Jaffa Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Ancient port and city in Tel Aviv, Israel}} {{Other uses}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{EngvarB|date=May 2014}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}} [[File:ISR-2013-Aerial-Jaffa-Port of Jaffa.jpg|alt=|300px|thumb|Aerial view of Jaffa]] [[File:PikiWiki Israel 68164 port of jaffa.jpg|300px|thumb|Aerial view of old Jaffa and port with Tel Aviv behind]] '''Jaffa''' ({{lang-he|יָפוֹ|Yāfō}}, {{IPA|he|jaˈfo|pron|He-Yafo.ogg}}; {{lang-ar|يَافَا|Yāfā}}, {{IPA|ar|ˈjaːfaː|pron}}), also called '''Japho''' or '''Joppa''' in English, is an ancient [[Levant]]ine port city founded by the [[Canaanites]] that is now part of southern [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]]. Sitting atop a naturally elevated outcrop on the [[Mediterranean]] coastline, it was a strategic location that exchanged hands repeatedly in [[ancient Near East]] history, and was also contested during the [[Crusades]], when it presided over the [[County of Jaffa and Ascalon]]. The city of Jaffa is associated with the 1192 [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|Battle of Jaffa]] and subsequent [[Treaty of Jaffa (1192)|Treaty of Jaffa]], a truce between [[Richard the Lionheart]] and [[Saladin]], as well as a later [[Treaty of Jaffa (1229)|1229 peace treaty]]. In 1799, Napoleon also sacked the town in the [[Siege of Jaffa]], and in the [[First World War]] the British took the city in the 1917 [[Battle of Jaffa (1917)|Battle of Jaffa]], and under their watch, as part of [[Mandatory Palestine]], ethnic tensions culminated in the 1921 [[Jaffa riots]]. As an Arab majority city in the Ottoman era, Jaffa became known starting from the 19th century for its expansive orchards and fruits, including its namesake [[Jaffa orange]]. It was also a [[History of Palestinian journalism|Palestinian hub for journalism]] in [[Mandatory Palestine]] in the 20th century, where [[Falastin]] and [[Al-Difa']] newspapers were established. After the [[1948 Palestine War]], most of its Arab population [[1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight|fled or were expelled]], and the city became part of then newly established state of Israel, and was unified into a single municipality with Tel Aviv in 1950. Today, Jaffa is one of Israel's [[mixed cities]], with approximately 37% of the city being Arab.<ref name="Lior 2011">{{cite web | last=Lior | first=Ilan | title=Tel Aviv to build affordable housing for Jaffa's Arab residents | website=Haaretz.com | date=2011-02-28 | url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.5128965 | access-date=2022-05-12}}</ref> ==Etymology== The town was mentioned in [[Egypt]]ian sources and the [[Amarna letters]] as ''Yapu''. [[Mythology]] says that it is named for [[Japheth|Yafet]] (Japheth), one of the sons of [[Noah]], the one who built it after the [[Genesis flood narrative|Flood]].<ref>One example of this legend is the 16th-century French pilgrim Denis Possot who recorded, "Jaffe, est le port de la Terre saincte, anciennement nommé Joppe, faict et construict premierment en ville et cité grande à merveilles et de grant renom, par Japhet, fils de Noé." in his ''Le Voyage de la Terre Sainte'' (Geneva: Slatkine Reprints 1971, reprint of Paris edition, 1890, orig. 1532), p. 155.</ref><ref>Another pilgrim, Sir Richard of Guylforde, wrote,"This Jaffe was sometyme a grete Cytie [...] and it was one of the firste Cyties of the worlde founded by Japheth, Noes sone, and beryth yet his name." In the pilgrimage narrative from 1506, recorded by his chaplain in 1511, edited by Sir Henry Ellis (London: Camden Society, 1851), p. 16.</ref> The [[Hellenistic period|Hellenist]] tradition links the name to ''Iopeia'', or [[Cassiopeia (Queen of Aethiopia)|Cassiopeia]], mother of [[Andromeda (mythology)|Andromeda]]. An outcropping of rocks near the harbor is reputed to have been the place where Andromeda was rescued by Perseus. [[Pliny the Elder]] associated the name with Iopa, daughter of [[Aeolus]], god of the wind. The medieval [[Arab]] geographer [[al-Muqaddasi]] referred to it as ''Yaffa''.<ref name=Strange550>le Strange, 1890, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/palestineundermo00lestuoft#page/550/mode/1up 550]-551</ref> ==History== {{see also|Timeline of Jaffa|Old Jaffa}} Ancient Jaffa was built on a {{convert|40|m}} high ridge, with a broad view of the coastline, giving it a strategic importance in military history.<ref name="UCLA">Stacey Jennifer Miller, ''The Lion Temple of Jaffa: Archaeological Investigations of the Late Bronze Age Egyptian Occupation in Canaan.'' [http://jchp.ucla.edu/Bibliography/Miller_Stacey_J_2012_BA_Honors_Thesis_UCLA.pdf BA thesis], University of California, Los Angeles, 2012</ref> The [[tell (archaeology)|tell]] of Jaffa, created through the accumulation of debris and landfill over the centuries, made the hill even higher. ===Bronze Age=== The city as such was established at the latest around 1800 BCE.<ref name="Popular"> ====Late Bronze ==== Aaron A. Burke and Martin Peilstöcker, [https://www.aegeussociety.org/en/news/the-egyptian-fortress-in-jaffa/ ''The Egyptian Fortress in Jaffa''], Popular Archaeology, 3 March 2013</ref> Jaffa is mentioned in an [[Ancient Egypt]]ian letter from 1440 BCE. The so-called story of [[the Taking of Joppa]] glorifies its conquest by [[Pharaoh]] [[Thutmose III]], whose general, [[Djehuty (general)|Djehuty]], hid Egyptian soldiers in sacks carried by pack animals and sent them camouflaged as tribute into the [[Canaan]]ite city, where the soldiers emerged and conquered it. The story predates the story of the [[Trojan horse]], as told by [[Homer]], by at least two centuries. The city is also mentioned in the [[Amarna letters]] under its Egyptian name ''Ya-Pho'' (''Ya-Pu, EA 296, l.33''). ===Iron Age=== The city was under Egyptian rule until around 1200 BCE.<ref name="Shelley22">{{cite journal |title='He Went Down to Joppa and Found a Ship Going to Tarshish' (Jonah 1:3): Landscape Reconstruction at Jaffa and a Potential Early Harbour |journal=International Journal of Nautical Archaeology |url=https://www.academia.edu/95122032 |last1=Wachsmann |first1=Shelley |issue=2 |volume=51 |pages=267–303 |last2=Burke |first2=Aaron A. |doi=10.1080/10572414.2022.2148819 |year=2022 |issn=1057-2414 |last3=Dunn |first3=Richard K. |last4=Avnaim-Katav |first4=Simona|bibcode=2022IJNAr..51..267W }}</ref>{{rp|270–271}} ;Biblical narrative In the [[Hebrew Bible]], Jaffa is depicted as the northernmost [[Philistines|Philistine]] city, bordering the [[Israelites|Israelite]] territories – more specifically those of [[Tribe of Dan]] (hence the modern term "[[Gush Dan]]" for the center of the coastal plain). The Israelites did not manage to take Jaffa from the Philistines.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |author1=[[Anson F. Rainey]] |date=February 2001 |title=Herodotus' Description of the East Mediterranean Coast |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1357657 |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |publisher=The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The American Schools of Oriental Research |issue=321 |pages=58–59 |doi=10.2307/1357657 |jstor=1357657 |access-date=20 May 2021 |s2cid=163534665}}</ref> Jaffa is mentioned four times in the [[Hebrew Bible]]:<ref name="Shelley22" />{{rp|271}} as the northernmost [[Philistines|Philistine]] city by the coast, bordering the territory of the Tribe of [[Dan (son of Jacob)|Dan]] ({{bibleverse|Joshua|19:46}}); as port-of-entry for the [[Lebanon Cedar|cedars of Lebanon]] for [[Solomon's Temple]] ({{bibleverse|2 Chronicles|2:16}}); as the place whence the prophet [[Jonah]] embarked for [[Tarshish]] ({{bibleverse|Jonah|1:3}}); and again as port-of-entry for the cedars of Lebanon for the [[Second Temple]] of Jerusalem ({{bibleverse|Ezra|3:7}}). ===Classical antiquity=== In the late 8th century BC, [[Sennacherib]], king of [[Assyria]], recorded conquering Jaffa from its sovereign, the [[Philistines|Philistine]] king of [[Ashkelon]].<ref name=":2" /> After a period of [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Babylonian occupation]], under [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian rule]], Jaffa was governed by [[Phoenicians]] from Tyre.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}} [[Alexander the Great]]'s troops were stationed in Jaffa. It later became a [[port city]] of the [[Seleucid Empire]] until it was taken over by the [[Maccabees]] ({{bibleverse|1 Maccabees|10:74–76}}) around 143 BCE, and was ruled by the [[Hasmonean dynasty]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}} [[Strabo]], writing in the early 1st century CE, describes Joppa as a location from which it is possible to see Jerusalem, the capital of the Jews, and writes that the Jews used it as their naval arsenal when they descended to the sea.<ref>Strabo, ''[[Geographica]]'', 16.2.28</ref> According to [[Josephus]], however, the harbor at Jaffa was inferior to that of [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Josephus |author-link=Josephus |title=Josephus Complete Works |publisher=Kregel Publications |translator=[[William Whiston]] |date=1981|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |page=331|isbn=0-8254-2951-X }}, s.v. ''[[Antiquities of the Jews|Antiquities]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D15%3Asection%3D331 15.9.6.] (15.331)</ref> During the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], Jaffa was captured and burned by [[Cestius Gallus]]. The Roman Jewish historian [[Josephus]] (Jewish War 2.507–509, 3:414–426) writes that 8,400 inhabitants were massacred. [[Piracy|Pirates]] operating from the rebuilt port incurred the wrath of [[Vespasian]], who razed the city and erected a [[citadel]] in its place, installing a Roman garrison there.{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}} During the first centuries of Christianity, Jaffa was a fairly unimportant Roman and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] locality, which only in the 5th century became a bishopric.<ref>[[Michel Le Quien]], ''Oriens Christianus'', III, 627.</ref> A very small number of its Greek or Latin bishops are known.<ref>[[Michel Le Quien]], ''Oriens Christianus'', III, 625–30, 1291; [[Konrad Eubel]], ''Hierarchia catholica medii aevi'', Munich, I, 297; II, 186.</ref><ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08268a.htm]</ref> ;Religious narratives {{religious text|section|date=January 2024}} The [[New Testament]] account of [[Saint Peter]] bringing back to life the widow [[Dorcas]] (recorded in [[Acts of the Apostles]], {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|9:36–42}}, takes place in Jaffa, then called in Greek {{lang|grc|Ἰόππη}} ([[latinization of names|Latinized]] as ''Joppa''). {{bibleverse||Acts|10:10–23}} relates that, while Peter was in Jaffa, he had a vision of a large sheet filled with [[Kosher foods|"clean"]] and "unclean" animals being lowered from heaven, together with a message from the [[Holy Spirit]] telling him to accompany several messengers to [[Cornelius the Centurion|Cornelius]] in [[Caesarea Maritima]]. Peter retells the story of his vision in {{bibleverse||Acts|11:4–17}}, explaining how he had come to preach [[Christianity]] to the [[gentile]]s. In ''[[Midrash halakha|Midrash]] Tanna'im'' in its chapter {{bibleverse|Deuteronomy|33:19}}, reference is made to [[Jose ben Halafta]] (2nd century) traveling through Jaffa. Jaffa seems to have attracted serious Jewish scholars in the 4th and 5th century. The [[Jerusalem Talmud]] (compiled 4th and 5th century) in ''Moed Ketan'' references [[Rabbi Aha|Rabi Akha bar Khanina]] of Jaffa; and in ''Pesachim'' chapter 1 refers to [[Phinehas ben Jair|Rabi Pinchas ben Yair]] of Jaffa. The [[Babylonian Talmud]] (compiled 5th century) in ''Megillah'' 16b mentions Rav Adda Demin of Jaffa. ''[[Leviticus Rabbah]]'' (compiled between 5th and 7th century) mentions Rav Nachman of Jaffa. The ''[[Pesikta Rabbati]]'' (written in the 9th century) in chapter 17 mentions R. Tanchum of Jaffa.<ref>{{citation |author= Rabbi Joseph Schwarz |title= Descriptive Geography and Brief Historical Sketch of Palestine |access-date=31 May 2011 |url= http://www.shechem.org/machon/schwarz/palestine/tribe_of_dan.html |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110621063020/http://shechem.org/machon/schwarz/palestine/tribe_of_dan.html |archive-date= 21 June 2011 }}</ref> Several streets and alleys of the Jaffa Flea Market area are named after these scholars. ===Middle Ages=== ====Early Islamic period==== [[File:ISR-2016-Jaffa-Old Saray house.jpg|thumb|Jaffa Museum in Old Saraya building, in the historical [[Old Jaffa]] region]] In 636 Jaffa was conquered by Arabs. Under Islamic rule, it served as a port of [[Ramla]], then the provincial capital. [[Al-Muqaddasi]] (c. 945/946 – 991) described ''Yafah'' as "lying on the sea, is but a small town, although the [[Emporium (antiquity)|emporium]] of Palestine and the port of [[Ramla|Ar-Ramlah]]. It is protected by a strong wall with iron gates, and the sea-gates also are of iron. The [[mosque]] is pleasant to the eye, and overlooks the sea. The harbour is excellent".<ref name=Strange550/> ====Crusader/Ayyubid period==== Jaffa was captured in June 1099 during the [[First Crusade]], and was the centre of the [[County of Jaffa and Ascalon]], one of the [[vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. One of its counts, [[John of Ibelin (jurist)|John of Ibelin]], wrote the principal book of the [[Assizes of Jerusalem|Assizes]] of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2018}} [[Saladin]] conquered Jaffa in 1187. The city surrendered to [[Richard I of England|King Richard the Lionheart]] on 10 September 1191, three days after the [[Battle of Arsuf]]. Despite efforts by Saladin to reoccupy the city in the July 1192 [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|Battle of Jaffa]], the city remained in the hands of the Crusaders. On 2 September 1192, the [[Treaty of Jaffa (1192)|Treaty of Jaffa]] was formally signed, guaranteeing a three-year truce between the two armies. In 1229, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] signed a ten-year truce in a new [[Treaty of Jaffa (1229)|Treaty of Jaffa]]. He fortified the castle of Jaffa and had two inscriptions carved into city wall, one Latin and the other Arabic. The inscription, deciphered in 2011, describes him as the "Holy Roman Emperor" and bears the date "1229 of the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus the Messiah."<ref>{{citation |url= http://news.discovery.com/history/inscription-crusader-king-frederick-111115.html |title= First Arabic Crusader Inscription Found |first= Rossella |last= Lorenzi |date= 15 November 2011 |publisher= Discovery News |access-date= 23 November 2011 |archive-date= 1 May 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120501200524/http://news.discovery.com/history/inscription-crusader-king-frederick-111115.html |url-status= dead }}</ref> ====Mamluk period==== In March 1268, [[Baibars]], the sultan of the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Egyptian Mamluks]], conquered Jaffa simultaneously with conquering [[Antioch]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Who Were the Mamluks? {{!}} History Today |url=https://www.historytoday.com/miscellanies/who-were-mamluks |access-date=2022-06-23 |website=www.historytoday.com}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Kohn |first=George Childs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1TLjAQAAQBAJ&q=1268+jaffa |title=Dictionary of Wars |date=2013-10-31 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-95501-4 |language=en}}</ref> Baibars's goal was to conquer [[Crusader states|Christian crusader strongholds]].<ref name=":0" /> An inscription from the [[White Mosque, Ramla|White Mosque of Ramla]], today visible in the [[Great Mosque of Gaza]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Wasserstein |first1=David J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6tIgyrjr7dMC&dq=In+1268,+Jaffa+was+conquered+by+Egyptian+Mamluks,+led+by+Baibars.&pg=PT50 |title=Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter |last2=Ayalon |first2=Ami |date=2013-06-17 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-57924-0 |language=en}}</ref> commemorates the event:<blockquote>[[Basmala|In the name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate]],...gave power to his servant...who has trust in him...who fights for Him and defends the faith of His Prophet...Sultan of Islam and the Muslims, Baybars...who came out with his victorious army on the 10th of the month of [[Rajab]] from the land of Egypt, resolved to carry out ''[[jihad]]'' and combat the intransigent [[Kafir|infidels]]. He camped in the port city of Jaffa in the morning and conquered it, by God's will, in the third hour of that day. Then he ordered the erection of the dome over the blessed minaret, as well as the gate of this mosque...in the year 666 of the [[Hijri year|Hijra]] [1268 CE]. May God have mercy upon him and upon all Muslims.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=The Mamluk Minarets of Ramla |url=https://journals.openedition.org/bcrfj/6409 |access-date=2022-06-23 |journal=Bulletin du Centre de Recherche Français À Jérusalem|date=15 December 2010 |issue=21 |last1=Cytryn-Silverman |first1=Katia }}</ref></blockquote>[[Abu'l-Fida]] (1273–1331), writing in 1321, described "Yafa, in Filastin" as "a small but very pleasant town lying on the sea-shore. It has a celebrated harbour. The town of Yafa is well fortified. Its markets are much frequented, and many merchants ply their trades here. There is a large harbour frequented by all the ships coming to Filastin, and from it they set sail to all lands. Between it and Ar Ramlah the distance is 6 miles, and it lies west of Ar Ramlah."<ref name=Strange550/> ===Ottoman period=== ====16th-18th centuries==== In 1515, Jaffa was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Ottoman dynasty|sultan]] [[Selim I]].<ref name="HüttAbdul">Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 151</ref> In the [[Defter|census]] of 1596, it appeared located in the ''[[nahiya]]'' of ''[[Ramla]]'' in the ''[[Liwa (Arabic)|liwa]]'' of [[Gaza Sanjak|Gaza]]. It had a population of 15 households, all [[Muslim]]. They paid a fixed tax rate of 33,3 % on various products; a total of 7,520 [[akçe]].<ref name="HüttAbdul"/> The traveller [[Jean Cotwyk]] (Cotovicus) described Jaffa as a heap of ruins when he visited in 1598.<ref>{{cite book |title= Jewish Encyclopedia |chapter= Jaffa |author= Gotthard Deutsch and M. Franco |year= 1903 |chapter-url= http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8497-jaffa }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Joannes Cotovicus |title= Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum et Syriacum |publisher= apud Hieronymum Verdussium |year= 1619 |page= 135 |url = https://archive.org/details/A091230 |place= Antwerp}}</ref> Botanist and traveller [[Leonhard Rauwolf]] landed near the site of the town on 13 September 1575 and wrote "we landed on the high, rocky shore where the town of Joppe did stand formerly, at this time the town was so demolished that there was not one house to be found." (p. 212, Rauwolf, 1582) The 17th century saw the beginning of the re-establishment of churches and hostels for Christian pilgrims en route to Jerusalem and the Galilee. During the 18th century, the coastline around Jaffa was often besieged by pirates and this led to the inhabitants relocating to [[Ramla]] and [[Lod]], where they relied on messages from a solitary guard house to inform them when ships were approaching the harbour. The landing of goods and passengers was notoriously difficult and dangerous. Until well into the 20th century, ships had to rely on teams of oarsmen to bring their cargo ashore.<ref>Thomson, 1859, vol 2, p. [https://archive.org/stream/landandbookorbi08thomgoog#page/n287/mode/1up 275]</ref> ====Napoleon (1799)==== [[File:Antoine-Jean Gros - Bonaparte visitant les pestiférés de Jaffa.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa]], 1804 [[propaganda]] painting commissioned by Napoleon; completed by [[Baron Gros]], who had not visited Jaffa]] On 7 March 1799, [[Napoleon]] captured the town in what became known as the [[Siege of Jaffa]], ransacked it, and killed scores of local inhabitants as a reaction to his envoys being brutally killed when delivering an ultimatum of surrender. Napoleon ordered the massacre of thousands of Muslim soldiers who were imprisoned having surrendered to the French.<ref name="Moit">{{cite book |author=Jacques-François Miot |title=Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des expéditions en Égypte et en Syrie |year=1814}}, quoted in {{cite journal |author=Véronique Nahoum-Grappe |year=2002 |title=The anthropology of extreme violence: the crime of desecration |journal=International Social Science Journal |volume=54 |issue=174 |pages=549–557 |doi=10.1111/1468-2451.00409}}</ref> Napoleon's deputy commissioner of war Jacques-François Miot described it thus: {{blockquote|On 10 March 1799 in the afternoon, the prisoners of Jaffa were marched off in the midst of a vast square phalanx formed by the troops of General Bon... The Turks, walking along in total disorder, had already guessed their fate and appeared not even to shed any tears... When they finally arrived in the sand dunes to the south-west of Jaffa, they were ordered to halt beside a pool of yellowish water. The officer commanding the troops then divided the mass of prisoners into small groups, who were led off to several different points and shot... Finally, of all the prisoners there only remained those who were beside the pool of water. Our soldiers had used up their cartridges, so there was nothing to be done but to dispatch them with bayonets and knives. ... The result ... was a terrible pyramid of dead and dying bodies dripping blood and the bodies of those already dead had to be pulled away so as to finish off those unfortunate beings who, concealed under this awful and terrible wall of bodies, had not yet been struck down.<ref name=Moit/>}} Many more died in an epidemic of [[bubonic plague]] that broke out soon afterwards.<ref>''Jaffa: a City in Evolution'' Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 8–9</ref> ====19th century==== [[File:1840–42 Royal Engineers map of Jaffa.jpg|thumb|left|Jaffa in 1841, as [[1840–41 Royal Engineers maps of Palestine, Lebanon and Syria|mapped by the British Royal Engineers]] after the [[Oriental Crisis of 1840]]]] {{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 250 | footer = | image1 = Félix Bonfils (French) - Jaffa, Vue Générale Prise de la Mer - Palestine - Google Art Project.jpg | alt1 = | caption1 = View of the port by [[Félix Bonfils]], 1867–1870 | image3 = ChederInJaffa1 (before1899).jpg | alt2 = | caption2 = Jewish preschool ([[Cheder]]) of studies in Yiddish and Hebrew, Jaffa, c. 1890s }} Residential life in the city was reestablished in the early 19th century.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} The governor who was appointed after the devastation brought about by Napoleon, [[Muhammad Abu-Nabbut]], commenced wide-ranging building and restoration work in Jaffa, including the [[Mahmoudiya Mosque]] and the public fountain known as [[Sabil Abu Nabbut]]. During the 1834 [[Peasants' revolt in Palestine]], Jaffa was besieged for forty days by "mountaineers" in revolt against [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt]].<ref>Thomson, page 515.</ref> [[File:Jaffa, or Joppa.jpg|thumb|1877 illustration of "Jaffa, or Joppa"]] In 1820, Isaiah Ajiman of Istanbul built a synagogue and hostel for the accommodation of Jews on their way to their [[Four Holy Cities|four holy cities]] - Jerusalem, [[Hebron]], [[Tiberias]] and [[Safed]]. This area became known as Dar al-Yehud (Arabic for "the house of the Jews"); and was the basis of the Jewish community in Jaffa. The appointment of Mahmud Aja as Ottoman governor marked the beginning of a period of stability and growth for the city, interrupted by the 1832 conquest of the city by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]].{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} By 1839, at least 153 [[Sephardic Jews]] were living in Jaffa.<ref>{{citation |title= The digitalization project of the 19th century censuses in Eretz Israel done under the auspices of Sir Moses Montefiore |access-date= 31 May 2011 |url= https://www.scribd.com/doc/44144106/Digitalization-Project-of-Montefiore-Censuses-19th-century}}</ref> The community was served for fifty years by Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi [[Dubrovnik|miRagusa]]. In the early 1850s, HaLevi leased an orchard to [[Clorinda S. Minor]], founder of a Christian messianic community that established Mount Hope, a farming initiative to encourage local Jews to learn manual trades, which the [[Messianics]] did in order to pave wave for the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus. In 1855, the British Jewish philanthropist [[Moses Montefiore]] bought the orchard from HaLevi, although Minor continued to manage it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Friedman |first=Lior |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/the-mountain-of-despair-1.273560 |title=The mountain of despair |publisher=Haaretz.com |date=5 April 2009 |access-date=25 August 2013}}</ref> [[File:MarktJaffaGustavBauernfeind1887.jpg|thumb|''Market at Jaffa'', by [[Gustav Bauernfeind]], 1877]] American missionary Ellen Clare Miller, visiting Jaffa in 1867, reported that the town had a population of "about 5000, 1000 of these being Christians, 800 Jews and the rest Moslems".<ref>Ellen Clare Miller, 'Eastern Sketches — notes of scenery, schools and tent life in Syria and Palestine'. Edinburgh: William Oliphant and Company. 1871. Page 97. See also Miller's populations of [[Damascus]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Bethlehem]], [[Nablus]] and [[Samaria]]</ref><ref>Thompson (above) writing in 1856 has '25 years ago the inhabitants of the city and gardens were about 6000; now there must be 15,000 at least...' Considering the length of time he lived in the area this may be a more accurate count.</ref> The city walls were torn down during the 1870s, allowing the city to expand.<ref>[https://www.oldjaffa.co.il/en/jaffa-historical-survey Jaffa, an Historical Survey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626111354/https://www.oldjaffa.co.il/en/jaffa-historical-survey/ |date=26 June 2018 }}. Written with the assistance of Tzvi Shacham, the curator of the Antiquities Museum of Tel Aviv–Jaffa</ref> ====1900-1914==== [[File:Landing at Jaffa.jpg|thumb|Boatmen waiting to land passengers, c. 1911]] [[File:רחוב הנמל ביפו-JNF007017.jpeg|thumb|Jaffa street beside port, 1914]] By the beginning of the 20th century, the population of Jaffa had swelled considerably. A group of Jews left Jaffa for the sand dunes to the north, where in 1909 they held a lottery to divide the lots acquired earlier. The settlement was known at first as Ahuzat Bayit, but an assembly of its residents changed its name to [[Tel Aviv]] in 1910. Other Jewish suburbs to Jaffa had already been founded [[Neve Tzedek|since 1887]], with others following until [[the Great War]].{{cn|date=January 2024}} In 1904, rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] (1864–1935) moved to Ottoman Palestine and took up the position of [[Chief Rabbi]] of Jaffa.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Rav_Kook.html |title= Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook |publisher= Jewish Virtual Library |author= Rav Hillel Rachmani}}</ref> ====Late Ottoman-period economy==== {{See also|History of Palestinian journalism}} In the 19th century, Jaffa was best known for its soap industry. Modern industry emerged in the late 1880s.<ref name=JCE>''Jaffa: A City in Evolution'' Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 256–257.</ref> The most successful enterprises were metalworking factories, among them the machine shop run by the [[Templers (religious believers)|Templers]] that employed over 100 workers in 1910.<ref name=JCE/> Other factories produced orange-crates, barrels, corks, noodles, ice, seltzer, candy, soap, olive oil, leather, alkali, wine, cosmetics and ink.<ref name=JCE/> Most of the newspapers and books printed in Ottoman Palestine were [[History of Palestinian journalism|published in Jaffa]]. In 1859, a Jewish visitor, [[Ludwig August von Frankl|L.A. Frankl]], found sixty-five Jewish families living in Jaffa, 'about 400 soul in all.' Of these four were shoemakers, three tailors, one silversmith and one watchmaker. There were also merchants and shopkeepers and 'many live by manual labour, porters, sailors, messengers, etc.'<ref>Dr Frankl, translated by P. Beaton, 'The Jews in the East'. Volume 1. Hurst and Blackett, London, 1859. Page 345. He adds 'The community is poor, and receives no alms from any quarter.' which resulted in some envy of the 'our bethren' in Jerusalem.</ref> ====Late Ottoman agriculture; Jaffa oranges==== [[File:Oranges leaving Jaffa.jpg|thumb|Crates of Jaffa oranges being ferried to a waiting freighter for export, circa 1930]] {{main|Jaffa orange}} Until the mid-19th century, Jaffa's orange groves were mainly owned by Arabs, who employed traditional methods of farming. The pioneers of modern agriculture in Jaffa were American settlers, who brought in farm machinery in the 1850s and 1860s, followed by the Templers and the Jews.<ref>''Jaffa: A City in Evolution'' Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 244–246.</ref> From the 1880s, real estate became an important branch of the economy. A 'biarah' (a watered garden) cost 100,000 piastres and annually produced 15,000, of which the farming costs were 5,000: 'A very fair percentage return on the investment.' Water for the gardens was easily accessible with wells between ten and forty feet deep.<ref>Thompson, page 517.</ref><ref>''Jaffa: A City in Evolution'' Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, p.262.</ref> Jaffa's citrus industry began to flourish in the last quarter of the 19th century. E.C. Miller records that 'about ten million' oranges were being exported annually, and that the town was surrounded by 'three or four hundred orange gardens, each containing upwards of one thousand trees'.<ref>Miller, page 97: 'The orange gardens are the finest in the East; and during the late winter and early spring, little white sailed vessels from Greece, Constantinople and the islands of the Archipelago, lie in calm weather at a short distance from the coast, waiting to carry away the fruit'.</ref> Shamuti or Shamouti oranges, aka "[[Jaffa oranges]]", were the major crop, but [[citron]]s, lemons and [[mandarin orange]]s were also grown.<ref>''Jaffa: A City in Evolution'' Ruth Kark, Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, Jerusalem, 1990, pp. 242.</ref> Jaffa had a reputation for producing the best [[pomegranate]]s.<ref>Thomson p.517: Sidon has best bananas, Jaffa the best pomegranates, oranges of Sidon are more juicy and have richer flavour. Jaffa oranges hang on the trees much later, and will bear shipping to distant regions.'</ref> Developed the mid-19th century, the Jaffa orange was first produced for export in the city after being developed by Arab farmers.<ref name=Issawip127 /><ref name=Basanp83 /> The orange was the primary citrus export for the city. Today,{{dubious|reason= Maybe elsewhere, but in Isr/Pal it stopped being a cash crop decades ago. |date= January 2024}} along with the [[navel orange|navel]] and [[bitter orange]], it is one of three main varieties of the fruit grown in the [[Mediterranean]], the [[Middle East]], and [[Southern Europe]].<ref name=Basanp83 /><ref name=Ladaniyap48>Ladaniya, 2008, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zaOK8bsvENQC&pg=PA48 pp. 48–49].</ref> The Jaffa orange emerged as a mutation on a tree of the 'Baladi' variety of [[sweet orange]] (''C. sinensis'') near the city of Jaffa.<ref name=Issawip127 /><ref name=Basanp83>Basan, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-7wnpIi3VRwC&dq=%22jaffa+orange%22&pg=PA83 p. 83].</ref> After the [[Crimean War]] (1853–56), the most important innovation in local agriculture was the rapid expansion of citrus cultivation.<ref name=Kramerp91>Krämer, 2008, [https://archive.org/details/historyofpalesti00krea/page/91 <!-- quote="jaffa orange" history. --> p. 91].</ref> Foremost among the varieties cultivated was the Jaffa (Shamouti) orange, and mention of it being exported to Europe first appears in British consular reports in the 1850s.<ref name=Issawip127>Issawi, 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?id=t2UESIFL0tkC&dq=%22jaffa+orange%22+history&pg=PA127 p. 127].</ref><ref name=Kramerp91 /> One factor cited in the growth of the export market was the development of [[steamship]]s in the first half of the 19th century, which enabled the export of oranges to the European markets in days rather than weeks.<ref name=Gerber1982>Gerber, 1982.</ref> Another reason cited for the growth of the industry was the relative lack of European control over the cultivation of oranges compared to cotton, formerly a primary commodity crop of Palestine, but outpaced by the Jaffa orange.<ref name=LeVinep272>LeVine, 2005, p. 272.</ref> The prosperity of the orange industry brought increased European interest and involvement in the development of ''Jaffa''. In 1902, a study of the growth of the orange industry by [[Zionist]] officials outlined the different Palestinian owners and their primary export markets as England, Turkey, Egypt and [[Austria-Hungary]]. While the traditional Arabic cultivation methods were considered "primitive," an in-depth study of the financial expenditure involved reveals that they were ultimately more cost-efficient than the Zionist-European enterprises that followed them some two decades later.<ref name=LeVinep34>LeVine, 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=pG8LmsJAUPcC&q=%22jaffa+orange%22 p. 34].</ref> ====First World War==== In 1917, the [[Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation]] resulted in the Ottomans expelling the entire civilian population. While Muslim evacuees were allowed to return before long, the Jewish evacuees remained in camps (and some in Egypt) until after the British conquest.<ref>Friedman, Isaiah (1971). "German Intervention on Behalf of the "Yishuv"", 1917, ''Jewish Social Studies'', Vol. 33, pp. 23–43.</ref> [[File:Jaffa Municipal Buildings.jpg|thumb|[[ANZAC|New Zealand]] soldiers outside Jaffa municipality building, WWI (winter 1917–18)]] During the course of their [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign |campaign through Ottoman Palestine and the Sinai]] (1915-1918) against the Ottomans, the British took Jaffa in November 1917, although it remained under observation and fire from the Ottomans. The [[battle of Jaffa (1917)|battle of Jaffa]] in late December 1917 pushed back the Ottoman forces securing Jaffa and the line of communication between it and Jerusalem, which had already been [[Battle of Jerusalem |taken on 11 December]]. ===British Mandate=== <gallery> File:Jaffa 1929.jpg|Jaffa 1929 1:20,000 File:Jaffa 1943.jpg|Jaffa 1943 1:20,000 File:Bat Yam 1945.jpg|Jaffa 1945 1:250,000 </gallery> ====1920s: conflict and development==== According to the [[1922 census of Palestine]] conducted by the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate authorities]], Jaffa had a population of 47,799, consisting of 20,699 Muslims, 20,152 Jews and 6,850 Christians,<ref name="Census1922">Barron, 1923, p.[https://archive.org/stream/PalestineCensus1922/Palestine%20Census%20%281922%29#page/n8/mode/1up 6]</ref> increasing to 51,866 in the [[1931 census of Palestine|1931 census]], residing in 11,304 houses.<ref name="Census1931">Mills, 1932, p. [https://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas 13]</ref> During the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate]], tension between the Jewish and Arab population increased. A wave of Arab attacks during 1920 and 1921 caused many Jewish residents to flee and resettle in [[Tel Aviv]], initially a marginal Jewish neighborhood north of Jaffa. The [[Jaffa riots]] in 1921, (known in Hebrew as ''Meoraot Tarpa'') began with a [[May Day]] parade that turned violent. Arab rioters attacked Jewish residents and buildings killing 47 Jews and wounding 146.<ref>Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the disturbances in the British Mandate of Palestine in May 1921, with correspondence relating thereto (Disturbances), 1921, Cmd. 1540, p. 60.</ref> The Hebrew author [[Yosef Haim Brenner]] was killed in the riots.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://sarahhonig.com/2009/04/30/another-tack-the-may-day-massacre-of-1921/ |title= Another Tack: The May Day Massacre of 1921 |date= 30 April 2009 |first= Sarah |last= Honig}}</ref> At the end of 1922, Tel Aviv had 15,000 residents: by 1927, the population had risen to 38,000. Still, during most of the 1920s Jaffa and Tel Aviv maintained peaceful co-existence. Most Jewish businesses were located in Jaffa, some Jewish neighbourhoods paid taxes to the municipality of Jaffa, many young Jews who could not afford the housing costs of Tel Aviv resided there, and the big neighbourhood of [[Menashiya]] was by and large fully mixed. The first electric company in the British Mandate of Palestine, although owned by Jewish shareholders, had been named the Jaffa Electric Company. In 1923, both Jaffa and Tel Aviv had begun a rapid process of wired electrification through a joint grid.<ref>Ronen Shamir (2013) Current Flow: The Electrification of Palestine. Stanford: Stanford University Press</ref> ====1930s: Arab revolt (1936–39)==== [[File:Jaffa Alhambra Cinema03562ucroped.jpg|thumb|Jaffa's [[Alhambra Cinema (Israel)|Alhambra Cinema]] flying an [[Flag of Palestine|Arab flag]], 1937]] The [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine]] severely impacted Jaffa. On 19 April 1936, [[Jaffa riots (April 1936)|riots broke out in Jaffa]] after rumors spread among the local Arab community that Jews had started to kill Arabs; Arab rioters attacked Jewish targets for three days before British security forces quelled the rioting. 9 Jews and 2 Arabs were killed and dozens more were wounded.<ref name="VitonArabsKill">{{cite news|last1=Viton|first1=Albert|title=Why Arabs Kill Jews|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/why-arabs-kill-jews/|access-date=24 August 2016|publisher=[[The Nation]]|date=3 June 1936}}</ref> In response to the riots, Arab leadership in Palestine declared a [[general strike]], which began in the [[Jaffa Port]] and quickly spread to the rest of the region.<ref name=LTBI>''The Land That Become Israel: Studies in Historical Geography,'' ed. Ruth Kark, Yale University Press & Magnes Press, 1989, "Aerial Perspectives of Past Landscapes," Dov Gavish, pp. 316–317</ref> After the start of the general strike, [[British Armed Forces|British troops]] stationed in Palestine were bolstered by reinforcements from [[Malta]] and [[Egypt]] to subdue rioting which had broken out in several major Palestinian cities. Arab rioters in Jaffa used the [[Old Jaffa|Old City]], which contained a maze of homes, winding alleyways and an underground sewer system, to escape arrest by British security forces.<ref name=LTBI/> Beginning in May 1936, in response to further Arab unrest in Jaffa, the British authorities suspended municipal services in the city, establishing barricades around the Old City and covering access roads with glass shards and nails.<ref name=LTBI/> On June of that year, [[Royal Air Force]] bombers dropped boxes of leaflets in Arabic on Jaffa, requesting the city's inhabitants to evacuate that same day.<ref name=LTBI/> In June 15, the [[Royal Engineers]] used [[gelignite]] charges to [[House demolition|demolish]] between 220 and 240 Arab-owned homes in the Old City, leaving an open strip which cut through the center of Jaffa from end to end and displacing approximately 6,000 Arabs.<ref name="Hughes" >Matthew Hughes, [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/31008337_The_Banality_of_Brutality_British_Armed_Forces_and_the_Repression_of_the_Arab_Revolt_in_Palestine_1936-39 'The Banality of Brutality: British Armed Forces and the Repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936 – 39'], [[English Historical Review]] Vol. CXXIV No. 507 pp.323–354 pp.322.323.</ref> On the evening of 17 June, 1,500 British troops entered Jaffa and a [[Royal Navy]] warship moved near the Jaffa Port to seal off escape routes by sea. On 29 June, British forces carried out another round of house demolitions, carving a swath from north to south.<ref name=LTBI/> The British authorities claimed that house demolitions in Jaffa were part of a "facelift" given to the Old City.<ref name=LTBI/> Local Arab newspapers resorted to using sarcasm to describe the demolitions, writing that the British had "beautified" Jaffa using boxes of gelignite.<ref name="Hughes" /> [[Michael McDonnell|Sir Michael McDonnell]], then serving as the [[Mandatory Palestine#Government and institutions|Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Palestine]], found in favor of Arab petitions from Jaffa and, upholding existing laws regarding house demolitions, ruled against the demolitions carried out by British forces in the Old City. In response, the [[Colonial Office]] dismissed him from his post.<ref>Matthew Hughes, ''Britain’s Pacification of Palestine: The British Army, the Colonial State, and the Arab Revolt, 1936– 1939,'' [[Cambridge University Press]]2019 p.36.</ref> The report produced by the [[Peel Commission]] in 1937 recommended that Jaffa, together with [[Bethlehem]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Lod|Lydda]] and [[Ramla|Ramle]], remain under permanent British control, forming a "corridor" from the sea port to the Holy Places, accessible to Arabs and Jews alike; whereas the rest of Mandatory Palestine was to be split between an Arab state and a Jewish state.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220803234548/https://unispal.un.org/pdfs/Cmd5479.pdf Peel Report], quote: "Jaffa is an essentially Arab town in which the Jewish minority has recently been dwindling. We suggest that it should form part of the Arab State. The question of its communication with the latter presents no difficulty, since transit through the Jaffa-Jerusalem Corridor would be open to all. The Corridor, on the other hand, requires its own access to the sea, and for this purpose a narrow belt of land should be acquired and cleared on the north and south sides of the town. This would also solve the problem, sometimes said to be insoluble, created by the contiguity of Jaffa with Tel Aviv to the north and the nascent Jewish town [Bat Yam] to the south. If necessary, Mandatory police could be stationed on this belt. This arrangement may seem artificial, but it is clearly practicable."</ref> ====1940-47: WWII; frictions==== [[Village Statistics, 1945|Village Statistics of 1945]] listed Jaffa with a population of 94,310, of whom 50,880 were Muslims, 28,000 were Jews, 15,400 were Christians and 30 were classified as "other".<ref name=1945p27>Department of Statistics, 1945, p. [http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/yabber/census/VSpages/VS1945_p27.jpg 27]</ref> The Christians were mostly [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] and about one-sixth of them were members of the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]]. One of the most prominent members of the Arab Christian community was the Greek Orthodox [[Issa El-Issa]], publisher of the newspaper [[Falastin (newspaper)|''Falastin'']]. In 1945, the Jewish community of Jaffa complained to the city mayor [[Yousef Haikal]] that their neighbourhoods don't receive appropriate municipal services (street lighting and paving, garbage removal, sewerage etc.) even though they contribute 40% of the municipality's budget. Some of the services (education, healthcare, and social services) had already been provided by [[Tel Aviv Municipality]] at its own expense, which formed the base for the Jewish community's demand that the Mandatory government annex their neighbourhoods to Tel Aviv.<ref>{{cite web |title= שכונות יפו חוזרות ודורשות: סיפוח! העבודות בשכונה נמסרות ,למציע הזול ביותר" | הבקר | 13 יולי 1945 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית | url= https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/hbkr/1945/07/13/01/article/83/}}</ref> In the year of 1946, Tel Aviv Municipality spent [[£P]] 300K on services for the Jewish neighbourhoods of Jaffa,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/hbkr/1947/04/10/01/article/80/ | title=סיפוח מהיר לתל־אביב תובעים תושבי שני יפו | הבקר | 10 אפריל 1947 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref> an increase from £P 80K in the year of 1942.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/haretz/1943/08/05/01/article/28/ | title=השכונות היהודיות של יפו דורשות סיפוח מידי לתל־אביב | הארץ | 5 אוגוסט 1943 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref> ====1947-48: partition plan and armed conflict==== In 1947, the UN Special Commission on Palestine recommended that Jaffa be included in the planned Jewish state. Due to the large Arab majority, however, it was instead designated as an [[enclave]] of the Arab state in the 1947 [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]]. The enclave would have excluded the northern Jewish-populated parts of the city, but included the agricultural lands to the south and east of the city, extending to the then-boundaries of [[Mikveh Israel]], [[Holon]] and [[Bat Yam]].<ref>{{citation |quote= The area of the Arab enclave of Jaffa consists of that part of the town-planning area of Jaffa which lies to the west of the Jewish quarters lying south of Tel-Aviv, to the west of the continuation of Herzl street up to its junction with the Jaffa-Jerusalem road, to the south-west of the section of the Jaffa-Jerusalem road lying south-east of that junction, to the west of Miqve Israel lands, to the north-west of Holon local council area, to the north of the line linking up the north-west corner of Holon with the north-east corner of Bat Yam local council area and to the north of Bat Yam local council area. The question of Karton quarter will be decided by the Boundary Commission, bearing in mind among other considerations the desirability of including the smallest possible number of its Arab inhabitants and the largest possible number of its Jewish inhabitants in the Jewish State. |url= http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/5ba47a5c6cef541b802563e000493b8c/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130416002129/http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/5ba47a5c6cef541b802563e000493b8c/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253 |url-status= dead |archive-date= 16 April 2013 |title= A/RES/181(II)(A+B), Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine (UN Partition Plan details) |date= 29 November 1947 |publisher= United Nations General Assembly }}</ref> Following the inter-communal violence which broke out following the passing of the UN partition resolution, the mayors of Jaffa and Tel Aviv tried to calm their communities.<ref>{{cite book |title=The faithful city: the siege of Jerusalem, 1948 |first=Dov |last=Joseph |author-link=Dov Yosef |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=1960 |lccn=60-10976 |oclc=266413 |url=https://archive.org/details/thefaithfulcity0000unse/page/24/mode/2up |url-access=registration |page=24 |quote=In an exchange of letters between Mayor Yisrael Rokach of Tel Aviv and Mayor Youssef Haikal of Jaffa, both agreed to call upon the residents to maintain peace and quiet.}}</ref> One of the main concerns for the people of Jaffa was the protection of the citrus fruit export trade which had still not reached its pre-Second World War highs.<ref>'A survey of Palestine', printed 1946–1947. Reprinted ISP, Washington, 1991 {{ISBN|0-88728-211-3}}. Page 474: Exports of citrus fruit total value in Palestine Pounds, 1938/39 = P£4,355,853. 1944/45 = P£1,474,854. Ironically, due to the Nazi conquest of the [[Netherlands]], Tel Aviv's trade in polished diamonds had increased over three-fold to P£3,235,117. Page 476</ref> Eventually the bilateral orange-picking and exporting of both sides continued although without a formal agreement.<ref name="Morris2004p114"/> [[File:1947 Arab-Israeli War (997008136835005171).jpg|thumb|Jewish fighters on the Jaffa-Tel Aviv front in 1947]] At the beginning of 1948 Jaffa's defenders consisted of one company of around 400 men organised by the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], almost none of them Palestinian Arabs (the "Arab Brigade"), and the local Arab irregulars of the National Guard.<ref>Pritzke, Herbert (1956). ''Bedouin Doctor — The adventures of a German in the Middle East''. Translated by Richard Graves. Weidenfeld and Nicolson (1957), copyright Ullstein and Co, Vienna (1956). Page 149: "At that time the Arab Brigade in Jaffa consisted of seven Germans, one hundred and fifty [[Jugoslavs]], thirty Egyptians and two hundred Lebanese and Syrians. There were very few Arabs among them as these preferred irregular warfare with the National Guard ..."</ref> As in Haifa, the irregulars intimidated the local population.<ref name="Morris2004p114"/> [[File:Grand Serai, Jaffa.jpg|thumb|right|Ruins of the 'Saraya' after the [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]] bomb attack]] On 4 January 1948, the [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]] detonated a truck bomb outside the ''Saraya'', formerly the Ottoman administrative building and now housing the Arab National Committee. The building and some nearby buildings were destroyed. Most of the 26 dead and many wounded were not connected to the National Committee but were passersby and staff at a food distribution programme for poor children that was also in the same building. Most of the children were not present as it was Sunday.<ref>{{cite book |last= Radai |first= Itamar |title= Palestinians in Jerusalem and Jaffa, 1948 |publisher= Routledge |year= 2016 |page= 140}}</ref> In February Jaffa's Mayor, [[Yousef Haikal]], contacted [[David Ben-Gurion]] through a British intermediary trying to secure a peace agreement with Tel Aviv, but the commander of the Arab militia in Jaffa opposed it.<ref name="Morris2004p114"/>{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=47}} On 25 April 1948, the [[Irgun]] launched an offensive on Jaffa. This began with a mortar bombardment which went on for three days during which twenty tons of high explosive were fired into the town.{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=95}}<ref>Menachem Begin, 'The Revolt — story of the Irgun'. Translated by Samuel Katz. Hadar Publishing, Tel Aviv. 1964. pp. 355–371.</ref> On 27 April the British Government, fearing a repetition of the mass exodus from [[Haifa]] the week before, ordered the British Army to confront the Irgun and their offensive ended. Simultaneously the [[Haganah]] had launched [[Operation Hametz]], which overran the villages east of Jaffa and cut the town off from the interior.{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=100}} On 29 April, the Irgun commander for the Tel-Aviv & Jaffa district, [[Eliyahu Tamler]], was killed by a British shell.<ref>https://www.izkor.gov.il/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%93%D7%99%20%D7%98%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%A8/en_5d5ed699cd3ff5f16d392bda8c0731c9</ref> The [[Battle of Haifa (1948)|fall of Haifa]] a few days earlier, and fear of another massacre similar to Irgun's [[Deir Yassin massacre]], caused panic across the Arabs of Jaffa, leading most of them to flee.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LILdBDrm-ksC&q=eugene+rogan+history+of+arabs|title=The Arabs: A History – Third Edition|author=Eugene Rogan|page=331|publisher=Penguin|year=2012|isbn=9780718196837 }}</ref> The population of Jaffa on the eve of the attack was between 50,000 and 60,000, with some 20,000 people having already left the town.{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=95}} By 30 April, there were 15,000–25,000 remaining.{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=100}}<ref>Begin, page 363.</ref> In the following days a further 10,000–20,000 people fled by sea. When the Haganah took control of the town on 14 May around 4,000 people were left.{{sfn|Morris|1987|p=101|ps=, "On 18 May Ben-Gurion visited the conquered city for the first time and commented:"I couldn't understand: Why did the inhabitants of Jaffa leave?"}} The town and harbour's warehouses were extensively looted.<ref>Jon Kimche, 'Seven Falen Pillars; The Middle East, 1915–1950'. Secker and Warburg, London. 1950. Page 224 :'the orgy of looting and wanton destruction which hangs like a black pall over almost all the Jewish military successes.'</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Karpel |first= Dalia |title= Wellsprings of memory |newspaper= Haaretz |date= 14 February 2008 |url= http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/952270.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090325111844/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/952270.html |archive-date= 25 March 2009}}</ref> The displacement of Jaffa's Arab population was part of the larger [[1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight]]. The city surrendered to the Haganah on 14 May 1948 and shortly after the British police and army left the city.<ref>[[Yoav Gelber]], ''Independence Versus Nakba''; Kinneret–Zmora-Bitan–Dvir Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|965-517-190-6}}, p.104</ref> The 3,800 Arabs who remained in Jaffa after the exodus were concentrated in the [[Ajami, Jaffa|Ajami district]] and subject to strict martial law.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Goldhaber |first1= Ravit |last2= Schnell |first2= Izhak |title= A Model of Multidimensional Segregation in the Arab Ghetto in Tel Aviv-Jaffa |pages= 603–620 |journal= Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie |year= 2007 |volume= 98 |issue=5 |doi= 10.1111/j.1467-9663.2007.00428.x }}</ref> The military administration in Jaffa lasted until 1 June 1949, at which point, [[Tel Aviv Municipality]] took over the administration; Jaffa Municipality, ''de-jure'' still in existence at the time, had not exercised any authority since 1948 until its dissolution in 1950.<ref name=ytlv1950>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/ytlv/1950/09/16/01/article/8/ | title=§ייפ1חח חרשםי של יפו לתל־אביב | ידיעות עירית תל אביב | 16 ספטמבר 1950 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref> ===State of Israel=== ====Gradual annexation into Tel Aviv==== [[File:Jaffa borders.png|thumb|Red: current boundary (as of 2022); blue: UN proposed enclave (1947); green: historic boundary (as of 1944)]] [[File:Jaffa 1949.jpg|thumb|Last Tel Aviv–Jaffa border (1949); no street names in Jaffa at that time]] [[File:Alley in Jaffa.jpg|thumb|Alleyway in [[Jaffa's Old City]]]] [[File:Amerika kolonya 216.jpg|thumb|Former Hotel du Parc in Jaffa's American Colony]] [[File:Jaffa Lighthouse.jpg|thumb|[[Jaffa Light]]]] The boundaries of Tel Aviv and Jaffa became a matter of contention between the Tel Aviv municipality and the Israeli government during 1948.<ref name=Golan1995>Arnon Golan (1995), The demarcation of Tel Aviv–Yafo's municipal boundaries, ''Planning Perspectives'', vol. 10, pp. 383–398.</ref> The former wished to incorporate only the well-off Jewish suburbs in the north of Jaffa, while the latter wanted a more complete unification.<ref name=Golan1995/> The issue also had international sensitivity, since the main part of Jaffa was in the Arab portion of the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan]], whereas Tel Aviv was not, and no armistice agreements had yet been signed.<ref name=Golan1995/> An alternative proposal, merging [[Bat Yam]] and [[Holon]] into Jaffa to form a bigger city south of Tel Aviv, was rejected on financial grounds, as the two small Jewish settlements lacked the funds necessary to sustain Jaffa.<ref name=ytlv1950/> On 10 December 1948, the government announced the annexation to Tel Aviv of Jaffa's Jewish suburbs of Maccabi ([[American–German Colony]]), Volovelsky (northwestern [[Florentin, Tel Aviv|Florentin]]), [[Giv'at Herzl]], and [[Shapira, Tel Aviv|Shapira]]; territories outside Jaffa's municipal boundary, specifically the Arab neighbourhood of [[Abu Kabir]], the Arab village of [[Salama, Jaffa|Salama]] and some of its agricultural land, and the working class Jewish areas of [[Hatikva, Tel Aviv|Hatikva]] and Ezra, were annexed to Tel Aviv at the same time, thus introducing around 50,000 new residents into the city.<ref name=ytlv1950/><ref name=Golan1995/> On 18 May 1949, the new boundary was drawn along Shari' Es Salahi (now Olei Zion Street) and Shari' El Quds (now Ben-Zvi Road), thereby adding into Tel Aviv the former Arab neighbourhood of [[Manshiya]] and part of Jaffa city centre, for the first time including land that had been in the Arab portion of the UN partition plan.<ref name=Golan1995/> The government decided on a permanent unification of Tel Aviv and Jaffa on 4 October 1949, but the actual unification was delayed until 16 June 1950 due to concerted opposition from Tel Aviv's mayor [[Israel Rokach]], who had demanded government funding of 1M [[I£]] towards the expenses of providing municipal services to Jaffa.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/haretz/1950/06/14/01/article/50/ | title=סיפוח יפו לת"־חוק א | הארץ | 14 יוני 1950 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/hzh/1950/02/13/01/article/19/ | title=ממון התקציב דוחה את סיפוח יפו לת"א | הצפה | 13 פברואר 1950 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref><ref name=Golan1995/> Jaffa was expected to consume 18% of the unified municipality's budget, while contributing only 4% of its income.<ref name=ytlv1950/> The two sides came to an agreement under which the government covered 100K I£ of the unified municipality's expenses, as well as funded healthcare, education, and social services for Jaffa residents directly from the state budget.<ref name=ytlv1950/> The name of the unified city was Tel Aviv until 19 August 1950, when it was renamed as Tel Aviv–Yafo in order to preserve the historical name Jaffa.<ref name=Golan1995/> The population of Jaffa prior to the unification was estimated as 40,000, out of them 5,000 Arabs,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/hzh/1949/10/05/01/article/15/ | title=fliiiwR'^ ,; ל _w וול _! 1 _! _^ , | הצפה | 5 אוקטובר 1949 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref> and most of the others new ''[[olim]]''.<ref name=ytlv1950/> The land which had formerly belonged to Jaffa municipality, and was annexed into Tel Aviv, includes the neighbourhoods of [[Manshiya]], [[Florentin, Tel Aviv|Florentin]], [[Giv'at Herzl]], and [[Shapira, Tel Aviv|Shapira]]; and such landmarks as [[Charles Clore Park]], [[Hassan Bek Mosque]], [[Carmel Market]], the former [[Jaffa railway station]], and the new [[Tel Aviv central bus station]]. On the other hand, Jaffa boundaries were expanded to the southeast, incorporating [[Gaon Stadium]] and the new neighbourhoods of [[Neve Ofer]], [[Jaffa Gimel]] and [[Jaffa Dalet]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/ytlv/1949/01/15/01/article/6/ | title=דו"ת ועדת הגבולות | ידיעות עירית תל אביב | 15 ינואר 1949 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref> Other former Arab villages incorporated into Tel Aviv–Jaffa include [[Al-Mas'udiyya]], annexed on 20 December 1942,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/haretz/1942/12/28/01/article/1/ | title=תליאביב גדלה־ ב6300 דונם | הארץ | 28 דצמבר 1942 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref> in the New North; [[Jarisha]], annexed on 25 November 1943,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/hzh/1943/11/30/01/article/27/ | title=הוכפל שטחה של תל־_&ביב | הצפה | 30 נובמבר 1943 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref> on the southern bank of [[Yarkon River]]; [[Al-Jammasin al-Gharbi]], annexed on 31 March 1948,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/ytlv/1949/12/15/01/article/41/ | title=שכתות־הספר של תל־אביב | ידיעות עירית תל אביב | 15 דצמבר 1949 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref> and since 1957 redeveloped into [[Bavli]] neighbourhood; and [[Al-Shaykh Muwannis]], annexed on 25 February 1949,<ref name=Golan1995/> and since 1955 redeveloped into [[Tel Aviv University]] main campus. ;Streets renamed After the Jewish takeover, all pre-existing street names in Jaffa were abolished, and replaced with numeric identifiers. By 1954, only the four main streets had proper names: Jerusalem (former [[Djemal Pasha]]; then [[King George V]]; then No.1) Avenue; Tarshish (former Bustrus; then No.2; now [[David Raziel]]) Street; Eilat Street (former No.298); and Shalma Road (former No.310).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/ytlv/1951/10/14/01/article/17/ | title=יפו בשנת תשיא | ידיעות עירית תל אביב | 14 אוקטובר 1951 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/ahr/1954/09/03/01/article/120/ | title=Untitled | על המשמר | 3 ספטמבר 1954 | אוסף העיתונות | הספרייה הלאומית }}</ref> The road passing between [[Florentin, Tel Aviv|Florentin]] and [[Neve Tzedek]] neighbourhoods was until 1948 named Tel Aviv Road, being the main thoroughfare between the two city centres. After the annexation of Florentin into Tel Aviv, it became an internal road in Tel Aviv, so its name no longer made sense. Thus the section lying within the new Tel Aviv boundaries was renamed into Jaffa Road; and the section which became the new Tel Aviv–Jaffa boundary, into Eilat Street. Salama Road, a main eastwards road from Jaffa towards the depopulated village of [[Salama, Jaffa|Salama]], was renamed Shalma Road after the reconstructed Hebrew name of ''Capharsalama'' ({{lang-gr|Χαφαρσαλαμα}}) which is mentioned in {{Bibleverse|1|Maccabees|7:31}} as the location of the [[battle of Caphar-salama]]. However, both names remain in use.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-csiDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA104 | title=Life after Ruin: The Struggles over Israel's Depopulated Arab Spaces | isbn=9781107149472 | last1=Leshem | first1=Noam | year=2017 | publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> Arabic street names were eventually replaced with Hebrew ones, e.g. Al-Kutub Street was renamed Resh Galuta Street, Abu Ubeyda Street was renamed She’erit Yisra’el Street, and Al-Salahi Street was renamed Olei Zion Street.<ref>Esther Zandberg: [https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-where-the-streets-have-no-arabic-names-a-group-of-women-remind-us-of-history-1.10550382 Where the Streets Have No Arabic Name, a Group of Women Reminds Us of Palestinian History] [[Haaretz]], 20 January 2022.</ref> This practice has been criticized by residents of affected Arabic neighborhoods, who deem the names inappropriate (for example, a street named after Rabbi [[Simcha Bunim of Peshischa]] was called a "local laughingstock" by Tel Aviv-Jaffa city councillor Ahmed Belha;<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.haaretz.co.il/misc/2001-05-22/ty-article/0000017f-eafa-d0f7-a9ff-eeff8b1f0000 | title=רק חמישה רחובות ביפו נושאים שמות ערביים | newspaper=הארץ }}</ref> and a street where the Al Siksik Mosque is located was renamed [[Beit Eshel]] Street, after a short-lived Jewish settlement in what is now [[Beersheba]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=ברחובות שלנו: תושבי יפו הערבים נגד שמות הרחובות היהודיים |url=https://www.makorrishon.co.il/nrg/online/54/ART1/965/929.html |access-date=2023-10-17 |website=www.makorrishon.co.il}}</ref>) and demand a return to Arabic names. ====Urban development==== From the 1990s onwards, efforts have been made to restore Arab and Islamic landmarks, such as the Mosque of the Sea and [[Hassan Bek Mosque]], and document the history of Jaffa's Arab population. Parts of the [[Old City (Jaffa)|Old City]] have been renovated, turning Jaffa into a tourist attraction featuring old restored buildings, art galleries, theaters, souvenir shops, restaurants, sidewalk cafes and promenades.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} Many artists have moved their studios from Tel Aviv to the Old City and its surroundings, such as the Jaffa port,<ref>{{citation |quote=Today, local fisherman still use the harbor and the main hangars of the port have been restored and include art galleries |title=Areas to Visit |publisher=Tel Aviv Municipality |url=http://www.tel-aviv.gov.il/english/Documents/Areas_to_Visit%20_2_.pdf |access-date= 18 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712110558/http://www.tel-aviv.gov.il/english/Documents/Areas_to_Visit%20_2_.pdf |archive-date= 12 July 2012}}</ref> the [[American–Germany Colony]] and the flea market.<ref>{{citation |quote= The Jaffa Flea Market [...] invites a younger, hipper crowd to inspect its newly added art galleries" |title= Jaffa Flea Market: a Place to Sharpen Those Haggling Skills! |date= 20 September 2012 |url= http://igoogledisrael.com/2011/09/jaffa-flea-market-a-place-to-sharpen-those-haggling-skills/ |author= Ashley}}</ref> Beyond the Old City and tourist sites, many neighborhoods of Jaffa are poor and underdeveloped. However, real-estate prices have risen sharply due to gentrification projects in Ajami, Noga, and Lev Yafo.<ref>{{citation |title= Changes in the air for Ajami: A mixed Arab-Jewish neighborhood in Jaffa balances itself between rundown remnants of old-world charm and upscale gentrification |first= Karin |last= Kloosterman |date= 29 November 2006 |work= The Jerusalem Post |url= http://www.jpost.com/Features/Article.aspx?id=42958 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= Canada, Israel won the bid to acquire 7.6 acres in prestigious area of south Tel Aviv – will pay 211 million |journal= TheMarker|url= http://www.themarker.com/realestate/1.3899714}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Tel Aviv American Colony buildings for sale |date= 11 February 2016 |url= http://www.globes.co.il/en/article-19th-century-tel-aviv-american-colony-bldgs-for-sale-1001102370 }}</ref> The municipality of Tel Aviv–Yafo is currently working to beautify and modernize the port area. ==Demography== [[File:OLD JAFFA PORT.jpg|thumb|[[Jaffa Port]]]] Modern Jaffa has a [[heterogeneous]] population of Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Jaffa currently has 46,000 residents, of whom 30,000 are [[Israeli Jews|Jews]] and 16,000 are [[Arab citizens of Israel|Arabs]].<ref>[http://universaljerusalem.eu/sites-and-attractions-holy-land/jaffa.html Universal Jerusalem] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20141005221630/http://universaljerusalem.eu/sites-and-attractions-holy-land/jaffa.html |date=5 October 2014 }}</ref> ==Landmarks== {{see also|Old Jaffa}} ===Sights and museums=== [[File:ISR-2015-Jaffa-Clock tower.jpg|thumb|Jaffa [[clock tower]]]] The ''Clock Square'' with its distinctive clocktower was built in 1906 in honor of [[Sultan]] [[Abdul Hamid II]]. The ''Saraya'' (governor's palace) was built in the 1890s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tel-aviv.gov.il/eng/Pages/HomePage.aspx |title=Tel aviv yafo |publisher=Tel-Aviv/Yafo Municipality }}</ref>{{failed verification| date=December 2012}} ''Andromeda rock'' is the rock to which beautiful Andromeda was chained in [[Greek mythology]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Pliny the Elder|title=Natural History|chapter=v.69}}</ref> The ''Zodiac alleys'' are a maze of restored alleys leading to the harbor. ''Jaffa Hill'' is a center for [[archaeology|archaeological]] finds, including restored Egyptian gates, about 3,500 years old. [[Jaffa Light|''Jaffa Lighthouse'']] is an inactive [[lighthouse]] located in the old port. The Jaffa Museum of Antiquities is located in an 18th-century Ottoman building constructed on the remains of a [[Crusades|Crusader]] fortress. In 1811, Abu Nabout turned it into his seat of government. In the late 19th century, the governmental moved to the "New Saraya," and the building was sold to a wealthy Greek-Orthodox family who established a soap factory there. Since 1961, it has housed an archaeological museum,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oldjaffa.co.il/ArticlesEng/Article.asp?ArticleID=171&CategoryID=17 |title=Old Jaffa Museum |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081226005633/http://www.oldjaffa.co.il/ArticlesEng/Article.asp?ArticleID=171&CategoryID=17 | archive-date=26 December 2008}}</ref> which is currently closed to the general public.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.antiquities.org.il/jaffa/partners.asp |title=Project Partners |work=The Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project |publisher=The Jaffa Museum of Archaeology |access-date=18 December 2012 }}</ref> The [[Libyan Synagogue, Jaffa|Libyan Synagogue]] (''Beit Zunana'') was a synagogue built by a Jewish landlord, Zunana, in the 18th century. It was turned into a hotel and then a soap factory, and reopened as a synagogue for Libyan Jewish immigrants after 1948. In 1995, it became a museum. Other museums and galleries in the area include the [[Farkash Gallery collection]]. ===Churches and monasteries=== [[File:Easter 2011 in Jaffa.JPG|thumb|[[Easter]] parade in Jaffa, 2011]] The [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] ''Monastery of Archangel Michael'' ([[Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem|Patriarchate of Jerusalem]]) near [[Jaffa Port]] also has [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Romanian]] and Russian communities in its compound. Built in 1894, the Church of St. Peter and [[Dorcas|St. Tabitha]] serves the Russian Orthodox Christian community, with services in Russian and Hebrew; underneath the chapel nearby there is what is believed to be the tomb of St Tabitha.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/933355.html | title = В день памяти праведной Тавифы на подворье Русской духовной миссии в Яффо совершена праздничная Литургия |trans-title=On the feast day of Tabitha of righteous memory, a festive liturgy performed in the courtyard of the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Jaffa | date = 9 November 2009 | publisher = Russian Orthodox Church}}</ref> [[St. Peter's Church, Jaffa|St. Peter's Church]] is a [[Franciscan]] [[Roman-Catholic]] basilica and hospice built in 1654 on the remains of a [[Crusades|Crusader]] [[fortress]], and commemorates [[St Peter]], as he brought the disciple [[Tabitha]] back from the dead; [[Napoleon]] is believed to have stayed there. [[Immanuel Church (Tel Aviv)|Immanuel Church]], built 1904, serves today a [[Lutheran]] congregation with services in English and Hebrew. The [[Saint Nicholas Monastery, Jaffa|Saint Nicholas Armenian Monastery]] was built in the 17th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Zafran |first1= Eric |last2= Resendez |first2= Sydney |year= 1998 |title= French Paintings in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: Artists born before 1790 |location= Boston |publisher= Museum of Fine Arts Boston |page= 189 |isbn= 0878464611}}</ref> ===Mosques=== [[File:Ioppe - Bruyn Cornelis De - 1714.jpg|thumb|Jaffa, by [[Cornelis de Bruijn]], c. 1675]] [[File:Jaffa Mahmoudiya-Moschee.JPG|thumb|[[Mahmoudiya Mosque]] is largest mosque in Tel Aviv]] [[Al-Bahr Mosque]], lit. the Sea Mosque, overlooking the harbour, is depicted in a painting from 1675 by the Dutch painter [[Cornelis de Bruijn]].<ref>Petersen, 2002, p. [https://www.academia.edu/21539664/Gazetteer_4_D-J 166]</ref><ref>[[James Silk Buckingham]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=9l5dAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA157 ''Travels in Palestine, Through the Countries of Bashan and Gilead, East of the River Jordan: Including a Visit to the Cities of Geraza and Gamala, in the Decapolis,''] Longman, 1821 mentions Lebrun's visit in 1675,(coinciding with the date the Sea Mosque is said to have been built)</ref> It may be Jaffa's oldest existing mosque. Built originally in 1675,<ref>Dan Mirkin, 'The Ottoman Port of Jaffa: A Port without a Harbour,' Aaron A. Burke, Katherine Strange Burke, Martin Peilstocker (eds.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=c2mRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA152 ''The History and Archaeology of Jaffa 2,''] [[Peeters (publishing company)|ISD LLC]] 2017, {{isbn|978-1-938-77057-9}} pp.121–155 p.152, n.16.</ref> changes to the structure have been made since then, such as the addition of a second floor and reconstruction of the upper part of the minaret. It was used by fishermen and sailors frequenting the port, and residents of the surrounding area. According to local legend, the wives of sailors living in Jaffa prayed there for the safe return of their husbands. The mosque was renovated in 1997.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Mahmoudia Mosque was built in 1812 by Abu Nabbut, governor of Jaffa from 1810 to 1820.<ref>{{citation |url= http://www.artmag.com/galeries/israel/jafphco/aisjaco6.html |title= History of Jaffa |work= ArtMag |publisher= Université Européenne de la Recherche |access-date= 18 December 2012}}</ref> Outside the mosque is a water fountain (''sabil'') for pilgrims.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=7227 |title= Sabil Abu Nabbut |publisher= ArchNet Digital Library |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110604200302/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=7227 |archive-date= 4 June 2011 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Nouzha Mosque on Jerusalem Boulevard is Jaffa's main mosque today. ==Archaeology== [[File:Passila Ja 032.jpg|thumb|Jaffa flea market]] The majority of excavations in Jaffa are salvage in nature and are conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority since the 1990s. Excavations on Rabbi Pinchas Street, for example, in the flea market have revealed walls and water conduits dating to the Iron Age, Hellenistic, Early Islamic, Crusader and Ottoman periods. A limestone slab ({{convert|50|x|50|cm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}}) engraved with a [[Menorah (Hanukkah)|menorah]] discovered on Tanchum Street is believed to be the door of a tomb.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.biblicalproductions.com/archeological_excavations.htm |title= Archaeology News in Israel |publisher= Biblical Productions | year = 2008 | access-date = 18 December 2012 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130101034312/http://www.biblicalproductions.com/archeological_excavations.htm |archive-date= 1 January 2013 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> Additional efforts to conduct research excavations at that site included those of B. J. Isserlin (1950), [[Ze'ev Herzog]] of [[Tel Aviv University]] (1997–1999), and most recently the Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project (since 2007), directed by Aaron A. Burke ([[UCLA]]) and Martin Peilstocker ([[Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz|Johannes Gutenberg University]]). In December 2020, archaeologists from the [[Israel Antiquities Authority|Antiquities Authority]] (IAA) revealed a 3,800-year-old jar containing the badly preserved remains of a baby dates back to the Middle [[Bronze Age]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Davis-Marks|first=Isis|title=Archaeologists in Israel Unearth 3,800-Year-Old Skeleton of Baby Buried in a Jar|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archaeologists-remove-3800-year-old-baby-skeleton-jar-180976647/|access-date=2021-01-08|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref> "There's always the interpretation that the jar is almost like a womb, so basically the idea is to return [the] baby back into Mother Earth, or into the symbolic protection of his mother”, said archaeologist Alfredo Mederos Martin.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Trove spanning millennia emerges from construction in ancient Jaffa|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.HIGHLIGHT-trove-spanning-millennia-emerges-from-construction-in-ancient-jaffa-1.9371748|access-date=2021-01-08|newspaper=Haaretz|language=en}}</ref> Researchers also covered the remains of at least two horses and pottery dated to the late [[Ottoman Empire]], 232 [[seashell]]s, 30 [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] coins, 95 glass vessel fragments from the Roman and [[Crusades|Crusader]] periods 14 5th-century BC rock-carved burials featuring lamps.<ref>{{cite web|last=Geggel|first=Laura|title=3,800-year-old baby in a jar unearthed in Israel|url=https://www.livescience.com/baby-jar-burial-jaffa.html|access-date=2021-01-08|website=livescience.com|date=21 December 2020|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Archaeological dig in Jaffa unearths 3,800-year-old baby buried in a jar|url=https://www.jpost.com/archaeology/archaeological-dig-in-jaffa-unearths-3800-year-old-baby-buried-in-a-jar-654116|access-date=2021-01-08|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|language=en-US}}</ref> ==Education== {{expand section|date=September 2015}} [[File:College des Freres Jaffa.jpg|thumb|[[Collège des Frères de Jaffa]]]] [[Collège des Frères de Jaffa]] is a French international school. [[Tabeetha School]] in Jaffa was founded in 1863. It is owned by the [[Church of Scotland]]. The school provides education in English to children from Christian, Jewish and Muslim backgrounds.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://tabeethaschool.org/english/history.html | title = History of Tabeetha | publisher = Tabeetha School in Jaffa | access-date = 18 December 2012 | archive-date = 23 October 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161023184604/http://www.tabeethaschool.org/english/history.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> ==Local governance, politics== Administratively, Jaffa constitutes Borough 7 of the [[Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality]], and is divided into four sub-boroughs and twelve neighborhoods.<ref>[https://www.tel-aviv.gov.il/Forms/%D7%90%D7%96%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D%20%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A8.pdf#page=10]</ref> Compared to Tel Aviv-Yafo as a whole, votes for Arab parties are especially prevalent in Jaffa in national elections.<ref name="national elections">[[Haviv Rettig Gur]], [http://www.timesofisrael.com/what-the-20th-knesset-says-about-israeli-society/ The 20th Knesset — parliament of a splintered, tribal Israel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509122619/http://www.timesofisrael.com/what-the-20th-knesset-says-about-israeli-society/ |date=9 May 2015 }}</ref> In the [[2018 Israeli municipal elections#Tel Aviv|2018 Tel Aviv-Jaffa city council election]], the Yafa list, which represents the Arab population of Jaffa, received 28% of the vote in Jaffa, making it the most voted party there; the second place was taken by the [[Hadash]]-affiliated<ref>{{cite web | url=https://maki.org.il/%D7%96%D7%94-%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%99-%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%AA-%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%97%D7%A0%D7%95-%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A8-%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%90-%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%95-%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%94/ | title=העמוד לא נמצא | המפלגה הקומוניסטית הישראלית }}</ref> [[We are the City]] list, with 14% of the vote.<ref name="city council">[https://www.tel-aviv.gov.il/Transparency/DocLib6/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA%20%D7%94%D7%91%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA%20%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%AA%20%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94%20%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%AA%20%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94-%202018.pdf#page-14]</ref> Among Jewish political parties, right-wing parties such as [[Shas]] and [[Likud]] perform better in Jaffa relative to the municipality-wide results,<ref name="city council" /> similarly to the working-class neighborhoods in southern Tel Aviv;<ref name="national elections" /> in particular, Shas received 12% of the vote in Jaffa in the 2018 city council elections, making it the third-most voted for party in Jaffa.<ref name="city council" /> ===Socioeconomic and political problems=== Jaffa suffers from drug problems, high crime rates and violence.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} Some Arab residents have alleged that the Israeli authorities are attempting to Judaize Jaffa by evicting Arab residents from houses owned by the [[Amidar (company)|Amidar]] government-operated public housing company. Amidar representatives say the residents are illegal squatters.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/853180.html | title = Protesters rally in Jaffa against move to evict local Arab families |first= Yigal |last= Hai |date= 28 April 2007 |publisher= Haaretz}}</ref> ==Transportation== ===Ottoman station, now leisure venue=== [[Jaffa Railway Station]] was the first railway station in the Middle East. It served as the terminus for the [[Jaffa–Jerusalem railway]]. The station opened in 1891 and closed in 1948. In 2005–09, the station was restored and converted into an entertainment and leisure venue marketed as "HaTachana", Hebrew for "the station" (see homepage here:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hatachana.co.il/en/|title=Hatachana – Culture, Entertainment & Leisure}}</ref>). ===Bus and tramway (light rail)=== Jaffa is served by the [[Dan Bus Company]], which operates buses to various neighborhoods of [[Tel Aviv]] and [[Bat Yam]]. The [[Red Line (Tel Aviv Light Rail)|Red Line]] of the [[Tel Aviv Light Rail]], inaugurated in 2023, crosses Jaffa north to south along [[Sderot Yerushalayim|Jerusalem Boulevard]]. ===Railway=== Of the current stations in the [[Israel Railways]] network, the [[Holon Junction railway station|Holon Junction]] and [[Holon–Wolfson railway station|Holon–Wolfson]] railway stations sit on the boundary between Jaffa and [[Holon]], while [[Tel Aviv HaHagana railway station|Tel Aviv HaHagana]] is in Tel Aviv proper, slightly to the east of Jaffa. ==In popular culture== [[Jaffa cakes]], a British [[confection]], are named after [[Jaffa orange]]s and are therefore indirectly a namesake of Jaffa. ''The Knight Of Jaffa'' is the second episode of the [[Doctor Who]] story ''[[The Crusade (Doctor Who)|The Crusade]]'' (1965), set in [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Palestine]] during the [[Third Crusade]]. The 1981 film ''[[Clash of the Titans (1981 film)|Clash of the Titans]]'' is set in ancient Joppa. The 2009 [[Oscar-nominated]] film ''[[Ajami (film)|Ajami]]'' is set in modern Jaffa. ==Notable residents== * [[Asma Agbarieh]] (born 1974), Israeli Arab journalist and political activist * [[Hanan Al-Agha]] (1948–2008), Palestinian plastic artist * [[Shmuel Yosef Agnon]] (1888–1970), Nobel Prize-winning author * [[Dahn Ben-Amotz]] (1924–1989), radio broadcaster and author * [[Yitzhak Ben-Zvi]] (1884–1963), historian, Labor Zionist leader, and President of Israel * [[Benny Hinn]] (born 1953), TV evangelist and preacher * [[Yosef Eliyahu Chelouche]] (1870–1934), one of the founders of Tel Aviv; businessman * [[Joseph Constant]] (1892–1969), sculptor and writer * [[Ismail al-Faruqi]] (1921–1986), Palestinian-American philosopher * [[Lea Gottlieb]] (1918–2012), Israeli founder and fashion designer of [[Gottex]] * [[Ibtisam Mara'ana]] (born 1975), Arab-Israeli filmmaker and member of the [[Knesset]] * [[Victor Norris Hamilton]] (born c. 1919), Palestinian-born American cryptologist * [[J. E. Hanauer]] (1850–1938), author, photographer, and Canon of St George's Church * [[Hilmi Hanoun]] (1913–2001), writer and politician * [[Yizhar Harari]] (1908–1978), Zionist activist and Israeli politician * [[Haim Hazan (basketball)|Haim Hazan]] (1937–1994), Israeli basketball player * [[Zeev Hershkowitz]], former Israeli footballer * [[Nadia Hilou]] (1953–2015), Arab-Israeli politician * [[Pinhas Hozez]] (born 1957), Israeli basketball player * [[Issa El-Issa]] (1878–1950), Palestinian journalist * [[Daoud El-Issa]] (1903–1983), Palestinian journalist * [[Yousef El-Issa]] (1870–1948), Palestinian journalist * [[Raja El-Issa]] (1922–2008), Palestinian journalist * [[Michel Loève]] (1907–1979), probabilist and mathematical statistician * [[Haim Ramon]] (born 1950), Israeli politician *[[Sasha Roiz]] (born 1973), Canadian actor * [[Yoav Saffar]] (born 1975), Israeli basketball player * [[Yosef Sapir]] (1902–1972), Israeli politician * [[Haim Starkman]] (born 1944), Israeli basketball player * [[Rifaat Turk]] (born 1954), Arab-Israeli football player and manager, and deputy mayor of Tel Aviv ==See also== * [[Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa]] * [[County of Jaffa and Ascalon]] (under the [[Crusaders]]) * [[History of Palestinian journalism]] ==References== {{reflist|2|refs= <ref name="Morris2004p114">{{cite book|author=Benny Morris|title=The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA115|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00967-6|pages=115–|quote=(p. 114) And rifts among the Jaffa Arabs from the beginning subverted all efforts at peacemaking. In February, Ben-Gurion wrote to Shertok that Heikal, through a British intermediary, was trying to secure an agreement with Tel Aviv but that the new irregulars’ commander, ‘Abdul Wahab ‘Ali Shihaini, had blocked him. .... According to Ben-Gurion, Shihaini had answered: ‘I do not mind [the] destruction [of] Jaffa if we secure [the] destruction [of] Tel Aviv. As in Haifa, the irregulars intimidated the local population, echoing the experience of 1936–1939. ‘. . . The inhabitants were more afraid of their defenders-saviours than of the Jews their enemies’, wrote [[Nimr al Khatib]]. (p. 115) But Arab notables, through British intermediaries, continued to press for a wider citrus agreement. ... In the end, a formal agreement was never concluded. But neither was a complete blockade imposed on Jaffa, and the bilateral orange-picking and -exporting continued largely unhampered.}}</ref> }} ==Bibliography== {{See also|Timeline of Jaffa#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of Jaffa}} * {{cite book |editor= Barron, J. B. |title= Palestine: Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922 |url= https://archive.org/details/PalestineCensus1922 |publisher= Government of Palestine |year= 1923}} * {{cite book|last=Chelouche|first=Y.E.|author-link=Yosef Eliyahu Chelouche|title=Arashat Hayai: 1870–1930 ({{lang-en|Reminiscences of My Life: 1870–1930}})|publisher=Babel|location=Tel Aviv|isbn=965-512-096-1 |oclc=62317894|language=he|year=2005}} *{{cite book|title=Village Statistics, April, 1945 |url=http://web.nli.org.il/sites/nli/Hebrew/library/Pages/BookReader.aspx?pid=856390|author=Department of Statistics|year=1945|publisher=Government of Palestine}} *{{cite book|title=Village Statistics of 1945: A Classification of Land and Area ownership in Palestine|url=http://www.palestineremembered.com/Articles/General-2/Story3150.html|first1=S.|last1=Hadawi|author-link=Sami Hadawi|year=1970|publisher=Palestine Liberation Organization Research Center}} *{{cite book | last1= Hütteroth |first1=Wolf-Dieter |first2=Kamal | last2=Abdulfattah | title = Historical Geography of Palestine, Transjordan and Southern Syria in the Late 16th Century |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wqULAAAAIAAJ |year= 1977 |publisher= Erlanger Geographische Arbeiten, Sonderband 5. Erlangen, Germany: Vorstand der Fränkischen Geographischen Gesellschaft|isbn= 3-920405-41-2}} * {{cite book | last = Lebor | first = Adam | title = City of Oranges. Arabs and Jews in Jaffa | publisher = W.W. Norton & Co | location = New York | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-7475-8602-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Levine | first = Mark | title = Overthrowing Geography, Jaffa, Tel Aviv, and the Struggle for Palestine, 1880–1948 | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-520-23994-6 }} * {{cite book | title = Palestine Under the Moslems: A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500 | url = https://archive.org/details/palestineundermo00lestuoft | first = G.| last = Le Strange | author-link = Guy Le Strange | publisher = Committee of the [[Palestine Exploration Fund]] | location = London | year = 1890 | oclc = 1004386}} *{{cite book|editor = Mills, E.|title = Census of Palestine 1931. Population of Villages, Towns and Administrative Areas |url=https://archive.org/details/CensusOfPalestine1931.PopulationOfVillagesTownsAndAdministrativeAreas | publisher = Government of Palestine | location = Jerusalem | year = 1932}} * {{cite book | last = Morris | first = B. | author-link = Benny Morris | title = The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1987 | isbn = 0-521-33028-9 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/birthofpalestini00morr }} *{{cite book|title=A Gazetteer of Buildings in Muslim Palestine (British Academy Monographs in Archaeology)|url=https://www.academia.edu/21539664|volume =I |first= Andrew |last= Petersen |year=2001 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-727011-0 |pages=[https://www.academia.edu/21539664/Gazetteer_4_D-J 161–175]}} * {{cite book|last=Šārôn Rôṭbard|first=Šārôn |title=ʻÎr levānā, ʻîr šeḥôrā ({{lang-en|White City, Black City}})|publisher=Babel|location=Tel Aviv|year=2005|isbn=978-965-512-096-7|oclc=260080254|language=he}} * {{cite book | last = Segev | first = T.| title = 1949, the First Israelis | publisher = Henry Holt | location = New York | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-8050-5896-6 |author-link=Tom Segev}} *{{cite book|last=Thomson|first=W.M.|author-link=William McClure Thomson|title=The Land and the Book: Or, Biblical Illustrations Drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy Land|url=https://archive.org/details/landandbookorbi08thomgoog |edition=1|volume=2|publisher=Harper & brothers |location=New York|year= 1859}} * {{cite book|last=Weill-Rochant|first=Catherine |title=L'atlas de Tel Aviv : 1908–2008|publisher=CNRS Éditions|location=Paris|year=2008|isbn=978-2-271-06658-9|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=Yahav|first=Dan |title=Yafo, kalat ha-yam : me-ʻir roshah li-shekhunot ʻoni, degem le-i-shiṿyon merḥavi|publisher=Tamouz|location=Tel Aviv|year=2004|oclc=59707598|language=he}} * {{cite book | last = Yavin | first = Shmuel | title = Bauhaus in Jaffa: Modern Architecture in an Ancient City | publisher = [[Bauhaus Center Tel Aviv]] | location = Tel Aviv | year = 2006 | isbn = 965-90606-2-9 }} ==External links== {{Commons category|Jaffa}} {{Wikivoyage}} * Jaffa in 1880, SWP Map 13: [http://www.iaa-archives.org.il/zoom/zoom.aspx?folder_id=93&type_id=6&id=8375 IAA], [//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Survey_of_Western_Palestine_1880.13.jpg Wikimedia commons] Coordinates: East longitude, 34.45; North latitude, 32.3 * {{citation |url=http://www.nelc.ucla.edu/jaffa | title = The Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project}} * {{citation |url=http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/jope-jaffa-yafo |title=Jaffa Old City Photos in Cafetorah.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304042935/http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/jope-jaffa-yafo |archive-date=4 March 2016 }} * {{citation |url=http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/Fotos-de-Tel-Aviv |title=Telaviv-Jaffa in Cafetorah.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328001400/http://www.cafetorah.com/portal/Fotos-de-Tel-Aviv |archive-date=28 March 2015 }} * {{cite journal |url=http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0494/9404075.htm |title=Arab Jaffa seized before Israel's creation in 1948 |journal=Washington Report on Middle East Affairs |date=April–May 1994 |page=75 |first=Donald |last=Neff}} * {{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=135&letter=J |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia |title=JAFFA (Hebr. Yafo; A. V. Joppa; Greek, Joppe; Arabic, Yaffa) |year=1906 }} * {{cite journal |last= Schaalje |first = Jacqueline | url = http://www.jewishmag.com/43mag/jaffa/jaffa.htm |title = Jaffa |journal=The Jewish Magazine |date=May 2001}} * {{citation |url=http://www.co-ground.com/common/yafo.html |title=The Old City of Yafo (Travel photos of Old Jaffa and its port) |publisher=Common Ground }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.world-shots.com/world_en146-1286.html |publisher=World Cities Images |title = Jaffa |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108105053/http://www.myworldshots.com/Israel/Jaffa/Israel-Jaffa-1286.html |archive-date=8 January 2009}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.3disrael.com/telaviv/Clock_tower.cfm |title=Tel Aviv Virtual Tours – Clock Square Jaffa |publisher=3Disrael.com |access-date=4 January 2008 |archive-date=13 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113191112/http://www.3disrael.com/telaviv/Clock_tower.cfm |url-status=dead }} (no plugin needed) * {{cite web |url=http://www.telaviv4fun.com/jaffa_old_port.html |title=Jaffa Old Harbour (photo gallery) |publisher=tel aviv 4 fun |access-date=7 January 2009 |archive-date=22 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622071539/http://telaviv4fun.com/jaffa_old_port.html |url-status=dead }} *[http://primo.nli.org.il/primo_library/libweb/action/dlDisplay.do?vid=NLI&docId=NNL_MAPS_JER002653857 Plan of Jaffa, 1:6,000], 1918. 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