High Middle Ages

{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date = April 2020}}
{{short description|Period of European history between AD 1000 and 1350}}
{{multiple image
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| header = High Middle Ages<br />Europe and Mediterranean region
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'''Large map'''<br />Europe and the Mediterranean region, {{circa|lk=no|1190}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
;British Isles
* {{color box|#b6d462|border=silver}} [[Gaelic Ireland|Gaelic Kingdoms]]
* {{color box|#aeaaab|border=silver}} [[Principality of Wales]]
* {{color box|#e0afb2|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of England]]
* {{color box|#eaccce|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Scotland]]
* {{color box|#ddc98a|border=silver}} [[Earldom of Orkney]] (Norway)
* {{color box|#ddc98a|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of the Isles|Kingdom of Mann and the Isles]] (Norway)
;Northern Europe
* {{color box|#ddc98a|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)]]
* {{color box|#d6bac9|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Sweden]]
* {{color box|#ecfe92|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Denmark]]
* {{color box|#e8d7ab|border=silver}} [[Terra Mariana]]
* {{color box|#b6c486|border=silver}} [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]
;Eastern Europe
* {{color box|#b7d08c|border=silver}} [[Principality of Polotsk|Principalities of Polotsk]]
* {{color box|#b7d08c|border=silver}} [[Novgorod Republic|Territory of Novgorod]]
* {{color box|#c5b091|border=silver}} [[Volga Bulgaria|Kama-Bulgarians]]
* {{color box|#b7d08c|border=silver}} [[Kievan Rus']]
* {{color box|#b7d08c|border=silver}} [[Kirov, Kirov Oblast|Viatka]]
* {{color box|#f2ced0|border=silver}} [[Cuman people|Cumans]]/[[Cumania]] or [[Polovtsians]]
;Iberian Peninsula
* {{color box|#e0e2a1|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Portugal]]
* {{color box|#91b88c|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of León]]
* {{color box|#91b88c|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Castile]]
* {{color box|#b4cd68|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Navarre]]
* {{color box|#abc9d1|border=silver}} [[Crown of Aragon]]
;Central Europe
* {{color box|#b3d6d8|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Bohemia]]
* {{color box|#c0b9c1|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of France]]
* {{color box|#b3d6d8|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Germany]]
* {{color box|#debca3|border=silver}} [[Árpád dynasty|Kingdom of Hungary]]
* {{color box|#b3d6d8|border=silver}} [[Holy Roman Empire]]
* {{color box|#dbe3aa|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Kingdom of Poland]]
* {{color box|#b4a784|border=silver}} [[Old Prussians|Prussia]]
{{col-break}}
;Italian Peninsula
* {{color box|#b3d6d8|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Kingdom of Italy]]
* {{color box|#b3d6d8|border=silver}} [[Medieval Corsica|Corsica]]
* {{color box|#b3d6d8|border=silver}} [[History of Sardinia|Sardinia]]
* {{color box|#deb5b1|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Sicily]]
* {{color box|#de979d|border=silver}} [[Republic of Venice]]
;Southeast Europe
* {{color box|#debca3|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)|Kingdom of Croatia]]
* {{color box|#cedd98|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)|Kingdom of Serbia]]
* {{color box|#bec373|border=silver}} [[Second Bulgarian Empire]]
* {{color box|#669966|border=silver}} [[Byzantine Empire under the Angeloi|Byzantine Empire]]
;Caucasia
* {{color box|#ecefc0|border=silver}} [[Khazar Empire]]
* {{color box|#ecefc0|border=silver}} [[Alania]]
* {{color box|white|border=silver}} [[Circassia|Kassogs]]
* {{color box|#dbc7a2|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Georgia]]
* {{color box|#c0b9c1|border=silver}} [[Atabegs of Azerbaijan]]
;Near East
* {{color box|#dfec7a|border=silver}} [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Kingdom of Armenian]]
* {{color box|#b7a98f|border=silver}} [[Seljuks of Rum]]
* {{color box|#669966|border=silver}} [[Kingdom of Cyprus]]
* {{color box|#e6c0b7|border=silver}} [[Ahlatshahs|Dominion of Shaharmen]]
* {{color box|white|border=silver}} [[Marwanid|Kurdistan]]
* {{color box|#dac198|border=silver}} [[Ayyubid dynasty]]
* {{color box|#b479a4|border=silver}} [[Principality of Antioch]]
* {{color box|#67828b|border=silver}} [[County of Tripoli]]
;North Africa
* {{color box|#e8cecd|border=silver}} [[Almohad Caliphate]]
{{col-end}}
;The Crusades
* {{color box|#c9c6b5|border=silver}} (Solid Line) [[Second Crusade]] of [[Louis VII of France|Louis VII]] and [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad III]]
* {{color box|#a4a192|border=silver}} (Line and dot) [[Third Crusade]] of [[Richard I of England|Richard I]], [[Philip II of France|Philip II]], and [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Fredrick I]]
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;Small map
''Central Europe<br />[[Guelf]], [[Hohenstaufen]], and [[Ascanian]] domains in Germany about 1176''
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* {{color box|#93bb5b|border=silver}}{{color box|#c3d6a8|border=silver}} [[Duchy of Saxony]]
* {{color box|#c4a1a8|border=silver}}{{color box|#c4a1a8|border=silver}} [[Margravate of Brandenburg]]
* {{color box|#ea8fa0|border=silver}}{{color box|#e8cac8|border=silver}} [[Duchy of Franconia]]
{{col-break}}
* {{color box|#ea8fa0|border=silver}}{{color box|#e8cac8|border=silver}} [[Duchy of Swabia]]
* {{color box|#93bb5b|border=silver}}{{color box|#c3d6a8|border=silver}} [[Duchy of Bavaria]]
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}}

The '''High Middle Ages''', or '''high medieval period''', was the [[periodization|period]] of [[European history]] that lasted from AD 1000 to 1300. The High [[Middle Ages]] were preceded by the [[Early Middle Ages]] and were followed by the [[Late Middle Ages]], which ended around AD 1500 (by [[historiography|historiographical]] convention).<ref>John H. Mundy, ''Europe in the high Middle Ages, 1150-1309'' (1973) [https://archive.org/details/europeinhighmidd00mund online]</ref>

Key historical trends of the High Middle Ages include the [[medieval demography|rapidly increasing population]] of Europe, which brought about great social and political change from the preceding era, and the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]], including the first developments of [[rural exodus]] and [[urbanization]]. By 1350, the robust population increase had greatly benefited the European economy, which reached levels that would not be seen again in some areas until the 19th century. That trend faltered during the Late Middle Ages because of a [[Crisis of the Late Middle Ages|series of calamities]], most notably the [[Black Death]], but also numerous wars as well as economic stagnation.

From around 780, Europe saw the last of the [[barbarian invasions]]<ref>''Reitervölker im Frühmittelalter.'' Bodo, Anke et.al. Stuttgart 2008</ref> and became more socially and politically organized.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/politics-and-power-in-early-medieval-europe/B5BE45A9E22659EC0E737BCFF725F458|title=Politics and power early medieval europe alsace and frankish realm 600–1000 &#124; European history: general interest|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511497209|last1=Hummer|first1=Hans J.|isbn=9780511497209}}</ref> The [[Carolingian Renaissance]] stimulated scientific and philosophical activity in Northern Europe. The [[Medieval universities|first universities]] started operating in [[University of Bologna|Bologna]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], [[University of Paris|Paris]], [[University of Salamanca|Salamanca]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] and [[University of Modena and Reggio Emilia|Modena]]. The [[Viking]]s settled in the British Isles, France and elsewhere, and Norse Christian kingdoms started developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The [[Magyars]] ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, a Christian [[Kingdom of Hungary]] had become a recognized state in [[Central Europe]] that was forming alliances with regional powers. With the brief exception of the [[Mongol invasions]] in the 13th century, major nomadic incursions ceased. The powerful [[Byzantine Empire]] of the [[Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty|Macedonian]] and [[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Komnenos]] dynasties gradually gave way to the resurrected [[Serbian Grand Principality|Serbia]] and [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]] and to a successor [[Latin Empire|crusader state]] (1204 to 1261), who continually fought each other until the end of the Latin Empire. The Byzantine Empire was reestablished in 1261 with the recapture of [[Constantinople]] from the Latins, though it was no longer a major power and would continue to falter through the 14th century, with remnants lasting until the mid 15th century.

In the 11th century, populations north of the [[Alps]] began a more intensive settlement, targeting "new" lands, some areas of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. In what historian [[Charles Higounet]] called the "great clearances",<ref>
See for example: 
{{cite book
| last1 = Aberth
| first1 = John
| chapter = The early medieval woodland
| title = An Environmental History of the Middle Ages: The Crucible of Nature
| year = 2013
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7a28UnCLPIIC
| location = Abingdon
| publisher = Routledge
| publication-date = 2012
| page = 87
| isbn = 9780415779456
| access-date = 2017-08-17
| quote = The French historian of the early medieval forest, Charles Higounet, produced a map in the 1960s, which has been much reproduced since, that purports to show the distribution of the forest cover in Europe on the eve of the so-called 'great clearances' (''les grands défrichements'') between 1000 and 1300.
}}
</ref> Europeans cleared and cultivated some of the vast forests and marshes that lay across much of the continent. At the same time, settlers moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the [[Frankish Empire]] to new frontiers beyond the [[Elbe River]], which tripled the size of Germany in the process. The [[Catholic Church]], which reached the peak of its political power around then, called armies from across Europe to a series of [[Crusades]] against the [[Seljuk Turks]]. The crusaders occupied the [[Holy Land]] and founded the [[Crusader States]] in the [[Levant]]. Other wars led to the [[Northern Crusades]]. The Christian kingdoms [[Reconquista|took much of the Iberian Peninsula]] from [[Muslim]] control, and the [[Normans]] conquered southern Italy, all part of the major population increases and the resettlement patterns of the era.

The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and [[Medieval art|artistic works]]. The age also saw the rise of [[ethnocentrism]],{{dubious|date=September 2021}} which evolved later into modern [[National identity|national identities]] in most of Europe, the ascent of the great Italian [[city-state]]s and the rise{{cn|date=September 2021}} and fall of the [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]] of [[Al-Andalus]]. The rediscovery of the works of [[Aristotle]], at first indirectly through [[Medieval Jewish philosophy|medieval Jewish]] and [[Islamic philosophy]],{{sfn|Taylor|2005|p=181}}{{sfn|Adamson|2016|p=180}}{{sfn|Fakhry|2001|p=3}} led [[Maimonides]], [[Ibn Sina]], [[Ibn Rushd]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] and other thinkers of the period to expand [[Scholasticism]], a combination of Judeo-Islamic and Catholic ideologies with the ancient philosophy. For much of this period, Constantinople remained Europe's most populous city, and [[Byzantine art]] reached a [[Byzantine civilization in the twelfth century|peak in the 12th century]]. In architecture, many of the most notable [[Gothic architecture|Gothic cathedrals]] were built or completed around this period.

The [[Crisis of the Late Middle Ages]] began at the start of the 14th century and marked the end of the period.

==Historical events and politics==
[[File:Bayeux Tapestry WillelmDux.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicting the [[Battle of Hastings]] during the [[Norman Conquest]]]]

===Great Britain and Ireland===
{{Main|England in the High Middle Ages|Scotland in the High Middle Ages|History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages|Lordship of Ireland}}
In England, the [[Norman Conquest]] of 1066 resulted in a kingdom ruled by a [[French language|Francophone]] nobility. The [[Normans]] invaded Ireland in 1169 and soon established themselves throughout most of the country, although their stronghold was the southeast. Likewise, [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]] were subdued into [[Vassal state|vassal states]] at about the same time, though Scotland later asserted its independence and Wales remained largely under the rule of independent native princes until the death of [[Llywelyn ap Gruffudd|Llywelyn ap Gruffydd]] in 1282.<ref>Davies, Rees (2001-05-01). "Wales: A Culture Preserved". bbc.co.uk/history. p. 3. Retrieved 2008-05-06.</ref> The [[Exchequer]] was founded in the 12th century under [[Henry I of England|King Henry I]], and the first [[Parliament of England|parliaments]] were convened. In 1215, after the loss of [[Normandy]], [[John of England|King John]] signed the [[Magna Carta]] into law, which limited the power of [[List of monarchs of England|English monarchs]].

=== Iberia ===
{{See also|Spain in the Middle Ages|Reconquista}}
[[File:AlfonsoVIII.jpg|thumb|Miniature representing the delivery of the fortress of Uclés to the Master of Order of Santiago in 1174]]
A key geo-strategic development in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] was the Christian conquest of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in 1085.{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|p=171}} Dominated by war, the societal structures and relations in the northern Christian kingdoms were subordinated to the demands of omnipresent military conflict.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=García Fitz|first=Francisco|title=Battle in the Medieval Iberian Peninsula: 11th to 13th century Castile-Leon. State of the art|journal=Imago Temporis|year=2016|doi=10.21001/itma.2016.10.01|hdl=10459.1/58852|pages=26–27|doi-access=free|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The territorial expansion of the northern Christian kingdoms to the south brought the creation of border societies, where military demands on knights and foot soldiers and the promotion of [[Settler|settlement]] were privileged to possible [[Seigneurialism|seigneurial]] income;{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|p=178}} [[Military order (religious society)|military orders]] also played an important role in the borderlands in the [[Meseta Central|southern meseta]].{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|p=179}} Agricultural models in areas with [[Mediterranean climate]] were generally based on biennial [[crop rotation]].{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|pp=185–186}} Despite population growth, agricultural output remained relatively rigid throughout the period; between the 10th and 13th centuries, migration southwards to exposed areas was incentivized by the possibility of enjoying privileges and acquiring properties.{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|pp=187}} Conversely, the [[Intensive farming|intensive agriculture]]-prevalent model in Muslim-ruled lands did not require territorial expansion.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Occidente vs. islam. Modelos agrarios, sociedad/frontera y poder militar en la Reconquista peninsular|first=Julián|location=Jaén|publisher=[[University of Jaén|Universidad de Jaén]]|last=Clemente Ramos|journal=Arqueología y Territorio Medieval|url=https://revistaselectronicas.ujaen.es/index.php/ATM/article/view/3787/3592/14834|issn=1134-3184|issue=25|year=2018|volume=25|pages=169–194|doi=10.17561/aytm.v25.6|s2cid=165549625|doi-access=free}}</ref> While Muslim lands enjoyed from a certain demographic and financial edge{{Clarify|date=July 2022|Reason=This sentence seems to be missing words; WHAT did Muslim lands enjoy from a certain demographic and financial edge?}}, [[Almoravid]]s and [[Almohad]]s from northern Africa featured volatile state structures.{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|pp=174–175}} Barring (unsuccessful) attempts to take Toledo, Almoravids and Almohads did not stand out for carrying out an expansionist policy.{{Sfn|Clemente Ramos|2018|p=183}}

=== Italy ===
{{Main|Italy in the Middle Ages}}
In Italy, with the Norman conquest, the first great and powerful state was formed, the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] with hereditary monarchy. Subsequently joined to the Holy Roman Empire, it had its moment of maximum splendor with the emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]].

In the rest of Italy, independent city states grew affluent on [[Eastern Mediterranean]] maritime trade. These were in particular the [[thalassocracy|thalassocracies]] of [[Pisa]], [[Amalfi]], [[Genoa]] and [[Venice]], which played a key role in European trade from then on, making these cities become major financial centers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Trade in Medieval Europe|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1301/trade-in-medieval-europe/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en}}</ref>

===Scandinavia===
{{main|History_of_Denmark#Middle_Ages|History_of_Norway#Middle_Ages|Early Swedish history|l1 = Denmark in the Middle Ages|l2 = Norway in the Middle Ages|North Sea Empire}}

From the mid-10th to the mid-11th centuries, the Scandinavian kingdoms were unified and Christianized, resulting in an end of [[Viking]] raids, and greater involvement in European politics. King [[Canute the Great|Cnut]] of Denmark ruled over both England and Norway. After Cnut's death in 1035, England and Norway were both lost, and with the defeat of [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdemar II]] in 1227, Danish predominance in the region came to an end. Meanwhile, Norway extended its Atlantic possessions, ranging from [[Greenland]] to the [[Isle of Man]], while Sweden, under [[Birger Jarl]], built up a power-base in the [[Baltic Sea]]. However, the Norwegian influence started to decline already in the same period, marked by the [[Treaty of Perth]] of 1266. Also, [[Civil war era in Norway|civil wars raged in Norway]] between 1130 and 1240.

===France and Germany===
{{main|France in the Middle Ages}}
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = France and Germany in the middle ages | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Left: France in the 12th century. Right: The [[Holy Roman Empire]] between 1200 and 1250| footer_align = left | image1 = France 1154 Eng.jpg | width1 = 100 | caption1 = | image2 = Holy Roman Empire at its territorial apex (per consensus).svg| width2 = 180 | caption2  = }}
By the time of the High Middle Ages, the [[Carolingian Empire]] had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. France pushed to the west. The [[Angevin Empire]] controlled much of France in the 12th century and early 13th century until the French retook much of their previous territory. 

===Germany===
{{main|Germany in the Middle Ages}}
By the time of the High Middle Ages, the [[Carolingian Empire]] had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries. Germany was significantly more eastern. Germany was under the banner of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which reached its high-water mark of unity and political power under [[Frederick Barbarossa|Kaiser Frederick Barbarossa]].

===Georgia===
{{Main|Georgian Golden Age}}
During the successful reign of King [[David IV of Georgia]] (1089–1125), the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] grew in strength and expelled the [[Seljuk Empire]] from its lands. David's decisive victory in the [[Battle of Didgori]] (1121) against the Seljuk Turks, as a result of which Georgia recaptured its lost capital [[Tbilisi]], marked the beginning of the [[Georgian Golden Age]]. David's granddaughter [[Tamar of Georgia|Queen Tamar]] continued the upward rise, successfully neutralizing internal opposition and embarking on an energetic foreign policy aided by further decline of the hostile [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turks]]. Relying on a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated vast lands spanning from present-day southern [[Russian Federation|Russia]] on the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Caspian Sea]]. Georgia remained a leading regional power until its collapse under the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] attacks within two decades after Tamar's death.

===Hungary===
{{main|Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:SztIstvan 5.jpg|thumb|upright|King Saint [[Stephen I of Hungary]].]]
In the High Middle Ages, the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] (founded in 1000), became one of the most powerful medieval states in central Europe and Western Europe. King Saint [[Stephen I of Hungary]] introduced Christianity to the region; he was remembered by the contemporary chroniclers as a very religious monarch, with wide knowledge in Latin grammar, strict with his own people but kind to foreigners. He eradicated the remnants of the tribal organisation in the Kingdom and forced the people to sedentarize and adopt the [[Christianity|Christian]] religion.  He founded the Hungarian medieval state, organising it politically into counties using the Germanic system as a model.

The following monarchs usually kept a close relationship with Rome, such as Saint [[Ladislaus I of Hungary]], and a tolerant attitude with the [[paganism|pagans]] that escaped to the Kingdom searching for sanctuary (for example [[Cumans]] in the 13th century), which eventually created certain discomfort for some [[Pope]]s. By entering into [[Personal union]] with the [[Kingdom of Croatia (medieval)#Controversies|Kingdom of Croatia]] and the establishment of other [[vassal state]]s, Hungary became a small empire that extended its control over the [[Southeast Europe]] and the [[Carpathian]] region. During medieval times, the [[Hungarians|Hungarian]] royal house contributed the most saints to the Catholic Church .

===Lithuania===
{{main|Grand Duchy of Lithuania}}
During the High Middle Ages Lithuania emerged as a [[Duchy of Lithuania]] in the early 13th century, then briefly becoming the [[Kingdom of Lithuania]] from 1251 to 1263. After the assassination of its first Christian king [[Mindaugas]] Lithuania was known as [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. Unconquered during the [[Lithuanian Crusade]], Lithuania itself rapidly expanded to the East due to conquests and became one of the largest states in Europe.

===Poland===
[[File:Polska 960 - 992.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Poland]] under the rule of Duke [[Mieszko I]] between {{Circa|960}} - 992]]
{{main|History of Poland in the Middle Ages|History of Poland during the Piast dynasty}}

In the mid-10th century Poland emerged as a duchy after [[Mieszko I]], the ruler of the [[Western Polans|Polans]], conquered the surrounding [[Lechites|Lechitic tribes]] in the region. Then in 1025 under the rule of [[Bolesław I the Brave]], Poland became a kingdom.

===Southeast Europe===
[[File:Khazarfall1.png|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[Pontic steppe]]s, {{circa|lk=no|1015}}]]
{{Main|Komnenian restoration|Second Bulgarian Empire|Serbian Grand Principality|Principality of Arbanon|Banate of Bosnia|Croatia in the union with Hungary}}

The High Middle Ages saw the height and decline of the Slavic state of [[Kievan Rus']] and emergence of [[Cumania]]. Later, the [[Mongol invasions|Mongol invasion]] in the 13th century had great impact on the east of [[Europe]], as many countries of the region were invaded, pillaged, conquered and/or vassalized.

During the first half of this period ({{circa|lk=no|1025}}{{mdash}}1185) the [[Byzantine Empire]] dominated the [[Southeast Europe]], and under the [[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Komnenian]] emperors there was a revival of prosperity and urbanization; however, their domination of [[Southeast Europe]] came to an end with a successful [[Uprising of Asen and Peter|Vlach-Bulgarian rebellion in 1185]], and henceforth the region was divided between the Byzantines in Greece, some parts of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], and [[Thrace]], the Bulgarians in [[Moesia]] and most of Thrace and Macedonia, and the [[Serbian Grand Principality|Serbs]] to the northwest. Eastern and Western churches had formally split in the 11th century, and despite occasional periods of co-operation during the 12th century, in 1204 the [[Fourth Crusade]] treacherously captured [[Constantinople]]. This severely damaged the Byzantines, and their power was ultimately weakened by the [[Seljuq Empire|Seljuks]] and the rising [[Ottoman Empire]] in the 14–15th century. The power of the [[Latin Empire]], however, was short-lived after the Crusader army was routed by [[list of Bulgarian monarchs|Bulgarian Emperor]] [[Kaloyan of Bulgaria|Kaloyan]] in the [[Battle of Adrianople (1205)]].

===Climate and agriculture===
{{Main|Medieval Warm Period}}<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Highmiddleagesplow.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|A farmer using [[ox]]en to plow a field]] -->

The [[Medieval Warm Period]], the period from the 10th century to about the 14th century in Europe, was a relatively warm and gentle interval ended by the generally colder [[Little Ice Age]] which would continue until the Middle of the 19th century. Farmers grew [[wheat]] well north into Scandinavia, and [[wine]] grapes in northern England, although the maximum expansion of vineyards appears to occur within the Little Ice Age period. During this time, a high demand for wine and steady volume of [[Alcoholic drink|alcohol consumption]] inspired a viticulture revolution of progress.<ref>Jellinek, E. M. 1976. "Drinkers and Alcoholics in Ancient Rome." Edited by Carole D. Yawney andRobert E. Popham. ''Journal of Studies on Alcohol'' 37 (11): 1718–1740.</ref> This protection from [[famine]] allowed Europe's population to increase, despite the famine in 1315 that killed 1.5 million people. This increased population contributed to the founding of new towns and an increase in industrial and economic activity during the period. They also established trade and a comprehensive production of alcohol. Food production also increased during this time as new ways of farming were introduced, including the use of a heavier plow, horses instead of oxen, and a three-field system that allowed the cultivation of a greater variety of crops than the earlier two-field system—notably [[legume]]s, the growth of which prevented the depletion of important nitrogen from the soil.

===The rise of chivalry===
{{Main|Chivalry}}

During the High Middle Ages, the idea of a Christian warrior started to change as Christianity grew more prominent in Medieval Europe. The [[Chivalry|Codes of Chivalry]] promoted the ideal knight to be selfless, faithful, and fierce against those who threaten the weak.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Saul|first=Nigel|title=Chivalry in Medieval England|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780674063693|pages=197}}</ref> Household heavy cavalry ([[knight]]s) became common in the 11th century across Europe, and [[Tournament (medieval)|tournaments]] were invented. Tournaments allowed knights to establish their family name while being able to gather vast wealth and renown through victories. In the 12th century, the [[Cluny]] monks promoted ethical warfare and inspired the formation of [[order of chivalry|orders of chivalry]], such as the [[Knights Templar|Templar Knights]]. Inherited titles of nobility were established during this period. In 13th-century Germany, knighthood became another [[inheritance|inheritable]] title, although one of the less prestigious, and the trend spread to other countries.

==Religion==
===Christian Church===
{{Main|Christianity in the Middle Ages}}
The [[East–West Schism]] of 1054 formally separated the Christian church into two parts: [[Roman Catholicism]] in Western Europe and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] in the east. It occurred when [[Pope Leo IX]] and [[Michael Cerularius|Patriarch Michael I]] [[excommunication|excommunicated]] each other, mainly over disagreement over the [[filioque]], an addition to the creed concerning the origin of the Holy Spirit, as well as disputes as to the existence of papal authority over the four Eastern [[patriarch]]s, use of unleavened bread in the liturgy, and fasting days.

===Crusades===
{{Main|Crusades}}
[[File:Godefroi1099.jpg|thumb|After the successful siege of Jerusalem in 1099, [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], leader of the First Crusade, became the first ruler of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].]]
The Catholic Crusades occurred between the 11th and 13th centuries. They were conducted under papal authority, initially with the intent of reestablishing Christian rule in ''The Holy Land'' by taking the area from the Muslim [[Fatimid Caliphate]]. The Fatimids had captured Palestine in AD 970, lost it to the [[Seljuk Turks]] in 1073 and recaptured it in 1098, just before they lost it again in 1099 as a result of the [[First Crusade]].

====Military orders====
{{Main|Military order (religious society)}}
In the context of the crusades, monastic military orders were founded that would become the template for the late medieval [[chivalric order]]s.

The [[Knights Templar]] were a Christian military order founded after the [[First Crusade]] to help protect [[Christian pilgrimage|Christian pilgrims]] from hostile locals and highway bandits. The order was deeply involved in banking, and in 1307 [[Philip IV of France|Philip the Fair]] (Philippine le Bel) had the entire order arrested in France and dismantled on charges of alleged heresy.

The [[Knights Hospitaller]] were originally a [[Christianity|Christian]] organization founded in [[Jerusalem]] in 1080 to provide care for poor, sick, or injured [[pilgrimage|pilgrims]] to the [[Holy Land]]. After Jerusalem was taken in the First Crusade, it became a [[religious order|religious]]/[[Military order (society)|military order]] that was charged with the care and defence of the [[Crusader states]]. After the Holy Lands were eventually taken by Muslim forces, it moved its operations to [[Rhodes]], and later [[Malta]].

The [[Teutonic Knights]] were a German religious order formed in 1190, in the city of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], to aid Christian pilgrims on their way to the Holy Lands and to operate hospitals for the sick and injured in [[Outremer]]. After Muslim forces captured the Holy Lands, the order moved to [[Transylvania]] in 1211 and later, after being expelled, invaded pagan [[Prussia]] with the intention of Christianizing the [[Baltic region]]. Yet, both before and after the Order's main pagan opponent, [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]], [[Christianization of Lithuania|converted]] to Christianity, the Order had already attacked other Christian nations such as [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] and [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Poland]]. The Teutonic Knights' power hold, which became considerable, was broken in 1410, at the [[Battle of Grunwald]], where the Order suffered a devastating defeat against a joint Polish-Lithuanian army. After Grunwald, the Order declined in power until 1809 when it was officially dissolved.  There were ten crusades in total.

===Scholasticism===
{{main|Scholasticism}}
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Left: [[Albert Magnus]]. Right: [[Thomas Aquinas]]| footer_align = left | image1 = Vicente salvador gomez-san alberto.jpg | width1 = 132 | caption1 = | image2 = St-thomas-aquinas.jpg| width2 = 117 | caption2  = }}
The new [[Christianity|Christian]] method of learning was influenced by [[Anselm of Canterbury]] (1033–1109) from the rediscovery of the works of [[Aristotle]], at first indirectly through Medieval Jewish and Muslim Philosophy ([[Maimonides]], [[Avicenna]], and [[Averroes]]) and then through [[Aristotle]]'s own works brought back from [[Byzantine]] and Muslim libraries; and those whom he influenced, most notably [[Albertus Magnus]], [[Bonaventure]] and [[Peter Abelard|Abélard]]. Many scholastics believed in [[empiricism]] and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. They opposed [[Christian mysticism]], and the Platonist-Augustinian belief that the [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|mind]] is an immaterial substance. The most famous of the [[Scholasticism|scholastics]] was [[Thomas Aquinas]] (later declared a "[[Doctor of the Church]]"), who led the move away from the [[Platonism|Platonic]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustinian]] and towards Aristotelianism. Aquinas developed a [[philosophy of mind]] by writing that the [[mind]] was at birth a ''[[tabula rasa]]'' ("blank slate") that was given the ability to think and recognize forms or ideas through a divine spark. Other notable scholastics included [[Averroes|Muhammad Averroes]], [[Roscellinus|Roscelin]], Abélard, [[Peter Lombard]], and [[Francisco Suárez]]. One of the main questions during this time was the [[problem of universals]]. Prominent opponents of various aspects of the scholastic mainstream included [[Duns Scotus]], [[William of Ockham]], [[Peter Damian]], [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], and the [[Victorines]].

===Golden age of monasticism===
* The late 11th century/early-mid 12th century was the height of the golden age of [[Christian monasticism]] (8th-12th centuries).
** [[Benedictine Order]] – black-robed monks
** [[Cistercian Order]] – white-robed monks
*** [[Bernard of Clairvaux]]

===Mendicant orders===
{{Main|Mendicant orders}}
* The 13th century saw the rise of the [[Mendicant order]]s such as the:
** [[Franciscan]]s (Friars Minor, commonly known as the Grey Friars), founded 1209
** [[Carmelite]]s (Hermits of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Carmel, commonly known as the White Friars), founded 1206–1214
** [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] (Order of Preachers, commonly called the Black Friars), founded 1215
** [[Augustinians]] (Hermits of St. Augustine, commonly called the Austin Friars), founded 1256

===Heretical movements===
Christian [[Heresy|heresies]] existed in Europe before the 11th century but only in small numbers and of local character: in most cases, a rogue priest, or a village returning to pagan traditions. Beginning in the 11th century, however mass-movement heresies appeared. The roots of this can be partially sought in the rise of urban cities, free merchants, and a new money-based economy. The rural values of monasticism held little appeal to urban people who began to form sects more in tune with urban culture. The first large-scale heretical movements in Western Europe originated in the newly urbanized areas such as southern France and northern Italy and were probably influenced by the [[Bogomilism|Bogomils]] and other [[Dualistic cosmology|dualist movements]]. These heresies were on a scale the Catholic Church had never seen before and as such the response was one of elimination for some (such as the [[Cathars]]). Some Catholic monastic leaders, such as [[Francis of Assisi]], the founder of the [[Franciscans]], had to be recognized directly by the Pope so as not to be confused with actual heretical movements such as the [[Waldensians]].

====Cathars====
[[File:Cathars expelled.JPG|thumb|Cathars being expelled from [[Carcassonne]] in 1209]]

{{main|Catharism}}

'''Catharism''' was a movement with [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] elements that originated around the middle of the 10th century, branded by the contemporary [[Roman Catholic Church]] as [[heresy|heretical]]. It existed throughout much of [[Western Europe]], but its origination was in [[Languedoc]] and surrounding areas in southern France.

The name ''Cathar'' stems from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''katharos'', "pure". One of the first recorded uses is [[Eckebert|Eckbert von Schönau]] who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra Germania catharos appellat." ([In] our Germany [one] calls these [people] "Cathars".)

The Cathars are also called '''Albigensians'''. This name originates from the end of the 12th century, and was used by the chronicler [[Geoffroy du Breuil]] of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the southern town of [[Albi]] (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was at [[Toulouse]] and in the neighbouring districts.

The [[Catharism|Albigensians]] were strong in southern France, northern Italy, and the southwestern [[Holy Roman Empire]].

The [[Bogomilism|Bogomils]] were strong in the [[Southeastern Europe]], and became the [[Bosnian Church|official religion supported by the Bosnian kings]].
* [[Dualistic cosmology|Dualists]] believed that historical events were the result of struggle between a good (spiritual) force and an evil (material) force and that the world was of the evil force, though it could be controlled or defeated through [[asceticism]] and good works.
* [[Albigensian Crusade]], [[Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]], [[Montségur]], [[Château de Quéribus]]

====Waldensians====
{{Main|Waldensians}}
[[Peter Waldo]] of [[Lyon]] was a wealthy merchant who gave up his riches around 1175 after a religious experience and became a preacher. He founded the Waldensians which became a Christian sect believing that all religious practices should have strictly scriptural bases. Waldo was denied the right to preach his sermons by the Third Lateran Council in 1179, which he did not obey and continued to speak freely until he was excommunicated in 1184. Waldo was critical of the Christian clergy saying they did not live according to the word. He rejected the practice of selling indulgences ([[simony]]), as well as the common saint cult practices of the day.

Waldensians are considered a forerunner to the [[Protestant Reformation]], and they melted into [[Protestantism]] with the outbreak of the Reformation and became a part of the wider [[Reformed tradition]] after the views of [[John Calvin]] and his theological successors in [[Geneva]] proved very similar to their own theological thought. Waldensian churches still exist, located on several continents.

==Trade and commerce==
[[File:Lübeck - panoramio.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Lübeck]], de facto capital of the [[Hanseatic League]]]]
In Northern Europe, the [[Hanseatic League]], a federation of free cities to advance trade by sea, was founded in the 12th century, with the foundation of the city of [[Lübeck]], which would later dominate the League, in 1158–1159. Many northern cities of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] became Hanseatic cities, including [[Amsterdam]], [[Cologne]], [[Bremen]], [[Hanover]] and Berlin. Hanseatic cities outside the Holy Roman Empire were, for instance, [[Bruges]] and the Polish city of [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig), as well as Königsberg, capital of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights.  In [[Bergen]], Norway and [[Veliky Novgorod]], Russia the league had factories and middlemen. In this period the Germans started colonising Europe beyond the Empire, into [[Prussia]] and [[Silesia]].

In the late 13th century, a [[Venice|Venetian]] explorer named [[Marco Polo]] became one of the first Europeans to travel the [[Silk Road]] to China. Westerners became more aware of the Far East when Polo documented his travels in ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo|Il Milione]]''. He was followed by numerous Christian missionaries to the East, such as [[William of Rubruck]], [[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine]], [[André de Longjumeau]], [[Odoric of Pordenone]], [[Giovanni de' Marignolli]], [[John of Montecorvino|Giovanni di Monte Corvino]], and other travellers such as [[Niccolò de' Conti]].

==Science==
{{main|Science in the Middle Ages|Medieval medicine of Western Europe}}
{{further|List of medieval European scientists}}
[[File:Culture of Europe in 1250.png|thumb|270px|A map of medieval universities and major monasteries with library in 1250]]
Philosophical and scientific teaching of the [[Early Middle Ages]] was based upon few copies and commentaries of ancient Greek texts that remained in Western Europe after the collapse of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. Most of them were studied only in Latin as knowledge of Greek was very limited.

This scenario changed during the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]]. The intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of [[Medieval university|medieval universities]]. The increased contact with the Islamic world in [[Al-Andalus|Spain]] and [[History of Islam in southern Italy|Sicily]] during the [[Reconquista]], and the Byzantine world and Muslim [[Levant]] during the [[Crusades]], allowed Europeans access to scientific Arabic and Greek texts, including the works of [[Aristotle]], [[Ibn al-Haytham|Alhazen]], and [[Averroes]]. The European universities aided materially in the [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translation and propagation of these texts]] and started a new infrastructure which was needed for [[science|scientific]] communities.
[[File:Hugh specs.jpg|frame|right|Detail of a portrait of Hugh de Provence (wearing [[spectacles]]), painted by [[Tommaso da Modena]] in 1352]]

At the beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors,<ref>Franklin, J., [http://web.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/renaissance.html "The Renaissance myth"], Quadrant 26 (11) (Nov, 1982), 51-60. (Retrieved on-line at 06-07-2007)</ref> allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural science contained in these texts began to be extended by notable [[scholastics]] such as [[Robert Grosseteste]], [[Roger Bacon]], [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Duns Scotus]]. Precursors of the modern [[scientific method]] can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his ''[[Opus Majus]]''.

===Technology===
{{main|Medieval technology|Artes mechanicae}}

During the 12th and 13th century in Europe there was a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. In less than a century there were more inventions developed and applied usefully than in the previous thousand years of human history all over the globe. The period saw major [[technology|technological]] advances, including the adoption or invention of [[windmill]]s, [[watermill]]s, [[printing]] (though not yet with movable type), [[gunpowder]], the [[astrolabe]], [[glasses]], [[scissors]] of the modern shape, a better [[clock]], and greatly improved ships. The latter two advances made possible the dawn of the [[Age of Discovery]]. These inventions were influenced by foreign culture and society.

[[Alfred W. Crosby]] described some of this technological revolution in ''The Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600'' and other major historians of technology have also noted it.
[[File:WorldShips1460.jpg|thumb|Ships of the world in 1460, according to the [[Fra Mauro map]].]]
* The earliest written record of a [[windmill]] is from [[Yorkshire]], England, dated 1185.
* [[Paper]] manufacture began in Italy around 1270.
* The [[spinning wheel]] was brought to Europe (probably from India) in the 13th century.
* The [[magnetic compass]] aided navigation, first reaching Europe some time in the late 12th century.
* Eye [[glasses]] were invented in Italy in the late 1280s.
* The [[astrolabe]] returned to Europe via Islamic Spain.
* [[Fibonacci]] introduces [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]] to Europe with his book ''[[Liber Abaci]]'' in 1202.
* The West's oldest known depiction of a stern-mounted [[rudder]] can be found on church carvings dating to around 1180.

==Arts==

===Visual arts===
[[File:Konstantin i Irina.jpg|upright|thumb|Fresco from the [[Boyana Church]] depicting Emperor [[Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria|Constantine Tikh Asen]]. The murals are among the finest achievements of the [[Culture of Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] culture in the 13th century.]]
{{main|Medieval art}}

Art in the High Middle Ages includes these important movements:
* [[Anglo-Saxon art]] was influential on the British Isles until the Norman Invasion of 1066
* [[Romanesque art]] continued traditions from the Classical world (not to be confused with [[Romanesque architecture]])
* [[Gothic art]] developed a distinct Germanic flavor (not to be confused with [[Gothic architecture]]).
* [[Indo-Islamic architecture]] begins when [[Muhammad of Ghor]] made [[Delhi]] a Muslim capital
* [[Byzantine art]] continued earlier Byzantine traditions, influencing much of Eastern Europe.
* [[Illuminated manuscripts]] gained prominence both in the Catholic and Orthodox churches

===Architecture===
[[File:Paris Notre-Dame cathedral interior nave east 01b.jpg|thumb|upright|Interior of [[Nôtre Dame de Paris]]]]
{{main|Gothic architecture}}
[[File:Paris Notre-Dame, July 2001.jpg|thumb|The cathedral of ''[[Notre Dame de Paris]]'', whose construction began in 1163, is one of the finer examples of the High Middle Ages architecture]]

Gothic architecture superseded the [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] style by combining [[flying buttress]]es, gothic (or pointed) [[arch]]es and [[ribbed vault]]s. It was influenced by the spiritual background of the time, being religious in essence: thin horizontal lines and grates made the building strive towards the sky. Architecture was made to appear light and weightless, as opposed to the dark and bulky forms of the previous [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque style]]. It was commonly thought that light was an expression of God; therefore, architectural techniques were adapted and developed to build churches that reflected this teaching. Colorful [[glass window]]s enhanced the spirit of lightness. As color was much rarer at medieval times than today, it can be assumed that these virtuoso works of art had an awe-inspiring impact on the common man from the street. High-rising intricate ribbed, and later [[fan vault]]ings demonstrated movement toward heaven. Veneration of God was also expressed by the relatively large size of these buildings. A gothic cathedral therefore not only invited the visitors to elevate themselves spiritually, it was also meant to demonstrate the greatness of God. The [[floor plan]] of a gothic cathedral corresponded to the rules of scholasticism: According to [[Erwin Panofsky]]'s ''Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism'', the plan was divided into sections and uniform subsections. These characteristics are exhibited by the most famous sacral building of the time: [[Notre Dame de Paris]].

===Literature===
{{main|Medieval literature}}
[[File:Apostle John and Marcion of Sinope, from JPM LIbrary MS 748, 11th c.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John the Apostle]] and [[Marcion of Sinope]] in an Italian [[illuminated manuscript]], painting on [[vellum]], 11th century]]
A variety of cultures influenced the literature of the High Middle Ages, one of the strongest among them being Christianity. The connection to Christianity was greatest in [[Latin literature]], which influenced the [[vernacular]] languages in the [[Literature cycle|literary cycle]] of the [[Matter of Rome]]. Other [[literary]] cycles, or interrelated groups of stories, included the [[Matter of France]] (stories about [[Charlemagne]] and his court), the [[Acritic songs]] dealing with the chivalry of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium's]] frontiersmen, and perhaps the best known cycle, the [[Matter of Britain]], which featured tales about [[King Arthur]], his court, and related stories from [[Brittany]], [[Cornwall]], [[Wales]] and Ireland. An anonymous German poet tried to bring the Germanic myths from the [[Migration Period]] to the level of the French and British epics, producing the [[Nibelungenlied]]. There was also a quantity of poetry and historical writings which were written during this period, such as ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]].

Despite political decline during the late 12th and much of the 13th centuries, the Byzantine scholarly tradition remained particularly fruitful over the time period. One of the most prominent philosophers of the 11th century, [[Michael Psellos]], reinvigorated [[Neoplatonism]] on Christian foundations and bolstered the study of [[Ancient Greek philosophy|ancient philosophical texts]], along with contributing to history, grammar, and rhetorics. His pupil and successor at the head of Philosophy at the [[University of Constantinople]] [[John Italus|Ioannes Italos]] continued the Platonic line in Byzantine thought and was criticized by the Church for holding opinions it considered heretical, such as the doctrine of [[Reincarnation|transmigration]]. Two Orthodox theologians important in the dialogue between the eastern and western churches were [[Nikephoros Blemmydes]] and [[Maximus Planudes]]. Byzantine historical tradition also flourished with the works of the brothers [[Niketas Choniates|Niketas]] and [[Michael Choniates]] in the beginning of the 13th century and [[George Akropolites]] a generation later. Dating from 12th century Byzantine Empire is also [[Timarion]], an Orthodox Christian anticipation of [[Divine Comedy]]. Around the same time the so-called [[Byzantine novel]] rose in popularity with its synthesis of ancient pagan and contemporaneous Christian themes.

At the same time southern France gave birth to [[Occitan literature]], which is best known for [[troubadour]]s who sang of [[courtly love]]. It included elements from Latin literature and Arab-influenced Spain and North Africa. Later its influence spread to several cultures in Western Europe, notably in Portugal and the Minnesänger in Germany. Provençal literature also reached Sicily and Northern Italy laying the foundation of the [[Dolce Stil Nuovo|"sweet new style"]] of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] and later [[Petrarch|Petrarca]]. Indeed, the most important poem of the [[Late Middle Ages]], the allegorical ''[[Divine Comedy]],'' is to a large degree a product of both the [[Summa Theologica|theology of Thomas Aquinas]] and the largely secular Occitan literature.

===Music===
{{main|Medieval music}}
[[File:Vihuela de arco y vihuela de péñola en las Cantigas.jpg|thumb|upright|Musicians playing the Spanish ''[[vihuela]]'', one with a bow, the other plucked by hand, in the ''[[Cantigas de Santa Maria]]'' of [[Alfonso X of Castile]], 13th century]]
[[File:Organistrum Orense 200708.jpg|thumb|upright|Men playing the [[organistrum]], from the [[Ourense Cathedral]], Spain, 12th century]]
The surviving music of the High Middle Ages is primarily religious in nature, since [[music notation]] developed in religious institutions, and the application of notation to secular music was a later development. Early in the period, [[Gregorian chant]] was the dominant form of church music; other forms, beginning with [[organum]], and later including [[Clausula (music)|clausula]]e, [[conductus]], and the [[motet]], developed using the chant as source material.

During the 11th century, [[Guido of Arezzo]] was one of the first to develop musical notation, which made it easier for singers to remember Gregorian chants.

It was during the 12th and 13th centuries that Gregorian plainchant gave birth to polyphony, which appeared in the works of French [[Notre Dame School]] ([[Léonin]] and [[Pérotin]]). Later it evolved into the ''[[ars nova]]'' ([[Philippe de Vitry]], [[Guillaume de Machaut]]) and the musical genres of late Middle Ages. An important composer during the 12th century was the [[nun]] [[Hildegard of Bingen]].

The most significant secular movement was that of the [[troubadour]]s, who arose in [[Occitania]] (Southern France) in the late 11th century. The troubadours were often [[itinerant entertainer|itinerant]], came from all classes of society, and wrote songs on a variety of topics, though with a particular focus on [[courtly love]]. Their style went on to influence the [[trouvère]]s of northern France, the [[minnesinger]]s of Germany, and the composers of secular [[music of the Trecento]] in northern Italy.

===Theatre===
{{Main|Medieval theatre}}
Economic and political changes in the High Middle Ages led to the formation of [[guilds]] and the growth of towns, and this would lead to significant changes for theatre starting in this time and continuing into the [[Late Middle Ages]]. Trade guilds began to perform plays, usually religiously based, and often dealing with a biblical story that referenced their profession. For instance, a baker's guild would perform a reenactment of the [[Last Supper]].<ref>''A History of English literature for Students'', by Robert Huntington Fletcher, 1916: pp. 85–88</ref>  In the [[British Isles]], plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacular [[Mystery plays]] were written in cycles of a large number of plays: [[York Mystery Plays|York]] (48 plays), [[Chester Mystery Plays|Chester]] (24), [[Wakefield Mystery Plays|Wakefield]] (32) and [[N-Town Plays|Unknown]] (42). A larger number of plays survive from France and Germany in this period and some type of religious dramas were performed in nearly every European country in the Late Middle Ages. Many of these plays contained [[comedy]], [[devil]]s, [[villain]]s and [[clown]]s.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 86)</ref>

There were also a number of secular performances staged in the Middle Ages, the earliest of which is ''The Play of the Greenwood'' by [[Adam de la Halle]] in 1276. It contains satirical scenes and [[Folk culture|folk]] material such as [[faeries]] and other supernatural occurrences. [[Farce]]s also rose dramatically in popularity after the 13th century. The majority of these plays come from France and Germany and are similar in tone and form, emphasizing sex and bodily excretions.<ref>Brockett and Hildy (2003, 96)</ref>

==Timeline==
{{further|Timeline of the Middle Ages}}
{{div col|small=yes}}
* 1054 – [[East–West Schism]]
* 1066 – [[Battle of Hastings]]
* 1073–1085 – [[Pope Gregory VII]]
* 1071 – [[Battle of Manzikert]]
* 1077 – [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]]'s [[Walk to Canossa]]
* 1086 – [[Domesday Book]]
* 1086 – [[Battle of az-Zallaqah]]
* 1088 – [[University of Bologna]] founded
* 1091 – [[Battle of Levounion]]
* 1096 – [[University of Oxford]] founded
* 1096–1099 – [[First Crusade]]
* 1123 – [[First Lateran Council]]
* 1139 – [[Second Lateran Council]]
* 1145–1149 – [[Second Crusade]]
* 1147 – [[Wendish Crusade]]
* {{circa|lk=no|1150}} – [[University of Paris]] founded
* 1155–1190 – [[Frederick I Barbarossa]]
* 1159 – foundation of the [[Hanseatic League]]
* 1169 – [[Norman invasion of Ireland]]
* 1185 – reestablishment of the [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]]
* 1189–1192 – [[Third Crusade]]
* 1200–1204 – [[Fourth Crusade]]
* 1205 – [[Battle of Adrianople (1205)|Battle of Adrianople]]
* 1209 – [[University of Cambridge]] founded
* 1209 – foundation of the [[Franciscan Order]]
* 1209–1229 – [[Albigensian Crusade]]
* 1212 – [[Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]]
* 1214 - [[Battle of Bouvines]] - Medieval France is a rising power
* 1215 – [[Magna Carta]]
* 1216 – recognition of the [[Dominican Order]]
* 1215 – [[Fourth Lateran Council]]
* 1217–1221 – [[Fifth Crusade]]
* 1218 – [[University of Salamanca]] founded
* 1220–1250 – [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]
* 1222 – [[University of Padua]] founded
* 1223 – approval of the [[Franciscan]] Rule of Life
* 1228–1229 – [[Sixth Crusade]]
* 1230 – [[Prussian Crusade]]
* 1230 – [[Battle of Klokotnitsa]]
* 1237–1242 – [[Mongol invasion of Europe]]
* 1241 – [[Battle of Legnica]] and [[Battle of Mohi]]
* 1242 – [[Battle of the Ice]]
* 1248–1254 – [[Seventh Crusade]]
* 1257 – foundation of the [[Collège de Sorbonne]]
* 1261 – the [[Byzantine Empire]] reconquers [[Constantinople]].
* 1274 – death of [[Thomas Aquinas]]; ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' published
* 1277-1280 – [[Uprising of Ivaylo]] – Medieval Europe's only successful peasant uprising
* 1280 – death of [[Albertus Magnus]]
* 1291 – [[Akko|Acre]], the last European outpost in the [[Near East]], is captured by the [[Mamluks]] under [[Al-Ashraf Khalil|Khalil]].
{{div col end}}

==See also==
* [[Early Middle Ages]]
* [[Late Middle Ages]]
* [[Middle Ages]]
* [[Gothic book illustration]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book |last=Adamson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Adamson (academic) |title=Philosophy in the Islamic World: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KEpRDAAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-957749-1}}
* {{Citation |last=Fakhry |first=Majid |title=Averroes (Ibn Rushd) His Life, Works and Influence |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-85168-269-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=88bWAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Taylor |first=Richard C. |title=Averroes: religious dialectic and Aristotelian philosophical thought |encyclopedia=The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy |year=2005 |editor=Peter Adamson |editor2=Richard C. Taylor |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=180–200 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xowm255qOzQC&pg=PA180 |isbn=978-0-521-52069-0}}

==Further reading==
* Fuhrmann, Horst. ''Germany in the High Middle Ages: c. 1050–1200'' (Cambridge UP,  1986).
* Jordan, William C.  ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' (2nd ed. Penguin, 2004).
* Mundy, John H. ''Europe in the High Middle Ages, 1150–1309'' (2014) – [https://archive.org/details/europeinhighmidd00mund online]
* Power, Daniel, ed. ''The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320'' (Oxford UP, 2006).

==External links==
{{commons category|High Middle Ages}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051122123242/http://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/WestCiv/MedievalMusic.Chron.html Music of the Middle Ages: 475–1500]
* [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0859627.html Middle Ages: The High Middle Ages] in the ''[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]'' at Infoplease
* [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/ent/A0840334.html Provençal literature] in the ''Columbia Encyclopedia'' at Infoplease

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