Mandatory Palestine Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{Short description|British League of Nations mandate (1920–1948)}} {{About|the geopolitical entity|the document granting Britain a mandate over both Palestine and the Emirate of Transjordan|Mandate for Palestine}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}} {{Pp-30-500|small=yes}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Palestine | native_name = | common_name = Palestine | status = League of Nations Mandate | empire = United Kingdom | p1 = Occupied Enemy Territory Administration | flag_p1 = France and United Kingdom flags.svg | image_p1 = Crowded shops. Goods are stalled in the street and men are sitting down, NINO F Scholten Jaffa 01 076.tiff | s1 = Israel | flag_s1 = Flag of Israel.svg | s2 = Jordanian annexation of the West Bank | flag_s2 = Flag of Jordan.svg | s3 = All-Palestine Protectorate | flag_s3 = Flag of Hejaz 1920.svg | flag = Flag of Mandatory Palestine | image_flag = Flag of the United Kingdom.svg | symbol_type = [[Public Seal of Mandatory Palestine|Public Seal]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Palestine seal |url=https://www.royalmintmuseum.org.uk/collection/seals/palestine-seal/ |access-date=2024-02-12 |website=www.royalmintmuseum.org.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> | image_coat = Public Seal of Mandatory Palestine.png | national_motto = | national_anthem = | image_map = Map of Mandatory Palestine in 1946 with major cities (in English).svg | image_map_caption = Mandatory Palestine in 1946 | demonym = Palestinian | capital = [[Jerusalem]] | common_languages = [[English language|English]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] | religion = [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Druze]] faith | area_km2 = 25585.3 | area_footnote = <ref name="VillStat 1945">{{cite book|title=Village Statistics, April, 1945|url=https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH002249756/NLI|author=Department of Statistics|year=1945|publisher=Government of Palestine}} Scan of the original document at the National Library of Israel.</ref> | population_census = 757,182 (1922)<ref>[https://ecf.org.il/issues/issue/1087 1922 Census of Palestine], retrieved 19 February 2024.</ref> | population_estimate_year = 1922 | title_leader = | leader1 = | year_leader1 = | title_deputy = {{nowrap|[[High Commissioners for Palestine and Transjordan|High Commissioner]]}} | deputy1 = [[Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel|Sir Herbert L. Samuel]] | year_deputy1 = 1920–1925 (first) | deputy2 = [[Alan Cunningham|Sir Alan Cunningham]] | year_deputy2 = 1945–1948 (last) | era = {{ubl |[[Interwar period]] |[[Second World War]] |[[Cold War]]}} | event_start = {{nowrap|Mandate assigned}} | date_start = 25 April | year_start = 1920 | event1 = Britain officially assumes control | date_event1 = 29 September 1923 | event_end = [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel]] | date_end = 14 May | year_end = 1948 | stat_year1 = | stat_area1 = | stat_pop1 = | currency = {{nowrap|[[Egyptian pound]]<br />(until 1927)<br />[[Palestine pound]]<br />(from 1927)}} | today = [[Israel]]<br />[[State of Palestine|Palestine]] | legislature = <wbr /> | house1 = [[Supreme Muslim Council]] | type_house1 = Parliamentary body of the Muslim community | house2 = [[Assembly of Representatives (Mandatory Palestine)|Assembly of Representatives]] | type_house2 = Parliamentary body of the Jewish community }} '''Mandatory Palestine'''{{efn|During its existence the territory was officially known simply as ''Palestine'', but, in later years, a variety of other names and descriptors have been used, including ''Mandatory'' or '''Mandate Palestine''', the '''British Mandate of Palestine''' and '''British Palestine'''. ({{lang-ar|فلسطين الانتدابية}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Filasṭīn al-Intidābiyah}}''; {{lang-he|פָּלֶשְׂתִּינָה (א״י)}} ''{{transliteration|he|Pāleśtīnā (E.Y.)}}'', where "E.Y." indicates ''’Eretz Yiśrā’ēl'', the [[Land of Israel]])}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/2FCA2C68106F11AB05256BCF007BF3CB |title=League of Nations decision confirming the Principal Allied Powers' agreement on the territory of Palestine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131125014738/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/2FCA2C68106F11AB05256BCF007BF3CB |archive-date=25 November 2013}}</ref> was a geopolitical entity that existed between 1920 and 1948 in the [[Palestine (region)|region of Palestine]] under the terms of the [[League of Nations]] [[Mandate for Palestine]]. After an [[Arab Revolt|Arab uprising]] against the Ottoman Empire arose during the [[First World War]] in 1916, [[British Empire|British]] [[Egyptian Expeditionary Force|forces]] drove [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman forces]] out of the [[Levant]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Matthew |editor1-last=Hughes |title=Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917 – October 1919 |series=Army Records Society|volume=22 |year=2004 |publisher=Sutton Publishing Ltd |location=Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire|isbn=978-0-7509-3841-9}} Allenby to Robertson 25 January 1918 in Hughes 2004, p. 128</ref> The [[United Kingdom]] had agreed in the [[McMahon–Hussein Correspondence]] that it would honour Arab independence in case of a revolt but, in the end, the United Kingdom and [[French Third Republic|France]] divided what had been [[Ottoman Syria]] under the [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]]—an act of betrayal in the eyes of the Arabs. Another issue was the [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917, in which Britain promised its support for the establishment of a [[Homeland for the Jewish people|Jewish "national home"]] in Palestine. Mandatory Palestine was then established in 1920, and the British obtained a [[Mandate for Palestine]] from the [[League of Nations]] in 1922.<ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp#art22 Article 22, The Covenant of the League of Nations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726080156/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp#art22 |date=26 July 2011 }} and "Mandate for Palestine", ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', Vol. 11, p. 862, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972</ref> During the Mandate, the area saw successive waves of [[Aliyah|Jewish immigration]] and the rise of [[Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine|nationalist movements]] in both the Jewish and Arab communities. Competing interests of the two populations led to the [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]] and the 1944–1948 [[Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine]]. The [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] to divide the territory into two states, one Arab and one Jewish, was passed in November 1947. The [[1948 Palestine war]] ended with the territory of Mandatory Palestine divided among the [[State of Israel]], the [[Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan]], which [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|annexed territory on the West Bank]] of the [[Jordan River]], and the [[Kingdom of Egypt]], which established the "[[All-Palestine Protectorate]]" in the [[Gaza Strip]]. Mandatory Palestine was designated as a [[League of Nations mandate#Types of mandates|Class A Mandate]], based on its social, political, and economic development. This classification was reserved for post-war mandates with the highest capacity for self-governance.<ref>Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion of 9 July 2004, 2004 International Court of Justice 63.</ref> All Class A mandates other than mandatory Palestine had gained independence by 1946.<ref>Victor Kattan. '''''From Coexistence to Conquest, International Law and the Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1891–1949'''''. London, New York: Pluto Press, 2009.</ref> ==Etymology== {{see also|Timeline of the name "Palestine"}} The name given to the Mandate's territory was "Palestine", in accordance with local Palestinian Arab and Ottoman usage<ref>{{cite book|author=Nur Masalha|title=Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H6K9AQAACAAJ|year=2018|publisher=Zed|isbn=978-1-78699-272-7}} Chapter 9: Being Palestine, becoming Palestine, p. 287: "the sense of continuity between the ancient, medieval and modern political geography and naming traditions of Palestine eventually came into play in the designation of the British Mandatory Government of Palestine". The preceding pages, p.259-287, document in detail the usage of the term Palestine by native Palestinians from the moment the printing press was introduced into the area in the late 19th century.</ref>{{sfn|Khalidi|1997|pages=151-152}}<ref name="Büssow">{{cite book |last=Büssow |first=Johann |title= Hamidian Palestine: Politics and Society in the District of Jerusalem 1872–1908 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=crPPX99rjYUC&pg=PA5 |access-date=17 May 2013 |date=11 August 2011 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-20569-7 |page=5}}</ref><ref>|The 1915 ''Filastin Risalesi'' ("Palestine Document") is a country survey of the [[VIII Corps (Ottoman Empire)|VIII Corps]] of the Ottoman Army, which identified Palestine as a region including the sanjaqs of Akka (the Galilee), the Sanjaq of Nablus, and the Sanjaq of Jerusalem (Kudus Sherif), see [http://www.palestine-studies.org/sites/default/files/jq-articles/48_Shifting_Ottoman_2.pdf Ottoman Conceptions of Palestine-Part 2: Ethnography and Cartography, Salim Tamari] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327151335/http://palestine-studies.org/sites/default/files/jq-articles/48_Shifting_Ottoman_2.pdf |date=27 March 2015 }}</ref> and with European tradition.{{efn|Historian [[Nur Masalha]] describes the "British preoccupation with Palestine" and the large increase in European books, articles, travelogues and geographical publications during the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nur Masalha|author-link=Nur Masalha|title=Palestine A Four Thousand year History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eNvVAQAACAAJ|date=2018|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-78699-274-1|pages=242–245}}</ref>}} The Mandate charter stipulated that Mandatory Palestine would have three official languages: English, Arabic and Hebrew. In 1926, the British authorities formally decided to use the traditional Arabic and Hebrew equivalents to the English name, i.e. ''filasţīn'' (فلسطين) and ''pālēśtīnā'' (פּלשׂתינה) respectively. The Jewish leadership proposed that the proper Hebrew name should be ''ʾĒrēts Yiśrāʾel'' (ארץ ישׂראל, [[Land of Israel]]). The final compromise was to add the initials of the Hebrew proposed name, [[Aleph|Alef]]-[[Yodh|Yod]], within parenthesis (א״י), whenever the Mandate's name was mentioned in Hebrew in official documents. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Sivak |first1=Jacob |title=How was 'Israel' once 'Palestine'? New books and old coins |url=https://www.jpost.com/jerusalem-report/how-was-israel-once-palestine-new-books-and-old-coins-680467 |website=JPost.com |date=27 September 2021 |publisher=Jerusalem Post |quote=“While the Jewish representatives to the Mandatory government objected to the transliteration of Palestine into Hebrew and preferred the traditional Hebrew name of Eretz Yisrael, there were Arab objections. The compromise, suggested by Herbert Samuel, the first British High Commissioner to Palestine, who was a Jew and a Zionist, was the addition, in parentheses, of the Hebrew initials for Eretz Yisrael. The aleph yod abbreviation was used on all official documents, stamps, and coins until the end of the Mandate. “}}</ref> The Arab leadership saw this compromise as a violation of the mandate terms. Some Arab politicians suggested "[[Southern Syria]]" (سوريا الجنوبية) as the Arabic name instead. The British authorities rejected this proposal; according to the Minutes of the Ninth Session of the League of Nations' [[Permanent Mandates Commission (Palestine)|Permanent Mandates Commission]]: {{blockquote|Colonel Symes explained that the country was described as "Palestine" by Europeans and as "Falestin" by the Arabs. The Hebrew name for the country was the designation "Land of Israel", and the Government, to meet Jewish wishes, had agreed that the word "Palestine" in Hebrew characters should be followed in all official documents by the initials which stood for that designation. As a set-off to this, certain of the Arab politicians suggested that the country should be called "Southern Syria" in order to emphasise its close relation with another Arab State.<ref>League of Nations, Permanent Mandate Commission, [https://unispal.un.org/DPA/DPR/unispal.nsf/0/1504FACC47EFBE05052565F0006B70BB Minutes of the Ninth Session] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628180414/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/1504facc47efbe05052565f0006b70bb?OpenDocument |date=2011-06-28 }} (Arab Grievances), Held at Geneva from 8 to 25 June 1926,</ref>}} The adjective "[[wikt:mandatory#Adjective|mandatory]]" indicates that the entity's legal status derived from a [[League of Nations mandate]]; it is not related to the word's more commonplace usage as a synonym for "compulsory" or "necessary".<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Rayman |first=Noah |date=29 September 2014 |title=Mandatory Palestine: What It Was and Why It Matters |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=https://time.com/3445003/mandatory-palestine/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526042950/https://time.com/3445003/mandatory-palestine/ |archive-date=26 May 2020 }}</ref> ==History== {{For|the background to the creation of the mandate|Mandate for Palestine}} {{For|the period of Palestine's history between the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1917–18 and the beginning of British civil administration in July 1920|Occupied Enemy Territory Administration}} ===1920s=== [[File:Crowded shops. Goods are stalled in the street and men are sitting down, NINO F Scholten Jaffa 01 076.tiff|thumb|Palestinians in Jaffa in the 1920s]]Following the arrival of the British, Arab inhabitants established [[Muslim-Christian Associations]] in all of the major towns.<ref name=lapidus>Ira M. Lapidus, ''A History of Islamic Societies'', 2002: "The first were the nationalists, who in 1918 formed the first Muslim-Christian associations to protest against the Jewish national home" p.558</ref> In 1919 they joined to hold the first [[Palestine Arab Congress]] in Jerusalem.<ref>Tessler, ''A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Second Edition'', 2009: "An All-Palestine Congress, known also as the First Congress of the Muslim-Christian Societies, was organised by the MCA and convened in Jerusalem in February 1919." p.220-221</ref> It was aimed primarily at representative government and opposition to the [[Balfour Declaration]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://content.ecf.org.il/files/M00661_FirstArabCongress1919ParisResolutionArabic.pdf|title=First Arab Congress 1919 Paris Resolution (in Arabic)|website=ecf.org.il|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925040044/http://content.ecf.org.il/files/M00661_FirstArabCongress1919ParisResolutionArabic.pdf|archive-date=25 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Concurrently, the [[Zionist Commission]] formed in March 1918 and actively promoted Zionist objectives in Palestine. On 19 April 1920, [[1920 Assembly of Representatives election|elections]] took place for the [[Assembly of Representatives (Mandate Palestine)|Assembly of Representatives]] of the [[Yishuv|Palestinian Jewish community]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.palestinechronicle.com/view_article_details.php?id=14037 |title= Palestine Through History: A Chronology (I) |access-date= 14 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110617020548/http://www.palestinechronicle.com/view_article_details.php?id=14037 |archive-date= 17 June 2011 }} The Palestine Chronicle</ref> In March 1920, there was an [[Battle of Tel Hai|attack]] by Arabs on the Jewish village of [[Tel Hai]]. In April, there was another [[1920 Nebi Musa riots|attack]] on Jews, this time in Jerusalem. In July 1920, a British civilian administration headed by a [[High Commissioners of Palestine|High Commissioner]] replaced the military administration.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/FB6DD3F0E9535815852572DD006CC607|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603191241/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/FB6DD3F0E9535815852572DD006CC607|url-status=dead|title=United Nations Maintenance Page|archivedate=3 June 2014|website=unispal.un.org}}</ref> The first High Commissioner, [[Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel|Sir Herbert Samuel]], a Zionist and a recent British cabinet minister, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920 to take up his appointment from 1 July. Samuel established his headquarters and [[official residence]] in part of the [[Augusta Victoria Hospital]] complex on [[Mount Scopus]] on what was then the northeastern edge of Jerusalem, a building that had been constructed for the Germans ''circa'' 1910.<ref name="Haaretz"> 'A Colonial Room With a View of Jerusalem' (''[[Haaretz]]'', 24 April 2012). https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/culture/2012-04-24/ty-article/a-colonial-room-with-a-view-of-Jerusalem/0000017f-deec-db22-a17f-fefd9e520000</ref> Damaged by an earthquake in 1927, this building served as the headquarters and official residence of the British High Commissioners until 1933.<ref name="Haaretz"/> In that year, a new, purpose-built headquarters and official residence for the High Commissioner was completed on what was then the southeastern edge of Jerusalem.<ref name="Haaretz"/> Referred to as ''[[Armon HaNetziv]]'' by the Jewish population, this building, located on the 'Hill of Evil Counsel' on the ridge of [[Jabel Mukaber]], remained in use as the headquarters and official residence of the British High Commissioners until the end of British rule in 1948.<ref name="Haaretz"/> [[File:A world in perplexity (1918) (14780310121).jpg|left|thumb|The formal transfer of Jerusalem to British rule, with a "native priest" reading the proclamation from the steps of the [[Tower of David]]]] [[File:Samuelarrival.jpg|thumb|upright|The arrival of [[Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel|Sir Herbert Samuel]]. From left to right: [[T. E. Lawrence]], [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Emir Abdullah]], Air Marshal [[Geoffrey Salmond|Sir Geoffrey Salmond]], [[Wyndham Deedes|Sir Wyndham Deedes]] and others]] [[File:Palestinian delegation 1929.jpg|thumb|An Arab "protest gathering" in session, in the Rawdat el Maaref hall, 1929. From left to right : unknown – [[Amin al-Husayni]] – [[Musa al-Husayni]] – [[Raghib al-Nashashibi]] – unknown]] One of the first actions of the newly installed civil administration was to begin granting [[Concessions in Mandatory Palestine|concessions from the Mandatory government]] over key economic assets. In 1921 the government granted [[Pinhas Rutenberg]] – a Jewish entrepreneur – concessions for the production and distribution of electrical power. Rutenberg soon established an electric company whose shareholders were Zionist organisations, investors, and philanthropists. Palestinian-Arabs saw it as proof that the British intended to favour Zionism. The British administration claimed that electrification would enhance the economic development of the country as a whole, while at the same time securing their commitment to facilitate a Jewish National Home through economic{{Snd}}rather than political{{Snd}}means.<ref>Shamir, Ronen (2013) ''Current Flow: The Electrification of Palestine'' Stanford: Stanford University Press</ref> In May 1921, following a disturbance between rival Jewish left-wing protestors and then attacks by Arabs on Jews, almost 100 died in [[1921 Jaffa riots|rioting in Jaffa]]. High Commissioner Samuel tried to establish self-governing institutions in Palestine, as required by the mandate, but the Arab leadership refused to co-operate with any institution which included Jewish participation.<ref>Caplan, Neil. ''Palestine Jewry and the Arab Question, 1917 – 1925''. London and Totowa, NJ: F. Cass, 1978. {{ISBN|978-0-7146-3110-3}}. pp. 148–161.</ref> When [[Kamil al-Husayni]], the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]], died in March 1921, High Commissioner Samuel appointed his half-brother, [[Mohammad Amin al-Husseini]], to the position. Amin al-Husseini, a member of the [[al-Husayni]] clan of Jerusalem, was an [[Arab nationalist]] and Muslim leader. As Grand Mufti, as well as in the other influential positions that he held during this period, al-Husseini played a key role in violent opposition to [[Zionism]]. In 1922, al-Husseini was elected President of the [[Supreme Muslim Council]] which had been established by Samuel in December 1921.<ref name=Mattar2003>{{cite encyclopaedia |last= Mattar |first= Philip |author-link= Philip Mattar |editor= Mattar, Philip |encyclopaedia= Encyclopedia of the Palestinians |title= al-Husayni, Amin |edition= Revised |year= 2003 |publisher= Facts On File |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-8160-5764-1}}</ref><ref>"It was not scholarly religious credentials that made Hajj Amin an attractive candidate for president of the SMC in the eyes of colonial officials. Rather, it was the combination of his being an effective nationalist activist and a member of one of Jerusalem's most respected notable families that made it advantageous to align his interests with those of the British administration and thereby keep him on a short tether." Weldon C. Matthews, ''Confronting an Empire, Constructing a Nation: Arab Nationalists and Popular Politics in Mandate Palestine'', I.B.Tauris, 2006 pp. 31–32</ref> The Council controlled the [[Waqf]] funds, worth annually tens of thousands of pounds,<ref>For details see Yitzhak Reiter, ''Islamic Endowments in Jerusalem under British Mandate'', Frank Cass, London Portland, Oregon, 1996</ref> and the orphan funds, worth annually about £50,000, as compared to the £600,000 in the [[Jewish Agency]]'s annual budget.<ref>Excluding funds for land purchases. Sahar Huneidi, ''A Broken Trust: Herbert Samuel, Zionism and the Palestinians 1920–1925'', I.B. Tauris, London and New York, 2001 p. 38. The 'Jewish Agency', mentioned in article 4 of the Mandate only became the official term in 1928. At the time the organisation was called the Palestine Zionist Executive.</ref> In addition, he controlled the [[Shariah|Islamic]] courts in Palestine. Among other functions, these courts had the power to appoint teachers and preachers. The 1922 Palestine [[Order in Council]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/C7AAE196F41AA055052565F50054E656|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916132453/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/C7AAE196F41AA055052565F50054E656|title=1922 Palestine Order in Council|archivedate=16 September 2014}}</ref> established a Legislative Council, which was to consist of 23 members: 12 elected, 10 appointed, and the High Commissioner.<ref name=T1/> Of the 12 elected members, eight were to be Muslim Arabs, two Christian Arabs, and two Jews.<ref name=A>[http://www.answers.com/topic/legislative-council-palestine Legislative Council (Palestine)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015060758/http://www.answers.com/topic/legislative-council-palestine |date=15 October 2018 }} Answers.com</ref> Arabs protested against the distribution of the seats, arguing that as they constituted 88% of the population, having only 43% of the seats was unfair.<ref name=A/> [[1923 Palestinian Legislative Council election|Elections]] took place in February and March 1923, but due to an Arab [[boycott]], the results were annulled and a 12-member Advisory Council was established.<ref name=T1>"Palestine. The Constitution Suspended. Arab Boycott Of Elections. Back To British Rule" ''The Times'', 30 May 1923, p. 14, Issue 43354</ref> At the [[First World Congress of Jewish Women]] which was held in [[Vienna]], Austria, 1923, it was decided that: "It appears, therefore, to be the duty of all Jews to co-operate in the social-economic reconstruction of Palestine and to assist in the settlement of Jews in that country."<ref name=jwa>{{cite web|url=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/international-council-of-jewish-women|title=International Council of Jewish Women|author=Las, Nelly|publisher=International Council of Jewish Women|access-date=20 November 2018 }}</ref> In October 1923, Britain provided the League of Nations with a report on the administration of Palestine for the period 1920–1922, which covered the period before the mandate.<ref>League of Nations, ''Official Journal'', October 1923, p. 1217.</ref> In August 1929, there were [[1929 Palestine riots|riots]] in which 250 people died. ===1930s: Arab armed insurgency=== In 1930, [[Sheikh]] [[Izz ad-Din al-Qassam]] arrived in Palestine from Syria, then part of the French-ruled [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]], and organised and established the [[Black Hand (Mandatory Palestine)|Black Hand]], an [[anti-Zionist]] and anti-British militant organisation. He recruited and arranged military training for peasants, and by 1935 he had enlisted between 200 and 800 men. They used bombs and firearms against Zionist settlers and vandalised settlers' orchards and British-built railway lines.<ref name=segev>{{harvnb|Segev|2000|pp=[https://archive.org/details/onepalestinecomp00sege/page/360 360–362]}}</ref> In November 1935, two of his men engaged in a firefight with a [[Palestine Police]] patrol hunting fruit thieves and a policeman was killed. Following the incident, British colonial police launched a search and surrounded al-Qassam in a cave near [[Ya'bad]]. In the ensuing battle, al-Qassam was killed.<ref name=segev/> ====The Arab revolt==== [[File:Resistance of Palestinian men and women.png|thumb|Arab revolt against the British]] {{main|1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine}} The death of al-Qassam on 20 November 1935 generated widespread outrage in the Arab community. Huge crowds accompanied Qassam's body to his grave in [[Haifa]]. A few months later, in April 1936, the Arab national [[general strike]] broke out. The strike lasted until October 1936, instigated by the Arab Higher Committee, headed by Amin al-Husseini. During the summer of that year, thousands of Jewish-farmed acres and orchards were destroyed. Jewish civilians were attacked and killed, and some Jewish communities, such as those in [[Beisan]] ([[Beit She'an]]) and [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], fled to safer areas.<ref>{{harvnb|Gilbert|1998|p= 80}}</ref> The violence abated for about a year while the British sent the [[Peel Commission]] to investigate.<ref>{{harvnb|Khalidi|2006|pp=87–90}}</ref> During the first stages of the Arab Revolt, due to rivalry between the clans of al-Husseini and [[Nashashibi]] among the Palestinian Arabs, Raghib Nashashibi was forced to flee to Egypt after several assassination attempts ordered by Amin al-Husseini.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Charles D. |title=Palestine and the Arab–Israeli Conflict: A History with Documents |edition=Sixth |year=2007 |pages=111–225}}</ref> After the Arab rejection of the Peel Commission recommendation, the revolt resumed in autumn 1937. Over the next 18 months, the British lost [[Nablus]] and Hebron. British forces, supported by 6,000 armed Jewish auxiliary police,<ref>{{Harvnb|Gilbert|1998|p= 85}}: The [[Jewish Settlement Police]] were created and equipped with trucks and armoured cars by the British working with the [[Jewish Agency for Israel|Jewish Agency]].</ref> suppressed the widespread riots with overwhelming force. The British officer [[Orde Charles Wingate|Charles Orde Wingate]] (who supported a Zionist revival for religious reasons<ref>{{Citation |publisher= IDC |title= Covenant |contribution= The Zionism of Orde |volume= 3 |issue= 1 |url= http://www.covenant.idc.ac.il/en/vol3/issue1/The_Zionism_of_Orde.html |access-date= 4 August 2014 |archive-date= 1 August 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140801015753/http://covenant.idc.ac.il/en/vol3/issue1/The_Zionism_of_Orde.html |url-status= dead }}</ref>) organised [[Special Night Squads]] of British soldiers and Jewish volunteers such as [[Yigal Alon]]; these "scored significant successes against the Arab rebels in the lower Galilee and in the Jezreel valley"<ref>{{harvnb|Black|1991|p= 14}}</ref> by conducting raids on Arab villages.<ref>{{harvnb|Shapira|1992|pp=247, 249, 350}}</ref> [[Irgun]], a Jewish militia group, used violence also against Arab civilians as "retaliatory acts",<ref name=Irgun>{{cite book |title=Holy War in Judaism: The Fall and Rise of a Controversial Idea |publisher=Oxford University Press |author=Firestone, Reuven |year=2012 |page=192 |isbn=978-0-19-986030-2 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=EHyqYbTM-dwC&q=Irgun+%22retaliatory+acts%22&pg=PA192}}</ref> [[List of Irgun attacks during the 1930s|attacking marketplaces and buses]]. By the time the revolt concluded in March 1939, more than {{formatnum:5000}} Arabs, 400 Jews, and 200 British had been killed and at least {{formatnum:15000}} Arabs were wounded.<ref name=HistoryOfPalestinianRevolts>{{cite web|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/9A489B74-6477-4E67-9C22-0F53A3CC9ADF.htm |title=Aljazeera: The history of Palestinian revolts |access-date=15 December 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051215061527/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/9A489B74-6477-4E67-9C22-0F53A3CC9ADF.htm |archive-date=15 December 2005 }}</ref> In total, 10% of the adult Arab male population was killed, wounded, imprisoned, or exiled.<ref>{{harvnb|Khalidi|2001|p=26}}</ref> From 1936 to 1945, while establishing collaborative security arrangements with the Jewish Agency, the British confiscated {{formatnum:13200}} firearms from Arabs and 521 weapons from Jews.{{sfn|Khalidi|1987|p=845}} The attacks on the Jewish population by Arabs had three lasting effects: firstly, they led to the formation and development of Jewish underground militias, primarily the [[Haganah]], which were to prove decisive in 1948. Secondly, it became clear that the two communities could not be reconciled, and the idea of partition was born. Thirdly, the British responded to Arab opposition with the [[White Paper of 1939]], which severely restricted Jewish land purchase and immigration. However, with the advent of the [[Second World War]], even this reduced immigration quota was not reached. The White Paper policy itself radicalised segments of the Jewish population, who after the war would no longer cooperate with the British. The revolt had also a negative effect on Palestinian Arab leadership, social cohesion, and military capabilities, and it contributed to the outcome of the 1948 War because "when the Palestinians faced their most fateful challenge in 1947–49, they were still suffering from the British repression of 1936–39, and were in effect without a unified leadership. Indeed, it might be argued that they were virtually without any leadership at all."{{sfn|Khalidi|2001|p=28}} ====Partition proposals==== [[File:Jewish protest demonstrations against Palestine White Paper, May 18, 1939. King George Ave, Jerusalem.jpg|thumb|Jewish demonstration against White Paper in Jerusalem in 1939]] In 1937, the [[Peel Commission]] proposed a partition between a small Jewish state, whose Arab population would have to be transferred, and an Arab state to be attached to the [[Emirate of Transjordan]], this emirate also being part of the wider [[Mandate for Palestine]]. The proposal was rejected outright by the Arabs. The two main Jewish leaders, [[Chaim Weizmann]] and [[David Ben-Gurion]], had convinced the [[World Zionist Congress|Zionist Congress]] to equivocally approve the Peel recommendations as a basis for more negotiation.<ref name=Louis>Louis, William Roger (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC ''Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128022458/https://books.google.com/books/about/Ends_of_British_Imperialism.html?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC&redir_esc=y |date=28 November 2022 }}, p. 391.</ref><ref name=Morris66>Morris, Benny (2009). ''One State, Two States: Resolving the Israel/Palestine Conflict'', p. 66</ref><ref name=Morris48>{{cite book |last= Morris |first= Benny |author-link= Benny Morris |title= The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited |pages= 11, 48, 49 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 2004 |orig-year= 1988 |isbn= 978-0-521-00967-6 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C |access-date= 12 February 2022}} p. 11 "while the Zionist movement, after much agonising, accepted the principle of partition and the proposals as a basis for negotiation"; p. 49 "In the end, after bitter debate, the Congress equivocally approved—by a vote of 299 to 160—the Peel recommendations as a basis for further negotiation."</ref><ref>'Zionists Ready To Negotiate British Plan As Basis', ''The Times'' Thursday, 12 August 1937; p. 10; Issue 47761; col B.</ref><ref>Eran, Oded (2002). "Arab-Israel Peacemaking." ''The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East''. Ed. [[Avraham Sela]]. New York: Continuum, p. 122.</ref> In [[1937 Ben-Gurion letter|a letter to his son in October 1937]], Ben-Gurion explained that partition would be a first step to "possession of the land as a whole".<ref>[http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/B-G%20LetterTranslation.pdf Letter from David Ben-Gurion to his son Amos, written 5 October 1937] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512101840/http://www.palestineremembered.com/download/B-G%20LetterTranslation.pdf |date=12 May 2019 }}, Obtained from the Ben-Gurion Archives in Hebrew, and translated into English by the [[Institute of Palestine Studies]], Beirut</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Morris|first=Benny|author-link=Benny Morris|title= Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–1998|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|year=2011|isbn=978-0-307-78805-4|page=138}} Quote: "No Zionist can forgo the smallest portion of the Land Of Israel. [A] Jewish state in part [of Palestine] is not an end, but a beginning ….. Our possession is important not only for itself … through this we increase our power, and every increase in power facilitates getting hold of the country in its entirety. Establishing a [small] state …. will serve as a very potent lever in our historical effort to redeem the whole country"</ref><ref name=Finkelstein208>{{citation|title=Beyond Chutzpah: On the Misuse of Anti-semitism and the Abuse of History|first=Norman|last=Finkelstein|publisher=University of California Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-520-24598-3|page=280|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xmi2Yw0QzN8C&pg=PA280}}</ref> The same sentiment was recorded by Ben-Gurion on other occasions, such as at a meeting of the Jewish Agency executive in June 1938,<ref>Quote from a meeting of the Jewish Agency executive in June 1938: "[I am] satisfied with part of the country, but on the basis of the assumption that after we build up a strong force following the establishment of the state, we will abolish the partition of the country and we will expand to the whole Land of Israel." in<br />{{citation|title=Expulsion of the Palestinians: The Concept of "Transfer" in Zionist Political Thought, 1882–1948|first=Nur|last=Masalha|publisher=Inst for Palestine Studies|year=1992|isbn=978-0-88728-235-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/expulsionofpales00masa/page/107 107]|url=https://archive.org/details/expulsionofpales00masa/page/107}}; and {{harvnb|Segev|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/onepalestinecomp00sege/page/403 403]}}</ref> as well as by Chaim Weizmann.<ref name=Finkelstein208/><ref>From a letter from Chaim Weizmann to [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Arthur Grenfell Wauchope|Sir Arthur G. Wauchope]], [[High Commissioners for Palestine and Transjordan|High Commissioner for Palestine]], while the Peel Commission was convening in 1937: "We shall spread in the whole country in the course of time ….. this is only an arrangement for the next 25 to 30 years." {{citation|title=Expulsion of the Palestinians: The Concept of "Transfer" in Zionist Political Thought, 1882–1948|first=Nur|last=Masalha|publisher=Inst for Palestine Studies|year=1992|isbn=978-0-88728-235-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/expulsionofpales00masa/page/62 62]|url=https://archive.org/details/expulsionofpales00masa/page/62}}</ref> Following the [[London Conference of 1939|London Conference]] in February and March 1939, the British Government published a [[1939 White Paper|White Paper]] which proposed a limit to Jewish immigration from Europe, restrictions on Jewish land purchases, and a programme for creating an independent state to replace the Mandate within ten years. This was seen by the ''[[Yishuv]]'' as betrayal of the mandatory terms, especially in light of the increasing persecution of Jews in Europe. In response, Zionists organised ''[[Aliyah Bet]]'', a programme of illegal immigration into Palestine. [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]], a small group of extremist Zionists, staged armed attacks on British authorities in Palestine. However, the [[Jewish Agency]], which represented the mainstream Zionist leadership and most of the Jewish population, still hoped to persuade Britain to allow resumed Jewish immigration and cooperated with Britain during the [[Second World War]]. ===Second World War=== ====Allied and Axis activity==== [[File:060 1942 - Tom Beazley's mates (l to r) George Dobner, Norm Grainger ^ Reg Shephard at Tel-Aviv, Pales.jpg|thumb|Australian soldiers in [[Tel Aviv]] in 1942]] On 10 June 1940, during the [[Second World War]], the [[Kingdom of Italy]] declared war on the [[British Empire]] and sided with [[Nazi Germany]]. Within a month, the Italians [[Italian bombings on Palestine in World War II|attacked Palestine from the air]], bombing [[Tel Aviv]] and [[Haifa]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.isracast.com/article.aspx?ID=470&t=Why-Italian-Planes-Bombed-Tel-Aviv?|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921004629/http://www.isracast.com/article.aspx?ID=470&t=Why-Italian-Planes-Bombed-Tel-Aviv%3F|url-status=dead|title=Why Italian Planes Bombed Tel-Aviv?|archivedate=21 September 2011}}</ref> inflicting multiple casualties. In 1942, there was a period of great concern for the ''[[Yishuv]]'', when the German forces of General [[Erwin Rommel]] advanced east across [[North Africa]] towards the [[Suez Canal]], raising a fear that they would conquer Palestine. This period was referred to as the "[[200 days of dread]]". This event was the direct cause for the founding, with British support, of the ''[[Palmach]]''<ref>[http://www.historycentral.com/Israel/1941PalmachFormed.html How the Palmach was formed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212162717/https://www.historycentral.com/Israel/1941PalmachFormed.html |date=12 December 2019 }} (History Central)</ref> – a highly trained regular unit belonging to [[Haganah]] (a paramilitary group composed mostly of reserves). As in most of the Arab world, there was no unanimity amongst the Palestinian Arabs as to their position regarding the belligerents in the Second World War. A number of leaders and public figures saw an [[Axis powers|Axis]] victory as the likely outcome and a way of securing Palestine back from the Zionists and the British. Even though Arabs were not highly regarded by [[Nazism and race|Nazi racial theory]], the [[Nazis]] encouraged Arab support as a counter to British hegemony.<ref>Secret World War II documents released by the UK in July 2001, include documents on [[Operation ATLAS]] (See [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/july2001.pdf References: KV 2/400–402] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140402042324/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/july2001.pdf|date=2 April 2014}}. A German task force led by [[Kurt Wieland]] parachuted into Palestine in September 1944. This was one of the last German efforts in the region to attack the Jewish community in Palestine and undermine British rule by supplying local Arabs with cash, arms and sabotage equipment. The team was captured shortly after landing.</ref> On the anniversary of the Balfour Declaration in 1943, ''[[Reichsführer-SS]]'' [[Heinrich Himmler]] and Foreign Minister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] sent telegrams of support for the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]], [[Mohammad Amin al-Husseini]], to read out for a radio broadcast to a rally of supporters in [[Berlin]].{{efn|From Himmler: {{blockquote|The National Socialist movement of Greater Germany has, since its inception, inscribed upon its flag the fight against the world Jewry. It has therefore followed with particular sympathy the struggle of freedom-loving Arabs, especially in Palestine, against Jewish interlopers. In the recognition of this enemy and of the common struggle against it lies the firm foundation of the natural alliance that exists between the National Socialist Greater Germany and the freedom-loving Muslims of the whole world. In this spirit I am sending you on the anniversary of the infamous Balfour declaration my hearty greetings and wishes for the successful pursuit of your struggle until the final victory.}} From Ribbentrop: {{blockquote|I am sending my greetings to your eminence and to the participants of the meeting held today in the Reich capital under your chairmanship. Germany is linked to the Arab nation by old ties of friendship, and today we are united more than ever before. The elimination of the socalled Jewish national home and the liberation of all Arab countries from the oppression and exploitation of the Western powers is an unchangeable part of the Great German Reich policy. Let the hour not be far off when the Arab nation will be able to build its future and find unity in full independence.}}}}<ref>{{cite book|author =Moshe Pearlman|author-link=Moshe Pearlman|title=Mufti of Jerusalem; the story of Haj Amin el Husseini|date=1947|publisher=V. Gollancz|page=50}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rolf Steininger|title=Germany and the Middle East: From Kaiser Wilhelm II to Angela Merkel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wm58DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55|date=17 December 2018|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-78920-039-3|pages=55–}}</ref> On the other hand, as many as 12,000 Palestinian Arabs, with the endorsement of many prominent figures such as the mayors of [[Nablus]] and [[Gaza City|Gaza]] and media such as "Radio Palestine"{{efn|For example, Radio Palestine broadcast the comments of an Egyptian writer who said, "The war is between the lofty and humane values represented by England and the forces of darkness represented by the Nazis."<ref name="Aderet"/>}} and the prominent [[Jaffa]]-based ''[[Falastin]]'' newspaper{{efn|A British recruiting poster in Arabic, published in the ''[[Falastin]]'' newspaper in January 1942, read: "She couldn't stop thinking about contribution and sacrifice, she felt ongoing pride and exaltation of spirit – when she did what she saw as her sacred duty for her nation and its sons. When your country is crying out to you and asking for your service, when your country makes it plain that our Arab men need your love and support, and when your country reminds you of how cruel the enemy is – when your country is calling you, can you stand by and do nothing?"<ref name="Aderet"/>}}, volunteered to join and fight for the British, with many serving in units that also included Jews from Palestine. 120 Palestinian women also served as part of the "Auxiliary Territorial Service". However, this history has been less studied, as Israeli sources put more focus in studying the role played by Jewish soldiers, and Palestinian sources "were not eager to glorify the names of those who cooperated with Britain not so many years after the British put down the Arab Revolt of 1936-1939, and thereby indirectly helped the Jews establish a state."<ref name="Aderet">Aderet, Ofer. "12,000 Palestinians Fought for U.K. in WWII alongside Jewish Volunteers, Historian Finds." Haaretz.com. Haaretz, May 31, 2019. [https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-historian-12-000-palestinians-fought-for-u-k-in-wwii-alongside-jewish-volunteers-1.7309369 Link] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327131018/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-historian-12-000-palestinians-fought-for-u-k-in-wwii-alongside-jewish-volunteers-1.7309369 |date=27 March 2022 }}.</ref> ====Mobilisation==== [[File:JB HQ.jpg|thumb|[[Jewish Brigade]] headquarters under the [[Union Flag]] and [[Flag of Israel|Jewish flag]]]] On 3 July 1944, the British government consented to the establishment of a [[Jewish Brigade]] within the [[British Army]], with hand-picked Jewish and also non-Jewish senior officers. On 20 September 1944, an official communiqué by the [[War Office]] announced the formation of the Jewish Brigade Group of the British Army. The Jewish Brigade then was stationed in [[Tarvisio]], near the border triangle of Italy, [[Yugoslavia]], and Austria, where it played a key role in the [[Berihah]]'s efforts to help Jews escape Europe for Palestine, a role many of its members would continue after the brigade was disbanded. Among its projects was the education and care of the [[Selvino children]]. Later, veterans of the Jewish Brigade were to play a major role in the foundation of the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF). From the Palestine Regiment, two platoons, one Jewish, under the command of [[Brigadier (United Kingdom)|Brigadier]] [[Ernest Benjamin]], and another Arab, were sent to join Allied forces on the [[Italian Campaign (World War II)|Italian Front]], having taken part in the [[Spring 1945 offensive in Italy|final offensive]] there. Besides Jews and Arabs from Palestine, in total by mid-1944 the British had assembled a multiethnic force consisting of volunteer European Jewish refugees (from German-occupied countries), [[Yemenite Jews]] and [[Beta Israel|Abyssinian Jews]].<ref>Corrigan, Gordon. ''The Second World War'' Thomas Dunne Books, 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-312-57709-4}} p. 523, last paragraph</ref> ====The Holocaust and immigration quotas==== [[File:Hagana Ship - Jewish State at Haifa Port (1947).jpg|thumb|''Jewish State'' ship, one of several Haganah ships that carried Jewish immigrants from Europe, mostly illegal, at the [[Port of Haifa|Haifa Port]], Mandatory Palestine, 1947<ref name="JIJI"/>]] In 1939, as a consequence of the [[White Paper of 1939]], the British reduced the number of immigrants allowed into Palestine. The [[Second World War]] and the [[Holocaust]] started shortly thereafter and once the 15,000 annual quota was exceeded, Jews fleeing [[Nazi]] persecution were interned in detention camps or deported to places such as [[British Mauritius|Mauritius]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lenk |first=RS |title=The Mauritius Affair, The Boat People of 1940–41 |location=London |publisher=R Lenk |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-9518805-2-4}}</ref> Starting in 1939, a clandestine immigration effort called ''[[Aliya Bet]]'' was spearheaded by an organisation called [[Mossad LeAliyah Bet]]. Tens of thousands of European Jews escaped the Nazis in boats and small ships headed for Palestine. The British [[Royal Navy]] intercepted many of the vessels; others were unseaworthy and were wrecked; a [[Haganah]] bomb sunk the {{SS|Patria|1913|6}}, killing 267 people; two other ships were sunk by [[Shchuka-class submarine|Soviet submarines]]: the motor [[schooner]] {{MV|Struma||2}} was [[Struma disaster|torpedoed and sunk]] in the [[Black Sea]] by a Soviet submarine in February 1942 with the loss of nearly 800 lives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishgen.org/databases/holocaust/0140_Struma.html#P9 |last=Aroni |first=Samuel |title=Who Perished on the Struma And How Many? |year=2002–2007 |publisher=JewishGen.org}}</ref> The last refugee boats to try to reach Palestine during the war were the ''Bulbul'', {{MV|Mefküre||2}} and ''Morina'' in August 1944. A Soviet submarine sank the motor schooner ''Mefküre'' by torpedo and shellfire and machine-gunned survivors in the water,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://flot.sevastopol.info/ship/podlodki/shya215.htm |script-title=ru:Подводная лодка "Щ-215" |website=Черноморский Флот информационный ресурс |language=ru |date=2000–2013 |access-date=27 March 2013}}</ref> killing between 300 and 400 refugees.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wertheimer.info/family/GRAMPS/Haapalah/plc/2/7/bea98dbf1dc6d1a1772.html |title=מפקורה SS Mefküre Mafkura Mefkura |website=Haapalah Aliyah Bet Database|date=27 September 2011 |access-date=26 March 2013}}</ref> Illegal immigration resumed after the end of the Second World War, especially by the Haganah, who carried mostly illegal Jewish immigrants in the period 1945-47.<ref name="JIJI">{{cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4467083|title=United States: British Collaboration on Illegal Immigration to Palestine, 1945-1947|journal=Miriam Joyce Haron|accessdate=6 December 2023|year=1980|publisher=JSTOR|jstor=4467083 }}</ref> After the war, 250,000 Jewish refugees were stranded in displaced persons (DP) camps in Europe. Despite the pressure of world opinion, in particular the repeated requests of the [[U.S. President]], [[Harry S. Truman]], and the recommendations of the [[Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry]] that 100,000 Jews be immediately granted entry to Palestine, the British maintained the ban on immigration. ====Beginning of Zionist insurgency==== [[File:VE day Jerusalem 1945.jpg|thumb|Jerusalem on [[VE Day]], 8 May 1945]] The Jewish [[Lehi (group)|Lehi (Fighters for the Freedom of Israel)]] and [[Irgun|Irgun (National Military Organisation)]] movements initiated [[Jewish insurgency in Palestine|violent uprisings]] against the British Mandate in the 1940s. On 6 November 1944, [[Eliyahu Hakim]] and [[Eliyahu Bet Zuri]] (members of Lehi) assassinated [[Walter Edward Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne|Lord Moyne]] in [[Cairo]]. Moyne was the British Minister of State for the Middle East and the assassination is said by some to have turned British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] against the Zionist cause. After the assassination of Lord Moyne, the [[Haganah]] kidnapped, interrogated, and turned over to the British many members of the Irgun ("[[The Hunting Season]]"), and the Jewish Agency Executive decided on a series of measures against "terrorist organisations" in Palestine.<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/season.html The "Hunting Season" (1945)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527054031/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/season.html |date=27 May 2016 }} by Yehuda Lapidot ([[Jewish Virtual Library]])</ref> Irgun ordered its members not to resist or retaliate with violence, so as to prevent a civil war. ===After the Second World War: Insurgency and the Partition Plan=== {{main|1947 UN Partition Plan|1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine}} The three main Jewish underground forces later united to form the [[Jewish Resistance Movement]] and carry out several attacks and bombings against the British administration. In 1946, the Irgun blew up the [[King David Hotel bombing|King David Hotel]] in Jerusalem, the southern wing of which was the headquarters of the British administration, killing 92 people. Following the bombing, the British Government began interning [[Jews in British camps on Cyprus|illegal Jewish immigrants in Cyprus]]. In 1948, the Lehi assassinated [[Count]] [[Folke Bernadotte|Bernadotte]], the UN mediator, in Jerusalem. [[Yitzak Shamir]], a future [[Prime Minister of Israel]], was one of the conspirators. [[File:UN Partition Plan For Palestine 1947.svg|thumb|upright|The UN Partition Plan]] The negative publicity resulting from the situation in Palestine caused the Mandate to become widely unpopular in Britain itself and caused the [[United States Congress]] to delay granting the British vital loans for reconstruction. The British [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] had promised before its election in 1945 to allow mass Jewish migration into Palestine but reneged on this promise once in office. Anti-British Jewish militancy increased, and the situation required the presence of over 100,000 British troops in the country. Following the Acre Prison Break and the retaliatory hanging of British sergeants by the Irgun, the British announced their desire to terminate the mandate and to withdraw by no later than the beginning of August 1948.<ref name="auto"/> The [[Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry]] in 1946 was a joint attempt by Britain and the United States to agree on a policy regarding the admission of Jews to Palestine. In April, the Committee reported that its members had arrived at a unanimous decision. The Committee approved the American recommendation of the immediate acceptance of 100,000 Jewish refugees from Europe into Palestine. It also recommended that there be no Arab or Jewish state. The Committee stated that "in order to dispose, once and for all, of the exclusive claims of Jews and Arabs to Palestine, we regard it as essential that a clear statement of principle should be made that Jew shall not dominate Arab and Arab shall not dominate Jew in Palestine". U.S. President [[Harry S. Truman]] angered the British Government by issuing a statement supporting the 100,000 refugees but refusing to acknowledge the rest of the committee's findings. Britain had asked for U.S. assistance in implementing the recommendations. The [[US War Department]] had said earlier that to assist Britain in maintaining order against an Arab revolt, an open-ended US commitment of 300,000 troops would be necessary. The immediate admission of 100,000 new Jewish immigrants would almost certainly have provoked an Arab uprising.<ref>Kenneth Harris, '' Attlee'' (1982) pp 388–400. </ref> These events were the decisive factors that forced Britain to announce their desire to terminate the Palestine Mandate and place the Question of Palestine before the [[United Nations]], the successor to the [[League of Nations]]. The UN created [[UNSCOP]] (the UN Special Committee on Palestine) on 15 May 1947, with representatives from 11 countries. UNSCOP conducted hearings and made a general survey of the situation in Palestine and issued its report on 31 August. Seven members (Canada, [[Czechoslovakia]], Guatemala, Netherlands, Peru, Sweden, and Uruguay) recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem to be placed under [[Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)|international administration]]. Three members (India, Iran, and [[Yugoslavia]]) supported the creation of a single federal state containing both Jewish and Arab constituent states. Australia abstained.<ref>Howard Adelman, "UNSCOP and the Partition Recommendation." (Centre for Refugee Studies, York University, 2009) [http://yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10315/2669/H+A+UNSCOP+and+the+Partition+Recommendation.PDF?sequence=1 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191219184223/https://yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10315/2669/H+A+UNSCOP+and+the+Partition+Recommendation.PDF?sequence=1 |date=19 December 2019 }}.</ref> {{rquote|It is not hard to understand the Palestinian Arab position. By 1947 the Arabs of Palestine constituted a two-thirds majority with over 1.2 million people, compared to 600,000 Jews in Palestine. Many towns and cities with Palestinian Arab majorities, like [[Haifa]], were allotted to the Jewish state. [[Jaffa]], though nominally part of the Arab state, was an isolated enclave surrounded by the Jewish state. Moreover, Arabs owned 94 percent of the total land area of Palestine and some 80 percent of the arable farmland of the country. Based on these facts, Palestinian Arabs refused to confer on the United Nations the authority to split their country and give half away.|[[Eugene Rogan]], The Arabs: A History<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LILdBDrm-ksC&q=eugene+rogan+history+of+arabs|title=The Arabs: A History – Third Edition|author=Eugene Rogan|page=321|publisher=Penguin|year=2012|isbn=978-0-7181-9683-7 }}}</ref>}} On 29 November 1947, [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|the UN General Assembly, voting 33 to 13, with 10 abstentions, adopted a resolution]] recommending the adoption and implementation of the ''Plan of Partition with Economic Union'' as Resolution 181 (II),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253 |title=A/RES/181(II) of 29 November 1947 |publisher=United Nations |year=1947 |access-date=11 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524094913/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253 |archive-date=24 May 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Cathy Hartley|author2=Paul Cossali|title=Survey of Arab-Israeli Relations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvaNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52|year=2004|pages=52–53|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-35527-2}}</ref> while making some adjustments to the boundaries between the two states proposed by it. The division was to take effect on the date of British withdrawal. The partition plan required that the proposed states grant full civil rights to all people within their borders, regardless of race, religion or gender. The UN General Assembly is only granted the power to make recommendations; therefore, UNGAR 181 was not legally binding.<ref>Article 11 of the United Nations Charter</ref> Both the US and the [[Soviet Union]] supported the resolution. Haiti, Liberia, and the Philippines changed their votes at the last moment after concerted pressure from the US and from Zionist organisations.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roosevelt |first=Kermit |year=1948 |title=The Partition of Palestine: A lesson in pressure politics |journal=Middle East Journal |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |jstor=4321940 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Snetsinger |first=John |year=1974 |title=Truman, the Jewish vote, and the creation of Israel |url=https://archive.org/details/trumanjewishvote0000snet |url-access=registration |publisher=Hoover Institution |pages=[https://archive.org/details/trumanjewishvote0000snet/page/66 66–67]|isbn=978-0-8179-3391-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarsar |first=Saliba |year=2004 |title=The question of Palestine and United States behavior at the United Nations |journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=457–470 |doi=10.1023/B:IJPS.0000019613.01593.5e|s2cid=143484109 }}</ref> The five members of the [[Arab League]], who were voting members at the time, voted against the Plan. The Jewish Agency, which was the Jewish state-in-formation, accepted the plan, and nearly all the Jews in Palestine rejoiced at the news. The partition plan was rejected by the Palestinian Arab leadership and by most of the Arab population.{{efn|p. 50, at 1947 "Haj Amin al-Husseini went one better: he denounced also the minority report, which, in his view, legitimized the Jewish foothold in Palestine, a "partition in disguise", as he put it."; p. 66, at 1946 "The League demanded independence for Palestine as a "unitary" state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews. The AHC went one better and insisted that the proportion of Jews to Arabs in the unitary state should stand at one to six, meaning that only Jews who lived in Palestine before the British Mandate be eligible for citizenship"; p. 67, at 1947 "The League's Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called "aggression", "without mercy". The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance "in manpower, money and equipment" should the United Nations endorse partition."; p. 72, at Dec 1947 "The League vowed, in very general language, "to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine,"<ref>{{cite book |author=Morris, Benny |title=1948: a history of the first Arab-Israeli war |year=2008 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-12696-9 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=J5jtAAAAMAAJ |access-date=24 July 2013}}</ref>}}{{efn|"The Arabs rejected the United Nations Partition Plan so that any comment of theirs did not specifically concern the status of the Arab section of Palestine under partition but rather rejected the scheme in its entirety."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/4ECBF3578B6149C50525657100507FAB |title=UNITED NATIONS CONCILIATION COMMISSION FOR PALESTINE A/AC.25/W/19 30 July 1949: (Working paper prepared by the Secretariat) |access-date=24 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002103014/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/4ECBF3578B6149C50525657100507FAB |archive-date=2 October 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>}} Meeting in [[Cairo]] on November and December 1947, the Arab League then adopted a series of resolutions endorsing a military solution to the conflict. Britain announced that it would accept the partition plan, but refused to enforce it, arguing it was not accepted by the Arabs. Britain also refused to share the administration of Palestine with the UN Palestine Commission during the transitional period. In September 1947, the British government announced that the Mandate for Palestine would end at midnight on 14 May 1948.<ref name=Britannica>[http://school.eb.com/eb/article-45071 "Palestine"]. Encyclopædia Britannica Online School Edition, 2006. 15 May 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |author=Stefan Brooks |editor=Spencer C. Tucker |encyclopaedia=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict |title=Palestine, British Mandate for |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |volume=3 |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=978-1-85109-842-2 |page=770}}</ref><ref name=Sherman>{{cite book |title=Mandate Days: British Lives in Palestine, 1918–1948 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |author=A. J. Sherman |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8018-6620-3}}</ref> Some Jewish organisations also opposed the proposal. [[Irgun]] leader [[Menachem Begin]] announced, "The partition of the Homeland is illegal. It will never be recognised. The signature by institutions and individuals of the partition agreement is invalid. It will not bind the Jewish people. Jerusalem was and will forever be our capital. Eretz Israel will be restored to the people of Israel. All of it. And for ever."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Revolt |author=Menachem Begin |year=1977 |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/defense.html#_ednref37}}</ref> ===Termination of the mandate=== {{See also|End of the British Mandate for Palestine}} [[File:BritsLvHaifa3061948.jpg|thumb|British troops leaving [[Haifa]] in 1948]] When the United Kingdom announced the independence of the [[Emirate of Transjordan]] as the [[Jordan|Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan]] in 1946, the final Assembly of the League of Nations and the General Assembly both adopted resolutions welcoming the news.<ref>See ''Mandates, Dependencies and Trusteeship'', by H. Duncan Hall, Carnegie Endowment, 1948, pp. 266–267.</ref> The Jewish Agency objected, claiming that Transjordan was an integral part of Palestine, and that according to Article 80 of the [[UN Charter]], the Jewish people had a secured interest in its territory.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Mandate is Indivisble |website=Historical Jewish Press, Tel Aviv University, Palestine Post |date=9 April 1946 |page=3 |url=http://www.jpress.org.il/publications/PPost-en.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100929150945/http://www.jpress.org.il/publications/PPost-en.asp |archive-date=29 September 2010 }}</ref> During the General Assembly deliberations on Palestine, there were suggestions that it would be desirable to incorporate part of Transjordan's territory into the proposed Jewish state. A few days before the adoption of [[Resolution 181]] (II) on 29 November 1947, US Secretary of State Marshall noted frequent references had been made by the Ad Hoc Committee regarding the desirability of the Jewish State having both the [[Negev]] and an "outlet to the Red Sea and the Port of Aqaba".<ref>{{cite web |website=Foreign relations of the United States |year=1947 |title=The Near East and Africa |volume=V |page=1255 |url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1947v05&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=1255}}</ref> According to John Snetsinger, Chaim Weizmann visited President Truman on 19 November 1947 and said it was imperative that the Negev and Port of Aqaba be within the Jewish state.<ref>{{cite book |last=Snetsinger |first=John |title=Truman, the Jewish vote, and the creation of Israel |publisher=Hoover Press |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-8179-3391-3 |pages=60–61|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAW2aHnkL4UC&pg=PA60}}</ref> Truman telephoned the US delegation to the UN and told them he supported Weizmann's position.<ref>{{cite web |website=United States Department of State, Foreign relations of the United States |title=The Near East and Africa, Volume V (1947) |page=1271 |url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1947v05&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=1271}}</ref> However, the [[Trans-Jordan memorandum]] excluded territories of the Emirate of Transjordan from any Jewish settlement.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ATQQ0FMS1FQC&pg=PA348 ''The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128023422/https://books.google.com/books?id=ATQQ0FMS1FQC&pg=PA348 |date=28 November 2022 }}, p. 348. William Roger Louis, Clarendon Press, 1984</ref> Immediately after the UN resolution, [[1947-1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] broke out between the Arab and Jewish communities, and British authority began to break down. On 16 December 1947, the [[Palestine Police Force]] withdrew from the [[Tel Aviv]] area, home to more than half the Jewish population, and turned over responsibility for the maintenance of law and order to Jewish police.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1947/12/16/archive/violence-ebbs-british-police-withdrawn-from-tel-aviv-and-its-environs|title=Violence Ebbs; British Police Withdrawn from Tel Aviv and Its Environs – Jewish Telegraphic Agency|website=www.jta.org|date=16 December 1947}}</ref> As the civil war raged on, British military forces gradually withdrew from Palestine, although they occasionally intervened in favour of either side. Many of these areas became war zones. The British maintained strong presences in [[Jerusalem]] and [[Haifa]], even as Jerusalem came under siege by Arab forces and became the scene of fierce fighting, though the British occasionally intervened in the fighting, largely to secure their evacuation routes, including by proclaiming martial law and enforcing truces. The [[Palestine Police Force]] was largely inoperative, and government services such as social welfare, water supplies, and postal services were withdrawn. In March 1948, all British judges in Palestine were sent back to Britain.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael J Cohen|title=Britain's Moment in Palestine: Retrospect and Perspectives, 1917–1948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DLPpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA481|date=24 February 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-91364-1|pages=481–}}</ref> In April 1948, the British withdrew from most of Haifa but retained an enclave in the port area to be used in the evacuation of British forces, and retained [[Ramat David Airbase|RAF Ramat David]], an airbase close to Haifa, to cover their retreat, leaving behind a volunteer police force to maintain order. The city was quickly captured by the [[Haganah]] in the [[Battle of Haifa (1948)|Battle of Haifa]]. After the victory, British forces in Jerusalem announced that they had no intention of overseeing any local administration but also that they would not permit actions that would hamper the safe and orderly withdrawal of their forces; military courts would try anybody who interfered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1948/04/23/archive/british-forces-in-jerusalem-alerter-following-haifa-victory-fear-haganah-raid-on-city|title=British Forces in Jerusalem Alerter Following Haifa Victory; Fear Haganah Raid on City – Jewish Telegraphic Agency|website=www.jta.org|date=23 April 1948}}</ref><ref name=hansard>{{cite web|url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1948/mar/10/palestine-bill|date=10 March 1948|title=PALESTINE BILL|website=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]}}</ref><ref>Herzog, Chaim and Gazit, Shlomo: ''The Arab-Israeli Wars: War and Peace in the Middle East from the 1948 War of Independence to the Present'', p. 46</ref> Although by this time British authority in most of Palestine had broken down, with most of the country in the hands of Jews or Arabs, the British air and sea blockade of Palestine remained in place. Although Arab volunteers were able to cross the borders between Palestine and the surrounding Arab states to join the fighting, the British did not allow the regular armies of the surrounding Arab states to cross into Palestine. The British had notified the UN of their intent to terminate the mandate not later than 1 August 1948.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/561c6ee353d740fb8525607d00581829/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253%21OpenDocument |title='U.N. Resolution 181 (II). Future Government of Palestine, Part 1-A, Termination of Mandate, Partition and Independence |access-date=20 May 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207194949/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/561c6ee353d740fb8525607d00581829/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253%21OpenDocument |archive-date=7 February 2009 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/un/res181.htm U.N. Resolution 181 (II). Future Government of Palestine, Part 1-A, Termination of Mandate, Partition and Independence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061029150108/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/un/res181.htm |date=29 October 2006 }}.</ref> However, early in 1948, the United Kingdom announced its firm intention to end its mandate in Palestine on 15 May. In response, President [[Harry S. Truman]] made a [[Truman trusteeship proposal|statement on 25 March proposing UN trusteeship rather than partition]], stating that "unfortunately, it has become clear that the partition plan cannot be carried out at this time by peaceful means... unless emergency action is taken, there will be no public authority in Palestine on that date capable of preserving law and order. Violence and bloodshed will descend upon the Holy Land. Large-scale fighting among the people of that country will be the inevitable result".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mideastweb.org/trusteeship.htm|title=President Truman's Trusteeship Statement – 1948|website=www.mideastweb.org}}</ref> The [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] passed the necessary legislation to terminate the Mandate with the Palestine Bill, which received [[Royal assent]] on 29 April 1948.<ref name=Northey>{{cite book |author= Northey, Ruth (project ed.) |publisher= Bloomsbury Publishing |title= Whitaker's Britain |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4729-0305-1 |page=127 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CXGuAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT127}}</ref> [[File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Hoisting of the national flag during a special ceremony of elementary school children.jpg|thumb|200px|Hoisting of the Yishuv flag in Tel Aviv, 1 January 1948]] By 14 May 1948, the only British forces remaining in Palestine were in the Haifa area and in Jerusalem. On that same day, the British garrison in Jerusalem withdrew, and the last High Commissioner, [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Alan Cunningham|Sir Alan Cunningham]], left the city for Haifa, where he was to leave the country by sea. The Jewish leadership, led by the future Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, [[Declaration of Independence (Israel)|declared the establishment]] of a Jewish State in [[Land of Israel|Eretz-Israel]], to be known as the [[State of Israel]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Declaration+of+Establishment+of+State+of+Israel.htm |title=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs: ''Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel: 14 May 1948'': Retrieved 10 April 2012 |access-date=9 April 2012 |archive-date=16 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116103234/http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Declaration+of+Establishment+of+State+of+Israel.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> on the afternoon of 14 May 1948 (5 Iyar 5708 in the [[Hebrew calendar]]), to come into effect at the moment of termination of the Mandate at midnight.<ref>Bier, Aharon, & Slae, Bracha, ''For the sake of Jerusalem'', Mazo Publishers, 2006, p. 49</ref><ref>[[s:Declaration of Independence (Israel)|''Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel'']], 14 May 1948.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=J. Sussmann |title=Law and Judicial Practice in Israel |journal=Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law |volume=32 |year=1950|pages=29–31}}</ref> Also on the 14th, the Provisional Government of Israel asked the US Government for recognition, on the frontiers specified in the UN Plan for Partition.<ref name=Epstein>{{cite web|title=Copy of telegram from Epstein to Shertok|url=https://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/BD240CA5-379D-4FAE-81A8-069902AD1E7F/0/Truman3.pdf|publisher=Government of Israel|access-date=3 May 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113183514/http://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/BD240CA5-379D-4FAE-81A8-069902AD1E7F/0/Truman3.pdf|archive-date=13 November 2013}}</ref> The United States immediately replied, recognizing "the provisional government as the de facto authority".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=83|title=Our Documents – Press Release Announcing U.S. Recognition of Israel (1948)|website=www.ourdocuments.gov|date=9 April 2021 }}</ref> At midnight on 14/15 May 1948, the Mandate for Palestine expired, and the State of Israel came into being. The Palestine Government formally ceased to exist, the status of British forces still in the process of withdrawal from Haifa changed to occupiers of foreign territory, the [[Palestine Police Force]] formally stood down and was disbanded, with the remaining personnel evacuated alongside British military forces, the British blockade of Palestine was lifted, and all those who had been [[Palestinian Citizenship Order, 1925|Palestinian citizens]] ceased to be [[British protected person]]s, with [[Mandatory Palestine passport]]s no longer giving British protection.<ref name=hansard/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1948/03/26/archive/palestine-passports-cease-to-give-british-protection-after-may-govt-announces|title=Palestine Passports Cease to Give British Protection After May Govt. Announces – Jewish Telegraphic Agency|website=www.jta.org|date=26 March 1948}}</ref> The [[1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight]] took place both before and after the end of the Mandate.<ref>[[Nur-eldeen Masalha|Masalha, Nur]] (1992). "Expulsion of the Palestinians." Institute for Palestine Studies, this edition 2001, p. 175.</ref><ref name=Khalidi>Rashid (1997). p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bL9dfjYK2eMC&pg=PA21 21] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128023459/https://books.google.com/books?id=bL9dfjYK2eMC&pg=PA21 |date=28 November 2022 }} "In 1948 half of Palestine's 1.4 million Arabs were uprooted from their homes and became refugees".</ref> Over the next few days, approximately 700 Lebanese, 1,876 Syrian, 4,000 Iraqi, and 2,800 Egyptian troops crossed over the borders into Palestine, starting the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]].<ref>Appendix IX-B, 'The Arab Expeditionary Forces to Palestine, 15/5/48, Khalidi, 1971, p. 867.</ref> Around 4,500 Transjordanian troops, commanded partly by 38 British officers who had resigned their commissions in the British Army only weeks earlier, including overall commander, General [[John Bagot Glubb]], entered the [[Corpus separatum (Jerusalem)|Corpus separatum region encompassing Jerusalem and its environs]] (in response to the Haganah's [[Operation Kilshon]])<ref>Bayliss, 1999, p. 84.</ref> and moved into areas designated as part of the Arab state by the UN partition plan. The war, which was to last until 1949, would see Israel expand to encompass about 78% of the territory of the former British Mandate, with Transjordan seizing and subsequently annexing the [[West Bank]] and the [[Kingdom of Egypt]] seizing the [[Gaza Strip]]. With the end of the Mandate, the remaining British troops in Israel were concentrated in an enclave in the Haifa port area, through which they were being withdrawn, and at RAF Ramat David, which was maintained to cover the withdrawal. The British handed over RAF Ramat David to the Israelis on 26 May and on 30 June, the last British troops were evacuated from Haifa. The British flag was lowered from the administrative building of the Port of Haifa and the Israeli flag was raised in its place, and the Haifa port area was formally handed over to the Israeli authorities in a ceremony.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cohen-Hattab|first=Kobi|title=Zionism's Maritime Revolution: The Yishuv's Hold on the Land of Israel's Sea and Shores, 1917–1948|isbn=978-3-11-063352-8|date=8 July 2019|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pz_EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA255}}</ref> ==Politics== ===Palestinian Arab community=== {{further|Arab Higher Committee}} {{multiple image | footer = Passports from the British Mandate era | image1 = British Mandate Palestinian passport.jpg | caption1 = Front cover | width1 = 107 | image2 = 2011-07-04 09.41.jpg | caption2 = Biographical pages | width2 = 210 }} The resolution of the [[San Remo Conference]] contained a safeguarding clause for the existing rights of the non-Jewish communities. The conference accepted the terms of the Mandate with reference to Palestine, on the understanding that there was inserted in the memorandum a legal undertaking by the Mandatory Power that it would not involve the surrender of the rights hitherto enjoyed by the non-Jewish communities in Palestine.<ref>See Papers relating to the foreign relations of the United States {{cite web |title=The Paris Peace Conference |year=1919|page =94 |url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1919Parisv13&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=94}}</ref> The draft mandates for [[Mandatory Iraq|Mesopotamia]] and Palestine, and all of the post-war peace treaties, contained clauses for the protection of religious groups and minorities. The mandates invoked the compulsory jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice in the event of any disputes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/summaryofworkofl00leagiala|title=Summary of the work of the League of Nations, January 1920 – March 1922|last=League of Nations Union|year=1922|publisher=London|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Article 62 (LXII) of the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]], signed on 13 July 1878,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878berlin.html|title=Internet History Sourcebooks|website=www.fordham.edu|access-date=12 January 2010|archive-date=8 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608120300/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1878berlin.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> dealt with religious freedom and [[civil and political rights]] in all parts of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>See Defending the Rights of Others, by Carol Fink, Cambridge University, 2006, {{ISBN|978-0-521-02994-0}}, p. 28</ref> The guarantees have frequently been referred to as "religious rights" or "minority rights". However, the guarantees included a prohibition against discrimination in civil and political matters. Difference of religion could not be alleged against any person as a ground for exclusion or incapacity in matters relating to the enjoyment of civil or political rights, admission to public employments, functions, and honours, or the exercise of the various professions and industries, "in any locality whatsoever". A legal analysis performed by the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ) noted that the [[Covenant of the League of Nations]] had provisionally recognised the communities of Palestine as independent nations. The mandate simply marked a transitory period, with the aim and object of leading the mandated territory to become an independent self-governing State.<ref name=Ormsby>See the Statement of the Principal Accredited Representative, Hon. [[William Ormsby-Gore, 4th Baron Harlech|W. Ormsby-Gore]], C.330.M.222, Mandate for Palestine [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0145a8233e14d2b585256cbf005af141/fd05535118aef0de052565ed0065ddf7?OpenDocument – Minutes of the Permanent Mandates Commission/League of Nations 32nd session, 18 August 1937] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603232945/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0145a8233e14d2b585256cbf005af141/fd05535118aef0de052565ed0065ddf7?OpenDocument |date=3 June 2011 }}</ref> Judge Higgins explained that the Palestinian people are entitled to their territory, to exercise [[self-determination]], and to have their own State."<ref>[http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/131/1681.pdf See the Judgment in "Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112025712/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/131/1681.pdf |date=2011-01-12 }} (PDF)</ref><!-- Where does this quote begin? No beginning quotation mark present. --> The Court said that specific guarantees regarding freedom of movement and access to the Holy Sites contained in the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]] (1878) had been preserved under the terms of the Palestine Mandate and a chapter of the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]].<ref>See paragraphs 49, 70, and 129 of the International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory [http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/131/1671.pdf PDF] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706021237/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/131/1671.pdf |date=2010-07-06 }} and PAUL J. I. M. DE WAART (2005). "International Court of Justice Firmly Walled in the Law of Power in the Israeli–Palestinian Peace Process." ''Leiden Journal of International Law'', 18, pp. 467–487, {{doi|10.1017/S0922156505002839}}</ref> According to historian [[Rashid Khalidi]], the mandate ignored the political rights of the Arabs.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=32–33}} The Arab leadership repeatedly pressed the British to grant them national and political rights, such as representative government, over Jewish national and political rights in the remaining 23% of the Mandate of Palestine which the British had set aside for a Jewish homeland. The Arabs reminded the British of [[Woodrow Wilson|President Wilson]]'s [[Fourteen Points]] and British promises during the [[First World War]]. The British, however, made acceptance of the terms of the mandate a precondition for any change in the constitutional position of the Arabs. A legislative council was proposed in [[Constitution of Mandatory Palestine|The Palestine Order in Council]], of 1922, which implemented the terms of the mandate. It stated that: "No Ordinance shall be passed which shall be in any way repugnant to or inconsistent with the provisions of the Mandate." For the Arabs, this decree was unacceptable, akin to "self murder".{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=33–34}} As a result, the Arabs boycotted the [[1923 Palestinian Legislative Council election|elections to the Council]] held in 1923, which were subsequently annulled.<ref>"Palestine. The Constitution Suspended., Arab Boycott Of Elections., Back To British Rule" ''The Times'', 30 May 1923, p. 14, Issue 43354</ref> During the interwar period, the British rejected the principle of majority rule or any other measure that would give Arabs control of the government.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=32, 36}} The terms of the mandate required the establishment of self-governing institutions in both Palestine and Transjordan. In 1947, the [[Foreign Secretary]], [[Ernest Bevin]], admitted that, during the previous twenty-five years, the British had done their best to further the legitimate aspirations of the Jewish communities without prejudicing the interests of the Arabs, but had failed to "secure the development of self-governing institutions" in accordance with the terms of the Mandate.<ref>See Foreign relations of the United States, 1947. The Near East and Africa Volume V, p. 1033</ref> ====Palestinian Arab leadership and national aspirations==== {{main|Palestinian Nationalism|Arab nationalism}} [[File:Palestine 1930.jpg|thumb|upright|A 1930 protest in [[Jerusalem]] against the British Mandate by Arab women. The sign reads "No dialogue, no negotiations until termination of the Mandate."]] Under the British Mandate, the office of "Mufti of Jerusalem", traditionally limited in authority and geographical scope, was refashioned into that of "Grand Mufti of Palestine". Furthermore, a Supreme Muslim Council (SMC) was established and given various duties, such as the administration of [[waqf|religious endowments]] and the appointment of [[qadi|religious judges]] and local muftis. In Ottoman times, these duties had been fulfilled by the Imperial bureaucracy in [[Constantinople]] ([[Istanbul]]).{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|p=63}} In dealings with the Palestinian Arabs, the British negotiated with the elite rather than the middle or lower classes.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|p=52}} They chose [[Hajj Amin al-Husseini]] to become Grand Mufti, although he was young and had received the fewest votes from Jerusalem's Islamic leaders.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=56–57}} One of the mufti's rivals, [[Raghib al-Nashashibi|Raghib Bey al-Nashashibi]], had already been appointed [[Mayor of Jerusalem]] in 1920, replacing [[Musa al-Husseini|Musa Kazim]], whom the British removed after the [[1920 Palestine riots|Nabi Musa riots of 1920]],{{sfnm|Khalidi|2006|1pp=63, 69|Segev|2000|2pp=127–144}} during which he exhorted the crowd to give their blood for Palestine.{{sfn|Morris|2001|p=112}} During the entire Mandate period, but especially during the latter half, the rivalry between the mufti and al-Nashashibi dominated Palestinian politics. Khalidi ascribes the failure of the Palestinian leaders to enroll mass support to the fact that they had been part of the ruling elite and accustomed to their commands being obeyed; thus, the idea of mobilising the masses was unknown to them.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|p=81}} On the Husseini-Nashashibi rivalry, an editorial in the Arabic-language ''[[Falastin]]'' newspaper in the 1920s commented:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.nli.org.il/sites/nlis/en/jrayed/Pages/Filastin.aspx|title=Filastin|work=National Library of Israel|access-date=4 March 2019}}</ref> {{blockquote|The spirit of factionalism has penetrated most levels of society; one can see it among journalists, trainees, and the rank and file. If you ask anyone: who does he support? He will reply with pride, Husseini or Nashasibi, or ... he will start to pour out his wrath against the opposing camp in a most repulsive manner.}} There had already been rioting and attacks on and massacres of Jews in [[Jaffa riots|1921]] and [[1929 Palestine riots|1929]]. During the 1930s, Palestinian Arab popular discontent with Jewish immigration grew. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, several factions of Palestinian society, especially from the younger generation, became impatient with the internecine divisions and ineffectiveness of the Palestinian elite and engaged in grass-roots anti-British and anti-Zionist activism, organised by groups such as the [[Young Men's Muslim Association]]. There was also support for the radical nationalist [[Independence Party (Palestine)|Independence Party]] (''Hizb al-Istiqlal''), which called for a boycott of the British in the manner of the [[Indian Independence Movement#Salt March and civil disobedience|Indian Congress Party]]. Some took to the hills to [[Black Hand (Palestine)|fight the British and the Jews]]. Most of these initiatives were contained and defeated by notables in the pay of the Mandatory Administration, particularly the mufti and his cousin [[Jamal al-Husseini]]. A six-month general strike in 1936 marked the start of the great Arab Revolt.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=87–90}} ====Palestinian Arab journalism==== {{Main|History of Palestinian journalism}} [[File:A 1936 caricature published in the Falastin newspaper on Zionism and Palestine.png|thumb|The Palestinian [[Arab Christian]]-owned ''[[Falastin]]'' newspaper featuring a caricature on its 18 June 1936 edition showing Zionism as a crocodile under the protection of a British officer telling Palestinian Arabs: "don't be afraid!!! I will swallow you peacefully...."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sufian |first=Sandy |title=Anatomy of the 1936–39 Revolt: Images of the Body in Political Cartoons of Mandatory Palestine |journal=Journal of Palestine Studies |date=1 January 2008 |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=23–42|doi=10.1525/jps.2008.37.2.23 |url=https://www.academia.edu/13805989 |access-date=14 January 2008}}</ref>]] After the Palestinian Arab press during the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman period]] had been suppressed due to the outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914, only two of the three leading newspapers of the Ottoman era were reopened during the mandate period, ''[[Al-Karmil (newspaper)|Al-Karmil]]'' and ''[[Falastin (newspaper)|Falastin]]''. During this period, the press became more diverse, and increasingly reflected different political factions and national consciousness. According to one survey in the mid 1930s, over 250 Arabic newspapers and 65 in other languages were circulating in Mandatory Palestine.{{sfn|Kominko|2015|p=384}} Twenty newspapers were established in [[Jerusalem]], six in [[Jaffa]], twelve in [[Haifa]], and others in [[Bethlehem]], [[Gaza City|Gaza]] and [[Tulkarem]].{{sfn|Kominko|2015|p=384}} The Ottoman Press Law, which mandated licensing and the submission of translations to government authorities, was adopted by the British, but they rarely interfered until the [[1929 Palestine riots]], which saw violent confrontations between Arabs and Zionists, and led to a radicalization of Arab newspapers. One outspoken newspaper was established in [[Jaffa]] called ''[[Al Difa|Al-Difa']]'' (''The Defense'') in 1934, which was associated with [[Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)|Hizb Al-Istiqlal]] (The Independence Party).{{sfn|Kominko|2015|p=384}} ''Falastin'' and ''Al-Difa''' became the two most prominent dailies during the mandate period, and a rivalry developed between the two, which led to improvements in their quality.{{sfn|Gorman|Monciaud|2018|p=106}} Many of the editors and owners of newspapers were members of political organizations, and used their publications for mobilizing the public.{{sfn|Regan|2018|p=135, 137}} The British authorities' attitude towards Palestinian press was initially tolerant, given they had assessed that their impact on public life was minimal, but restrictive measures were soon increasingly introduced. A new Publications Law was issued in 1933, which gave the British authorities the power to revoke publication permits, suspend newspapers, and punish journalists. Regulations were issued that further restricted freedom of the press. Many major publications were suspended for extended periods between 1937 and 1938, including ''Falastin'', ''Al-Difa'', and ''Al-Liwa''. After the outbreak of [[World War II]], emergency laws were enacted and the British closed almost all the newspapers, with the exception of ''Falastin'' and ''Al-Difa'', due to the moderation of their tone and the publishing of censored news.{{sfn|Kominko|2015|p=386-387}} ===Jewish community=== {{further|Jewish National Council}} {{see also|History of Zionism|History of Israel}} The conquest of [[Ottoman Syria]] by British forces in 1917 found a mixed community in the region, with [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], the southern part of Ottoman Syria, containing a mixed population of Muslims, Christians, Jews and Druze. In this period, the Jewish community ([[Yishuv]]) in Palestine was composed of traditional Jewish communities in cities (the ''[[Old Yishuv]]''), which had existed for centuries,<ref>In June 1947, the British Mandate Government of Palestine had published the following statistics: "It is estimated that over a quarter of the Jewish population in Palestine are Sephardic Jews of whom some 60,000 were born of families resident in Palestine for centuries. The bulk of the Sephardic community, however, consists of oriental Jews emanating from Syria, Egypt, Persia, Iraq, Georgia, Bokhara and other Eastern countries. They are confined mainly to the larger towns ..." (From: ''Supplement to Survey of Palestine – Notes compiled for the information of the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine – June 1947'', Gov. Printer Jerusalem, pp. 150–151)</ref> and the newly established agricultural Zionist communities (the ''New Yishuv''), established since the 1870s. With the establishment of the Mandate, the Jewish community in Palestine formed the Zionist Commission to represent its interests. In 1929, the [[Jewish Agency for Palestine]] took over from the Zionist Commission its representative functions and administration of the Jewish community. During the Mandate period, the Jewish Agency was a quasi-governmental organisation that served the administrative needs of the Jewish community. Its leadership was elected by Jews from all over the world by proportional representation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Home/About/History |title=Jewish Agency History |access-date=29 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060215200224/http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Home/About/History |archive-date=15 February 2006 }}</ref> The Jewish Agency was charged with facilitating Jewish immigration to Palestine, land purchase and planning the general policies of the Zionist leadership. It ran schools and hospitals and formed the [[Haganah]]. The British authorities offered to create a similar ''Arab Agency'' but this offer was rejected by Arab leaders.<ref>''Palestine Jewry and the Arab Question, 1917–1925'', by Caplan, Neil. London and Totowa, NJ: F. Cass, 1978. {{ISBN|978-0-7146-3110-3}}. pp. 161–165.</ref> In response to numerous Arab attacks on Jewish communities, the [[Haganah]], a Jewish paramilitary organisation, was formed on 15 June 1920 to defend Jewish residents. Tensions led to widespread violent disturbances on several occasions, notably in 1921 (see [[Jaffa riots]]), 1929 (primarily violent attacks by Arabs on Jews{{Snd}}see [[1929 Hebron massacre]]) and 1936–1939. Beginning in 1936, Jewish groups such as [[Irgun|Etzel (Irgun)]] and [[Stern Gang|Lehi (Stern Gang)]] conducted campaigns of violence against British military and Arab targets. ====Jewish immigration==== {{main|Aliyah}} [[File:Jewish immigration to Mandatory Palestine (1920-1945).jpg|500px|thumb|Jewish immigration to Mandatory Palestine from 1920 to 1945]] During the Mandate, the Yishuv grew from one-sixth to almost one-third of the population. According to official records, 367,845 Jews and 33,304 non-Jews immigrated legally between 1920 and 1945.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry |volume=1|page=185|publisher=Govt. printer|location=Palestine|year=1946}}</ref> It was estimated that another 50–60,000 Jews and a marginal number of Arabs, the latter mostly on a seasonal basis, immigrated illegally during this period.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry |volume=1|publisher=Govt. printer|location=Palestine|year=1946}} p. 210: "Arab illegal immigration is mainly ... casual, temporary and seasonal". pp. 212: "The conclusion is that Arab illegal immigration for the purpose of permanent settlement is insignificant".</ref> Immigration accounted for most of the increase of Jewish population, while the non-Jewish population increase was largely natural.<ref>{{Cite book|author=J. McCarthy|title=The population of Palestine: population history and statistics of the late Ottoman period and the Mandate|publisher=Darwin Press|year=1995|location=Princeton, N.J.}}</ref> Of the Jewish immigrants, in 1939 most had come from Germany and Czechoslovakia, but in 1940–1944 most came from Romania and Poland, with an additional 3,530 immigrants arriving from Yemen during the same period.<ref>''Supplement to Survey of Palestine – Notes compiled for the information of the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine – June 1947'', Gov. Printer Jerusalem, p. 18</ref> Initially, Jewish immigration to Palestine met little opposition from the [[Palestinian Arab]]s. However, as [[anti-Semitism]] grew in Europe during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Jewish immigration (mostly from Europe) to Palestine began to increase markedly. Combined with the growth of Arab nationalism in the region and increasing anti-Jewish sentiments the growth of the Jewish population created much Arab resentment. The British government placed limitations on Jewish immigration to Palestine. These quotas were controversial, particularly in the latter years of British rule, and both Arabs and Jews disliked the policy, each for their own reasons. Jewish immigrants were to be afforded Palestinian citizenship: {{blockquote|Article 7. The Administration of Palestine shall be responsible for enacting a nationality law. There shall be included in this law provisions framed so as to facilitate the acquisition of Palestinian citizenship by Jews who take up their permanent residence in Palestine.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Statehood of Palestine: International Law in the Middle East Conflict |publisher=Cambridge University Press |author=John B. Quigley |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iTR3BQ0aJ6UC&pg=PA54 |page=54 |isbn=978-0-521-15165-8}}</ref>}} ====Jewish national home==== In 1919, the general secretary (and future President) of the Zionist Organisation, Nahum Sokolow, published ''History of Zionism (1600–1918)''. He also represented the Zionist Organisation at the Paris Peace Conference. {{rquote|The object of Zionism is to establish for the Jewish people a home in Palestine secured by public law." ... It has been said and is still being obstinately repeated by anti-Zionists again and again, that Zionism aims at the creation of an independent "Jewish State" But this is fallacious. The "Jewish State" was never part of the Zionist programme. The Jewish State was the title of Herzl's first pamphlet, which had the supreme merit of forcing people to think. This pamphlet was followed by the first Zionist Congress, which accepted the Basle programme—the only programme in existence.|Nahum Sokolow, History of Zionism<ref>See History of Zionism (1600–1918), Volume I, Nahum Sokolow, 1919 Longmans, Green, and Company, London, pp. xxiv–xxv</ref>}} One of the objectives of British administration was to give effect to the [[Balfour Declaration]], which was also set out in the preamble of the mandate, as follows: {{blockquote|Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have also agreed that the Mandatory should be responsible for putting into effect the [[Balfour Declaration|declaration originally made on November 2nd, 1917]], by the Government of His Britannic Majesty, and adopted by the said Powers, in favour of the establishment in Palestine of a [[national home for the Jewish people]], it being clearly understood that nothing should be done which might prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.<ref name=Avalon>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp|title=The Avalon Project : The Palestine Mandate|website=avalon.law.yale.edu}}</ref>}} The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine said the Jewish National Home, which derived from the formulation of Zionist aspirations in the 1897 [[Basle program]] has provoked many discussions concerning its meaning, scope and legal character, especially since it had no known legal connotation and there are no precedents in international law for its interpretation. It was used in the Balfour Declaration and in the Mandate, both of which promised the establishment of a "Jewish National Home" without, however, defining its meaning. A statement on "British Policy in Palestine", issued on 3 June 1922 by the Colonial Office,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/brwh1922.asp|title=British White Paper of June 1922|website=avalon.law.yale.edu}}</ref> placed a restrictive construction upon the Balfour Declaration. The statement said the British government did not contemplate "the disappearance or subordination of the Arabic population, language or customs in Palestine" or "the imposition of Jewish nationality upon the inhabitants of Palestine as a whole", and made it clear that in the eyes of the mandatory Power, the Jewish National Home was to be founded in Palestine and not that Palestine as a whole was to be converted into a Jewish National Home. The Committee noted that the construction, which restricted considerably the scope of the National Home, was made prior to the confirmation of the Mandate by the Council of the League of Nations and was formally accepted at the time by the Executive of the Zionist Organisation.<ref>See the report of the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine, UN Document A/364, 3 September 1947</ref> In March 1930, Lord Passfield, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, had written a Cabinet Paper<ref>Memorandum by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, "Palestine: High Commissioners Views on Policy", March 1930, UK National Archives Cabinet Paper CAB/24/211, formerly C.P. 108 (30)</ref> which said: {{blockquote|In the Balfour Declaration there is no suggestion that the Jews should be accorded a special or favoured position in Palestine as compared with the Arab inhabitants of the country, or that the claims of Palestinians to enjoy self-government (subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory as foreshadowed in Article XXII of the Covenant) should be curtailed in order to facilitate the establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish people." ... Zionist leaders have not concealed and do not conceal their opposition to the grant of any measure of self-government to the people of Palestine either now or for many years to come. Some of them even go so far as to claim that that provision of Article 2 of the Mandate constitutes a bar to compliance with the demand of the Arabs for any measure of self-government. In view of the provisions of Article XXII of the Covenant and of the promises made to the Arabs on several occasions that claim is inadmissible.}} The League of Nations Permanent Mandates Commission took the position that the Mandate contained a dual obligation. In 1932 the Mandates Commission questioned the representative of the Mandatory on the demands made by the Arab population regarding the establishment of self-governing institutions, in accordance with various articles of the mandate, and in particular Article 2. The chairman noted that "under the terms of the same article, the mandatory Power had long since set up the Jewish National Home".<ref>{{cite web|title=PERMANENT MANDATES COMMISSION MINUTES OF THE TWENTY-SECOND SESSION|url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/B887C0FE3914081705256616005A499B|publisher=LEAGUE OF NATIONS|access-date=8 June 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810180913/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/B887C0FE3914081705256616005A499B|archive-date=10 August 2011}}</ref> In 1937, the [[Peel Commission]], a British Royal Commission headed by [[William Peel, 1st Earl Peel|Earl Peel]], proposed solving the Arab–Jewish conflict by partitioning Palestine into two states. The two main Jewish leaders, [[Chaim Weizmann]] and [[David Ben-Gurion]], had convinced the [[World Zionist Congress|Zionist Congress]] to approve equivocally the Peel recommendations as a basis for more negotiation.<ref name=Louis/><ref name=Morris66/><ref name=Morris48/><ref>''Partner to Partition: The Jewish Agency's Partition Plan in the Mandate Era'', by [[Yossi Katz (geographer)|Yossi Katz]], Routledge, 1998, {{ISBN|978-0-7146-4846-0}}</ref> The US Consul General at Jerusalem told the State Department that the Mufti had refused the principle of partition and declined to consider it. The Consul said that the [[Abdullah I of Jordan|Emir Abdullah]] urged acceptance on the ground that realities must be faced, but wanted modification of the proposed boundaries and Arab administrations in the neutral enclave. The Consul also noted that Nashashibi sidestepped the principle, but was willing to negotiate for favourable modifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1937v02&isize=M&submit=Go+to+page&page=894|title=FRUS: Foreign relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1937. The British Commonwealth, Europe, Near East and Africa: Palestine|website=digicoll.library.wisc.edu}}</ref> A collection of private correspondence published by David Ben Gurion contained a letter written in 1937 which explained that he was in favour of partition because he did not envision a partial Jewish state as the end of the process. Ben Gurion wrote "What we want is not that the country be united and whole, but that the united and whole country be Jewish." He explained that a first-class Jewish army would permit Zionists to settle in the rest of the country with or without the consent of the Arabs.<ref>See ''Letters to Paula and the Children'', David Ben Gurion, translated by Aubry Hodes, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1971 pp. 153–157</ref> Benny Morris said that both Chaim Weizmann and David Ben Gurion saw partition as a stepping stone to further expansion and the eventual takeover of the whole of Palestine.<ref>See ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist–Arab Conflict, 1881–1999'', by Benny Morris, Knopf, 1999, {{ISBN|978-0-679-42120-7}}, p. 138</ref> Former Israeli Foreign Minister and historian Schlomo Ben Ami writes that 1937 was the same year that the "Field Battalions" under Yitzhak Sadeh wrote the "Avner Plan", which anticipated and laid the groundwork for what would become in 1948, [[Plan Dalet|Plan D]]. It envisioned going far beyond any boundaries contained in the existing partition proposals and planned the conquest of the Galilee, the West Bank, and Jerusalem.<ref>See ''Scars of war, Wounds of Peace: The Israeli–Arab Tragedy'', by Shlomo Ben-Ami, Oxford University Press, USA, 2006, {{ISBN|978-0-19-518158-6}}, p. 17</ref> In 1942, the [[Biltmore Program]] was adopted as the platform of the World Zionist Organisation. It demanded "that Palestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth". In 1946 an Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry noted that the demand for a Jewish State went beyond the obligations of either the Balfour Declaration or the Mandate and had been expressly disowned by the Chairman of the Jewish Agency as recently as 1932.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/angch05.asp|title=Avalon Project – Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry – Chapter V|website=avalon.law.yale.edu}}</ref> The Jewish Agency subsequently refused to accept the subsequent [[Morrison-Grady Plan]] as the basis for discussion. A spokesman for the agency, Eliahu Epstein, told the US State Department that the Agency could not attend the London conference if the Grady-Morrison proposal was on the agenda. He stated that the Agency was unwilling to be placed in a position where it might have to compromise between the Grady-Morrison proposals on the one hand and its own partition plan on the other. He stated that the Agency had accepted partition as the solution for Palestine which it favoured.<ref>See Foreign relations of the United States, 1946, The Near East and Africa Volume VII, pp. 692–693</ref> ===Land ownership=== {{See also|Jewish land purchase in Palestine}} [[File:Palestine Land ownership by sub-district (1945).jpg|thumb|Map of Palestinian land ownership by sub-district (1945) originally published in the [[Village Statistics, 1945]]]] [[File:Palestine Index to Villages and Settlements, showing Land in Jewish Possession as at 31.12.44.jpg|thumb|Palestinian index of villages and settlements, showing land in Jewish possession as of 31 December 1944]] After transition to the British rule, much of the agricultural land in Palestine (about one third of the whole territory) was still owned by the same landowners as under Ottoman rule, mostly powerful Arab clans and local Muslim sheikhs. Other lands had been held by foreign Christian organisations (most notably the Greek Orthodox Church), as well as Jewish private and Zionist organisations, and to lesser degree by small minorities of Baháʼís, Samaritans and Circassians. As of 1931, the territory of the British Mandate of Palestine was {{convert|26625600|dunam|km2|lk=in}}, of which {{convert|8252900|dunam|km2}} or 33% were arable.{{sfn|Stein|1984|p=4}} Official statistics show that Jews privately and collectively owned {{convert|1393531|dunam|km2|2}}, or 5.23% of Palestine's total in 1945.<ref>"Land Ownership in Palestine", CZA, KKL5/1878. The statistics were prepared by the Palestine Lands Department for the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, 1945, ISA, Box 3874/file 1. See {{harvnb|Khalaf|1991|p=27}}</ref>{{sfn|Stein|1984|p=226}} The Jewish owned agricultural land was largely located in the Galilee and along the coastal plain. Estimates of the total volume of land that Jews had purchased by 15 May 1948 are complicated by illegal and unregistered land transfers, as well as by the lack of data on land concessions from the Palestine administration after 31 March 1936. According to Avneri, Jews held {{convert|1850000|dunam|km2}} of land in 1947, or 6.94% of the total.{{sfn|Avneri|1984|p=224}} Stein gives the estimate of {{convert|2000000|dunam|km2}} as of May 1948, or 7.51% of the total.{{sfn|Stein|1984|pp=3–4, 247}} According to Fischbach, by 1948, Jews and Jewish companies owned 20% percent of all cultivable land in the country.<ref name=Fischbach24>{{cite book |author=Fischbach, Michael R. |title=Jewish Property Claims Against Arab Countries |date=13 August 2013 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-51781-2 |page=24 |quote=By 1948, after several decades of Jewish immigration, the Jewish population of Palestine had risen to about one third of the total, and Jews and Jewish companies owned 20 percent of all cultivable land in the country |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38xyBIqKgkwC}}</ref> According to Clifford A. Wright, by the end of the British Mandate period in 1948, Jewish farmers cultivated 425,450 dunams of land, while [[Palestinians|Palestinian]] farmers had 5,484,700 dunams of land under cultivation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wright |first1=Clifford A. |title=Facts and Fables (RLE Israel and Palestine): The Arab-Israeli Conflict |date=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-44775-7 |page=38 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t0CsCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA38}}</ref> The 1945 UN estimate shows that Arab ownership of arable land was on average 68% of a district, ranging from 15% ownership in the Beer-Sheba district to 99% ownership in the Ramallah district. These data cannot be fully understood without comparing them to those of neighbouring countries: in Iraq, for instance, still in 1951 only 0.3 per cent of registered land (or 50 per cent of the total amount) was categorised as 'private property'.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13530194.2013.878518 | doi=10.1080/13530194.2013.878518 | title=Whose Land? Land Tenure in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Palestine | year=2014 | last1=Kamel | first1=Lorenzo | journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies | volume=41 | issue=2 | pages=230–242 | s2cid=153944896 }}</ref> ====Land ownership by district==== The following table shows the 1945 land ownership of mandatory Palestine by [[Districts of Mandatory Palestine|district]]: {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;" |+ Land ownership of Palestine in 1945 by district |- ! District !! Sub-district !! Arab-owned !! Jewish-owned !! Public / other |- | style="text-align:left;"|Haifa |align="left"| [[Haifa Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Haifa]] || 42% || 35% || 23% |- | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="5"|Galilee |align="left"| [[Acre Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Acre]] || 87% || 3% || 10% |- |align="left"| [[Beisan Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Beisan]] || 44% || 34% || 22% |- |align="left"| [[Nazareth Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Nazareth]] || 52% || 28% || 20% |- |align="left"| [[Safad Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Safad]] || 68% || 18% || 14% |- |align="left"| [[Tiberias Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Tiberias]] || 51% || 38% || 11% |- | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2"|Lydda |align="left"| [[Jaffa Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Jaffa]] || 47% || 39% || 14% |- |align="left"| [[Ramle Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Ramle]] || 77% || 14% || 9% |- | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="3"|Samaria |align="left"| [[Jenin Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Jenin]] || 84% || <1% || 16% |- |align="left"| [[Nablus]] || 87% || <1% || 13% |- |align="left"| [[Tulkarm Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Tulkarm]] || 78% || 17% || 5% |- | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="3"|Jerusalem |align="left"| [[Hebron Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Hebron]] || 96% || <1% || 4% |- |align="left"| [[Jerusalem Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Jerusalem]] || 84% || 2% || 14% |- |align="left"| [[Ramallah]] || 99% || <1% || 1% |- | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2"|Gaza |align="left"| [[Beersheba Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Beersheba]] || 15% || <1% || 85% |- |align="left"| [[Gaza Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Gaza]] || 75% || 4% || 21% |- |colspan="7" style="background:#e9e9e9;font-size:90%;"| Data from the Land Ownership of Palestine<ref>[http://domino.un.org/maps/m0094.jpg Land Ownership of Palestine] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029103953/http://domino.un.org/maps/m0094.jpg |date=29 October 2008 }} – Map prepared by the Government of Palestine on the instructions of the UN Ad Hoc Committee on the Palestine Question.</ref> |} ====Land ownership by corporation==== The table below shows the land ownership of Palestine by large Jewish Corporations (in square kilometres) on 31 December 1945. {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;" |+ Land ownership of Palestine by large Jewish Corporations (in square kilometres) on 31 December 1945 |- ! Corporations !! Area |-<!-- Original figures in metric dunams, now converted to km2.ha --> |align="left"| [[Jewish National Fund|JNF]] || {{rnd|(600800+59300)/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| [[Palestine Jewish Colonisation Association|PICA]] || {{rnd|(189800+3900)/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Palestine Land Development Co. Ltd. || {{rnd|(9500+200)/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Hemnuta Ltd || {{rnd|(5700+10800)/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Africa Palestine Investment Co. Ltd. || {{rnd| 9900/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Bayside Land Corporation Ltd. || {{rnd| 8500/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Palestine Kupat Am. Bank Ltd. || {{rnd|(6300+2100)/1000|2}} |-style="background:#f2f2f2; font-weight:bold" |align="left"| Total || {{rnd|906800/1000|2}} |- |colspan="7" style="background:#e9e9e9;font-size:90%;"| Data is from Survey of Palestine (vol. I, p. 245).<ref>[http://www.palestineremembered.com/Articles/A-Survey-of-Palestine/Story6686.html Table 2 showing Holdings of Large Jewish Lands Owners as of December 31st, 1945, British Mandate: A Survey of Palestine: Volume I – Page 245. Chapter VIII: Land: Section 3., prepared by the British Mandate for the United Nations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618235225/https://www.palestineremembered.com/Articles/A-Survey-of-Palestine/Story6686.html |date=18 June 2021 }} Survey of Palestine Retrieved 4 July 2015</ref><ref name=AngloAmCom>{{cite book|title=A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December, 1945 and January, 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry |volume=1 |publisher=[[Institute for Palestine Studies]] |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-88728-211-9 |author=Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry on Jewish Problems in Palestine and Europe, J. V. W. Shaw, General Assembly, Special Committee on Palestine, United Nations |author-link=Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry}}</ref> |} ====Land ownership by type==== The land owned privately and collectively by Jews, Arabs and other non-Jews can be classified as urban, rural built-on, cultivable (farmed), and uncultivable. The following chart shows the ownership by Jews, Arabs and other non-Jews in each of the categories. {|class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;" |+ Land ownership of Palestine (in square kilometres) on 1 April 1943 |- ! Category !! Arab / non-Jewish ownership !! Jewish ownership !! Total |-<!-- Original figures in dunams, now converted to km2.ha --> |align="left"| Urban || {{rnd|76662/1000|2}} || {{rnd|70111/1000|2}} || {{rnd|146773/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Rural built-on || {{rnd|36851/1000|2}} || {{rnd|42330/1000|2}} || {{rnd|79181/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Cereal (taxable) || {{rnd|5503183/1000|2}} || {{rnd|814102/1000|2}} || {{rnd|6317285/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Cereal (not taxable) || {{rnd|900294/1000|2}} || {{rnd|51049/1000|2}} || {{rnd|951343/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Plantation || {{rnd|1079788/1000|2}} || {{rnd|95514/1000|2}} || {{rnd|1175302/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Citrus || {{rnd|145572/1000|2}} || {{rnd|141188/1000|2}} || {{rnd|286760/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Banana || {{rnd|2300/1000|2}} || {{rnd|1430/1000|2}} || {{rnd|3730/1000|2}} |- |align="left"| Uncultivable || {{rnd|16925805/1000|2}} || {{rnd|298523/1000|2}} || {{rnd|17224328/1000|2}} |-style="background:#f2f2f2; font-weight:bold" |align="left"| Total | {{rnd|24670455/1000|2}} || {{rnd|1514247/1000|2}} || {{rnd|26184702/1000|2}} |- |colspan="7" style="background:#e9e9e9;font-size:90%;"| Data is from Survey of Palestine (vol. II, p. 566).<ref name=AngloAmCom/><ref>[http://www.palestineremembered.com/Acre/Articles/Story1000.html Ownership of land in Palestine, Share of Palestinan (sic) Arabs and Jews as of 1 April 1943, prepared by the British Mandate for the United Nations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929194842/http://www.palestineremembered.com/Acre/Articles/Story1000.html |date=29 September 2018 }} Survey of Palestine Retrieved 25 August 2014</ref> By the end of 1946, Jewish ownership had increased to 1624 km<sup>2</sup>.<ref>''ibid'', Supplement p30.</ref> |} ====List of Mandatory land laws==== [[File:WhitePaper.jpg|thumb|140px|Land classification as prescribed in 1940]] * Land Transfer Ordinance of 1920 * 1926 Correction of Land Registers Ordinance * Land Settlement Ordinance of 1928 * Land Transfer Regulations of 1940 In February 1940, the British Government of Palestine promulgated the ''Land Transfer Regulations'' which divided Palestine into three regions with different restrictions on land sales applying to each. In Zone "A", which included the hill-country of Judea as a whole, certain areas in the [[Jaffa]] sub-District, and in the [[Gaza District]], and the northern part of the [[Beersheba]] sub-District, new agreements for sale of land other than to a Palestinian Arab were forbidden without the High Commissioner's permission. In Zone "B", which included the [[Jezreel Valley]], eastern Galilee, a parcel of coastal plain south of [[Haifa]], a region northeast of the Gaza District, and the southern part of the Beersheba sub-District, sale of land by a Palestinian Arab was forbidden except to a Palestinian Arab with similar exceptions. In the "free zone", which consisted of Haifa Bay, the coastal plain from [[Zikhron Ya'akov]] to [[Yibna]], and the neighborhood of Jerusalem, there were no restrictions. The reason given for the regulations was that the Mandatory was required to "ensur[e] that the rights and positions of other sections of the population are not prejudiced", and an assertion that "such transfers of land must be restricted if Arab cultivators are to maintain their existing standard of life and a considerable landless Arab population is not soon to be created"<ref>''A Survey of Palestine'' (Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the information of the [[Anglo-American Committee]] of Inquiry), vol. 1, chapter VIII, section 7, Government Printer of Jerusalem, pp. [http://www.palestineremembered.com/Articles/A-Survey-of-Palestine/Story6703.html 260–262] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912192325/http://www.palestineremembered.com/Articles/A-Survey-of-Palestine/Story6703.html |date=12 September 2017 }}</ref> ==Demographics== {{main|Demographic history of Palestine (region)#British Mandate era}} ===British censuses and estimations=== [[File:Crowded street, NINO F Scholten Es Salt 64.tiff|thumb|Street in As-Salt in the 1920s]] [[File:Palestine Distribution of Population 1947 UN map no 93(b).jpeg|thumb|Population distribution near the end of the Mandate]] In 1920, the majority of the approximately {{formatnum:750000}} people in this multi-ethnic region were [[Arabic]]-speaking Muslims, including a [[Bedouin]] population (estimated at {{formatnum:103331}} at the time of the 1922 census<ref>"{{cite web |url=http://www.zionism-israel.com/Palestine_Hope_Simpson_Report.htm |title=Hope Simpson report, Chapter III |date=October 1930 |publisher=Zionism-israel.com}}</ref> and concentrated in the [[Beersheba]] area and the region south and east of it), as well as Jews (who accounted for some 11% of the total) and smaller groups of [[Druze]], Syrians, Sudanese, Somalis, [[Circassians]], Egyptians, Copts, Greeks, and [[Hejaz|Hejazi Arabs]]: * The [[First British census of Palestine|first census]] of 1922 showed a population of {{formatnum:757182}}, of whom 78% were Muslim, 11% Jewish and 10% Christian. * The [[Second British census of Palestine|second census]], of 1931, gave a total population of {{formatnum:1035154}} of whom 73.4% were Muslim, 16.9% Jewish and 8.6% Christian. A discrepancy between the two censuses and records of births, deaths and immigration, led the authors of the second census to postulate the illegal immigration of about 9,000 Jews and 4,000 Arabs during the intervening years.<ref>Mills, E. ''Census of Palestine, 1931'' (UK government, 1932), Vol I, pp. 61–65.</ref> [[File:Ymca boys jeru.jpg|thumb|Arab Christian Palestinian boys at the [[Jerusalem YMCA]], 1938]] There were no further censuses but statistics were maintained by counting births, deaths and migration. By the end of 1936 the total population was approximately 1,300,000, the Jews being estimated at 384,000. The Arabs had also increased their numbers rapidly, mainly as a result of the cessation of the [[Conscription in the Ottoman Empire|military conscription imposed on the country by the Ottoman Empire]], the [[Malaria in Mandatory Palestine|campaign against malaria]] and a general improvement in health services. In absolute figures their increase exceeded that of the Jewish population, but proportionally, the latter had risen from 13 per cent of the total population at the census of 1922 to nearly 30 per cent at the end of 1936.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150908182126/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/16B8C7CC809B7E5B8525694B0071F3BD The Political History of Palestine under British Administration], Memorandum to the United Nations Special Committee</ref> Some components such as illegal immigration could only be estimated approximately. The [[White Paper of 1939]], which placed immigration restrictions on Jews, stated that the Jewish population "has risen to some {{formatnum:450000}}" and was "approaching a third of the entire population of the country". In 1945, a demographic study showed that the population had grown to {{formatnum:1764520}}, comprising {{formatnum:1061270}} Muslims, {{formatnum:553600}} Jews, {{formatnum:135550}} Christians and {{formatnum:14100}} people of other groups. {|class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:right;" |- ! Year !! Total !! Muslim !! Jewish !! Christian !! Other |- ! 1922 | {{formatnum:752048}} || {{formatnum:589177}}<br />(78%) || {{formatnum:83790}}<br />(11%) || {{formatnum:71464}}<br />(10%) || {{formatnum:7617}}<br />(1%) |- ! 1931 | {{formatnum:1036339}} || {{formatnum:761922}}<br />(74%) || {{formatnum:175138}}<br />(17%) || {{formatnum:89134}}<br />(9%) || {{formatnum:10145}}<br />(1%) |- ! 1945 | {{formatnum:1764520}} || {{formatnum:1061270}}<br />(60%) || {{formatnum:553600}}<br />(31%) || {{formatnum:135550}}<br />(8%) || {{formatnum:14100}}<br />(1%) |- |style="text-align:center;"| Average compounded [[Population growth|population<br />growth]] rate per annum, 1922–1945 | 3.8% || 2.6% || 8.6% || 2.8% || 2.7% |} ===By district=== [[File:Mandatory Palestine - Population by Municipality (1945).svg|thumb|Map of the municipalities in Mandatory Palestine by population count (1945) {{legend|#A50021|150,000 and more}} {{legend|#D2152F|100,000}} {{legend|#E62735|50,000}} {{legend|#F53D3D|20,000}} {{legend|#F57856|10,000}} {{legend|#F5AC75|5,000}} {{legend|#F5D7BC|2,000}} {{legend|#F5D7BC|1,000}} {{legend|#FAE6DC|500}} {{legend|#FFF6F3|less than 500}} {{legend|#CCC0C0|Nomadic regions in the [[Negev]] desert}}]] The following table gives the religious demography of each of the 16 [[Districts of Mandatory Palestine|districts]] of the Mandate in 1945. {|class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:right;" |- style="background:#e9e9e9;" !colspan="9" style="background:#e9e9e9;font-size:110%"| Demography of Palestine in 1945 by district<ref>{{cite book|title=A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December, 1945 and January, 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry |pages=12–13|volume=1|publisher=Institute for Palestine Studies| year=1991|isbn=978-0-88728-211-9|author=prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry.}}</ref> |- ! rowspan="2"| District ! rowspan="2"| Sub-District ! colspan="2"| Muslim ! colspan="2"| Jewish ! colspan="2"| Christian ! rowspan="2"| Total |- ! Number !! style="text-align:right;"| % ! Number !! style="text-align:right;"| % ! Number !! style="text-align:right;"| % |- | style="text-align:left;"| Haifa |align="left"| [[Haifa Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Haifa]] | {{formatnum:95970}} || 38% | {{formatnum:119020}} || 47% | {{formatnum:33710}} || 13% | {{formatnum:253450}} |- | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="5"| Galilee |align="left"| [[Acre Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Acre]] | {{formatnum:51130}} || 69% | {{formatnum:3030}} || 4% | {{formatnum:11800}} || 16% | {{formatnum:73600}} |- |align="left"| [[Beisan Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Beisan]] | {{formatnum:16660}} || 67% | {{formatnum:7590}} || 30% | 680 || 3% | {{formatnum:24950}} |- |align="left"| [[Nazareth Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Nazareth]] | {{formatnum:30160}} || 60% | {{formatnum:7980}} || 16% | {{formatnum:11770}} || 24% | {{formatnum:49910}} |- |align="left"| [[Safad Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Safad]] | {{formatnum:47310}} || 83% | {{formatnum:7170}} || 13% | {{formatnum:1630}} || 3% | {{formatnum:56970}} |- |align="left"| [[Tiberias Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Tiberias]] | {{formatnum:23940}} || 58% | {{formatnum:13640}} || 33% | {{formatnum:2470}} || 6% | {{formatnum:41470}} |- | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2"| Lydda |align="left"| [[Jaffa Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Jaffa]] | {{formatnum:95980}} || 24% | {{formatnum:295160}} || 72% | {{formatnum:17790}} || 4% | {{formatnum:409290}} |- |align="left"| [[Ramle Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Ramle]] | {{formatnum:95590}} || 71% | {{formatnum:31590}} || 24% | {{formatnum:5840}} || 4% | {{formatnum:134030}} |- | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="3"| Samaria |align="left"| [[Jenin Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Jenin]] | {{formatnum:60000}} || 98% | negligible || <1% | {{formatnum:1210}} || 2% | {{formatnum:61210}} |- |align="left"| [[Nablus]] | {{formatnum:92810}} || 98% | negligible || <1% | {{formatnum:1560}} || 2% | {{formatnum:94600}} |- |align="left"| [[Tulkarm Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Tulkarm]] | {{formatnum:76460}} || 82% | {{formatnum:16180}} || 17% | 380 || 1% | {{formatnum:93220}} |- | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="3"| Jerusalem |align="left"| [[Hebron Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Hebron]] | {{formatnum:92640}} || 99% | 300 || <1% | 170 || <1% | {{formatnum:93120}} |- |align="left"| [[Jerusalem Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Jerusalem]] | {{formatnum:104460}} || 41% | {{formatnum:102520}} || 40% | {{formatnum:46130}} || 18% | {{formatnum:253270}} |- |align="left"| [[Ramallah]] | {{formatnum:40520}} || 83% | negligible || <1% | {{formatnum:8410}} || 17% | {{formatnum:48930}} |- | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2"| [[Gaza District|Gaza]] |align="left"| [[Beersheba Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Beersheba]] | {{formatnum:6270}} || 90% | 510 || 7% | 210 || 3% | {{formatnum:7000}} |- |align="left"| [[Gaza Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Gaza]] | {{formatnum:145700}} || 97% | {{formatnum:3540}} || 2% | {{formatnum:1300}} || 1% | {{formatnum:150540}} |- | style="text-align:left;" colspan="2"| Total | {{formatnum:1076780}} || 58% | {{formatnum:608230}} || 33% | {{formatnum:145060}} || 9% | {{formatnum:1845560}} |} ==Government and institutions== [[File:Barclays building Jerusalem 1939.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Jerusalem City Hall]], 1939]] Under the terms of the August 1922 Palestine Order in Council, the Mandate territory was divided into administrative regions known as [[Districts of Mandatory Palestine|districts]] and were administered by the office of the [[High Commissioners for Palestine and Transjordan|British High Commissioner for Palestine]].<ref>[https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/C7AAE196F41AA055052565F50054E656 The Palestine Order in Council, 10 August 1922, article 11] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916132453/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/C7AAE196F41AA055052565F50054E656 |date=16 September 2014 }}: "The High Commissioner may, with the approval of a Secretary of State, by Proclamation divide Palestine into administrative divisions or districts in such manner and with such subdivisions as may be convenient for purposes of administration describing the boundaries thereof and assigning names thereto."</ref> Britain continued the ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]]'' system of the [[Ottoman Empire]] whereby all matters of a religious nature and personal status were within the jurisdiction of Muslim courts and the courts of other recognised religions, called [[confessional community|confessional communities]]. The High Commissioner established the Orthodox Rabbinate and retained a modified ''millet'' system which only recognised eleven religious communities: Muslims, Jews and nine Christian denominations (none of which were Christian Protestant churches). All those who were not members of these recognised communities were excluded from the ''millet'' arrangement. As a result, there was no possibility, for example, of marriages between confessional communities, and there were no civil marriages. Personal contacts between communities were nominal. Apart from the Religious Courts, the judicial system was modelled on the British one, having a High Court with appellate jurisdiction and the power of review over the Central Court and the Central Criminal Court. The five consecutive Chief Justices were: * [[Thomas Haycraft|Sir Thomas Haycraft]] (1921–1927){{sfn|Likhovski|2006|p=64}} * [[Michael McDonnell|Sir Michael McDonnell]] (1927–1936){{sfn|Likhovski|2006|p=64}} * [[Harry Trusted|Sir Harry Trusted]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1936/10/27/archive/h-h-trusted-named-chief-justice-of-palestine|title=H.h. Trusted Named Chief Justice of Palestine|date=27 October 1936|publisher=Jewish Telegraphic Agency|access-date=18 November 2015}}</ref> (1936–1941; knighted in 1938) (afterwards Chief Justice of the [[Federated Malay States]], 1941) * Frederick Gordon-Smith (1941–1944){{sfn|Likhovski|2006|p=74}} * [[William James Fitzgerald (jurist)|Sir William Fitzgerald]] (1944–1948){{sfn|Likhovski|2006|p=75}} The local newspaper ''[[The Palestine Post]]'' was founded in 1932 by [[Gershon Agron]]. In 1950, its name was changed to ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]''. In 1923, [[Pinhas Rutenberg]] founded the Palestine Electric Company (to become the [[Israel Electric Corporation]] in 1961). ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Mandatory Palestine}} {{multiple image | footer = "[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]" is shown in English, Arabic (<big>فلسطين</big>) and Hebrew; the latter includes the acronym <big>א״י</big> for ''[[Eretz Yisrael]]'' (Land of Israel). | image1 = Palestine stamp.jpg | caption1 = 1927 Mandatory Palestine postage stamp | width1 = 93 | image2 = عملة فلسطينية معدنية.jpg | caption2 = 1941 Mandatory Palestine coin | width2 = 108 | image3 = Stamp palestine 10 mils.jpg | caption3 = 1927 Mandatory Palestine revenue stamp | width3 = 90 | image4 = Mill (British Mandate for Palestine currency, 1927).jpg | width4 = 110 | caption4 = 1927 Mandatory Palestine coin }} Between 1922 and 1947, the annual growth rate of the Jewish sector of the economy was 13.2%, mainly due to immigration and foreign capital, while that of the Arab was 6.5%. Per capita, these figures were 4.8% and 3.6% respectively. By 1936, Jews earned 2.6 times as much as Arabs.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=13–14}} Compared to Arabs in other countries, Palestinian Arabs earned slightly more.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|p=27}} The [[Jaffa Electric Company]] was founded in 1923 by [[Pinhas Rutenberg]], and was later absorbed into a newly created [[Israel Electric Company|Palestine Electric Corporation]]; the [[First Jordan Hydro-Electric Power House]] was opened in 1933. [[Palestine Airways]] was founded in 1934, [[Angel Bakeries]] in 1927, and the [[Tnuva]] dairy in 1926. Electric current mainly flowed to Jewish industry, following it to its nestled locations in Tel Aviv and Haifa. Although Tel Aviv had by far more workshops and factories, the demand for electric power for industry was roughly the same for both cities by the early 1930s.<ref>Shamir, Ronen (2013). ''Current Flow: The Electrification of Palestine''. Stanford: Stanford University Press.</ref> The country's largest industrial zone was in [[Haifa]], where many housing projects were built for employees.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/features/haifa-s-glass-house-transparent-but-still-an-israeli-mystery-1.422686 |title=Haifa's glass house transparent, but still an Israeli mystery |work=Haaretz |author=Noam Dvir |date=5 April 2012}}</ref> On the scale of the UN [[Human Development Index]] determined for around 1939, of 36 countries, Palestinian Jews were placed 15th, Palestinian Arabs 30th, Egypt 33rd and Turkey 35th.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|p=16}} The Jews in Palestine were mainly urban, 76.2% in 1942, while the Arabs were mainly rural, 68.3% in 1942.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|p=17}} Overall, Khalidi concludes that Palestinian Arab society, while overmatched by the ''[[Yishuv]]'', was as advanced as any other Arab society in the region and considerably more than several.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=29–30}} ==Education== Under the British Mandate, the country developed economically and culturally. In 1919, the Jewish community founded a centralised Hebrew school system, and the following year established the [[Assembly of Representatives (Mandate Palestine)|Assembly of Representatives]], the [[Jewish National Council]] and the [[Histadrut]] labour federation. The [[Technion]] university was founded in 1924, and the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] in 1925.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/jews_mandate.html|title=The Jewish Community Under the Palestine Mandate|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref> There were several attempts by the Arab Palestinians to establish an Arab higher education institution, starting from the 1920s, but it did not materialise. Israeli historian [[Ilan Pappé]] attributed this to "Zionist pressure, British anti-Arab racism, and lack of resources." He added that "the colonial mentality of the British authorities who deemed the Palestinians yet another colonized people who had to be oppressed, while regarding the Zionist settlers as fellow colonialists, feared that such a university would enhance the Palestinian national movement."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.palestine-studies.org/sites/default/files/jq-articles/Why%20Only%20a%20Hebrew%20University.pdf|title=Why Only a Hebrew University? The Tale of the Arab University in Mandatory Jerusalem|work=Jerusalem Quarterly|accessdate=16 April 2023|year=2023|publisher=Institute for Palestine Studies}}</ref> Literacy rates in 1932 were 86% for the Jews compared to 22% for the Palestinian Arabs, but Arab literacy rates steadily increased thereafter. By comparison, Palestinian Arab literacy rates were higher than those of Egypt and Turkey, but lower than in Lebanon.{{sfn|Khalidi|2006|pp=14, 24}} ==Gallery== <gallery> File:Palestine-WW1-3.jpg|[[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Sir Edmund Allenby]]'s final attacks of the Palestine Campaign gave Britain control of the area. File:Field Marshal Allenby British troops Jerusalem dec 11 1917.jpg|General Allenby entering [[Jerusalem]] with British troops on 11 December 1917 (Allenby was later created a [[Field Marshal (United Kingdom)|field marshal]], in April 1919) File:Big Gen Watson Mayor Jerusalem Dec 1917.jpg|[[Brigadier (United Kingdom)#Historical rank of brigadier-general|Brigadier-General]] Watson meeting with [[Hussein al-Husayni]], the [[Mayor of Jerusalem]], in December 1917 File:Ottoman surrender of Jerusalem restored.jpg|The surrender of Jerusalem by the Ottomans to the British on 9 December 1917 following the [[Battle of Jerusalem (1917)|Battle of Jerusalem]] File:GPO, Jerusalem.jpg|Main post office, [[Jaffa Road]], Jerusalem File:Rockefeller Tower Jerusalem.jpg|The Palestine Archaeological Museum (PAM; known since 1967 as the [[Rockefeller Archaeological Museum]]), built in Jerusalem during the British Mandate File:Central Post Office in Yaffo.JPG|Main post office, [[Jaffa]] File:Anglo-Palestine Bank.jpg|The [[Anglo-Palestine Bank]] File:Western Wall Jerusalem 1933.jpg|The [[Western Wall]], 1933 File:British Mandate tribunal building.jpg|Supreme Military Tribunal of the British Mandate, [[Kiryat Shmuel, Jerusalem]] File:PikiWiki Israel 612 YMCA י.מ.ק.א..JPG|[[YMCA]] in Jerusalem, built during the British Mandate File:Bevingrad2.jpg|"Bevingrad" in Jerusalem, [[Russian Compound]] behind barbed wire File:British mailbox Jerusalem.jpg|Mandate-era [[pillar box]], Jerusalem File:Palestine1941.jpg|1941 currency coin File:CurfewPalestine 01.jpg|Movement and curfew pass, issued under the authority of the British Military Commander, East Palestine, 1946 </gallery> ==See also== * [[Mandatory Palestine passport]] * [[Palestinian Citizenship Order, 1925]] * [[History of Palestinian journalism]] * [[History of agriculture in Palestine]] * [[Palestine Command]] * [[Palestine pound]] * [[High Commissioners for Palestine and Transjordan]] * [[Israeli Declaration of Independence]] * [[List of post offices in the British Mandate of Palestine]] * [[Postage stamps and postal history of Palestine]] ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== {{reflist|refs= }} ==Bibliography== <!--This is where all cited books are listed in detail. Other works in the "Further reading" section below, please. Books are sorted alphabetically by the first author's surname--> {{refbegin|30em}} <!-- A --> * {{cite book |last1=Aruri |first1=Naseer Hasan |author-link1=Naseer Aruri |title=Jordan: A Study in Political Development 1923–1965 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GVaG4WGKj9MC |access-date=2 May 2009 |year=1972 |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |location=The Hague |isbn=978-90-247-1217-5 }} * {{cite book |last1=Avneri |first1=Aryeh L. |title=The Claim of Dispossession: Jewish Land-Settlement and the Arabs, 1878–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Teb4dKHQcoC |access-date=2 May 2009 |year=1984 |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-87855-964-0 }} <!-- B --> * {{cite book |last=Bayliss |first=Thomas |year=1999 |title=How Israel Was Won: A Concise History of the Arab–Israeli Conflict |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-0064-6}} * {{cite book |last=Bethell |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Bethell |title=The Palestine Triangle: the Struggle Between the British, the Jews and the Arabs, 1935–48 |location=London |publisher=Deutsch |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-233-97069-1}} * {{cite book |last1=Biger |first1=Gideon |title=The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 1840–1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jC9MbKNh8GUC |access-date=2 May 2009 |year=2004 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7146-5654-0 }} * {{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Ian |others=Morris, Benny |title=Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services |year=1991 |publisher=Grove Press |isbn=978-0-8021-1159-3 |title-link=Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services }} <!-- C --> <!-- D --> <!-- E --> * {{cite book |last1=El-Eini |first1=Roza I.M. |title=Mandated Landscape: British Imperial Rule in Palestine, 1929–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ekQOAAAAQAAJ |access-date=5 May 2009 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7146-5426-3}} <!-- F --> <!-- G --> * {{cite book |last1=Gilbert |first1=Martin |author-link1=Martin Gilbert |title=Israel: a history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn6gAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2 May 2009 |year=1998 |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |isbn=978-0-385-40401-3 }} * {{cite book | editor1-last = Gorman| editor1-first = Anthony | editor2-last = Monciaud | editor2-first = Didier | title = The Press in the Middle East and North Africa| year = 2018 | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | isbn = 978-1-4744-3064-7| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xn18DwAAQBAJ|access-date=2 April 2024}} <!-- H --> * {{cite book |editor1-last=Hughes |editor1-first=Matthew |title=Allenby in Palestine: The Middle East Correspondence of Field Marshal Viscount Allenby June 1917 – October 1919 |series=Army Records Society |volume=22 |year=2004 |publisher=Sutton Publishing Ltd |location=Phoenix Mill, Thrupp, Stroud, Gloucestershire |isbn=978-0-7509-3841-9}} <!-- I --> <!-- J --> <!-- K --> * {{cite book |last1=Katz |first1=Shmuel |author-link1=Shmuel Katz (politician) |title=Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xp3MQavDxjIC |access-date=2 May 2009 |year=1973 |publisher=[[Bantam Books]] |isbn=978-0-929093-13-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Khalaf |first1=Issa |title=Politics in Palestine: Arab Factionalism and Social Disintegration, 1939–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nrc3EUh9cyUC |access-date=6 May 2009 |year=1991 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |isbn=978-0-7914-0708-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Khalidi |first=Rashid |author-link=Rashid Khalidi |year=1997 |title=Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-10575-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bL9dfjYK2eMC |access-date=12 February 2022}} * {{cite book |last1=Khalidi |first1=Rashid |author-link1=Rashid Khalidi |title=The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood |url=https://archive.org/details/ironcagestoryofp00khal |url-access=registration |access-date=2 May 2009 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |isbn=978-0-8070-0308-4 }} * {{cite book |last1=Khalidi |first1=Rashid |author-link1=Rashid Khalidi |editor=Eugene L. Rogan & Avi Shlaim |title=The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3EOJGiBBpQC |access-date=2 May 2009 |edition=2nd |year=2007 |orig-year=1st ed. 2001 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-69934-1 |chapter=The Palestinians and 1948: the underlying causes of failure |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3EOJGiBBpQC&pg=PR5 |ref=CITEREFKhalidi2001}} * {{cite book |last1=Khalidi |first1=Walid |author-link1=Walid Khalidi |title=From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSpIAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2 May 2009 |year=1987 |orig-year=Original in 1971 |publisher=[[Institute for Palestine Studies]] |isbn=978-0-88728-155-6 }} * {{cite book |last= Kominko |first= Maja |date= 16 February 2015|title= From Dust to Digital: Ten Years of the Endangered Archives Programme |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ImO3BgAAQBAJ|publisher= Open Book Publishers|isbn= 978-1-78374-062-8 |access-date=31 March 2024}} <!-- L --> * {{cite book |last1=Likhovski |first1=Assaf |title=Law and Identity in Mandate Palestine |date=8 December 2006 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o2ifGc5oLCUC |isbn=978-0-8078-7718-0}} * {{cite journal |last1=Louis |first1=Wm. Roger |year=1969 |title=The United Kingdom and the Beginning of the Mandates System, 1919–1922 |journal=International Organization |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=73–96 |doi=10.1017/s0020818300025534|s2cid=154745632 }} <!-- M --> * {{cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Benny |author-link1=Benny Morris |title=Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist–Arab Conflict, 1881–1999 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZawVAQAACAAJ |access-date=2 May 2009 |year=2001 |orig-year=1999 |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-679-74475-7 }} <!-- N --> <!-- O --> <!-- P --> * {{cite book |last1=Pappé |first1=Ilan |author-link1=Ilan Pappé |title=The Making of the Arab–Israeli Conflict, 1947–1951 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zAJZCKAwtPMC |access-date=2 May 2009 |date=15 August 1994 |publisher=[[I.B.Tauris]] |isbn=978-1-85043-819-9 |chapter=Introduction |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zAJZCKAwtPMC&pg=PR5 }} * {{cite book |last=Paris |first=Timothy J. |year=2003 |title=Britain, the Hashemites and Arab Rule, 1920–1925: The Sherifian Solution |location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7146-5451-5}} <!-- Q --> <!-- R --> * {{cite book |last= Regan |first= Bernard |date= 30 October 2018|title=The Balfour Declaration: Empire, the Mandate and Resistance in Palestine|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=K595DwAAQBAJ|publisher=Verso Books|isbn= 978-1-78663-248-7 |access-date=1 April 2024}} <!-- S --> * {{cite book |last1=Segev |first1=Tom |author-link=Tom Segev |translator-last=Watzman |translator-first=Haim |title=One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate |url=https://archive.org/details/onepalestinecomp00sege |year=2000 |publisher=[[Henry Holt and Company]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-8050-4848-3 }} * {{cite book |last1=Shapira |first1=Anita |author-link1=Anita Shapira |others=trans. William Templer |title=Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h4K06WBjCrAC |access-date=2 May 2009 |year=1992 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-506104-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Sherman |first=A. J. |year=1998 |title=Mandate Days: British Lives in Palestine, 1918–1948 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-8018-6620-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Stein |first1=Kenneth W. |author-link1=Kenneth W. Stein |title=The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hpvnNILnO3kC |access-date=2 May 2009 |year=1987 |orig-year=Original in 1984 |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |isbn=978-0-8078-4178-5 |ref=CITEREFStein1984}} <!-- T --> <!-- U --> <!-- V --> * {{cite book |last=Vareilles |first=Guillaume |year=2010 |title=Les frontières de la Palestine, 1914–1947 |location=Paris |publisher=L'Harmattan |isbn=978-2-296-13621-2}} <!-- W --> <!-- X --> <!-- Y --> <!-- Z --> {{refend}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin|40em}} * Bar-Yosef, Eitan. "Bonding with the British: Colonial Nostalgia and the Idealization of Mandatory Palestine in Israeli Literature and Culture after 1967." ''Jewish Social Studies'' 22.3 (2017): 1–37. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jewisocistud.22.3.01 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031043834/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jewisocistud.22.3.01 |date=31 October 2019 }} * Cohen, Michael J. ''Britain's Moment in Palestine: Retrospect and Perspectives, 1917–1948'' (2014) * El-Eini, Roza. ''Mandated landscape: British imperial rule in Palestine 1929–1948'' (Routledge, 2004). * Galnoor, Itzhak. ''Partition of Palestine, The: Decision Crossroads in the Zionist Movement'' (SUNY Press, 2012). * Hanna, Paul Lamont, "[http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015004891787;view=1up;seq=1 British Policy in Palestine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001155236/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015004891787;view=1up;seq=1 |date=1 October 2018 }}", Washington, D.C., American Council on Public Affairs, (1942) * Harris, Kenneth. '' Attlee'' (1982) pp 388–400. * Kamel, Lorenzo. "Whose Land? Land Tenure in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Palestine", "British Journal of Middle Eastern studies" (April 2014), 41, 2, pp. 230–242. * Miller, Rory, ed. ''Britain, Palestine and Empire: The Mandate Years'' (2010) * Morgan, Kenneth O.''The People's Peace: British history 1945 – 1990'' (1992) 49–52. * Ravndal, Ellen Jenny. "Exit Britain: British Withdrawal From the Palestine Mandate in the Early Cold War, 1947–1948", ''Diplomacy and Statecraft'', (Sept 2010) 21#3 pp. 416–433. * Roberts, Nicholas E. "Re‐Remembering the Mandate: Historiographical Debates and Revisionist History in the Study of British Palestine." ''History Compass'' 9.3 (2011): 215–230. [http://www.academia.edu/download/47387216/Roberts_-_History_Compass_Article.pdf online]{{dead link|date=September 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. * Sargent, Andrew. " The British Labour Party and Palestine 1917–1949" (PhD thesis, University of Nottingham, 1980) [http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11289/1/280995.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225130213/http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/11289/1/280995.pdf |date=25 December 2018 }} * Shelef, Nadav G. "From 'Both Banks of the Jordan' to the 'Whole Land of Israel:' Ideological Change in Revisionist Zionism." ''Israel Studies'' 9.1 (2004): 125–148. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30245747 Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105141556/https://www.jstor.org/stable/30245747 |date=5 November 2019 }} * Sinanoglou, Penny. "British Plans for the Partition of Palestine, 1929–1938." ''Historical Journal'' 52.1 (2009): 131–152. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40264161 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110101920/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40264161 |date=10 November 2019 }} * [[Quincy Wright|Wright, Quincy]], ''The Palestine Problem'', [[Political Science Quarterly]], 41#3 (1926), pp. 384–412, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2142128 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001035250/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2142128 |date=1 October 2018 }}. {{refend}} ==External links== * {{Commons category-inline|British Mandate of Palestine}} {{Mandatory Palestine topics}} {{British overseas territories}} {{Authority control}} {{coord missing|Gaza Strip|Israel}} {{coord missing|Palestine}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mandatory Palestine}} [[Category:Mandatory Palestine| ]] [[Category:League of Nations mandates|Palestine]] [[Category:British Empire]] [[Category:Former countries in the Middle East]] [[Category:20th century in Jordan]] [[Category:History of Zionism]] [[Category:Political entities in the Land of Israel]] [[Category:1920s in the British Empire]] [[Category:1930s in the British Empire]] [[Category:1940s in the British Empire]] [[Category:1920s establishments in Asia]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1920]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1948]] [[Category:Sykes–Picot Agreement]] [[Category:1948 disestablishments in Asia]] [[Category:1920 establishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:1948 disestablishments in the British Empire]] [[Category:Yishuv during World War II]] [[Category:Mandatory Palestine in World War II]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource (see Christianpedia:Copyrights for details). Do not submit copyrighted work without permission! Cancel Editing help (opens in new window) Templates used on this page: Mandatory Palestine (edit) Template:About (edit) Template:Authority control (edit) Template:Blockquote (edit) Template:Blockquote/styles.css (edit) Template:British overseas territories (edit) Template:Catalog lookup link (edit) Template:Cbignore (edit) Template:Citation (edit) Template:Cite book (edit) Template:Cite encyclopaedia (edit) Template:Cite journal (edit) Template:Cite magazine (edit) Template:Cite news (edit) Template:Cite web (edit) Template:Commons category-inline (edit) Template:Convert (edit) Template:Coord missing (edit) Template:DMCA (edit) Template:Dead link (edit) Template:Doi (edit) Template:Efn (edit) Template:Fix (edit) Template:For (edit) Template:Further (edit) Template:Harvnb (edit) Template:ISBN (edit) Template:Infobox country (edit) Template:Lang-ar (edit) Template:Lang-he (edit) Template:Legend (edit) Template:MV (edit) Template:Main (edit) Template:Main other (edit) Template:Mandatory Palestine topics (edit) Template:Multiple image (edit) Template:Multiple image/styles.css (edit) Template:Notelist (edit) Template:Pp-30-500 (edit) Template:Refbegin (edit) Template:Refbegin/styles.css (edit) Template:Refend (edit) Template:Reflist (edit) Template:Reflist/styles.css (edit) Template:Rnd (edit) Template:Rquote (edit) Template:SS (edit) Template:See also (edit) Template:Sfn (edit) Template:Sfnm (edit) Template:Short description (edit) Template:Sister-inline (edit) Template:Snd (edit) Template:Spaced en dash (edit) Template:Transliteration (edit) Template:Use dmy dates (edit) Template:Webarchive (edit) Template:Yesno-no (edit) Template:Yesno-yes (edit) Module:Arguments (edit) Module:Catalog lookup link (edit) Module:Check for unknown parameters (edit) Module:Check isxn (edit) Module:Citation/CS1 (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/COinS (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Configuration (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Date validation (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Identifiers (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Utilities (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/Whitelist (edit) Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css (edit) Module:Convert (edit) Module:Convert/data (edit) Module:Convert/text (edit) Module:Footnotes (edit) Module:Footnotes/anchor id list (edit) Module:Footnotes/anchor id list/data (edit) Module:Footnotes/whitelist (edit) Module:Format link (edit) Module:Hatnote (edit) Module:Hatnote/styles.css (edit) Module:Hatnote list (edit) Module:Labelled list hatnote (edit) Module:Multiple image (edit) Module:Unsubst (edit) Module:Yesno (edit) Discuss this page