Master's degree

{{short description|Postgraduate academic degree}}
{{use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
[[File:Columbia University Master's Degree.jpg|thumb|A [[Master of Science]] degree conferred from [[Columbia University]], an [[Ivy League]] university in [[New York City]]]]
A '''master's degree'''{{NoteTag|The spelling of ''master's degree'' and ''master's'' without an apostrophe is considered a mistake by many (see [[Apostrophe#Non-standard English use|non-standard apostrophe use]]), but it is becoming more common. It is considered incorrect by most if not all US and most UK and Australian universities, style guides, and dictionaries, for example:  [https://web.archive.org/web/20120719141948/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/master OED], [http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/master-s-degree Collins], [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/master-s-degree?a%3Dbritish Cambridge Dictionaries Online], [https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q%3DMaster%27s American Heritage] (master's), [https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q%3Dmaster%27s+degree American Heritage] (master's degree), [http://www.merriam-webster.com/interstitial-ad?next%3D/dictionary/master%27s%20degree Merriam-Webster], and the Macquarie Dictionary as shown in the following Monash University quotation. Monash University's [http://www.monash.edu/about/editorialstyle/editing/apostrophes style guide] directly admits that the incorrectly missing apostrophe used to be more widespread in publications of this and therefore presumably other Australian universities: "Note that both 'bachelor's degree' and 'master's degree', when used in a generic sense, require an apostrophe. While some dislike this convention, it is prescribed by the ''Macquarie Dictionary'' (the Australian standard) and the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (the UK standard), and aligns with our key institutional partner Warwick University. Currently, you will find the terms used both with and without an apostrophe throughout our online and print publications – gradually, we need to move toward correct usage."}} (from [[Latin]] {{Lang|la|magister}}) is a [[postgraduate]] [[academic degree]] awarded by [[University|universities]] or [[college]]s upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific [[field of study]] or area of [[Profession|professional practice]].<ref name="aqf.edu.au">[http://www.aqf.edu.au/masters.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021072219/http://www.aqf.edu.au/masters.htm|date=October 21, 2008}}</ref> A master's degree normally requires previous study at the [[bachelor's degree|bachelor's]] level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. Within the area studied, master's graduates are expected to possess advanced knowledge of a specialized body of [[theory|theoretical]] and applied topics; high order skills in [[analysis]], [[Critical thinking|critical evaluation]], or professional application; and the ability to [[problem solving|solve complex problems]] and think [[rigor]]ously and independently.

==Historical development==
===Medieval era to 18th century===
The master's degree dates back to the origin of European universities, with a [[Papal bull]] of 1233 decreeing that anyone admitted to the mastership in the [[University of Toulouse]] should be allowed to teach freely in any other university. The original meaning of the master's degree was thus that someone who had been admitted to the rank (degree) of master (i.e. teacher) in one university should be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the {{Lang|la|licentia docendī}} (licence to teach). Originally, masters and doctors were not distinguished, but by the 15th century it had become customary in the English universities to refer to the teachers in the lower faculties (arts and grammar) as masters and those in the higher faculties as doctors.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages: Volume 1, Salerno, Bologna, Paris|author=Hastings Rashdall|date=1895|pages=1–22|chapter=I|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108018104|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E4-eLaN99PEC&pg=PA1|author-link=Hastings Rashdall|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=2 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102034925/https://books.google.com/books?id=E4-eLaN99PEC&pg=PA1|url-status=live}}</ref> Initially, the [[Bachelor of Arts]] (BA) was awarded for the study of the [[trivium]] and the [[Master of Arts]] (MA) for the study of the [[quadrivium]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.academicapparel.com/caps/History-College-Education.html|title=History of Medieval Education, Middle Ages European Learning|website=Academic Apparel|access-date=8 August 2016|archive-date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118200807/https://www.academicapparel.com/caps/History-College-Education.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

From the late [[Middle Ages]] until the 19th century, the pattern of degrees was therefore to have a bachelor's and master's degree in the lower faculties and to have bachelor's and doctorates in the higher faculties. In the United States, the first master's degrees ({{Lang|la|Magister Artium}}, or Master of Arts) were awarded at [[Harvard University]] soon after its foundation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2012/05/commencement-from-1642-onward/|title=Commencements, from 1642 onward|website=Harvard Gazette|date=22 May 2012|author=Corydon Ireland|access-date=8 August 2016|archive-date=27 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727082339/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2012/05/commencement-from-1642-onward/|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Scotland]], the pre-Reformation universities (St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen) developed so that the [[Scottish MA]] became their first degree, while in [[Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)|Oxford, Cambridge and Trinity College Dublin]], the [[Oxbridge MA|MA]] was awarded to BA graduates of a certain standing without further examination from the late 17th century, its main purpose being to confer full membership of the university.<ref>{{cite news|title=Oxbridge masters degrees 'offensive', says Cambridge don|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/7771288/Oxbridge-masters-degrees-offensive-says-Cambridge-don.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/universityeducation/7771288/Oxbridge-masters-degrees-offensive-says-Cambridge-don.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|date=27 May 2010|work=Daily Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref> At Harvard the 1700 regulations required that candidates for the master's degree had to pass a public examination,<ref>{{cite web|title=Harvard College Laws of 1700|url=http://www.constitution.org/primarysources/harvard.html|access-date=8 August 2016|publisher=Constitution Society|archive-date=19 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819225249/http://www.constitution.org/primarysources/harvard.html|url-status=live}}</ref> but by 1835 this was awarded [[Oxbridge]]-style three years after the BA.<ref>{{cite book|page=22|title=Revised Code of Laws|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2fgxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA86|work=Report of a Committee of the Overseers of Harvard College|date=6 January 1825|last1=Board Of Overseers|first1=Harvard University|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=1 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101064332/https://books.google.com/books?id=2fgxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA86|url-status=live}}</ref>

===19th century===
The 19th century saw a great expansion in the variety of master's degrees offered. At the start of the century, the only master's degree was the MA, and this was normally awarded without any further study or examination. The [[Master of Surgery|Master in Surgery]] degree was introduced by the [[University of Glasgow]] in 1815.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-1hYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA687|work=Association Medical Journal|date=20 July 1855|publisher=Provincial Medical and Surgical Association|page=687|title=The Charters of the Scotch Universities and Medical Corporations, and Medical Reform in Scotland|author=J. A. Lawrie|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=31 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231140819/https://books.google.com/books?id=-1hYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA687|url-status=live}}</ref> By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] and Durham in England and the [[University of Dublin]] in Ireland.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGkCBTGYtmYC&pg=PA41|work=The Medical Times and Gazette|volume=2|page=441|date=13 July 1861|title=Minutes of the Medical Council|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=13 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213005036/https://books.google.com/books?id=lGkCBTGYtmYC&pg=PA41|url-status=live}}</ref> When the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, "the same as that in Europe".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11MCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA284|title=College of Surgeons|work=The Philadelphia University Journal of Medicine and Surgery|date=1870|volume=13|page=284|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=31 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231124008/https://books.google.com/books?id=11MCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA284|url-status=live}}</ref>

In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid-19th century,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B2JLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA821|title=University of Edinburgh|work=American Journal of Education|volume=4|page=821|date=1858|last1=Barnard|first1=Henry|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=30 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230122203/https://books.google.com/books?id=B2JLAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA821|url-status=live}}</ref> although there were major doubts as to the quality of the Scottish degrees of this period. In 1832 [[Lord Brougham]], the [[Lord Chancellor]] and an alumnus of the University of Edinburgh, told the [[House of Lords]] that "In England the Universities conferred degrees after a considerable period of residence, after much labour performed, and if they were not in all respects so rigorous as the statutes of the Universities required, nevertheless it could not be said, that Masters of Arts were created at Oxford and Cambridge as they were in Scotland, without any residence, or without some kind of examination. In Scotland, all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were a dead letter."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/lords/1832/jul/09/parliamentary-reform-bill-for-scotland#S3V0014P0_18320709_HOL_44|title=PARLIAMENTARY REFORM—BILL FOR SCOTLAND—COMMITTEE.|work=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]|date=9 July 1832|access-date=21 August 2016|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202000904/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/lords/1832/jul/09/parliamentary-reform-bill-for-scotland#S3V0014P0_18320709_HOL_44|url-status=live}}</ref>

It 1837, separate examinations were reintroduced for the MA in England, at the newly established [[Durham University]] (even though, as in the ancient English universities, this was to confer full membership), to be followed in 1840 by the similarly new [[University of London]], which was only empowered by its charter to grant degrees by examination.<ref>{{cite news|work=[[Yorkshire Post]]|date=29 June 1937|title=Durham University Centenary|access-date=8 August 2016|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000687/19370629/295/0008|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|author=C. E. Whiting|quote=The M.A. degree at Oxford and Cambridge had degenerated, and was granted to Bachelors of three years' standing on the payment of certain fees. At Durham the B.A. had to keep residence for three extra terms, and to pass what seems have been an honours examination in order to proceed to the Master's degree, and for a number of years classes were awarded in the M.A. examination.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|pages=21–23|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AYNCAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR1|title=Regulations of the University of London on the Subject of Degrees in Arts|date=1839|chapter=Examination for the degree of Master of Arts|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805180257/https://books.google.com/books?id=AYNCAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fd8NAAAAQAAJ|pages=xxv–xxvi|chapter=Regulations|title=The Durham University Calendar|date=1842|access-date=29 May 2020|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418093316/https://books.google.com/books?id=fd8NAAAAQAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> However, by the middle of the century the MA as an examined second degree was again under threat, with Durham moving to awarding it automatically to those who gained honours in the BA in 1857, along the lines of the [[Oxbridge MA]], and Edinburgh following the other Scottish universities in awarding the MA as its first degree, in place of the BA, from 1858.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8gTj2h8cFM4C&pg=PA768|title=Edinburgh University|encyclopedia=Chambers's Encyclopaedia•volume=III|date=1862|last1=Chambers w. And r|first1=ltd}}</ref> At the same time, new universities were being established around the then British Empire along the lines of London, including examinations for the MA: the [[University of Sydney]] in Australia and the [[Queen's University of Ireland]] in 1850, and the Universities of Bombay (now the [[University of Mumbai]]), [[University of Madras|Madras]] and [[University of Calcutta|Calcutta]] in India in 1857.

In the US, the revival of master's degrees as an examined qualification began in 1856 at the [[University of North Carolina]], followed by the [[University of Michigan]] in 1859,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/publications/1969/nsb0269.pdf|pages=1–5|title=Graduate Education: Parameters for Public Policy|publisher=[[National Science Board]]|date=1969|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202004900/https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/publications/1969/nsb0269.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> although the idea of a master's degree as an earned second degree was not well established until the 1870s, alongside the [[PhD]] as the terminal degree.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/archives/retrieving-the-masters-degree-from-the-dustbin-of-history/i-a-(very)-brief-history-of-the-masters-degree|title=A (Very) Brief History the Master's Degree|publisher=[[American Historical Association]]|access-date=10 August 2016|archive-date=26 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826200727/https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/archives/retrieving-the-masters-degree-from-the-dustbin-of-history/i-a-(very)-brief-history-of-the-masters-degree|url-status=live}}</ref> Sometimes it was possible to earn an MA either by examination or by seniority in the same institution; for example, in Michigan the "in course" MA was introduced in 1848 and was last awarded in 1882, while the "on examination" MA was introduced in 1859.<ref name=UMich>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ITcOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA294|title=Degrees Authorized by the University of Michigan|series=The University of Michigan, an Encyclopedic Survey|publisher=University of Michigan|page=294|author=Walter Arthur Donnelly|date=1941|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103004725/https://books.google.com/books?id=ITcOAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA294|url-status=live}}</ref>

Probably the most important master's degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of Science (MS in the US, MSc in the UK). At the University of Michigan this was introduced in two forms in 1858: "in course", first awarded in 1859, and "on examination", first awarded in 1862. The "in course" MS was last awarded in 1876.<ref name=UMich/> In Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to arrive. When London introduced its Faculty of Sciences in 1858, the university was granted a new charter giving it the power "to confer the several Degrees of Bachelor, Master, and Doctor, in Arts, Laws, Science, Medicine, Music",<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyPiAAAAMAAJ|title=University of London, the Historical Record: 1836-1912|publisher=University of London Press|date=1912|chapter=Third Charter, 1858|pages=39–48|access-date=9 August 2016|archive-date=20 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520025543/https://books.google.com/books?id=vyPiAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> but the degrees it awarded in science were the [[Bachelor of Science]] and the [[Doctor of Science]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000876/18591228/042/0002|title=University of London|work=Southern Reporter and Cork Commercial Courier|date=28 December 1859|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=9 August 2016}}</ref> The same two degrees, again omitting the master's, were awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the standard undergraduate degree for Arts in Scotland.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EekNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA115|pages=115–117|title=Regulations as to Degrees in Science|work=The Edinburgh University Calendar|date=872|last1=Ravenscroft|first1=Edward|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=28 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228045337/https://books.google.com/books?id=EekNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA115|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1862, a [[royal commission]] suggested that Durham should award master's degrees in theology and science (with the suggested abbreviations MT and MS, contrary to later British practice of using MTh or MTheol and MSc for these degrees),<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000156/18621007/029/0008|title=Durham University|work=Bury and Norwich Post|date=7 October 1862|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=9 August 2016}}</ref> but its recommendations were not enacted. In 1877, Oxford introduced the Master of Natural Science, along with the Bachelor of Natural Science, to stand alongside the MA and BA degrees and be awarded to students who took their degrees in the honours school of natural sciences.<ref>{{cite news|work=Cheltenham Chronicle|date=5 June 1877|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000312/18770605/018/0003|title=New Degrees of Science|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=9 August 2016}}</ref> In 1879 a statute to actually establish the faculty of Natural Sciences at Oxford was promulgated,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000073/18790405/007/0005|title=University Intelligence|work=Oxford Journal|date=5 April 1879|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=9 August 2016}}</ref> but in 1880 a proposal to rename the degree as a Master of Science was rejected along with a proposal to grant Masters of Natural Sciences a Master of Arts degree, in order to make them full members of the university.<ref>{{cite news|work=Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser|date=5 February 1880|title=University Intelligence|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000206/18800205/063/0008|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=9 August 2016}}</ref> This scheme would appear to have then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science.

The [[Master of Science]] (MSc) degree was finally introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000289/18780824/007/0003|work=Sunderland Daily Echo and Shipping Gazette|date=24 August 1878|title=Clippings from the Athenaeum|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=9 August 2016}}</ref> followed by the new [[Victoria University (United Kingdom)|Victoria University]] in 1881.<ref>{{cite news |work=Birmingham Daily Post |date=16 April 1881 |title=The Victoria University and its Science Degrees |access-date=8 August 2016 |url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000033/18810416/011/0005 |via=[[British Newspaper Archive]] |url-access=subscription }}</ref> At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed the lead of Durham's MA in requiring a further examination for those with an ordinary bachelor's degree but not for those with honours.<ref>{{cite book|title=University Calendar|pages=37–38|publisher=Victoria University|date=1883|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_t8NAAAAQAAJ|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418091423/https://books.google.com/books?id=_t8NAAAAQAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

===20th century===
At the start of the 20th century, there were four different sorts of master's degree in the UK: the [[Scottish MA]], granted as a first degree; the [[Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin)]], granted to all BA graduates a certain period after their first degree without further study; master's degrees that could be gained either by further study or by gaining an [[honours degree]] (which, at the time in the UK involved further study beyond the ordinary degree, as it still does in Scotland and some Commonwealth countries); and master's degrees that could only be obtained by further study (including all London master's degrees). In 1903, the ''[[The Daily News (UK)|London Daily News]]'' criticised the practice of Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs "the most stupendous of academic frauds" and "bogus degrees".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/19030831/118/0006|title=Mr. Meyer and his D.D.|work=London Daily News|date=31 August 1903|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=13 August 2016}}</ref> Ensuing correspondence pointed out that "A Scotch M.A., at the most, is only the equivalent of an English B.A." and called for common standards for degrees, while defenders of the ancient universities said that "the Cambridge M.A. does not pretend to be a reward of learning" and that "it is rather absurd to describe one of their degrees as a bogus one because other modern Universities grant the same degree for different reasons".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/19030902/089/0005|title=University Degrees|work=London Daily News|date=2 September 1903|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=13 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/19030907/160/0008|title=University Degrees|work=London Daily News|date=7 September 1903|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=13 August 2016}}</ref>

In 1900, [[Dartmouth College]] introduced the Master of Commercial Science (MCS), first awarded in 1902. This was the first master's degree in business, the forerunner of the modern [[MBA]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bi014Kss9s8C&pg=PA15|page=15|title=MBA: The First Century|author=Carter A. Daniel|publisher=Bucknell University Press|date=1998|isbn=9780838753620|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=1 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101013716/https://books.google.com/books?id=bi014Kss9s8C&pg=PA15|url-status=live}}</ref> The idea quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/19031126/202/0012|title=Commerce as a Science|work=London Daily News|date=26 November 1903|via=[[British Newspaper Archive]]|url-access=subscription|access-date=13 August 2016}}</ref> Over the first half of the century the automatic master's degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate qualification in the UK. In the 1960s, new Scottish universities (except for Dundee, which inherited the undergraduate MA from St Andrews) reintroduced the BA as their undergraduate degree in arts, restoring the MA to its position as a postgraduate qualification. Oxford and Cambridge retained their MAs, but renamed many of their postgraduate bachelor's degrees in the higher faculties as master's degrees, e.g. the Cambridge LLB became the LLM in 1982,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.mcl.law.cam.ac.uk/the-faculty-of-law |title= The Faculty of Law |publisher= [[University of Cambridge]] |access-date= 14 August 2016 |archive-date= 21 August 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160821083737/http://www.mcl.law.cam.ac.uk/the-faculty-of-law |url-status= live }}</ref> and the Oxford BLitt, BPhil (except in philosophy) and BSc became the MLitt, MPhil and MSc.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/regulations/307-072.shtml#_Toc28140153 |title= Regulations for Degrees, Diplomas, and Certificates |publisher= [[University of Oxford]] |work= Statutes and Regulations |at= Conversion of BLitt, BPhil, and BSc to MLitt, MPhil, and MSc |access-date= 14 August 2016 |date= 16 September 2015 |archive-date= 27 July 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160727184601/http://www.admin.ox.ac.uk/statutes/regulations/307-072.shtml#_Toc28140153 |url-status= live }}</ref>

In 1983, the [[Engineering Council]] issued a "'Statement on enhanced and extended undergraduate engineering degree courses", proposing the establishment of a four-year first degree (Master of Engineering).<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://digital-library.theiet.org/content/journals/10.1049/tpe.1983.0163|title=New-style engineering degrees proposed|journal=The Production Engineer|date=September 1983 |volume=62 |issue=9 |page=4 |doi=10.1049/tpe.1983.0163 }}</ref><ref name="EngC Chronicle">{{cite web|url=https://www.engc.org.uk/engcdocuments/internet/website/Chronicle%2520of%2520Engineering%2520Council%25202004.pdf|title=An Engine for Change: A Chronicle of the Engineering Council|author1=Colin R. Chapman|author2=Jack Levy|date=2004|publisher=[[Engineering Council]]|access-date=13 August 2016|archive-date=26 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826010221/http://www.engc.org.uk/engcdocuments/internet/Website/Chronicle%20of%20Engineering%20Council%202004.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> These were up and running by the mid-1980s and were followed in the early 1990s by the [[MPhys]] for physicists and since then integrated master's degrees in other sciences such as [[MChem]], [[MMath]], and MGeol, and in some institutions general or specific MSci (Master in Science) and MArts (Master in Arts) degrees. This development was noted by the [[Dearing Report]] into UK Higher Education in 1997, which called for the establishment of a national framework of qualifications and identified five different routes to master's degrees:<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/dearing1997/dearing1997.html#10|title=Higher Education in the learning society|author=The National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education|publisher=[[Her Majesty's Stationery Office]]|date=1997|access-date=14 August 2016|archive-date=15 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815085757/http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/dearing1997/dearing1997.html#10|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Four year (five in [[Scotland]]) first degrees such as the MEng
* Conversion degrees, sometimes below the standard of undergraduate degrees in the same subject
* The honours arts degree of the [[ancient universities of Scotland]]
* Specialist postgraduate programmes, such as the MA and MSc
* The Oxbridge MA, awarded without additional work
This led to the establishment of the [[Quality Assurance Agency]], which was charged with drawing up the framework.

===21st century===
In 2000, renewed pressure was put on [[Oxbridge]] MAs in the UK Parliament, with Labour MP [[Jackie Lawrence (politician)|Jackie Lawrence]] introducing an [[early day motion]] calling for them to be scrapped and telling the ''[[Times Higher Education]]'' it was a "discriminatory practice" and that it "devalues and undermines the efforts of students at other universities".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/why-ithink-oxbridge-ma-degrees-should-be-scrapped/152170.article|title=Why I...think Oxbridge MA degrees should be scrapped|date=16 June 2000|author=Jennifer Currie|work=Times Higher Education|access-date=14 August 2016|archive-date=20 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920081139/https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/why-ithink-oxbridge-ma-degrees-should-be-scrapped/152170.article|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/business-papers/commons/early-day-motions/edm-detail1/?edmnumber=806&session=1999-00|title=Early day motion 806|website=Parliament.uk|access-date=14 August 2016|archive-date=10 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910234744/http://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/business-papers/commons/early-day-motions/edm-detail1/?edmnumber=806&session=1999-00|url-status=live}}</ref> The following month the [[Quality Assurance Agency]] announced the results of a survey of 150 major employers showing nearly two thirds mistakenly thought the Cambridge MA was a postgraduate qualification and just over half made the same error regarding the Edinburgh MA, with QAA chief executive John Randall calling the Oxbridge MA "misleading and anachronistic".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/oxbridge-mas-are-misleading-says-agency-5369142.html|title=Oxbridge MAs are misleading, says agency|date=3 July 2000|author=Ben Russell|work=The Independent|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202001638/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/oxbridge-mas-are-misleading-says-agency-5369142.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The QAA released the first "framework for higher education qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland" in January 2001. This specified learning outcomes for M-level (master's) degrees and advised that the title "Master" should only be used for qualifications that met those learning outcomes in full. It addressed many of the Dearing Report's concerns, specifying that shorter courses at H-level (honours), e.g. conversion courses, should be styled [[Graduate Diploma]] or [[Graduate Certificate]] rather than as master's degrees, but confirmed that the extended undergraduate degrees were master's degrees, saying that "Some Masters degrees in science and engineering are awarded after extended undergraduate programmes that last, typically, a year longer than Honours degree programmes". It also addressed the Oxbridge MA issue, noting that "the MAs granted by the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge are not academic qualifications".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/crntwork/nqf/ewni2001/contents.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010414020408/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/crntwork/nqf/ewni2001/contents.htm|archive-date=14 April 2001|date=January 2001|title=The framework for higher education qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland| publisher=Quality Assurance Agency|access-date=14 August 2016}}</ref> The first "framework for qualifications of Higher Education Institutes in Scotland", also published in January 2001, used the same qualifications descriptors, adding in credit values that specified that a stand-alone master should be 180 credits and a "Masters (following an integrated programme from undergraduate to Masters level study)" should be 600 credits with a minimum of 120 at M-level. It was specified that the title "Master" should only be used for qualifications that met the learning outcomes and credit definitions, although it was noted that "A small number of universities in Scotland have a long tradition of labelling certain first degrees as 'MA'. Reports of Agency reviews of such provision will relate to undergraduate benchmarks and will make it clear that the title reflects Scottish custom and practice, and that any positive judgement on standards should not be taken as implying that the outcomes of the programme were at postgraduate level."<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010302180216/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/crntwork/nqf/scotfw2001/contents.htm|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/crntwork/nqf/scotfw2001/contents.htm|archive-date=2 March 2001|title=The framework for qualifications of Higher Education Institutes in Scotland|date=January 2001|publisher=Quality Assurance Agency|access-date=14 August 2016}}</ref>

The [[Bologna declaration]] in 1999 started the [[Bologna Process]], leading to the creation of the [[European Higher Education Area]] (EHEA). This established a three-cycle bachelor's—master's—doctorate classification of degrees, leading to the adoption of master's degrees across the continent, often replacing older long-cycle qualifications such as the {{Lang|la|[[Magister degree|Magister]]}} (arts), {{Lang|de|Diplom}} (sciences) and state registration (professional) awards in Germany.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090424125127631|title=EUROPE: Future of masters programmes|date=26 April 2009|work=University World News|access-date=19 August 2016|archive-date=20 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820091545/http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20090424125127631|url-status=live}}</ref> As the process continued, descriptors were introduced for all three levels in 2004, and [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]] credit guidelines were developed. This led to questions as to the status of the integrated master's degrees and one-year master's degrees in the UK.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOV_Ch45lV0C&pg=RA1-PA52|title=The Bologna process and the UK|work=The Bologna process: fourth report of session 2006-07, report, together with formal minutes, oral and written evidence|author=Great Britain: Parliament: House of Commons: Education and Skills Committee|date=30 April 2007|publisher=[[The Stationery Office]]|page=52|isbn=9780215033727|access-date=4 September 2017|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418094803/https://books.google.com/books?id=uOV_Ch45lV0C&pg=RA1-PA52|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and the Framework for Qualifications of Higher Education Institutes in Scotland have both been aligned with the overarching framework for the EHEA with these being accepted as masters-level qualifications.

==Titles==
{{see also|List of master's degrees}}

Master's degrees are commonly titled using the form 'Master of ...', where either a faculty (typically Arts or Science) or a field (Engineering, Physics, Chemistry, Business Administration, etc.) is specified. The two most common titles of master's degrees are the [[Master of Arts]] (MA/M.A./A.M) and [[Master of Science]] (MSc/M.Sc./M.S./S.M.) degrees, which normally consist of a mixture of research and taught material.<ref name="UK postgraduate master's">{{cite report|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709052230/http://international.ac.uk/media/1469367/e-12-02.pdf|archive-date=9 July 2014|url=http://international.ac.uk/media/1469367/e-12-02.pdf|publisher=UK Higher Education International Unit|date=23 April 2012|title=Results of the 2011 UK HE International Unit European Activity Survey of UK HEIs - UK|page=6}}</ref><ref name="US Master's">{{cite web|url=http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/master.doc|title=Structure of the U.S. Education System: Master's Degrees|publisher=[[United States Department of Education]]|date=February 2008|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=14 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514002729/http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/master.doc|url-status=live}}</ref>

The title of [[Master of Philosophy]] (MPhil) indicates (in the same manner as [[Doctor of Philosophy]]) an extended degree with a large research component.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/qualifications-frameworks.pdf|title=The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|date=November 2014|page=36|access-date=9 February 2019|archive-date=17 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217062857/https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/qualifications-frameworks.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Other generically named master's programs include the [[Master of Studies]] (MSt)/[[Master of Advanced Study]] (MASt)/[[Master of Advanced Studies]] (M.A.S.), and Professional Master's (MProf). Integrated master's degrees and postgraduate master's degrees oriented towards professional practice are often more specifically named for their field of study ([[List of tagged degrees|"tagged degrees"]]), including, for example, [[Master of Business Administration]], [[Master of Divinity]], [[Master of Engineering]], [[Master of Physics]], and [[Master of Public Health]].

The form "Master in ..." is also sometimes used, particularly where a faculty title is used for an integrated master's degree in addition to its use in a traditional postgraduate master's degree, e.g. Master in Science (MSci) and Master in Arts (MArts). This form is also sometimes used with other integrated master's degrees<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/academicservices/qualitymanual/curriculum/unqf.aspx|title=University of Nottingham Qualifications Framework|publisher=University of Nottingham|work=Quality Manual|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=21 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821181827/http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/academicservices/qualitymanual/curriculum/unqf.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> and occasionally for postgraduate master's degrees (e.g. Master's in Accounting).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/courses/accounting-finance/grad/guide|title=Masters in Accounting|access-date=10 July 2016|website=QS Top Universities|publisher=QS Quacquarelli Symonds|archive-date=29 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429065258/http://www.topuniversities.com/courses/accounting-finance/grad/guide|url-status=live}}</ref> Some [[universities]] use [[Latin]] degree names; because of the flexibility of [[Latin grammar|syntax in Latin]], the Master of Arts and Master of Science degrees may be known in these institutions as {{Lang|la|Magister artium}} and {{Lang|la|Magister scientiæ}} or reversed from the English order to {{Lang|la|Artium magister}} and {{Lang|la|Scientiæ magister}}. Examples of the reversed usage include [[Harvard University]] and the [[University of Chicago]], leading to the abbreviations A.M. and S.M. for these degrees. The forms "Master of Science" and "Master in Science" are indistinguishable in Latin.

In the UK, full stops (periods) are not commonly used in degree abbreviations.<ref name=OxStyle>{{cite book|url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxford/University%20of%20Oxford%20Style%20Guide%20%28updated%20Hilary%20term%202016%29.pdf|date=2016|access-date=10 July 2016|publisher=University of Oxford|title=University of Oxford Style Guide|page=20|archive-date=2 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202030344/https://www.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxford/University%20of%20Oxford%20Style%20Guide%20%28updated%20Hilary%20term%202016%29.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Debrett's degrees">{{cite web|url=http://www.debretts.com/forms-address/hierarchies/letters-after-name/university-degrees|title=University Degrees|publisher=Debrett's|access-date=10 July 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528101159/http://www.debretts.com/forms-address/hierarchies/letters-after-name/university-degrees|archive-date=28 May 2016}}</ref> In the US, [[The Gregg Reference Manual]] recommends placing periods in degrees (e.g. B.S., Ph.D.), while [[The Chicago Manual of Style]] recommends writing degrees without periods (e.g. BS, PhD).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accu-assist.com/grammar-tips-archive/GrammarTip_academic-degrees.htm|title=Academic Degrees & Professional Designations|website=Accu-Assist|access-date=29 May 2016|archive-date=8 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608074621/http://www.accu-assist.com/grammar-tips-archive/GrammarTip_academic-degrees.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Master of Science is generally abbreviated M.S. or MS in countries following United States usage and MSc or M.Sc. in countries following British usage, where MS would refer to the degree of [[Master of Surgery]]. In Australia, some extended master's degrees use the title "doctor": [[Juris doctor]] and Doctors of Medical Practice, Physiotherapy, Dentistry, Optometry and Veterinary Practice. Despite their titles these are still master's degree and may not be referred to as doctoral degrees, nor may graduates use the title "doctor".<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/AQF-2nd-Edition-January-2013.pdf|pages=72–73|title=Australian Qualifications Framework|edition=Second|date=January 2013|publisher=Australian Qualifications Framework Council|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910151628/http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/aqf-2nd-edition-january-2013.pdf|archive-date=10 September 2016}}</ref>

===Types===
* '''Postgraduate/graduate master's degrees''' ([[Master of Arts|MA/M.A./A.M.]], [[MPhil|MPhil/M.Phil.]], [[Master of Science|MSc/M.S./SM]], [[Master of Business Administration|MBA/M.B.A.]], [[Master of Laws|LLM/LL.M.]], [[Master of Applied Science|MAsc]], etc.) are the traditional formal form of master's degree, where the student already holds an undergraduate (bachelor's) degree on entry. Courses normally last one year in the UK and two years in the US.<ref name="UK postgraduate master's"/><ref name="US Master's"/>
* '''Integrated master's degrees''' ([[MChem]], [[MEng]], [[MMath]], [[MPharm]], [[MPhys]], [[MPsych]], [[MSci]], etc.) are UK degrees that combine an undergraduate [[bachelor's degree]] course with an extra year at master's level (i.e. a total of four years in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and five years in Scotland). A 2011 survey of UK Higher Education Institutes found that 64% offered integrated master's course, mostly in [[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]] disciplines, with the most common degrees being MEng, MSci and MChem. 82% of respondents conferred only a master's degree for the course, while 9% conferred a bachelor's degree at the end of the bachelor's-level stage and a master's degree at the end of the course and a further 9% conferred both bachelor's and master's degrees at the end of the course.<ref name=FHEQ>{{cite book|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/publications/information-and-guidance/publication?PubID=2843#.V4JIDegXZSA|title=The Frameworks for Higher Education Qualifications of UK Degree-Awarding Bodies|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|date=November 2014|page=29|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013061809/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/publications/information-and-guidance/publication?PubID=2843#.V4JIDegXZSA|archive-date=13 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite report|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709052230/http://international.ac.uk/media/1469367/e-12-02.pdf|archive-date=9 July 2014|url=http://international.ac.uk/media/1469367/e-12-02.pdf|publisher=UK Higher Education International Unit|date=23 April 2012|title=Results of the 2011 UK HE International Unit European Activity Survey of UK HEIs - UK|page=7}}</ref>
*'''Non-master's level master's degrees''' The ancient universities of the UK and Ireland have traditionally awarded MAs in a different manner to that usual today. The [[Scottish MA]] is a bachelor's-level qualification offered by the [[ancient universities of Scotland]]. The [[Oxbridge MA]] is not an academic qualification; it is granted without further examination to those who have gained a BA from [[Oxford University|Oxford]] or [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]] Universities in England,<ref name=FHEQ/> and the MA of [[Trinity College Dublin]] in Ireland is granted to its graduates in a similar manner.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.ie/irish-news/tcd-to-keep-selling-masters-25957591.html|title=TCD to keep selling Masters - Independent.ie|access-date=11 July 2016|date=19 November 2005|work=Independent.ie|archive-date=16 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160816144204/http://www.independent.ie/irish-news/tcd-to-keep-selling-masters-25957591.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The UK [[Quality Assurance Agency]] defines three categories of master's degrees:<ref name="Master's Characteristics">{{cite report|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Masters-Degree-Characteristics-15.pdf|title=Master's Degree Characteristics Statement|date=September 2015|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|pages=4–5|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014405/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Masters-Degree-Characteristics-15.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

* '''Research''' master's degrees are primarily research based, although may contain taught elements, particularly on research methods. Examples are the MLitt (usually, but not always a research degree), the Master's by Research, and the MPhil. The Master's ''by'' Research (MbyRes, ResM), which is a research degree, is distinct from the [[Master of Research|Master ''of'' Research]] (MRes), which is a taught degree concentrating on research methods.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Masters-Degree-Characteristics-15.pdf|title=Master's Degree Characteristics Statement|date=September 2015|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|pages=10–13|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014405/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Masters-Degree-Characteristics-15.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* '''Specialised or advanced study''' master's degrees are primarily taught degrees, although commonly at least a third of the course is devoted to a research project assessed by dissertation. These may be stand-alone master's courses, leading to, e.g., MSc, MA or MRes degrees, or integrated master's degrees. 
* '''Professional or practice''' master's degrees (see also [[professional degree]]) are designed to prepare students for a particular professional career and are primarily taught, although they may include work placements and independent study projects. Some may require professional experience for entry. Examples include MBA, MDiv, LLM and MSW as well as some integrated master's degrees. The name of the degree normally includes the subject name.

The [[United States Department of Education]] classifies master's degrees as '''research''' or '''professional'''. Research master's degrees in the US (e.g., M.A./A.M. or M.S.) require the completion of taught courses and examinations in a major and one or more minor subjects, as well as (normally) a research thesis. Professional master's degrees may be structured like research master's (e.g., M.E./M.Eng.) or may concentrate on a specific discipline (e.g., M.B.A.) and often substitute a project for the thesis.<ref name="US Master's"/>

The [[Australian Qualifications Framework]] classifies master's degrees as '''research''', '''coursework''' or '''extended'''. Research master's degrees typically take one to two years, and at least two-thirds of their content consists of research, research training and independent study.<ref>{{cite web |title=Master of Research (MRES) - UniSQ Handbook |url=https://www.unisq.edu.au/handbook/2023/sciences/mres.html |website=www.unisq.edu.au |access-date=11 March 2023}}</ref> Coursework master's degrees typically also last one to two years, and consist mainly of structured learning with some independent research and project work or practice-related learning. Extended master's degrees typically take three to four years and contain significant practice-related learning that must be developed in collaboration with relevant professional, statutory or regulatory bodies.<ref name=AQF>{{cite book|url=http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/AQF-2nd-Edition-January-2013.pdf|pages=59–62|title=Australian Qualifications Framework|edition=Second|date=January 2013|publisher=Australian Qualifications Framework Council|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910151628/http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/aqf-2nd-edition-january-2013.pdf|archive-date=10 September 2016}}</ref>

In Ireland, master's degrees may be either '''Taught''' or '''Research'''. Taught master's degrees are normally one to two year courses, rated at 60 - 120 ECTS credits, while research master's degrees are normally two year courses, either rated at 120 ECTS credits or not credit rated.<ref name=NFQ>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfq-qqi.com/index.html|title=Irish National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ)|access-date=13 July 2016|publisher=Quality and Qualifications Ireland|archive-date=26 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826202821/http://www.nfq-qqi.com/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Structure==
{{Further|Master's degree in North America|Master's degree in Europe}}

There is a range of pathways to the degree with entry based on evidence of a capacity to undertake higher level studies in a proposed field. A [[dissertation]] may or may not be required depending on the program. In general, structure and duration of a program of study leading to a master's degree will differ by country and university.

===Duration===
Master's programs in the US and Canada are normally two years (full-time) in length. In some fields/programs, work on a doctorate begins immediately after the bachelor's degree, but a master's degree may be granted along the way as an [[Doctor of Philosophy#MASTER's degree "en route"|intermediate qualification]] if the student petitions for it.<ref name="US Master's"/> Some universities offer evening options so that students can work during the day and earn a master's degree in the evenings.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://scheller.gatech.edu/degree-programs/mba/evening-program/index.html|title=Georgia Institute of Technology: Evening Program|access-date=14 July 2015|archive-date=9 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109045921/https://www.scheller.gatech.edu/degree-programs/mba/evening-program/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the UK, postgraduate master's degrees typically take one to two years full-time or two to four years part-time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prospects.ac.uk/postgraduate-study/masters-degrees/what-is-a-masters-degree|title=What is a Master's degree?|publisher=Prospects|access-date=9 February 2019|archive-date=9 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209232241/https://www.prospects.ac.uk/postgraduate-study/masters-degrees/what-is-a-masters-degree|url-status=live}}</ref> Master's degrees may be classified as either "research" or "taught", with taught degrees (those where research makes up less than half of the volume of work) being further subdivided into "specialist or advanced study" or "professional or practice". Taught degrees (of both forms) typically take a full calendar year (180 [[Credit Accumulation and Transfer Scheme|UK credits]], compared to 120 for an academic year), while research degrees are not typically credit rated but may take up to two years to complete. An [[MPhil]] normally takes two calendar years (360 credits). An ''integrated master's degree'' (which is always a taught degree) combines a bachelor's degree course with an additional year of study (120 credits) at master's level for a four (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) or five (Scotland) academic year total period.<ref name=FHEQ/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/master's-degree-characteristics-statement.pdf|title=Master's Degree Characteristics Statement|publisher=QAA|date=September 2015|access-date=9 February 2019|archive-date=11 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411222920/https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/master%27s-degree-characteristics-statement.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Higher education credit framework for England|date=August 2008|url=https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/academic-credit-framework.pdf|publisher=QAA|access-date=9 February 2019|archive-date=10 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190210044350/https://www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/quality-code/academic-credit-framework.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In Australia, master's degrees vary from one year for a "research" or "coursework" master's following on from an Australian [[Honours degree#Australia|honours degree]] in a related field, with an extra six months if following on straight from an ordinary bachelor's degree and another extra six months if following on from a degree in a different field, to four years for an "extended" master's degree. At some Australian universities, the master's degree may take up to two years.<ref name=AQF />

In the [[QF-EHEA|Overarching Framework of Qualifications for the European Higher Education Area]] defined as part of the [[Bologna process]], a "second cycle" (i.e. master's degree) programme is typically 90–120 [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]] credits, with a minimum requirement of at least 60 ECTS credits at second-cycle level.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/QF/050520_Framework_qualifications.pdf|title=The framework of qualifications for the European Higher Education Area|date=20 May 2005|access-date=10 July 2016|publisher=European Higher Education Area|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306091710/http://www.ehea.info/uploads/qf/050520_framework_qualifications.pdf|archive-date=6 March 2016}}</ref> The definition of ECTS credits is that "60 ECTS credits are allocated to the learning outcomes and associated workload of a full-time academic year or its equivalent",<ref>{{cite book|url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/ects/users-guide/docs/ects-users-guide_en.pdf|title=ECTS Users' Guide|publisher=European Union|date=2015|isbn=978-92-79-43559-1|doi=10.2766/87192|page=10|author1=European Commission. Directorate General for Education Culture|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=26 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626013143/http://ec.europa.eu/education/ects/users-guide/docs/ects-users-guide_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> thus European master's degrees should last for between one calendar year and two academic years, with at least one academic year of study at master's level. The Framework for Higher Education Qualification (FHEQ) in England Wales and Northern Ireland level 7 qualifications and the Framework for Qualification of Higher Education Institutes in Scotland (FQHEIS) level 11 qualifications (postgraduate and integrated master's degrees, except for [[Scottish MA|MAs from the ancient universities of Scotland]] and [[Oxbridge MA]]s) have been certified as meeting this requirement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Verification-of-compatibility-of-the-framework-for-qualifications-of-higher-education-institutions-in-Scotland-with-the-fr.pdf|title=Verification of compatibility of the framework for qualifications of higher education institutions in Scotland with the framework for qualifications of the European Higher Education Area|date=October 2006|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817175318/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Verification-of-compatibility-of-the-framework-for-qualifications-of-higher-education-institutions-in-Scotland-with-the-fr.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Verification-of-the-compatibility-of-The-framework-for-higher-education-qualifications-in-England--Wales-and-Northern-Irel.pdf|title=Verification of the compatibility of The framework for higher education qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (FHEQ) with the Framework for Qualifications of the European Higher Education Area(FQ-EHEA)|date=November 2008|publisher=[[Quality Assurance Agency]]|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=9 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409193524/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/en/Publications/Documents/Verification-of-the-compatibility-of-The-framework-for-higher-education-qualifications-in-England--Wales-and-Northern-Irel.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Irish master's degrees are one to two years (60–120 ECTS credits) for taught degrees and two years (not credit rated) for taught and research degrees. These have also been certified as compatible with the FQ-EHEA.<ref>{{cite web|title=Verification of Compatibility of Irish National Framework of Qualifications with the Framework for Qualifications of the European Higher Education Area|date=November 2006|url=http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/QF/QF-Ireland_en.pdf|access-date=14 July 2016|archive-date=22 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322060821/http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/QF/QF-Ireland_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Admission===
Admission to a master's degree normally requires successful completion of study at bachelor's degree level either (for [[Postgraduate education|postgraduate]] degrees) as a stand-alone degree or (for integrated degrees) as part of an integrated scheme of study. In countries where the [[Honours Degree|bachelor's degree with honours]] is the standard undergraduate degree, this is often the normal entry qualification.<ref name="Master's Characteristics"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Verification of Compatibility of Irish National Framework of Qualifications with the Framework for Qualifications of the European Higher Education Area|date=November 2006|url=http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/QF/QF-Ireland_en.pdf|page=7|access-date=14 July 2016|archive-date=22 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322060821/http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/QF/QF-Ireland_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, students will normally have to write a personal statement and, in the [[liberal arts|arts]] and [[humanities]], will often have to submit a portfolio of work.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.prospects.ac.uk/postgraduate-study/masters-degrees/applying-for-a-masters-degree|title=Applying for a Masters degree|date=June 2016|access-date=13 July 2016|publisher=Graduate Prospects|website=prospects.ac.uk|archive-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817010256/https://www.prospects.ac.uk/postgraduate-study/masters-degrees/applying-for-a-masters-degree|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the UK, students will normally need to have a [[British degree classification|2:1]]. Students may also have to provide evidence of their ability to successfully pursue a postgraduate degree to be accepted into a taught master's course, and possibly higher for a research master's.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucas.com/ucas/postgraduate/postgraduate-study/why-study-postgraduate/faqs-about-postgraduate-study|title=FAQs about postgraduate study|date=5 January 2015|publisher=[[UCAS]]|access-date=14 July 2016|archive-date=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822093918/https://www.ucas.com/ucas/postgraduate/postgraduate-study/why-study-postgraduate/faqs-about-postgraduate-study|url-status=live}}</ref> Graduate schools in the US similarly require strong undergraduate performance, and may require students to take one or more standardised tests, such as the [[Graduate Record Examinations|GRE]], [[GMAT]] or [[LSAT]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/student-info/admissions-advice/graduate-admissions-tests-glance-gmat-gre-lsat-toefl-ielts|title=Graduate Admissions Tests at a Glance: GMAT, GRE, LSAT, TOEFL & IELTS|website=Top Universities|publisher=QS Quacquarelli Symonds|date=13 November 2013|access-date=14 July 2016|archive-date=26 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160726041155/http://www.topuniversities.com/student-info/admissions-advice/graduate-admissions-tests-glance-gmat-gre-lsat-toefl-ielts|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Comparable European degrees==
{{See also|Master's degree in Europe}}
In some European countries, a [[Magister (degree)|''magister'']] is a [[undergraduate degree|first degree]] and may be considered equivalent to a modern (standardized) master's degree (''e.g.'', the [[Germany|German]], [[Austria]]n and [[Poland|Polish]] university ''[[Diplom]]/[[Magister (degree)|Magister]]'', or the similar five-year Diploma awarded in several subjects in [[Greece|Greek]],<ref name="Greece1"/> [[Spain|Spanish]], [[Portugal|Portuguese]], and other universities and [[Institute of technology|polytechnics]]).{{clarify|date=July 2016}}

Under the [[Bologna Process]], countries in the [[European Higher Education Area]] (EHEA) are moving to a three-cycle (bachelor's - master's - doctorate) system of degrees. Two-thirds of EHEA countries have standardised on 120 ECTS credits for their second-cycle (master's) degrees, but 90 ECTS credits is the main form in Cyprus, Ireland and Scotland and 60-75 credits in Montenegro, Serbia and Spain.<ref>{{cite report|author=European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice|date=2015|title=The European Higher Education Area in 2015: Bologna Process Implementation Report|publisher=Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Publications:The_European_Higher_Education_Area_in_2015:_Bologna_Process_Implementation_Report|page=17|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817032305/https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Publications:The_European_Higher_Education_Area_in_2015:_Bologna_Process_Implementation_Report|url-status=live}}</ref> The combined length of the first and second cycle varies from "3 + 1" years (240 
ECTS credits), through "3 + 2" or "4 + 1" years (300 ECTS credits), to "4 + 2" years (360 ECTS credits). As of 2015, 31 EHEA countries have integrated programmes that combine the first and second cycle and lead to a second-cycle qualification (e.g. the UK integrated master's degree), particularly in STEM subjects and subjects allied to medicine. These typically have a duration of 300 – 360 ECTS credits (five to six years), with the integrated master's degrees in England, Wales and Northern Ireland being the shortest at 240 ECTS credits (four years).<ref>{{cite report|author=European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice|date=2015|title=The European Higher Education Area in 2015: Bologna Process Implementation Report|publisher=Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union|url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Publications:The_European_Higher_Education_Area_in_2015:_Bologna_Process_Implementation_Report|pages=54–56|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817032305/https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Publications:The_European_Higher_Education_Area_in_2015:_Bologna_Process_Implementation_Report|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In [[Denmark]] there are two forms of master's degree. The Master's Degree or ''candidatus'' is a FQ-EHEA second-cycle qualification worth 120 ECTS credits. These degrees are research-based and offered through universities (e.g. [[University of Copenhagen]] and [[Copenhagen Business School]]). The second form is the Master Degree (no possessive) within the adult [[continuing education]] system, which is worth 60 ECTS credits and is taught part-time.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/QF/DK-QF-report-EN.pdf|title=Verification of compatibility of the Danish National Qualifications Framework for Higher Education with the Framework for Qualifications of the European Higher Education Area|publisher=The Danish Evaluation Institute|isbn=978-87-7958-556-0|date=November 2009|pages=17–18|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=22 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322062455/http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/QF/DK-QF-report-EN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The candidatus degree is abbreviated cand. and upon completion of, for instance, an engineering master's degree, a person becomes cand.polyt. (polytechnical). Similar abbreviations, inspired by Latin, apply to a large number of fields, e.g.: sociology (cand.scient.soc), economics (cand.merc., cand.polit. or cand.oecon), law (cand.jur), humanities (cand.mag) etc. Use of a cand. title requires a master's degree. Holders of a cand. degree are also entitled to use M.Sc. or M.A. titles, depending on the field of study. In [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]], the title of ''kandidaatti/kandidat'' (abbreviated kand.) equates to a bachelor's degree.<ref name="ukae_qual">{{cite web |title=Qualifications |url=https://english.uka.se/facts-about-higher-education/higher-education-in-sweden/qualifications.html |website=Swedish Higher Education Authority |access-date=15 March 2020 |archive-date=6 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106211309/http://english.uka.se/facts-about-higher-education/higher-education-in-sweden/qualifications.html |url-status=live }}</ref> 
* In France, the master's degree (''[[Master's degree (France)|diplôme de master]]'') takes two years and is worth 120 ECTS credits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid20190/organisation-licence-master-doctorat.html|title=Organisation licence master doctorat (L.M.D.)|language=fr|access-date=10 July 2016|publisher=Ministère de l'Education nationale, de l'Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche|date=30 September 2014|archive-date=9 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160609224139/http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid20190/organisation-licence-master-doctorat.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The two years are often called the master 1 (M1) and master 2 (M2), following the Bologna Process. Depending on the goal of the student (a doctorate or a professional career) the master can also be called a "Master Recherche" (research master) or a "Master Professionnel" (professional master), each with different requirements.<br />A French ''[[diplôme d'ingénieur]]'' (postgraduate degree in engineering of ''[[grandes écoles]]'') is also the equivalent of a master's degree, provided the diploma is recognised by the [[Commission des titres d'ingénieur]], as are qualifications recognised at Level 7 of the ''[[répertoire national des certifications professionnelles]]'' (national register of professional certificates).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cife.eu/en/3/degree-recognition_64-1|title=Degree & recognition|publisher=Centre International de Formation Europëenne|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=21 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821140840/http://www.cife.eu/en/3/degree-recognition_64-1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rncp.cncp.gouv.fr/grand-public/qualificationsFramework|title=The French National Qualifications Framework|publisher=Commission nationale de la certification professionnelle|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-date=25 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625033113/http://www.rncp.cncp.gouv.fr/grand-public/qualificationsFramework|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In [[Italy]] the master's degree is equivalent to the two-year ''[[Laurea|Laurea magistrale]]'', which can be earned after a ''[[Laurea]]'' (a three-year undergraduate degree, equivalent to a bachelor's degree). In particular fields, namely law, pharmacy and medicine, this distinction is not made. University courses are therefore single and last five to six years, after which the master's degree is awarded (in this case referred to as ''[[Laurea|Laurea magistrale a ciclo unico]]''). The old ''Laurea'' degree (Vecchio Ordinamento, Old Regulations), which was the only awarded in Italy before the [[Bologna process]], is equivalent<ref>{{cite web|url=http://attiministeriali.miur.it/anno-2009/luglio/di-09072009.aspx|title=Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca|publisher=Attiministeriali.muir.it|access-date=28 November 2014|archive-date=12 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212093003/http://attiministeriali.miur.it/anno-2009/luglio/di-09072009.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> to the current Laurea Magistrale.
* In the [[Netherlands]] the titles ''ingenieur'' (ir.), ''meester'' (mr.) and ''[[doctorandus]]'' (drs.) may be rendered, if obtained in the Netherlands from a university, after the application of the Bologna process, as: MSc instead of ir., LLM instead of mr. and MA or MSc instead of drs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0005682/Hoofdstuk7/Titel1/Paragraaf4/Artikel719a/geldigheidsdatum_21-01-2013|title=wetten.nl - Wet- en regelgeving - Wet op het hoger onderwijs en wetenschappelijk onderzoek - BWBR0005682|publisher=Wetten.overheid.nl|access-date=13 October 2014|archive-date=18 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018023106/http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0005682/Hoofdstuk7/Titel1/Paragraaf4/Artikel719a/geldigheidsdatum_21-01-2013|url-status=live}}</ref> This is because a single program that led to these degree was in effect before 2002, which comprised the same course load as the bachelor and master programs put together. Those who had already started the program could, upon completing it, bear the appropriate title (MSc, LLM or MA), but alternatively still use the old-style title (ir., mr. or drs.), corresponding to their field of study. Since these graduates do not have a separate bachelor's degree (which is – in retrospect – incorporated into the program), the master's degree is their first academic degree. Bearers of foreign master's degree can use the titles ir., mr. and drs. only after obtaining a permission to bear such titles from the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs. Those who received their mr., ir. or drs. title after the application of the Bologna process have the option of signing as '''A. Jansen, MA''' or '''A. Jansen, MSc''', depending on the field in which the degree was obtained, since the ir., mr. and drs. titles are similar to a master's degree, and the shortcut MA or MSc. may officially be used in order to render such title as an international title.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nvao.net/nl/faq|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512035858/http://www.nvao.net/veelgestelde-vragen/nederland/112|url-status=dead|title=Veelgestelde vragen|archivedate=May 12, 2008|website=www.nvao.net}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minocw.nl/bachelor/355/Titels.html |title=Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap |publisher=Minocw.nl |access-date=28 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210184259/http://www.minocw.nl/bachelor/355/Titels.html |archive-date=10 February 2009 }}</ref><ref name=burgervragen>{{cite web|url=http://members.home.nl/icnl/burgervragen.pdf|title=Citizens' questions letter from Dutch Department of Education, Culture and Science|publisher=Members.home.nl|access-date=28 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607172828/http://members.home.nl/icnl/burgervragen.pdf|archive-date=7 June 2011|date=8 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onzetaal.nl/advies/titulatuur3.php |title=titulatuur: drs. A. Jansen, M.B.A. - Genootschap Onze Taal |author=Kees™ Internetbureau |publisher=Onzetaal.nl |access-date=28 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808024651/http://www.onzetaal.nl/advies/titulatuur3.php |archive-date= 8 August 2011 }}</ref>
* In [[Belgium]], the higher education system is governed by the [[Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium|communities]] and have separately implemented the Bologna Process. In [[Flanders]], a master's degree can be obtained when completing a two-year study at university (120 ECTS), although there also exist some master's studies which only require 1 year of education (60 ECTS). This discrepancy has various reasons, but the main cause is the transition from the pre-Bologna Process degrees. Degrees like industrial engineering were previously not obtained through university and only took one year, but got transferred to universities, hence why the master's degree for industrial engineering only takes one year at university currently. Similar situations arose for other one-year degrees obtained before 2013 and are therefore now converted to master's degrees through a special certificate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welke waarde heeft mijn oude diploma in de huidige bachelor-masterstructuur? |trans-title=Value of old type degrees in the higher education system for the Flemish community |url=https://onderwijs.vlaanderen.be/en/node/119 |access-date=12 October 2022 |website=Education Flanders |language=Dutch}}</ref> Other master's degrees, such as the degrees from the faculty of Arts and Literature are historically only one year, just like they were before the Bologna Process ratification. Master's degrees for medicine take 3 years to be completed. The situation for the [[French Community of Belgium]] is similar in many ways, but has implemented it differently.
<!-- To be sure, the Dutch law (Higher Education and Scientific Research Act, article 7.10, section 1) states: "Depending on the field in which the final examination of a Bachelor or Master education has been taken with good results, «of Arts» or «of Science» is added to the degree that has been awarded." The entire first section of the article in the original Dutch reads as follows: Wet op het hoger onderwijs en wetenschappelijk onderzoek, Artikel 7.10a. Verlening van graden. 1. Het instellingsbestuur verleent de graad Bachelor en de graad Master aan degene die met goed gevolg het afsluitend examen van een bacheloropleiding in het wetenschappelijk onderwijs onderscheidenlijk het afsluitend examen van een masteropleiding in het wetenschappelijk onderwijs heeft afgelegd. Afhankelijk van het vakgebied waarin het met goed gevolg afgelegde afsluitend examen van een bacheloropleiding onderscheidenlijk het met goed gevolg afgelegde examen van een masteropleiding is afgelegd, wordt aan de verleende graad toegevoegd «of Arts» dan wel «of Science». Bij ministeriële regeling kan voor een opleiding of een groep van opleidingen met betrekking tot een in dit lid bedoelde graad een andere toevoeging dan die, bedoeld in de tweede volzin, worden vastgesteld."

This is especially useful when one has a combination of pre-Bologna and post-Bologna titles and degrees, since a combination of one or more recognized Dutch titles with one or more international degrees is not allowed. According to the Dutch Department of Education, "The termination 'of Arts' or the termination 'of Science' are legally protected and may only be used by those who have got a degree therein after the introduction of the Bachelor/Master curricula (2002)."<ref name=burgervragen/> Those having vocational master's degree may sign with an M followed by the field of their study, e.g. MSW for Master of Social Work.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wiki.lsrs.ro/index.php/Infostud/Supliment_la_o_diploma_olandeza|title=University of Amsterdam. Diploma Supplement, 2007|publisher=Lsrs.ro|access-date=13 October 2014}}</ref> Since 2009, those having vocational masters could also use M.A.A. or M.A.Sc.-->
* In [[Switzerland]], the old [[Licentiate (degree)|Licence]] or Diplom (4 to 5 years in duration) is considered equivalent to the master's degree.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.swissuniversities.ch/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928235704/http://www.crus.ch/information-programmes/bologne-ects/equivalence.html?L=1|url-status=dead|title=Home - swissuniversities|archivedate=September 28, 2011|website=www.swissuniversities.ch}}</ref>
* In [[Slovenia]] and [[Croatia]], during the pre-Bologna process education, all [[academic degree]]s were awarded after a minimum of four years of university studies and a successful defence of a written thesis and are considered equivalent to the master's degree.{{Citation needed|reason=Reliable source needed for the whole sentence|date=February 2015}} After the completion of that first cycle of the pre-Bologna higher education, the students obtained [[professional degree]]s with the titles of Professor (abbreviation "prof.") for educational studies, Engineer (abbreviation "ing.") for technical studies, or [[Licentiate (degree)|Licensed]] professional of their field of expertise (abbreviation "dipl." with a reference to the profession) for other studies. The title of [[Master of Science|Magister Scientiae]] (abbreviation "mr. sc.") was awarded to students who completed a postgraduate university programme (and therefore qualified for a doctorate programme), while the title of [[Doctor of Science|Scientiae Doctor]] (abbreviation "dr. sc.") was awarded to students who completed a postgraduate [[Doctorate|doctoral]] programme. Slovenia is a full member of the Bologna Process since 1999<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ehea.info/cid101600/slovenia.html|title=European higher education area - Slovenia|publisher=ehea.info|access-date=23 November 2017|archive-date=22 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022084920/http://www.ehea.info/cid101600/slovenia.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and Croatia since 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ehea.info/pid34250-cid101113/croatia.html|title=European higher education area - Croatia|publisher=ehea.info|access-date=23 November 2017|archive-date=16 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116180840/http://www.ehea.info/pid34250-cid101113/croatia.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* In [[Baltic countries]] there is a two-year education program that offers a chance to gain a master's degree in interdisciplinary issues. The system offers an education in different areas, such as humanities, environmental and social issues, whilst paying specific consideration to the Baltic Sea area. It is a joint-degree program, which is part of a team effort with four universities. There is for example the [[University of Tartu]] in Estonia, [[Vytautas Magnus University]] in Lithuania and the [[University of Latvia]]. The educational programmes allow students to be mobile within the system, for example one semester may be taken in a confederate school without paying additional membership or tuition fees. Subsequently, after passing the qualifications provided, people may procure teaching qualifications and continue their scholastic research around doctoral studies, or carry on studying within their career in the private or public sector. Graduates of the program, within the Baltic Sea area are also given the chance to continue onwards with their studies within the postgraduate system if they have studied the social sciences or humanities field.
* In [[Greece]], the ''metaptychiako'' (μεταπτυχιακό) which literally translates as ''post-degree'' (...''programme'' or ''title''), lasts normally from one to, more often, two years, and can be studied after a, at least, four-years undergraduate ''ptychio'', which means ''degree''.<br />Also, the five-year ''diploma'' (δίπλωμα) awarded in all [[Polytechnic (Greece)|Polytechnics]] (schools of engineering) and the [[Athens School of Fine Arts]] is considered equal to a graduate degree plus a master's degree.<ref name="Greece1">{{cite news
| date         = August 1, 1978
| title        = ΦΕΚ 54
| language     = el
| newspaper    = Journal of the Government of the Greek Republic
| volume       = 54
| issue        = Appendix
| location     = Athens, Greece
}}</ref>
* In [[Russia]] master (''магистр'') degree can be obtained after a two-year master course (''магистратура'') which is available after a four-year bachelor or a five-year specialist course. A graduate may choose a master course completely different from his/her previous one. During these two years master students attend specialized lectures in chosen profile, choose a faculty advisor and prepare their master thesis which is eventually defended before certifying commission consisting mostly of professors, leading by the professor from another university.
* In the [[United Kingdom]], first degrees in medicine, dentistry and veterinary science are considered equivalent to master's degrees despite, for historical reasons, often having the titles of bachelor's degrees.<ref name=FHEQ/>
* The old [[Spain|Spanish]] degrees of ''Licenciado'' (Licenciate), ''Arquitecto'' (Architect) and ''Ingeniero'' (Engineer) are also equivalent to master's degrees. They were integrated programmes of study that combined first and second cycles and led to a second cycle qualification. The Spanish government issued a royal decree in 2014 establishing the official equivalences between the Spanish pre-Bologna degrees and the [[European Qualifications Framework]] (EQF) levels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2014-12098|title=Real Decreto 967/2014|pages=95973–95993 |publisher=Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte|access-date=3 August 2017|archive-date=4 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804053343/http://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2014-12098|url-status=live}}</ref> Most (if not all) ''Licenciado'', ''Arquitecto'' and ''Ingeniero'' degrees were placed in level 7 (Master) of the EQF. These programmes have been phased out and replaced with the new Bologna programmes of ''Máster'', to be completed after completion of a programme of ''Grado'' (Bachelor's).

==Brazil==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2016}}

After acquiring a Bachelor's, Technologist or [[Licentiate (degree)#Brazil|Licenciate]] Degree, students are qualified to continue their academic career through Master's Degree ("mestrado", in Portuguese, a.k.a. ''stricto sensu'' post-graduation) or Specialization Degree ("especialização", in Portuguese, a.k.a. ''lato sensu'' post-graduation) programs. At the Master's program there are 2–3 years of graduate-level studies. Usually focused on academic research, the Master's Degree requires, on any specific knowledge area, the development of a thesis to be presented and defended before a board of professors after the period of research. Conversely, the Specialization Degree, also comprehends a 1–2 years studies, but does not require a new thesis to be proposed and defended, being usually attended by professionals looking for complementary training on a specific area of their knowledge.

In addition, many Brazilian universities offer an MBA program. However, those are not the equivalent to a [[United States]] [[Master of Business Administration|MBA degree]], as it does not formally certify the student with a Master's degree (''stricto sensu'') but with a Specialization Degree (''lato sensu'') instead. A regular post-graduation course has to comply with a minimum of 360 class-hours, while a M.B.A. degree has to comply with a minimum of 400 class-hours. Master's degree (''stricto sensu'') does not require a set minimum of class-hours, but it is practically impossible to finish it in less than 18 months due to the workload and research required; an average time for the degree is 2.5 years{{Citation needed|date=February 2016}}. Specialization (''lato sensu'') and M.B.A. degrees can be also offered as distance education courses, while the master's degree (''stricto-sensu'') requires physical attendance. In Brazil, the degree often serves as additional qualification for those seeking to differentiate themselves in the job market, or for those who want to pursue a Ph.D. It corresponds to the European (Bologna Process) 2nd Cycle or the [[Master's degree in North America|North American master's]].

==Asia==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2016}}

===Hong Kong===

'''M.Arch., M.L.A., M.U.D., M.A., M.Sc., M.Soc.Sc., M.S.W., M.Eng., LL.M.'''
* [[Hong Kong]] requires one or two years of full-time coursework to achieve a master's degree.

For part-time study, two or three years of study are normally required to achieve a postgraduate degree.

'''M.Phil.'''
* As in the [[United Kingdom]], M.Phil/MPhil/Master of Philosophy is the most advanced master's degree and usually includes both a taught portion and a research portion which requires candidates to complete an extensive original research for their thesis. Regardless of subject, students in all faculties (including sciences, arts, humanities and social sciences) may be awarded the Master of Philosophy.

===Pakistan===
In [[Pakistan]]i education system, there are two different master's degree programmes{{Citation needed|date=December 2015}}:
* 2 years master's programmes: these are mostly [[Master of Arts]] (M.A.) leading to M.Phil.
* 4 years master's programmes: these are mostly [[Master of Science]] (M.S.) leading to Ph.D.

Both M.A. and M.S. are offered in all major subjects.

===India===
In the [[India]]n system, a master's degree is a postgraduate degree following a [[Bachelor's degree]] and preceding a [[Doctorate]], usually requiring two years to complete. The available degrees include but are not limited to the following:
* [[Master of Arts]] (M.A.)
* [[Master of Social Work]] (MSW)
* [[Master of Business Administration]] (M.B.A.)
* [[Master of Engineering]] (M.Eng./M.E.)
* [[Master of Philosophy]] (M.Phil.)
* [[Master of Science]] (M.Sc.)
* [[Master of Science in Information Technology]] (M.Sc. IT) 
* Master of Technology (M.Tech.)
* Master of Statistics (M.Stat.)
* [[Master of Laws]] (LL.M.)
* [[Master of Commerce]] (M.Com.)
* [[Master of Architecture]] (M.Arch.)
* [[Master of Veterinary Science]] (MVSc)

===Indonesia===
In the [[Indonesia]]n higher education system, a master's degree ({{lang-id|magister}}) is a postgraduate degree following a [[Bachelor's degree]], preceding a [[Doctorate]] and requiring a maximum of four years to complete.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://lldikti3.ristekdikti.go.id/v5/2016/01/15/permenristedikti-nomor-44-tahun-2015-tentang-standar-nasional-pendidikan-tinggi/ |title=Permenristedikti Nomor 44 Tahun 2015 tentang Standar Nasional Pendidikan Tinggi &#124; LLDikti III |access-date=9 December 2019 |archive-date=9 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209011245/https://lldikti3.ristekdikti.go.id/v5/2016/01/15/permenristedikti-nomor-44-tahun-2015-tentang-standar-nasional-pendidikan-tinggi/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Master's degree students are required to submit their [[thesis]] ({{lang-id|tesis}}) for examination by two or three examiners. The available degrees include but are not limited to the following:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://kopertis3.or.id/v2/wp-content/uploads/Lampiran-Nomenklatur-Prodi-Akademik-27-Agustus-2017-rev.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=9 December 2019 |archive-date=12 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212004854/http://kopertis3.or.id/v2/wp-content/uploads/Lampiran-Nomenklatur-Prodi-Akademik-27-Agustus-2017-rev.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''Magister Administrasi Bisnis (M.A.B.)'' ([[Master of Business Administration]])
* ''Magister Manajemen (M.M.)'' ([[Master of Management]])
* ''Magister Sains (M.Si.)'' ([[Master of Science]])
* ''Magister Teknik (M.T.)'' ([[Master of Engineering]])
* ''Magister Hukum (M.H.)'' ([[Master of Laws]])
* ''Magister Pendidikan (M.Pd.)'' ([[Master of Education]])
* ''Magister Olahraga (M.Or.)'' (Master of Sport Science)

===Israel===
Postgraduate studies in Israel require the completion of a bachelor's degree and is dependent upon this title's grades; see [[Education in Israel#Higher education]].
Degrees awarded are the M.A., M.Sc., M.B.A. and LLM; the [[Technion – Israel Institute of Technology|Technion]] awards a non-thesis M.Eng.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.graduate.technion.ac.il/eng/|title=Graduate School, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology|work=technion.ac.il|access-date=1 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150410105145/http://www.graduate.technion.ac.il/eng/|archive-date=10 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
There also exists "a direct track" doctorate degree, which lasts four to five years. Taking this route, students prepare a preliminary research paper during their first year, after which they must pass an exam before being allowed to proceed, at which point they are awarded a master's degree.

===Nepal===
In Nepal, after completing a bachelor's degree, students must spend at least three or four years studying full-time in college and university, with an entrance test for those who wish to pursue master's, Ph.D., and doctorate degrees. All doctoral and Ph.D. degrees, as well as third cycle degrees, are research and experience oriented, with a focus on results.

After completing a successful bachelor's degree, students pursue master's degrees in engineering, education, and arts, as well as all law and medicine-related courses.

M.B.B.S. is only a medical degree with six and a half years of study resulting in a medical doctor and must finish its study in four years after master's degree with minimum education of 15 or 16 years of university bachelor's degree education.

The following are the most professional and internationalized programs in Nepal: 
* [[Master of Business Administration]] (M.B.A.)
* [[Master of Computer Applications]] (M.C.A.)
* [[Master of Engineering]] (M.Eng.)
* [[Master of Science]] (M.Sc.)
* [[Master of Science in Information Technology]] (M.Sc.I.T.)
* [[Master of Business Studies]] (M.B.S.)
* [[Master of Education]] (M.Ed.)
* [[Master of Arts]] (M.A.)
* [[Master of Agriculture|Master of Science in Agriculture]] (M.Sc.Ag.)
* [[Master of Laws]] (LL.M.)
* [[Master of Management]] (M.M.)

===Taiwan===
In [[Taiwan]], bachelor's degree courses are about four years in length, while an entrance examination is required for people who want to study for master's degrees and doctorates. The courses leading to these higher degrees are normally research-based.

Tuition is less expensive than would be the case in North America, costing as little as US$5000 for an M.B.A.{{citation needed|date=February 2012}} As an incentive designed to increase foreign student numbers, the government and universities of Taiwan have redoubled their efforts to make a range of high-quality scholarships available{{citation needed|date=February 2012}} in the form of university-specific scholarships that include tuition waivers of up to NT$20,000 per month. The government offers the Taiwan Scholarship amounting to NT$20,000–30,000 per month (US$654–981) for a two-year program.

==See also==
{{Portal|Education}}
<!-- Please respect alphabetical order -->
* [[Associate's degree]]
* [[Bachelor's degree]]
* [[British degree abbreviations]]
* [[Diploma mill]]
* [[Doctorate]]
* [[Educational specialist]]
* [[Engineer's degree]]
* [[Euromaster]]
* [[European Joint Master degree in Economics]]
* [[Graduate school]]
* [[Licentiate (degree)|Licentiate]]
* [[List of master's degrees]]
* [[Magister (degree)]]
* [[Master of Advanced Studies]]
* [[Master of Arts]]
* [[Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin)]]
* [[Master of Arts (Scotland)]]
* [[Master of Education]]
* [[Master of Engineering]]
* [[Master of Laws]]
* [[Master of Science]]
* [[Master's degree in Europe]]
* [[Master's degree in North America]]
* [[Master's degree non-Euroamerican]]
* [[Postgraduate-only institutions]]
* [[PSM degree|Professional Science Master's degree]]
* [[Terminal degree]]

== Notes ==
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== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Clear}}
{{Academic degrees}}

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[[Category:Master's degrees| ]]
[[Category:Academic degrees of the United States]]