Jerome

{{Short description|4th- and 5th-century priest and theologian}}
{{about|the priest and Bible translator||Jerome (disambiguation)|and|Saint Jerome (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix = [[Saint]]
| name         =Jerome
| titles        =Doctor of the Church
| birth_date    ={{circa|342–347}}
| death_date    =30 September 420 (aged approximately 73–78)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Jerome |title=St. Jerome (Christian scholar) |publisher=Britannica Encyclopedia |date=2 February 2017 |access-date=23 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324093227/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Jerome |archive-date=24 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| image         =Albrecht Dürer 035.jpg
| caption       =''[[Saint Jerome in His Study (Dürer, 1521)|St. Jerome in His Study]]'' by [[Albrecht Dürer]], 1521
| birth_place   =[[Stridon]] (possibly Strido Dalmatiae, on the border of [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] and [[Pannonia]]){{sfn | Kurian | Smith | 2010 | p=389|ps=: Jerome ("Hieronymus" in Latin), was born into a Christian family in Stridon, modern-day Strigova in northern Croatia}}
| death_place   =[[Bethlehem]], [[Palaestina Prima]]
| module = {{Infobox theologian
| embed=yes
| education          = [[Catechetical School of Alexandria]]
| occupation         = Translator, theologian
| notable_works      =  [[Vulgate]]<br />''[[De Viris Illustribus (Jerome)|De viris illustribus]]''<br />''[[Chronicon (Jerome)|Chronicon]]''
| era                = [[Patristic Age]]
| language           = [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Hebrew]], [[Aramaic]], 
[[Illyrian language|Illyrian]]
| tradition_movement = [[Trinitarianism]]
| main_interests     = [[Apologetics]], [[Alchemy]], [[Theology]], [[Christian mysticism]]
| notable_ideas      = [[Perpetual virginity of Mary]]
}}
| feast_day     =30 September ([[Catholic Church]])<br />15 June ([[Eastern Orthodox Church]])
| venerated_in  =[[Catholic Church]]<br />[[Eastern Orthodox Church]]<br />[[Oriental Orthodox Church]]<br />[[Anglican Communion]]<br />[[Lutheranism]]
| attributes    =Lion, [[Cardinal (catholicism)|cardinal attire]], [[cross]], [[human skull|skull]], trumpet, [[owl]], books and [[writing material]]
| patronage     =[[Archaeologist]]s; archivists; [[Bible scholar]]s; librarians; libraries; school children; students; translators; [[Morong, Rizal]]; Dalmatia, against [[anger]]
| major_shrine  =[[Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore|Basilica of Saint Mary Major]], Rome, Italy
| suppressed_date=
|influences=[[Paula of Rome]], [[Plato]], [[Vergil]], [[Cicero]], [[Isocrates]], [[Philo]], [[Seneca the younger]], [[Eusebius]], [[Paul the Apostle]], [[Ezra the scribe]], [[Onkelos]], [[Origen]], [[Sallust]], [[Demosthenes]], [[Xenophon]], [[Josephus]], [[Varro]], [[Cato the elder]], [[Gregory of Nazianzus]], [[Horace]]|influenced=Virtually all of subsequent [[Christian theology]], including [[Catholic theology|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox theology|Orthodox]] and some [[Protestant theology|Protestant]]}}
{{Catholic philosophy}}

'''Jerome''' ({{IPAc-en|dʒ|ə|ˈ|r|oʊ|m}}; {{lang-la|Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus}}; {{lang-grc-gre|Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος}}; {{circa|342–347}} – 30 September 420), also known as '''Jerome of Stridon''', was an early Christian [[presbyter|priest]], [[Confessor of the Faith|confessor]], [[theologian]], [[translator]], and historian; he is commonly known as '''Saint Jerome'''.

He is best known for his translation of the Bible into [[Latin]] (the translation that became known as the [[Vulgate]]) and his commentaries on the whole Bible. Jerome attempted to create a translation of the [[Old Testament]] based on a Hebrew version, rather than the [[Septuagint]], as [[Vetus Latina|prior Latin Bible translations]] used. His list of writings is extensive. In addition to his biblical works he wrote polemical and historical essays, always from a theologian's perspective.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Philip |editor1-last=Schaff |editor1-link=Philip Schaff |others=Henry Wace |title=A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church |access-date=7 June 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQUNAAAAIAAJ |volume=VI |year=1893 |publisher=The Christian Literature Company |location=New York |series=2nd series |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140711191259/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQUNAAAAIAAJ |archive-date=11 July 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Jerome was known for his teachings on [[Christian moral]] life, especially to those living in cosmopolitan centers such as Rome. In many cases, he focused his attention on the lives of women and identified how a woman devoted to Jesus should live her life. This focus stemmed from his close patron relationships with several prominent female ascetics who were members of affluent [[Senatorial class|senatorial families]].{{sfn|Williams|2006|p=}}

Due to his work, Jerome is recognized as a [[saint]] and [[Doctor of the Church]] by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and as a saint in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]],{{efn|name=EOC}} the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Church]], and the [[Anglican Communion]]. His feast day is 30 September ([[Gregorian calendar]]).

== Early life ==
Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus was born at [[Stridon]] around 342–347 AD.{{sfn|Williams|2006|p=}} He was of [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] ancestry.{{sfn|Pevarello|2013|p=1}} He was not [[baptism|baptized]] until about 360–369 in Rome, where he had gone with his friend [[Bonosus of Sardica]] to pursue [[rhetoric]]al and philosophical studies. (This Bonosus may or may not have been the same Bonosus whom Jerome identifies as his friend who went to live as a hermit on an island in the Adriatic.) Jerome studied under the [[Philologist|grammarian]] [[Aelius Donatus]]. There he learned [[Latin]] and at least some [[Greek language|Greek]],{{sfn|Walsh|1992|p=307}} though he probably did not yet acquire the familiarity with Greek literature that he later claimed to have acquired as a schoolboy.{{sfn|Kelly|1975|pp=13–14}}

As a student, Jerome engaged in the superficial escapades and sexual experimentation of students in Rome; he indulged himself quite casually but he suffered terrible bouts of guilt afterwards.{{sfn|Payne|1951|pp=90–92}} To appease his [[conscience]], on Sundays he visited the [[Catacombs of Rome|sepulchers]] of the [[martyr]]s and the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]] in the catacombs. This experience reminded him of the terrors of [[Hell]]:

<blockquote>Often I would find myself entering those crypts, deep dug in the earth, with their walls on either side lined with the bodies of the dead, where everything was so dark that almost it seemed as though the Psalmist's words were fulfilled, Let them go down quick into Hell.<ref>{{bibleverse|Psalm |55:15}}</ref> Here and there the light, not entering in through windows, but filtering down from above through shafts, relieved the horror of the darkness. But again, as soon as you found yourself cautiously moving forward, the black night closed around and there came to my mind the line of Virgil, "Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent".<ref>{{Citation |last=Jerome |title=Commentarius in Ezzechielem |at=c. 40, v. 5}}</ref>{{efn|name=PL}}</blockquote>

[[File:Domenico Ghirlandaio - St Jerome in his study.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''[[St Jerome in His Study (Ghirlandaio)|St. Jerome in His Study]]'' (1480), by [[Domenico Ghirlandaio]]]]

His quote from [[Virgil]] reads: "On all sides round horror spread wide; the very silence breathed a terror on my soul".<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D2%3Acard%3D752 P. Vergilius Maro, Aeneid Theodore C. Williams, Ed. Perseus Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111105830/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D2%3Acard%3D752 |date=11 November 2013 }} (retrieved 23 August 2013)</ref>

=== Conversion to Christianity ===
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles f 135r 1.jpg|thumb|St Jerome in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' ]]
Although at first afraid of Christianity, he eventually [[religious conversion|converted]].{{sfn|Payne|1951|p=91}}

[[File:Giovanni Bellini St Jerome Reading in the Countryside.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[St. Jerome in the Desert (Bellini, Washington)|St. Jerome in the Desert]]'', by [[Giovanni Bellini]] (1505)]]
Seized with a desire for a life of [[ascetic]] [[Penance (Catholic Church)|penance]], Jerome went for a time to the desert of [[Chalcis, Syria|Chalcis]], to the southeast of [[Antioch]], known as the "Syrian [[Thebaid]]" from the number of [[eremites]] inhabiting it. During this period, he seems to have found time for studying and writing. He made his first attempt to learn [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] under the guidance of a converted [[Jew]]; and he seems to have been in correspondence with [[Jewish Christians]] in Antioch. Around this time he had copied for him a Hebrew Gospel, of which fragments are preserved in his notes. It is known today as the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]] which the [[Nazarene (sect)|Nazarenes]] considered to be the true [[Gospel of Matthew]].{{sfn|Rebenich|2002|p=211|ps=: Further, he began to study Hebrew: 'I betook myself to a brother who before his conversion had been a Hebrew and...'}} Jerome translated parts of this Hebrew Gospel into Greek.<ref>{{Citation |first=Ray |last=Pritz |title=Nazarene Jewish Christianity: from the end of the New Testament |year=1988 |page=50 |quote=In his accounts of his desert sojourn, Jerome never mentions leaving Chalcis, and there is no pressing reason to think...}}</ref>
=== Ministry in Rome ===
As protégé of [[Pope Damasus I]], Jerome was given duties in Rome, and he undertook a revision of the ''[[Vetus Latina]]'' Gospels based on [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts. He also updated the Psalter containing the Book of Psalms then in use in Rome, based on the [[Septuagint]].

[[File:Antonio da Fabriano II - Saint Jerome in His Study - Walters 37439.jpg|left|thumb|upright|''Saint Jerome in His Study'', 1451, by Antonio da Fabriano II, shows writing implements, scrolls, and manuscripts testifying to Jerome's scholarly pursuits.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[The Walters Art Museum]] |url=http://art.thewalters.org/detail/27087 |title=Saint Jerome in His Study |access-date=18 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516145200/http://art.thewalters.org/detail/27087 |archive-date=16 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Walters Art Museum.]]

Throughout his epistles he shows himself to be surrounded by women and united with close ties; it is estimated that 40% of his epistles were addressed to someone of the female sex and,<ref>D. Ruiz Bueno. (1962). Cartas de S. Jerónimo, 2 vols. Madrid.</ref> at the time, he was criticized for it.<ref>Epistle 45,2-3; 54,2; 65,1; 127,5.</ref>

Even in his time, Jerome noted [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry's]] accusation that the Christian communities were run by women and that the favor of the ladies decided who could accede to the dignity of the priesthood.<ref>Gigon, O. (1966). Die antike Kultur und das Christentum. pp. 120.</ref><ref>Deschner, Karlheinz (1986). [[Kriminalgeschichte des Christentums|Christianity's Criminal History. Volume 1.]] pp. 164-170.</ref>

In Rome, Jerome was surrounded by a circle of well-born and well-educated women, including some from the noblest [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] families. Among these women were such as the widows [[Saint Lea|Lea]], [[Saint Marcella|Marcella]], and [[Saint Paula|Paula]], and Paula's daughters [[Blaesilla]] and [[Eustochium]]. The resulting inclination of these women towards the monastic life, away from the indulgent lasciviousness in Rome, and his unsparing criticism of the [[secular clergy]] of Rome, brought a growing hostility against him among the Roman clergy and their supporters. Soon after the death of his patron Pope Damasus I on 10 December 384, Jerome was forced to leave his position at Rome after an inquiry was brought up by the Roman clergy into allegations that he had an improper relationship with the widow Paula. Still, his writings were highly regarded by women who were attempting to maintain vows of becoming [[consecrated virgin|consecrated virgins.]] His letters were widely read and distributed throughout the Christian empire and it is clear through his writing that he knew these virgin women were not his only audience.{{sfn|Williams|2006|p=}}

Additionally, Jerome's condemnation of Blaesilla's hedonistic lifestyle in Rome had led her to adopt ascetic practices, but it affected her health and worsened her physical weakness to the point that she died just four months after starting to follow his instructions; much of the Roman populace were outraged at Jerome for causing the premature death of such a lively young woman. Additionally, his insistence to Paula that Blaesilla should not be mourned and complaints that her grief was excessive were seen as heartless, which further polarized Roman opinion against him.{{sfn | Salisbury | Lefkowitz | 2001 | pp=32-33}}

[[File:Colantonio, Jerome in his Study.jpg|thumb|''[[Saint Jerome in His Study (Colantonio)|Saint Jerome in His Study]]'', by [[Niccolò Antonio Colantonio]] {{c.|1445|lk=no}}–46, depicts Jerome's removal of a thorn from a lion's paw.]]

==Scholarly works==
===Translation of the Bible (382–405)===
[[File:St Jerome by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio.jpeg|left|thumb|''Saint Jerome Writing'', by [[Caravaggio]], 1607, at St John's Co-Cathedral, [[Valletta, Malta]]]]

Jerome was a scholar at a time when that statement implied a fluency in Greek. He knew some Hebrew when he started his [[translation project]], but moved to [[Jerusalem]] to strengthen his grip on Jewish scripture commentary. A wealthy Roman aristocrat, Paula, funded Jerome's stay in a monastery in the nearby city of [[Bethlehem]], where he settled next to the [[Church of the Nativity]] – built half a century prior on orders of [[Emperor Constantine]] over what was reputed to be the site of the [[Nativity of Jesus]] – and he completed his translation there. He began in 382 by correcting the existing Latin-language version of the New Testament, commonly referred to as the ''[[Vetus Latina]]''. By 390 he turned to translating the [[Hebrew Bible]] from the original Hebrew, having previously translated portions from the [[Septuagint]] which came from Alexandria. He believed that the mainstream [[Rabbinical Judaism]] had rejected the Septuagint as invalid Jewish scriptural texts because of what were ascertained as mistranslations along with its [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenistic]] [[Heresy|heretical]] elements.{{efn|name=ndq}} He completed this work by 405. Prior to Jerome's Vulgate, all Latin translations of the [[Old Testament]] were based on the Septuagint, not the Hebrew. Jerome's decision to use a Hebrew text instead of the previous-translated Septuagint went against the advice of most other Christians, including [[St. Augustine|Augustine]], who thought the Septuagint [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]]. Modern scholarship, however, has sometimes cast doubts on the actual quality of Jerome's Hebrew knowledge. Many modern scholars believe that the Greek [[Hexapla]] is the main source for [[Iuxta Hebraeos|Jerome's "iuxta Hebraeos"]] (i.e. "close to the Hebrews", "immediately following the Hebrews") translation of the Old Testament.<ref>Pierre Nautin, article "Hieronymus", in: ''Theologische Realenzyklopädie'', Vol. 15, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin & New York 1986, pp. 304–315, [309–310].</ref> However, detailed studies have shown that to a considerable degree Jerome was a competent Hebraist.<ref>Michael Graves, ''Jerome's Hebrew Philology: A Study Based on his Commentary on Jeremiah'', Brill, 2007: 196–198 [197] (ISBN 978-90-47-42181-8): "In his discussion he gives clear evidence of having consulted the Hebrew himself, providing details about the Hebrew that could not have been learned from the Greek translations."</ref>

=== Biblical onomastica ===
Jerome also produced two [[Wiktionary:onomasticon|onomastica]]:
* ''Liber de Nominibus Hebraicis'', a list of names of people in the Bible and etymologies, based on a work attributed to [[Philo]] and expanded by [[Origen]]
* A translation and expansion of the [[Onomasticon (Eusebius) |''Onomasticon'' of Eusebius]], listing and commenting on places mentioned in the Bible

=== Commentaries (405–420) ===
[[File:Antonello da Messina - St Jerome in his study - National Gallery London.jpg|thumb|St Jerome in His Study by [[Antonello da Messina]] ]]

For the next 15 years, until he died, Jerome produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices in using the original Hebrew rather than suspect translations. His [[patristics|patristic]] commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in [[allegorical]] and [[mystical]] subtleties after the manner of [[Philo]] and the [[Alexandrian school]]. Unlike his contemporaries, he emphasizes the difference between the Hebrew Bible "Apocrypha" and the ''Hebraica veritas'' of the [[protocanonical books]]. In his [[Vulgate#Prologues|Vulgate's prologues]], he describes some portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-[[biblical canon|canonical]] (he called them ''[[biblical apocrypha|apocrypha]]'');<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bible/prologi.shtml |title=The Bible |access-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113204339/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bible/prologi.shtml |archive-date=13 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> for [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]], he mentions by name in his ''Prologue to Jeremiah'' and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon".<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=233 |title=Jerome's Prologue to Jeremiah |first=Kevin P. |last=Edgecomb |access-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231002043/http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=233 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> His ''[[Prologus Galeatus|Preface to the Books of Samuel and Kings]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.vii.iii.iv.html |title=Jerome's Preface to Samuel and Kings |access-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151202094009/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.vii.iii.iv.html |archive-date=2 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> (commonly called the ''Helmeted Preface'') includes the following statement:
<blockquote>This preface to the Scriptures may serve as a "helmeted" introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so that we may be assured that what is not found in our list must be placed amongst the Apocryphal writings. [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]], therefore, which generally bears the name of Solomon, and the book of [[Ben Sira|Jesus, the Son of Sirach]], and [[Book of Judith|Judith]], and [[Book of Tobit|Tobias]], and the [[The Shepherd of Hermas|Shepherd]] are not in the canon. The [[1 Maccabees|first book of Maccabees]] I have found to be Hebrew, [[2 Maccabees|the second]] is Greek, as can be proved from the very style.</blockquote>

[[File:Francisco de Zurbarán 023.jpg|thumb|''Jerome in the desert, tormented by his memories of the dancing girls'', by [[Francisco de Zurbarán]], 1639, [[Monastery of Santa María de Guadalupe]]]]

=== Historical and hagiographic writings ===
==== Description of vitamin A deficiency ====
The following passage, taken from Jerome's ''Life of St. Hilarion'' which was written {{Circa|392|lk=no}}, appears to be the earliest account of the [[etiology]], symptoms and cure of severe [[vitamin A deficiency]]:<ref name="Vitamin" />
{{blockquote|From his thirty-first to his thirty-fifth year he had for food six ounces of [[barley bread]], and vegetables slightly cooked without oil. But finding that his eyes were growing dim, and that his whole body was shrivelled with an eruption and a sort of stony roughness (''impetigine et pumicea quad scabredine'') he added oil to his former food, and up to the sixty-third year of his life followed this temperate course, tasting neither fruit nor pulse, nor anything whatsoever besides.<ref name="Vitamin">{{cite journal |author=Taylor, F. Sherwood |author-link=F. Sherwood Taylor |title=St. Jerome and Vitamin A |journal=Nature |volume=154 |pages=802 |date=23 December 1944 |issue=3921 |doi=10.1038/154802a0|bibcode=1944Natur.154Q.802T |s2cid=4097517 |doi-access=free }}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}

=== Letters ===
[[File:MatthiasStom-SaintJerome-Nantes.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Saint Jerome (Stom)|Saint Jerome]]'' by [[Matthias Stom]], 1635]]

Jerome's letters or [[epistle]]s, both by the great variety of their subjects and by their qualities of style, form an important portion of his literary remains. Whether he is discussing problems of scholarship, or reasoning on cases of conscience, comforting the afflicted, or saying pleasant things to his friends, scourging the vices and corruptions of the time and against [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|sexual immorality]] among the clergy,<ref>"regulae sancti pachomii 84 rule 104.</ref> exhorting to the [[Asceticism|ascetic life]] and renunciation of the [[World (theology)|world]], or debating his theological opponents, he gives a vivid picture not only of his own mind, but of the age and its peculiar characteristics. (See [[Plowboy trope]].) Because there was no distinct line between personal documents and those meant for publication, we frequently find in his letters both confidential messages and treatises meant for others besides the one to whom he was writing.<ref>W. H. Fremantle, "Prolegomena to Jerome", V.</ref>

Due to the time he spent in Rome among wealthy families belonging to the Roman upper class, Jerome was frequently commissioned by women who had taken a vow of virginity to write to them in guidance of how to live their life. As a result, he spent a great deal of his life corresponding with these women about certain abstentions and lifestyle practices.{{sfn|Williams|2006|p=}}

[[File:Francescostjerome.jpg|thumb|''[[Francesco St Jerome]]'' by [[Jacopo Palma il Giovane]], {{c.|1595|lk=no}}]]

=== Theological writings ===
[[File:Lorenzo Lotto - The Virgin and Child with Saints Jerome and Nicholas of Tolentino - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''The Virgin and Child with Saints Jerome and Nicholas of Tolentino'' by [[Lorenzo Lotto]], 1522]]

==== Eschatology ====
[[File:Hiëronymus in zijn studeervertrek.jpg|thumb|Jerome in his study, made by the Flemish drawer de Bry.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hiëronymus in zijn studeervertrek |url=https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:6B669DBE-F681-11E9-9639-C36B765DA7FD#?c=&m=&s=&cv=&xywh=-1155,-150,4010,2986 |access-date=2 October 2020|website=lib.ugent.be}}</ref>]]
Jerome warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the "synagogue of the Antichrist".<ref>{{cite book |author=Jerome |section=The Dialogue against the Luciferians |page=334 |editor1=Schaff, Philip |editor2=Wace, Henry |title=St.&nbsp;Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893 |series=A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series |section-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQUNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA315 |via=Google Books |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101063014/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQUNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA315#PPT19,M1 |archive-date=1 January 2014}}</ref> "He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist," he wrote to [[Pope Damasus I]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Jerome |section=Letter to Pope Damasus |page=19 |editor1=Schaff, Philip |editor2=Wace, Henry |title=St.&nbsp;Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893 |series=A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series |section-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQUNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19 |via=Google Books |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313134851/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQUNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA19 |archive-date=13 March 2017}}</ref> He believed that "the mystery of iniquity" written about by Paul in {{nobr|2 Thessalonians 2:7}} was already in action when "every one chatters about his views."<ref>{{cite book |author=Jerome |section=Against the Pelagians |at=Book&nbsp;I, p.&nbsp;449 |editor1=Schaff, Philip |editor2=Wace, Henry |title=St.&nbsp;Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893 |series=A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series |section-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQUNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PT134 |via=Google Books |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101065949/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQUNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PT134 |archive-date=1 January 2014}}</ref> To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. He warned a noblewoman of [[Gaul]]:<ref>{{cite book |author=Jerome |section=Letter to Ageruchia |pages=236–237 |editor1=Schaff, Philip |editor2=Wace, Henry |title=St.&nbsp;Jerome: Letters and select works, 1893 |series=A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series  |section-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQUNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101055138/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQUNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236 |archive-date=1 January 2014 }}</ref>

<blockquote>He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth". "Woe unto them," he cries, "that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days." ... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun all parts of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of [[Quadi]], [[Vandals]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Alans]], [[Gepids]], Herules, [[Saxons]], [[Burgundians]], [[Allemanni]], and – alas! for the commonweal! – even [[Pannonians]].</blockquote>

His ''Commentary on Daniel'' was expressly written to offset the criticisms of [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]],<ref>Eremantle, note on Jerome's commentary on Daniel, in NPAF, 2d series, Vol. 6, p. 500.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=November 2022}} who taught that Daniel related entirely to the time of [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and was written by an unknown individual living in the second century BC. Against Porphyry, Jerome identified Rome as the fourth kingdom of chapters two and seven, but his view of chapters eight and eleven was more complex. Jerome held that chapter eight describes the activity of Antiochus Epiphanes, who is understood as a "type" of a future antichrist; 11:24 onwards applies primarily to a future antichrist but was partially fulfilled by Antiochus. Instead, he advocated that the "little horn" was the Antichrist:

<blockquote>We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings. ... After they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor.<ref name=jeromedaniel>{{cite web |author=Jerome |title=''Commentario in Danielem'' |website=tertullian.org |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_daniel_02_text.htm |access-date=6 May 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526033151/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_daniel_02_text.htm |archive-date=26 May 2010}}</ref></blockquote>

In his ''Commentary on Daniel'',<ref name=jeromedaniel/> he noted, "Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form."<ref name=jeromedaniel/> Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be like God."<ref name=jeromedaniel/>

Jerome identified the four prophetic kingdoms symbolized in Daniel&nbsp;2 as the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], the [[Achaemenid Empire|Medes and Persians]], [[Macedon]], and Rome.<ref name=jeromedaniel/>{{rp|style=ama|at=ch.&nbsp;2, vv.&nbsp;31–40}} Jerome identified the stone cut out without hands as "namely, the Lord and Savior".<ref name=jeromedaniel/>{{rp|style=ama|at=ch.&nbsp;2, v.&nbsp;40}}

Jerome refuted Porphyry's application of the little horn of chapter seven to Antiochus. He expected that at the end of the world, Rome would be destroyed, and partitioned among ten kingdoms before the little horn appeared.<ref name=jeromedaniel/>{{rp|style=ama|at=ch.&nbsp;7, v.&nbsp;8}}

Jerome believed that Cyrus of Persia is the higher of the two horns of the Medo-Persian ram of Daniel&nbsp;8:3.<ref name=jeromedaniel/> The he-goat is Greece smiting Persia.<ref name=jeromedaniel/>{{rp|style=ama|at=ch.&nbsp;8, v.&nbsp;5}}

==== Soteriology ====
Jerome opposed the doctrine of [[Pelagianism]], and wrote against it three years before his death.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philip Schaff: NPNF2-06. Jerome: The Principal Works of St. Jerome - Christian Classics Ethereal Library |url=https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.vi.ix.i.html |access-date=2024-03-08 |website=www.ccel.org}}</ref> Jerome, despite being opposed to Origen, was influenced by Origenism in his soteriology. Although he taught that the Devil and the unbelieving will be eternally punished (unlike Origen), he believed that the punishment for Christian sinners, who have once believed but sin and fall away will be temporal in nature, stating: "He who with all his spirit has placed his faith in Christ, even if he die in sin, shall by his faith live forever".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=J. N. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UivDgM0WywoC |title=Early Christian Doctrines |date=2000-11-20 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-8264-5252-8 |language=en |quote=Jerome develops the same distinction, stating that, while the Devil and the impious who have denied God will be tortured without remission, those who have trusted in Christ, even if they have sinned and fallen away, will eventually be saved. Much the same teaching appears in Ambrose, developed in greater detail}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Goff |first=Jacques Le |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4dzynjFfX7kC |title=The Birth of Purgatory |date=1986-12-15 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-47083-2 |language=en |quote=Saint Jerome, though an enemy of Origen, was, when it came to salvation, more of an Origenist than Ambrose. He believed that all sinners, all mortal beings, with the exception of Satan, atheists, and the ungodly, would be saved: 'Just as we believe that the torments of the Devil, of all the deniers of God, of the ungodly who have said in their hearts, 'there is no God,' will be eternal, so too do we believe that the judgment of Christian sinners, whose works will be tried and purged in fire will be moderate and mixed with clemency.' Furthermore, 'He who with all his spirit has placed his faith in Christ, even if he die in sin, shall by his faith live forever.'"}}</ref>

===Reception by later Christianity===
[[File:Saint Jerome ( Hieronymus ).JPG|thumb|upright|Statue of Saint Jerome, Church of St Catherine, [[Bethlehem]]]]

Jerome is the second-most voluminous writer – after [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430) – in ancient Latin Christianity. The [[Catholic Church]] recognizes him as the [[patron saint]] of translators, librarians, and [[encyclopedist]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=St.&nbsp;Jerome: Patron saint of librarians |website=Luther College Library and Information Services (lis.luther.edu) |place=Decorah, IA |publisher=[[Luther College (Iowa)|Luther College]] |url=http://lis.luther.edu/preus40th/jerome |url-status=live |access-date= 2 June 2014 |archive-url=
https://web.archive.org/web/20130704102421/http://lis.luther.edu/preus40th/jerome |archive-date= 4 July 2013}}</ref>

Jerome translated many biblical texts into Latin from Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. His translations formed part of the ''[[Vulgate]]''; the ''Vulgate'' eventually superseded the preceding Latin translations of the Bible (the ''[[Vetus Latina]]''). The [[Council of Trent]] in 1546 declared the ''Vulgate'' authoritative "in public lectures, disputations, sermons, and expositions".<ref>{{cite web |title=Is the ''Vulgate'' the Catholic Church's official Bible? |type=blog |url=https://www.ncregister.com/blog/is-the-vulgate-the-catholic-church-s-official-bible |access-date=8 December 2021 |newspaper=[[National Catholic Register]] |date=5 September 2017 |language=en |quote= '[This] sacred and holy Synod – considering that no small utility may accrue to the Church of God, if it be made known which out of all the Latin editions, now in circulation, of the sacred books, is to be held as authentic – ordains and declares, that the said old and vulgate edition, which, by the long use of so many years, has been approved of in the Church, be, in public lectures, disputations, sermons and expositions, held as authentic; and that no one is to dare, or presume to reject it under any pretext whatever' [''Decree Concerning the Edition and Use of the Sacred Books'', 1546].}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Vulgate |year=2005 |dictionary=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |pages=1722–1723|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ |via=Google Books}}</ref>

Jerome showed more zeal and interest in the ascetic ideal than in abstract speculation. He lived as an ascetic for 4~5&nbsp;years in the Syrian desert, and later near Bethlehem for 34&nbsp;years. Nevertheless, his writings show outstanding scholarship<ref>{{cite book |last=Power |first=Edward J. |date=1991 |title=A Legacy of Learning: A history of western education |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0610-6 |page=102 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Upup1CZKAsEC&pg=PA102 |language=en |quote=his exceptional scholarship produced&nbsp;...}}</ref> and his correspondence has great historical importance.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Louth |first=Andrew |date=2022 |title=Jerome |dictionary=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-263815-1 |pages=872–873 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3CNeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT2305 |lang=en |quote=His correspondence is of great interest and historical importance.}}</ref>

The [[Church of England]] [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|honours]] Jerome with a [[Commemoration (Anglicanism)|commemoration]] on 30&nbsp;September.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Calendar |website=[[The Church of England]] |language=en |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar
|access-date=8 April 2021
}}</ref>

== In art ==
{{anchor|Lion}}<!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not remove it, nor modify it, except to add another appropriate anchor. If you modify the section title, please anchor the old title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it will not be broken. See [[Template:Anchor]] for details. This template is {{subst:Anchor comment}} -->Jerome is also often depicted with a lion, in reference to the popular [[hagiographical]] belief that Jerome had tamed a lion in the wilderness by healing its paw. The source for the story may actually have been the second century Roman tale of [[Androcles]], or confusion with the exploits of [[Gerasimus of the Jordan|Gerasimus]] (Jerome in later Latin is "Geronimus");<ref>Hope Werness, ''Continuum encyclopaedia of animal symbolism in art'', 2006</ref>{{efn|name=EugeneRice}} it is "a figment" found in the thirteenth-century ''[[Golden Legend]]'' by [[Jacobus de Voragine]].{{sfn|Williams|2006|p=1}} Hagiographies of Jerome talk of his having spent many years in the Syrian desert, and [[Saint Jerome in the Wilderness|artists often depict him in a "wilderness"]], which for West European painters can take the form of a wood.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic-saints.info/patron-saints/saint-jerome.htm |title=Saint Jerome in Catholic Saint info |publisher=Catholic-saints.info |access-date=2 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429031454/http://www.catholic-saints.info/patron-saints/saint-jerome.htm |archive-date=29 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

From the late Middle Ages, depictions of Jerome in a wider setting became popular. He is either shown in his study, surrounded by books and the equipment of a scholar, or in a rocky desert, or in a setting that combines both aspects, with him studying a book under the shelter of a rock-face or cave mouth. His study is often shown as large and well-provided for, he is often clean-shaven and well-dressed, and a [[cardinal's hat]] may appear. These images derive from the tradition of the [[evangelist portrait]], though Jerome is often given the library and desk of a serious scholar. His attribute of the lion, often shown at a smaller scale, may be beside him in either setting. The subject of "Jerome Penitent" first appears in the later 15th century in Italy; he is usually in the desert, wearing ragged clothes, and often naked above the waist. His gaze is usually fixed on a [[crucifix]] and he may beat himself with his fist or a rock.<ref>Herzog, Sadja. “Gossart, Italy, and the National Gallery's Saint Jerome Penitent.” Report and Studies in the History of Art, vol. 3, 1969, pp. 67–70, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/42618036 JSTOR], Retrieved 29 December 2020.</ref>

Jerome is often depicted in connection with the ''[[vanitas]]'' motif, the reflection on the meaninglessness of earthly life and the transient nature of all earthly goods and pursuits. In the 16th century [[:File:Workshop of Pieter Coecke van Aelst, the elder - Saint Jerome in His Study - Walters 37256.jpg|''Saint Jerome in his study'']] by [[Pieter Coecke van Aelst]] and workshop, the saint is depicted with a skull. Behind him on the wall is pinned an admonition, ''Cogita Mori'' ("Think upon death"). Further reminders of the ''vanitas'' motif of the passage of time and the imminence of death are the image of the [[Last Judgment]] visible in the saint's Bible, the candle and the hourglass.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[The Walters Art Museum]] |url=http://art.thewalters.org/detail/35964/saint-jerome-in-his-study/ |title=Saint Jerome in His Study |access-date=6 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918103639/http://art.thewalters.org/detail/35964/saint-jerome-in-his-study |archive-date=18 September 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Both [[Agostino Carracci]] and [[Domenichino]] portrayed [[The Last Communion of Saint Jerome (Domenichino)|Jerome's last communion]].

Jerome is also sometimes depicted with an [[owl]], the symbol of wisdom and scholarship.<ref name="NMSU">[http://artdepartment.nmsu.edu/faculty/zarursite/retablo/col-saints.html The Collection: Saint Jerome] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022221000/http://artdepartment.nmsu.edu/faculty/zarursite/retablo/col-saints.html |date=22 October 2012 }}, gallery of the religious art collection of [[New Mexico State University]], with explanations. Retrieved 10 August 2007.</ref> [[Writing material]]s and the trumpet of [[final judgment]] are also part of his [[iconography]].<ref name="NMSU" />

A four and three quarters foot tall limestone statue of Jerome was installed above the entrance of O’Shaughnessy Library on the campus of [[University of St. Thomas (Minnesota)|the University of St. Thomas]]  (then College of St. Thomas) in St. Paul Minnesota in October 1950. The sculptor was [[Joseph Kiselewski]] and the stone carver was Egisto Bertozzi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sculpture |url=https://www.kiselewskisculpture.com/ |access-date=2023-04-27 |website=Joseph Kiselewski |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Egisto Bertozzi – Stone Carver |url=https://saintjameslutheran.com/content.cfm?id=9078 |access-date=2023-04-27 |website=Saint James Lutheran Church |language=en}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Vatican Museums 2020 P31 Leonardo da Vinci Saint Jerome.jpg|''Saint Jerome in the Wilderness'', [[Leonardo da Vinci]], 1480–1490, Vatican Museums
File:St Jerome Penitent in the Wilderness - Rijksmuseum.jpg|''Jerome Penitent in the Wilderness''. Copper engraving, [[Albrecht Dürer]] 1494–1498
File:Saint Jerome in his Study.jpg|''Hieronymus in Gehäus''. Copper engraving, [[Albrecht Dürer]] 1514
File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Der heilige Hieronymus (ca.1515, Mexico City).jpg|''Saint Jerome in the Wilderness'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] {{c.|1515|lk=no}}
File:St.Jerome MET.jpg|''Saint Jerome'' {{c.|1520|lk=no}} Netherlandish stained glass window at MET.
File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Der heilige Hieronymus (ca.1525, Ferdinandeum).jpg|Saint Jerome by Lucas Cranach the Elder, {{c.|1525|lk=no}}
File:Workshop of Pieter Coecke van Aelst, the elder - Saint Jerome in His Study - Walters 37256.jpg|''Saint Jerome in his study'', {{c.|1530|lk=no}} by [[Pieter Coecke van Aelst]] and Workshop, [[Walters Art Museum]]
File:Gabriel Thaller; Sveti Jeronim i pavlini (18.st.).jpg|''Saint Jerome and the Paulines'' painted by Gabriel Thaller in the St. Jerome Church in [[Štrigova]], [[Međimurje County]], northern Croatia (18th century)
File:Jose Escada, S Jeronimo 1978.jpg|Saint Hieronymus (1978), by Jose Escada
File:Jacques Blanchard - Hl. Hieronymus.jpg|Painting of Saint Jerome by [[Jacques Blanchard]], 1632.
File:Albrecht Dürer 035.jpg|''[[Saint Jerome in His Study (Dürer, 1521)|St. Jerome in His Study]]'' by [[Albrecht Dürer]], 1521
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{portal|Saints|Christianity}}
* [[Androcles]]
* [[Bible translations]]
* [[Church Fathers]]
* [[Eusebius of Cremona]]
* [[Ferdinand Cavallera]]
* [[Genesius of Arles]]
* [[International Translation Day]]
* [[Letter of Jerome to Pope Damasus]]
* [[Hieronymites|Order of St. Jerome]]
* [[Prologus Galeatus]]
* [[Pelagius]]
* [[Synod of Diospolis]]

== References ==
===Notes===
{{notelist|refs=

{{efn|name=EOC|In the Eastern Orthodox Church he is known as ''Saint Jerome of Stridonium'' or ''Blessed Jerome''. "Blessed" in this context does not have the sense of being less than a saint, as it does in the West.}}

{{efn|name=EugeneRice|[[Eugene F. Rice, Jr.|Eugene Rice]] has suggested that in all probability the story of Gerasimus's lion became attached to the figure of Jerome some time during the seventh century, after the military invasions of the Arabs had forced many Greek monks who were living in the deserts of the Middle East to seek refuge in Rome. {{harvnb|Rice|1985|pp=44–45}} conjectures that because of the similarity between the names Gerasimus and Geronimus—the late Latin form of Jerome's name—'a Latin-speaking cleric … made St Geronimus the hero of a story he had heard about St Gerasimus; and that the author of ''Plerosque nimirum'', attracted by a story at once so picturesque, so apparently appropriate, and so resonant in suggestion and meaning, and under the impression that its source was [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrims]] who had been told it in Bethlehem, included it in his life of a favourite saint otherwise bereft of miracles.'" {{harv|Salter|2001|p=12}} }}

{{efn|name=PL|''[[Patrologia Latina]] 25, 373'': Crebroque cryptas ingredi, quae in terrarum profunda defossae, ex utraque parte ingredientium per parietes habent corpora sepultorum, et ita obscura sunt omnia, ut propemodum illud propheticum compleatur: ''Descendant ad infernum viventes'' (Ps. LIV,16): et raro desuper lumen admissum, horrorem temperet tenebrarum, ut non-tam fenestram, quam foramen demissi luminis putes: rursumque pedetentim acceditur, et caeca nocte circumdatis illud Virgilianum proponitur (Aeneid. lib. II): "Horror ubique animos, simul ipsa silentia terrent."}}

{{efn|name=ndq|"(...) die griechische Bibelübersetzung, die einem innerjüdischen Bedürfnis entsprang (...) [von den] Rabbinen zuerst gerühmt (...) Später jedoch, als manche ungenaue Übertragung des hebräischen Textes in der Septuaginta und Übersetzungsfehler die Grundlage für hellenistische Irrlehren abgaben, lehte man die Septuaginta ab." {{harv| Homolka | 1999 | pp=43–}} }}

}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* Andrew Cain and Josef Lössl, ''Jerome of Stridon: His Life, Writings and Legacy'' (London and New York, 2009)
* {{cite book | last=Homolka | first=W. | title=Die Lehren des Judentums nach den Quellen | publisher=Knesebeck | issue=v. 3 | year=1999 | isbn=978-3-89660-058-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6i6VSwAACAAJ | language=de|volume=Bd. 3|location=Munich|via=Verband der Deutschen Juden}}
* {{cite book|first=J.N.D. |last=Kelly |title=Jerome: His Life, Writings, and Controversies |publisher=Harper & Row |place=New York |year=1975}}
* {{cite book | last1=Kurian | first1=G.T. | last2=Smith | first2=J.D. | title=The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature | publisher=Scarecrow Press | issue=v. 2 | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-8108-7283-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dk4G-52QT-8C&pg=PA389}}
* {{Citation |first=Robert |last=Payne |title=The Fathers of the Western Church |publisher=Viking Press |place=New York |year=1951}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pevarello |first1=Daniele |title=The Sentences of Sextus and the origins of Christian ascetiscism |date=2013 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |location=Tübingen |isbn=978-3-16-152579-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Fgfxmz2EToC&pg=PA1 }}
* {{Citation |first=Stefan |last=Rebenich |title=Jerome |year=2002|publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0415199063|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nDKJUq2WMgEC}}
* {{cite book | last=Rice | first=E.F. | title=Saint Jerome in the Renaissance | publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press | series=Johns Hopkins symposia in comparative history | year=1985 | isbn=978-0-8018-2381-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNU5D7ZdhzoC }}
* {{cite book | last1=Salisbury | first1=J.E. | last2=Lefkowitz | first2=M.R. | title=Encyclopedia of Women in the Ancient World | publisher=ABC-CLIO | series=ABC-CLIO E-Books | year=2001 | isbn=978-1-57607-092-5 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HF0m3spOebcC&pg=PA32 | author-link=Joyce E. Salisbury|chapter=Blaesilla}}
* {{cite book |last=Salter |first=David |title=Holy and Noble Beasts: Encounters With Animals in Medieval Literature |year=2001 |publisher=D. S. Brewer |isbn=978-0-85991-624-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kctEkMyhztQC&pg=PA11 }}
* {{cite book |last=Scheck |first=Thomas P. |title=Commentary on Matthew |series=The Fathers of the Church|volume=117 |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-8132-0117-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j0UmWBivNJgC&pg=PA5 }}
* {{cite journal|first=Martin|last=Slepička|title=Úcta k svatému Jeronýmovi v českém středověku: 1600. výročí smrti církevního otce svatého Jeronýma|journal=Slepička, Martin. Úcta K Svatému Jeronýmovi V Českém Středověku. K 1600. Výročí Smrti Církevního Otce Svatého Jeronýma. 1. Vyd. Ostrava: Repronis, 2021 |publisher=Repronis |place=Ostrava |year=2021 | url=https://www.academia.edu/49243338 }}
* {{cite book|first=Tom |last=Streeter|title=The Church and Western Culture: An Introduction to Church History|publisher= AuthorHouse |date=2006}}
* {{Citation |editor-first=Michael |editor-last=Walsh |title=Butler's Lives of the Saints |publisher=HarperCollins |place=New York |year=1992}}
* {{cite book|first=Maisie |last=Ward|title=Saint Jerome|publisher=Sheed & Ward|location= London |date=1950}}
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Megan Hale |title=The Monk and the Book: Jerome and the Making of Christian Scholarship |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7nWdiTsjOtUC |publisher=U of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-89900-8 }}
* ''Biblia Sacra Vulgata'' [e.g. edition published Stuttgart, 1994, {{ISBN|3-438-05303-9}}]
* {{Schaff–Herzog|title=Jerome|volume=6|url=https://archive.org/details/newschaffherzog07haucgoog/page/126/mode/2up}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* Saint Jerome, ''Three biographies: Malchus, St. Hilarion and Paulus the First Hermit Authored by Saint Jerome'', London, 2012. limovia.net. {{ISBN|978-1-78336-016-1}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote|Jerome}}
{{Commons category|Saint Jerome}}
{{Wikisourcelang|la|Categoria:Vulgata}}
* [http://www.bartleby.com/210/9/301.html St. Jerome] ([http://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/jerome.pdf pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909170851/http://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/jerome.pdf |date=9 September 2016 }}) from [[Alban Butler|Fr. Alban Butler]]'s ''Lives of the Saints''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190616074741/http://www.catholicrevelations.com/category/saints/the-life-of-st-jerome-saint-doctor-priest-confessor-bible-translator-of-the-catholic-church.html The Life of St. Jerome, Priest, Confessor and Doctor of the Church]
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=St. Jerome}}
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=239&letter=J&search=Jerome Jewish Encyclopedia: Jerome]
* [http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=10 St. Jerome – Catholic Online]
* [http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=101732 St Jerome (Hieronymus) of Stridonium] Orthodox [[synaxarion]]
* [http://www.art-threads.co.uk/ Further reading of depictions of Saint Jerome in art]
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/jerome.html Saint Jerome, Doctor of the Church] at the Christian Iconography web site
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/goldenLegend/jerome.htm Here Followeth the Life of Jerome] from Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend
* [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/2407/browse?value=Jeroni%2C+sant%2C+ca.+342-420&type=author Works of Saint Jerome] at Somni
** [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0683 ''Beati Hyeronimi Epistolarum liber''], digitized codex (1464)
** [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0378 ''Epistole de santo Geronimo traducte di latino''], digitized codex (1475–1490)
** [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0611 ''Hieronymi in Danielem''], digitized codex (1490)
** [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0893 ''Sancti Hieronymi ad Pammachium in duodecim prophetas''], digitized codex (1470–1480)
* [http://www.stpetersbasilica.info/Exterior/Colonnades/Saints/St%20Jerome-137/StJerome.htm Colonnade Statue in St Peter's Square]
* {{Librivox author |id=14959}}

=== Latin texts ===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081228175424/http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/jerome-chart Chronological list of Jerome's Works with modern editions and translations cited]
* [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/20_40_0347-0420-_Hieronymus,_Sanctus.html ''Opera Omnia'' (Complete Works) from Migne edition (''Patrologia Latina'', 1844–1855) with analytical indexes, almost complete online edition]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_082.html Lewis E 82 Vitae patrum (Lives of the Fathers) at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_047.html Lewis E 47 Bible Commentary at OPenn]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20230131005644/https://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/02m/0347-0420,_Hieronymus,_Liber_De_Nominibus_Hebraicis,_MLT.pdf ''Liber de Nominibus Hebraicis''], a list of names of people in the Bible and etymologies, based on a work attributed to [[Philo]] and expanded by [[Origen]]
* [https://archive.org/details/eusebiipamphili00partgoog/page/n5/mode/2up A translation and expaansion] of the [[Onomasticon (Eusebius)|Onomasticon of Eusebius]], listing and commenting on places mentioned in the Bible

==== Facsimiles ====
* [https://archive.org/details/patrologiaecurs01goog Migne volume 23 part 1 (1883 edition)]
* [https://archive.org/details/patrologiaecurs01goog Migne volume 23 part 2 (1883 edition)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=XXwMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13 Migne volume 24 (1845 edition)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fv4c9kz9L_cC&pg=PP13 Migne volume 25 part 1 (1884 edition)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fv4c9kz9L_cC&pg=RA6-PA815 Migne volume 25 part 2 (1884 edition)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=Qc98ulXGPNUC&pg=PA11 Migne volume 28 (1890 edition?)]
* [https://archive.org/details/patrologiaecurs08goog Migne volume 30 (1865 edition)]

=== English translations ===
* {{cite book |author=Jerome |author-link=Jerome |year=1887 |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924028534190 |title=The pilgrimage of the holy Paula |publisher=[[Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society]]}}
* [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/ English translations of Biblical Prefaces, Commentary on Daniel, Chronicle, and Letter 120 (tertullian.org)]
* [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_preface_gospels.htm Jerome's Letter to Pope Damasus]: Preface to the Gospels
* [http://www.istrianet.org/istria/illustri/jerome/works/viris-illustribus.htm English translation of Jerome's ''De Viris Illustribus'']
* [https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/ Translations of various works (letters, biblical prefaces, life of St. Hilarion, others)] (under "Jerome")
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf203.v.iii.i.html ''Lives of Famous Men'' (CCEL)]
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf203.vi.xii.i.i.html Apology Against Rufinus (CCEL)]
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.toc.html Letters], The Life of Paulus the First Hermit, The Life of S. Hilarion, The Life of Malchus, the Captive Monk, The Dialogue Against the Luciferians, The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary, Against Jovinianus, Against Vigilantius, To Pammachius against John of Jerusalem, Against the Pelagians, Prefaces (CCEL)
* [https://archive.org/details/AssortedLettersOfSt.Jerome Audiobook of some of the letters]

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[[Category:Jerome| ]]
[[Category:340s births]]
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