at Luxor mosque|url= https://www.arabnews.com/node/2266696/middle-east|website=Arab News|language=en}}</ref> ===Other religions=== {{See also|Judaism's view of Muhammad|Muhammad in the Baháʼí Faith}} Followers of the [[Baháʼí Faith]] venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "[[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestations of God]]." He is thought to be the final manifestation, or seal of the [[Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)|Adamic cycle]], but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the Baháʼí faith, and the first manifestation of the current cycle.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=P. |date=1999 |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-1-85168-184-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/251 251] |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/251 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://bahai-library.com/fananapazir_fazel_finality_islam |title=A Baháʼí Approach to the Claim of Finality in Islam |website=bahai-library.com |access-date=20 June 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160619035122/http://bahai-library.com/fananapazir_fazel_finality_islam |archive-date=19 June 2016 }}</ref> [[Druze]] tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets,"<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Sacred Places, 2nd Edition [2 volumes]|first=Norbert |last=C. Brockman|date=2011|isbn= 978-1-59884-655-3|page=259|publisher=ABC-CLIO|quote=}}</ref> and Muhammad is considered an important prophet of God in the [[Druze faith]], being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.<ref name="Hitti 1928 37">{{cite book |title=The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings|first=Philip K.|last=Hitti|date=1928|isbn=978-1-4655-4662-3|page=37 |publisher=Library of Alexandria}}</ref><ref name="Dana 2008 17">{{cite book |title=The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status|first=Nissim |last=Dana|date=2008|isbn=978-1-903900-36-9|page=17 |publisher=Michigan University press}}</ref> ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Ashtiname of Muhammad]] * [[Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad]] * [[Diplomatic career of Muhammad]] * [[Glossary of Islam]] * [[List of biographies of Muhammad]] * [[List of founders of religious traditions]] * [[List of notable Hijazis]] * [[Muhammad and the Bible]] * [[Muhammad in film]] * [[Muhammad's views on Christians]] * [[Muhammad's views on Jews]] * [[Possessions of Muhammad]] * [[Relics of Muhammad]] {{div col end}} ==References== ===Notes=== {{notelist}} ===Citations=== {{reflist|21em}} ===Sources=== <!-- ATTENTION: If you add an entry into this section, please ensure that you include it within proper alphabetical order of the existing list, generally by author's last name --> {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{Cite book |last=Adil |first=Hajjah Amina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31tscfPF4tkC|title=Muhammad, the Messenger of Islam: His Life & Prophecy |date=2002 |publisher=ISCA |isbn=978-1-930409-11-8 |language=en}} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Ahmad |first=Anis |author-link=Anis Ahmad |date=2009 |title=Dīn |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e1102 |url-access=subscription |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205093241/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e1102 |archive-date=5 December 2017 }}{{cbignore}} *{{Cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Shahab |author-link=Shahab Ahmed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCcuDwAAQBAJ |title=Before Orthodoxy: The Satanic Verses in Early Islam |date=24 April 2017 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-04742-6 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Al-Bukhari |first=Muhammed Ibn Ismaiel |title=The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari: Arabic-English |date=1 June 1997 |publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications |isbn=978-9960-717-31-9 |translator-last=Khan |translator-first=Muhammad M.}} * {{Cite book |last=Al-Tabari |first=Muhammad ibn Jarir |author-link=al-Tabari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyFjzQEACAAJ |title=The History of al-Tabari Vol. 6: Muhammad at Mecca |date=1 August 1987 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-88706-707-5 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Anthony |first=Sean W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r7LDwAAQBAJ |title=Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam |date=2020-04-21 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-97452-4 |language=en}} * {{cite book |last=Ardic |first=Nurullah |date=21 August 2012 |title=Islam and the Politics of Secularism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAXNxxkJKYsC&pg=PA99 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-48984-6 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122105439/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAXNxxkJKYsC&pg=PA99 |archive-date=22 January 2018 }} * {{Cite book |last=Arjomand |first=Said Amir |author-link=Saïd Amir Arjomand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNGAEAAAQBAJ|title=Messianism and Sociopolitical Revolution in Medieval Islam |date=25 October 2022 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-38759-1 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume XI (V-Z) |date=27 June 2002 |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/6997 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=Peri |editor-link=Peri Bearman |access-date=13 June 2023 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-12756-2 |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Thierry |editor-link2=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C. Edmund |editor-link3=C. Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=Donzel |editor4-first=E. J. van |editor-link4=E. J. van Donzel |ref = {{harvid|Bearman et al.|2002}}}} * {{Cite book |last=Beeston |first=A. F. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0QkhaK4kBUC |title=Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period |date=3 November 1983 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-24015-4 |language=en}} *{{cite book |first=Clinton |last=Bennett |author-link=Clinton Bennett |title=In search of Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQC&pg=PA182 |date=1998 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-304-70401-9|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922131141/https://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQC&pg=PA182 |archive-date=22 September 2015}} *{{Cite book |last=Bogle |first=Emory C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IpFhLDUw20gC |title=Islam: Origin and Belief |date=1998 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-70862-4 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last1=Borup |first1=Jørn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FMG0DwAAQBAJ |title=Religious Diversity in Asia |last2=Fibiger |first2=Marianne Qvortrup |last3=Kühle |first3=Lene |date=1 October 2019 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-41581-2 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Brockopp |first=Jonathan E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o58K2t344YQC |title=The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad |date=19 April 2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-82838-3 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Daniel W. |author-link=Daniel W. 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S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18b-K9AMLlwC |title=The Venture of Islam, Volume 1: The Classical Age of Islam |date=15 May 2009 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-34686-1 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=P. M. |author-link1=Peter Holt (historian) |last2=Lambton |first2=Ann K. S. |last3=Lewis |first3=Bernard |author-link3=Bernard Lewis |date=1977 |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |edition=paperback |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29135-4}} * {{Cite book |last1=Holt |first1=P. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5OO-AQAACAAJ |title=The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 1A, The Central Islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War |last2=Lambton |first2=Ann K. 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Paul, Trench, Trübner |isbn=978-90-90-00408-2 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last1=Kloppenborg |first1=Ria |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wN-mDwAAQBAJ |title=Female Stereotypes in Religious Traditions |last2=Hanegraaff |first2=Wouter J. |date=2018-09-24 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-37888-9 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira |date=2002 |title=A History of Islamic Societies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-521-77933-3}} * {{Cite book |last=Lapidus |first=Ira M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcPZ1k65pqkC |title=Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-51441-5 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Lassner |first=Jacob |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jwdsUKLbS2wC |title=Jews, Christians, and the Abode of Islam: Modern Scholarship, Medieval Realities |date=15 March 2012 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-47107-5 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |author-link=Bernard Lewis |date=2002 |orig-year=1993 |title=The Arabs in History |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280310-8 |title-link=The Arabs in History }} * {{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=David Levering |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zxuar_ISdcUC |title=God's Crucible: Islam and the Making of Europe, 570-1215 |date=12 January 2009 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-06790-3 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last1=Lindemann |first1=Albert S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaEUDAAAQBAJ |title=Antisemitism: A History |last2=Levy |first2=Richard S. |date=28 October 2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-923503-2 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |author-link=Wilferd Madelung |date=1997 |title=The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-64696-3 |title-link=The Succession to Muhammad }} *{{Cite book |last=Margoliouth |first=David S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rwhm1b9hZh0C |title=Mohammed and the Rise of Islam |date=2010|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|isbn=978-1-61640-503-8 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Muranyi |first=Miklos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bsXXAAAAMAAJ |title=The Life of Muhammad |date=1998 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-86078-703-7 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=Diane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6oHDEAAAQBAJ |title=Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice |date=12 November 2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-0-313-36026-8 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Muesse |first=Mark W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i8hxEAAAQBAJ |title=Four Wise Men |date=1 January 2018 |publisher=Lutterworth Press |isbn=978-0-7188-9522-8 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Murray |first=Alexander |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trene_8DY10C |title=Suicide in the Middle Ages: Volume 2: The Curse on Self-Murder |date=3 March 2011 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-161399-9 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Nagel |first=Tilman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvgdEAAAQBAJ |title=Muhammad's Mission: Religion, Politics, and Power at the Birth of Islam |date=6 July 2020 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-067498-9 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Netton |first=Ian Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bYtmAgAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |date=2013-12-19 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-17960-1 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Nigosian |first=Solomon A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=my7hnALd_NkC|title=Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices |date=29 January 2004 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-11074-9 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F. 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Peterson |date=2007 |title=Muhammad, Prophet of God |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-8028-0754-0}} * {{Cite book |last=Phipps |first=William E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DR_mDAAAQBAJ |title=Muhammad and Jesus: A Comparison of the Prophets and Their Teachings |date=6 October 2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4742-8935-1 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Powers |first=David S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rx-LAwAAQBAJ |title=Zayd |date=8 May 2014 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0995-2 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last=Quinn |first=Frederick |date=2008 |title=The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/sumofallheresies0000quin |url-access=registration |location=New York City |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |chapter=The Prophet as Antichrist and Arab Lucifer (Early Times to 1600) |pages=17–54 |isbn=978-0-19-532563-8}} *{{cite book |last=Ramadan |first=Tariq |author-link=Tariq Ramadan |date=2007 |title=In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-530880-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama }} * {{Cite book |last=Rāshid |first=Maʿmar ibn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8mlCgAAQBAJ |title=The Expeditions: An Early Biography of Muḥammad |date=15 October 2015 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-1-4798-0047-6 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Gabriel Said |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b1SjEAAAQBAJ |title=The Emergence of Islam: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective |date=7 March 2023 |publisher=Augsburg Fortress Publishers |isbn=978-1-5064-7388-8 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last=Robin |first=Christian J. |date=2012 |title=Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-533693-1 }} *{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=David |date=2004 |title=Muslim Societies in African History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82627-3}} *{{Cite book |last=Rodgers |first=Russ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nOxXXwAACAAJ |title=The Generalship of Muhammad: Battles and Campaigns of the Prophet of Allah |date=2012 |publisher=University Press of Florida |isbn=978-0-8130-3766-0 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Rodinson |first=Maxime |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttPdDwAAQBAJ |title=Muhammad |date=2 March 2021 |publisher=New York Review of Books |isbn=978-1-68137-493-2 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Roggema |first=Barbara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O15DwAAQBAJ&source=gbs_book_other_versions |title=The Legend of Sergius Baḥīrā: Eastern Christian Apologetics and Apocalyptic in Response to Islam |date=2008-08-31 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-4195-3 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |title=Reading the Middle Ages: Sources from Europe, Byzantium, and the Islamic World, Third Edition |date=3 May 2018 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3673-6 |editor-last=Rosenwein |editor-first=Barbara H. |location=Toronto Buffalo London |language=English}} * {{Cite book |last=Rubin |first=Uri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3WFqEAAAQBAJ |title=The Life of Muhammad |date=19 April 2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-88676-5 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Ṣallābī |first=ʻAlī Muḥammad Muḥammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yDmuURWiSNoC |title=The Noble Life of the Prophet |date=2005 |publisher=Darussalam |isbn=978-9960-9678-9-9 |language=en}} * {{Citation |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume III (H-Iram): [Fasc. 41-60, 60a] |date=26 June 1998 |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/1482 |editor-last=Schacht |access-date=21 June 2023 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-08118-5 |editor2-last=Lewis |editor3-last=Pellat |editor4-last=Ménage|ref = {{harvid|Schacht et al.|1998}}}} *{{Cite book|last=Schroeder|first=Eric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDbR3Bz1OvsC|title=Muhammad's People: An Anthology of Muslim Civilization |date=1 January 2002 |publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-42502-3|language=en}} *{{cite book |last=Spellberg |first=Denise A. |author-link=Denise Spellberg |date=1996 |title=Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-07999-0 |pages=39–40 |language=en }} *{{cite book |last=Stillman|first=Norman A. |author-link=Norman A. Stillman |date=1979 |title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bFN2ismyhEYC&pg=PA236 |publisher=Jewish Publication Society |isbn=978-0-8276-0198-7 |page=236}} *{{Cite book |last=Swarup |first=Ram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GLdZv97v2lMC |title=Understanding the Hadith: The Sacred Traditions of Islam |date=29 April 2011 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-61592-243-7 |language=en}} * {{Cite book |last=Towghi |first=Malek Muhammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sCjFXhIWTlMC |title=Foundations of Muslim Images and Treatment of the World Beyond Islam |date=1991 |publisher=Michigan State University. Department of History |language=en}} *{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1953 |title=Muhammad at Mecca |publisher=Oxford University Press |id=ASIN: B000IUA52A |isbn=978-0-19-577277-7 |title-link=Muhammad at Mecca (book) }} *{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1956 |title=Muhammad at Medina |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-577307-1 |title-link=Muhammad at Medina (book) }} *{{cite book |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1974 |title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman |url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets00watt/page/138 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=United Kingdom |isbn=0-19-881078-4 }} *{{cite encyclopedia|last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery|date=1998 |title=Badr |chapter=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume I (A-B): [Fasc. 1-22] |url=https://brill.com/display/title/1480|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=1 |pages=867–8 |isbn=978-90-04-08114-7}} *{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Welch |first1=Alford T. |last2=Moussalli |first2=Ahmad S. |last3=Newby |first3=Gordon D. |date=2009 |title=Muḥammad |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |quote= |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211050118/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0550 |archive-date=11 February 2017 }}{{cbignore}} *{{Cite book |title=Islam |date=1961 |publisher=George Braziller |isbn=978-0-8076-0165-5 |editor-last=Williams |editor-first=John Alden |language=English}} * {{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Rebecca |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBi_X2qoxpgC|title=Muhammad and the Supernatural: Medieval Arab Views |date=2 May 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-94085-0 |language=en}} *{{cite book |editor-last=Willis |editor-first=John Ralph |date=2013 |title=Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Islam and the Ideology of Enslavement |location=New York City |publisher=[[Routledge Press|Routledge]] |volume=1 |pages=vii–xi, 3–26 |isbn=978-0-7146-3142-4}} *{{Cite book|title =The Historical Muhammad|first=Irving|last=Zeitlin|year=2007}} {{refend}} ====Encyclopaedia of Islam==== {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Abel |first=Armand |date=1960 |title=Baḥīrā |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/bahira-SIM_1050 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=1 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Buhl |first1=F. |last2=Welch |first2=A.T. |date=1993 |title=Muḥammad |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/muhammad-COM_0780 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=7 |pages=360–376 |isbn=978-90-04-09419-2 }} *{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam |title=MUHAMMED |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/muhammed |pages=406-479 |volume=30 }} *{{Cite book |last1=Muslim |first1=Imam Abul-Husain |title=Sahih Muslim |last2=Al-Khattab |first2=Nasiruddin |date=1 June 2007 |publisher=Dar-us-Salam Publications Inc |isbn=978-9960-9919-0-0 |edition=First |location=Riyadh |language=English}} *{{Cite book |last=Peters |first=F. E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WnMOEAAAQBAJ |title=Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: The Classical Texts and Their Interpretation, Volume I: From Convenant to Community |date=2021-03-09 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-22682-8 |language=en}} *{{Cite book |last=Sa'd |first=Muḥammad Ibn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_vnXAAAAMAAJ |title=Kitab Al-tabaqat Al-kabir - Volume 2 |date=1972 |publisher=Pakistan Historical Society |language=en}} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1971 |title=Ḥalīma Bint Abī Ḏh̲uʾayb |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/halima-bint-abi-dhuayb-SIM_2648 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=3 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Watt |first=W. Montgomery |author-link=W. Montgomery Watt |date=1960 |title=Āmina |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/amina-SIM_0601 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=1 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wensinck |first1=A.J. |last2=Rippen |first2=A. |date=2002 |title=Waḥy |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/wahy-COM_1331 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=11 }} *{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Wensinck |first1=A.J. |last2=Jomier |first2=J. |date=1990 |title=Ka'ba |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/kaba-COM_0401?lang=en |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] |edition=2nd |publisher=Brill |volume=4 }} {{refend}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|Muhammad|d=Q9458|c=Category:Muhammad|v=yes|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|n=no|s=no|b=no}} *{{Curlie|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/Prophets/Muhammed}} {{Muhammad2}} {{Navboxes |title=Articles related to Muhammad |list = {{Prophets in the Qur'an}} {{Qur'anic people}} {{Islam topics}} {{Social and political philosophy}} {{Political philosophy}} {{Depictions of Muhammad}} }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:570s births]] [[Category:632 deaths]] [[Category:6th-century Arab people]] [[Category:7th-century Arab people]] [[Category:7th-century Islamic religious leaders]] [[Category:7th-century merchants]] [[Category:7th-century military personnel]] [[Category:7th-century Asian people]] [[Category:Adoptees]] [[Category:Angelic visionaries]] [[Category:Arab generals]] [[Category:Arab Muslims]] [[Category:Arab politicians]] [[Category:Arab prophets]] [[Category:Arab slave owners]] [[Category:7th-century diplomats]] [[Category:Entering heaven alive]] [[Category:Founders of religions]] [[Category:Medina]] [[Category:Miracle workers]] [[Category:Muhammad| ]] [[Category:People from Mecca]] [[Category:Prophets of the Quran]] [[Category:Prophets in the Druze faith]] [[Category:Quraysh]] [[Category:The Fourteen Infallibles]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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