God in Christianity

{{Short description|Christian conception of God}}
[[File:By Dore, Gustave; La Sainte Trinite.jpg|270px|thumb|right|''[[Trinity|La Sainte Trinite]]'', painting by [[Gustave Doré]] (1866). [[God the Father]] presents the body of [[Jesus|Christ]], his [[God the Son|Divine Son]], with [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|the Holy Spirit]] visible as a dove at the top of the image.]]
{{God|by religion}}
{{Christianity|expanded=theology}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}

In [[Christianity]], [[God]] is believed to be the [[God and eternity|eternal]], supreme being who [[Creator god|created]] and [[God the Sustainer|preserves]] all things.{{refn|<ref name="Theokritoff 2010">{{cite book |author-last=Theokritoff |author-first=Elizabeth |year=2010 |origyear=2008 |chapter=Part I: Doctrine and Tradition – Creator and creation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jP2vivMSezMC&pg=PA63 |editor1-last=Cunningham |editor1-first=Mary B. |editor2-last=Theokritoff |editor2-first=Elizabeth |title=The Cambridge Companion to Orthodox Christian Theology |location=[[Cambridge]] and New York City |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=63–77 |doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521864848.005 |isbn=9781139001977}}</ref><ref name="Young 2008">{{cite book |author-last=Young |author-first=Frances M. |author-link=Frances Young |year=2008 |chapter=Part V: The Shaping of Christian Theology – Monotheism and Christology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA452 |editor1-last=Mitchell |editor1-first=Margaret M. |editor1-link=Margaret M. Mitchell |editor2-last=Young |editor2-first=Frances M. |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1: Origins to Constantine |location=[[Cambridge]] and New York City |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=452–469 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.027 |isbn=9781139054836}}</ref><ref name="Cross-Livingstone 2005">{{cite book |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F. L. |editor1-link=F. L. Cross |editor2-last=Livingstone |editor2-first=E. A. |editor2-link=Elizabeth Livingstone |year=2005 |chapter=Doctrine of the Trinity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1652 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |location=[[Oxford]] and New York City |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |edition=3rd Revised |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001 |pages=1652–1653 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3}}</ref><ref name="Schnelle 2005">{{cite book |author-last=Schnelle |author-first=Udo |author-link=Udo Schnelle |year=2005 |origyear=2003 |chapter=Part II: The Basic Structures of Pauline Thought – Theology: God as the Father of Jesus Christ |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dh4MKI1QhCEC&pg=PA395 |title=Apostle Paul: His Life and Theology |location=[[Ada, Michigan]] |publisher=[[Baker Academic]] |edition=1st |pages=395–400 |isbn=9781441242006 |lccn=2005025534}}</ref>}} Most [[Christians]] believe in a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], [[Trinity#One God in three persons|trinitarian]] conception of [[God]], which is both [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] (wholly independent of, and removed from, the material universe) and [[Immanence|immanent]] (involved in the material universe).{{refn|<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/><ref name="Young 2008"/><ref name="Cross-Livingstone 2005"/><ref name="Schnelle 2005"/>}} Most Christians believe in a singular God that exists in a [[Trinity]], which consists of three persons: [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]], and [[God the Holy Spirit]]. Christian teachings on the transcendence, immanence, and involvement of God in the world and his love for humanity exclude the belief that God is of the same substance as the created universe (rejection of [[pantheism]]) but accept that God the Son assumed [[Hypostatic union|hypostatically united]] human nature, thus becoming man in a unique event known as "the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]]".{{refn|<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Weinandy |author-first=Thomas G. |year=2019 |origyear=2015 |chapter=Part I: Catholic Teaching – God, the Creation, and the History of Salvation: The Incarnation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPqNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |editor1-last=Ayres |editor1-first=Lewis |editor2-last=Volpe |editor2-first=Medi Ann |title=The Oxford Handbook of Catholic Theology |location=[[Oxford]] and New York City |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=167–182 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566273.013.7 |isbn=9780199566273 |lccn=2018965377}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Louth |author-first=Andrew |year=2007 |chapter=The Place of ''Theosis'' in Orthodox Theology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgtUoMqm594C&pg=PA32 |editor1-last=Christensen |editor1-first=Michael J. |editor2-last=Wittung |editor2-first=Jeffery A. |title=Partakers of the Divine Nature: The History and Development of Deification in the Christian Traditions |location=[[Madison, New Jersey]] and [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] |publisher=[[Fairleigh Dickinson University Press]] |pages=32–44 |isbn=978-0-8386-4111-8 |lccn=2006017877}}</ref><ref name="DelColle 2001">{{cite book |author-last=Del Colle |author-first=Ralph |year=2001 |origyear=1997 |chapter=Part II: The content of Christian doctrine – The Triune God |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvCmnn4Tq20C&pg=PA121 |editor-last=Gunton |editor-first=Colin E. |editor-link=Colin Gunton |title=The Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine |location=[[Cambridge]] and New York City |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=121–140 |doi=10.1017/CCOL0521471184.009 |isbn=9781139000000}}</ref>}}

[[Early Christianity|Early Christian]] views of God were expressed in the [[Pauline epistles]] and the early [[Christian creeds]],{{refn|<ref name="Schnelle 2005"/><ref name="Kelly 2006">{{cite book |author-last=Kelly |author-first=J. N. D. |author-link=John Norman Davidson Kelly |year=2006 |origyear=1950 |chapter=Part II: Creeds and Baptism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Titk-TEYqD4C&pg=PA30 |title=Early Christian Creeds |location=London and New York City |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group|Continuum International]] |edition=3rd |pages=30–61 |doi=10.4324/9781315836720 |isbn=9781315836720 |s2cid=161264947}}</ref><ref name="BWell424">{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Fotopoulos |author-first=John |year=2010 |title=Chapter 23: 1 Corinthians |editor-last=Aune |editor-first=David E. |editor-link=David Edward Aune |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament |location=[[Chichester, West Sussex]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |pages=413–433 |doi=10.1002/9781444318937.ch23 |isbn=9781444318937|s2cid=241555937 }}</ref>}} which proclaimed one God and the [[divinity of Jesus]].{{efn|One example is [[1 Corinthians]] 8:5-6:<ref name="Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|8:5-6">{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|8:5-6}}</ref> "For even if there are so-called gods, whether in heaven or on earth (as indeed there are many 'gods' and many 'lords'), yet for us there is but one [[God the Father#Christianity|God, the Father]], from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live."}}{{refn|<ref name="Young 2008"/><ref name="Bernard 2019">{{cite book |last=Bernard |first=David K. |author-link=David K. Bernard |year=2019 |origyear=2016 |chapter=Monotheism in Paul's Rhetorical World |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AD1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |title=The Glory of God in the Face of Jesus Christ: Deification of Jesus in Early Christian Discourse |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Journal of Pentecostal Theology: Supplement Series |volume=45 |pages=53–82 |isbn=978-90-04-39721-7 |issn=0966-7393}}</ref><ref name="Hurtado 2015">{{cite book |last=Hurtado |first=Larry W. |author-link=Larry Hurtado |year=2015 |origyear=1988 |chapter=Introduction: Early Christology and Chronology – Chapter 5: The Early Christian Mutation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dS41CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Ancient Jewish Monotheism |location=London and New York City |publisher=[[T&T Clark]] |edition=3rd |pages=1–16, 97–130 |isbn=9780567657718}}</ref><ref name="Hurtado 2005">{{cite book |last=Hurtado |first=Larry W. |year=2005 |chapter=How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Approaches to Jesus-Devotion in Earliest Christianity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi5xIxgnNgcC&pg=PA13 |title=How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus |location=[[Grand Rapids, Michigan]] and [[Cambridge]], U.K. |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans]] |pages=13–55 |isbn=978-0-8028-2861-3}}</ref>}} Although some early sects of Christianity, such as the [[Jewish Christians|Jewish-Christian]] [[Ebionites]], protested against the [[apotheosis]] of Jesus,<ref>("Clementine Homilies", xvi. 15)</ref> the concept of Jesus being [[homoousion|one with God]] was accepted by the majority of [[Gentile Christians]].<ref name="JE-Trinity">{{cite encyclopedia|title=TRINITY|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14519-trinity|encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia|publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com|access-date=22 August 2013}}</ref> This formed one aspect of the [[split of early Christianity and Judaism]], as Gentile Christian views of God began to diverge from the traditional Jewish teachings of the time.<ref name="Hurtado 2015"/>

The [[Christian theology|theology]] of the [[Attributes of God in Christianity|attributes and nature of God]] has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with [[Irenaeus]] writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things".<ref name=Irena27/> In the 8th century, [[John of Damascus]] listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted.<ref name=Globe352/> As time passed, Christian theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the [[Lord's Prayer]], stating that the [[God the Father|Father]] is in [[Heaven (Christianity)|Heaven]]), others based on theological reasoning.<ref name=SGuthrie/><ref name=Hirschberger>Hirschberger, Johannes. ''Historia de la Filosofía I, Barcelona'': Herder 1977, p.403</ref> The [[Kingdom of God (Christianity)|Kingdom of God]] is a prominent phrase in the [[Synoptic Gospels]], and while there is near unanimous agreement among scholars that it represents a key element of the [[teachings of Jesus]], there is little scholarly agreement on its exact interpretation.<ref name=Image478/><ref name=FranceK1/>

Although the [[New Testament]] does not have a formal doctrine of the Trinity as such, "it does repeatedly speak of [[God the Father|the Father]], [[God the Son|the Son]], and the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]]... in such a way as to compel a [[Trinitarian]] understanding of God".<ref name=Stagg>Stagg, Frank. ''New Testament Theology''. Broadman Press, 1962. {{ISBN|0-8054-1613-7}}. p. 38</ref> Around the year 200 AD, [[Tertullian]] formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus.<ref name="DelColle 2001"/><ref name="Kelly 2006"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=J. N. D. |title=Early Christian doctrines |date=2000 |publisher=Continuum |location=London |isbn=978-0826452528 |page=150 |edition=5th}}</ref> This concept was later expanded upon at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 AD,<ref name=Stagg/> and a later definitive form was produced by the [[First Council of Constantinople|Ecumenical Council of 381]].<ref name=Prestige29>Prestige, G.L. ''Fathers and Heretics'' SPCK:1963, p. 29</ref> The Trinitarian doctrine holds that God the Son, God the Father, and God the Holy Spirit are all different [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostases]] (Persons) of one substance,<ref name="DelColle 2001"/><ref name=Behr/><ref name=Fair48/> and is not traditionally held to be one of [[tritheism]].<ref name="DelColle 2001"/> Trinitarianism was subsequently adopted as the official theological doctrine through [[Nicene Christianity]] thereafter, and forms a cornerstone of modern Christian understandings of God, though some Christian denominations hold [[Nontrinitarianism|Nontrinitarian views about the Godhead]].{{refn|<ref name="Cross-Livingstone 2005"/><ref name=mercer935/><ref name=Kelly115/><ref name=Mac117/>}}

== Background ==
{{Main|God in Abrahamic religions}}
{{Further|History of Christianity}}

[[Christians]], in common with [[Jews]] and [[Muslims]], identify with the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|biblical patriarch]] [[Abraham]] to whom God [[Revelation|revealed]] himself.<ref name="Firestone 2015">{{cite book |author-last=Firestone |author-first=Reuven |author-link=Reuven Firestone |year=2015 |chapter=Abraham and Authenticity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_B2DCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |editor1-last=Blidstein |editor1-first=Moshe |editor2-last=Silverstein |editor2-first=Adam J. |editor3-last=Stroumsa |editor3-first=Guy G. |editor3-link=Guy Stroumsa |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions |location=[[Oxford]] and New York City |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=3–21 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.9 |isbn=978-0-19-969776-2 |lccn=2014960132 |s2cid=170382297}}</ref> It is believed that Abraham was the first to affirm [[monotheism]] (one God) and had an ideal relationship with God.<ref name="Firestone 2015"/> The [[Abrahamic religions]] believe that God continuously interacted with the descendants of Abraham over millennia; both Christians and Jews believe that this [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]] is recorded in the [[Hebrew Bible]], which most [[Christian denominations]] consider to be and refer to as the [[Old Testament]].<ref name="Firestone 2015"/> In the traditional interpretations of Christianity, God is always referred to with [[Grammatical gender|masculine grammatical articles]] only.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Christiano |editor1-first=Kevin J. |editor2-last=Kivisto |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Swatos |editor3-first=William H. Jr. |year=2015 |orig-year=2002 |title=Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments |chapter=Excursus on the History of Religions |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYtjY7GJav4C&pg=PA254 |location=[[Walnut Creek, California]] |publisher=[[AltaMira Press]] |edition=3rd |pages=254–255 |doi=10.2307/3512222 |jstor=3512222 |isbn=978-1-4422-1691-4 |lccn=2001035412 |s2cid=154932078}}</ref>

== Development of the conception of God ==

=== Overview ===
{{Main article|Attributes of God in Christianity|History of Christian theology}}
{{Further|Diversity in early Christian theology|Great Apostasy|Nontrinitarianism|Son of God (Christianity)|Trinity}}

[[File:P46.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|A folio from [[Papyrus 46]] containing a copy of 2 Corinthians 11:33–12:9. This folio dates to between 175 and 225 AD.]]

[[Early Christianity|Early Christian]] views of God (before the [[Canonical gospel|gospels]] were written) are reflected in the [[Apostle Paul]]'s statement in [[1 Corinthians]] 8:5–6,<ref name="Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|8:5-6" /> written {{circa|AD 53–54}}, about twenty years after the [[crucifixion of Jesus]], and 12–21 years before the earliest of the canonical gospels was written:<ref name="Hurtado 2015"/>

{{blockquote|...for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live.}}

Apart from asserting that there is one God, Paul's statement (which is likely based on pre-Pauline confessions) includes a number of other significant elements: he distinguishes Christian belief from the Jewish background of the time by referring to Jesus and the Father almost in the same breath, and by conferring on Jesus the title of divine honor "Lord", as well as calling him Christ.<ref name="Schnelle 2005"/><ref name="Hurtado 2015"/><ref name=BWell424/>

In the [[Acts of the Apostles|Book of Acts]] (Acts 17:24–27),<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|17:24–27}}</ref> during the [[Areopagus sermon]] given by Paul, he further characterizes the early Christian understanding:<ref name=Udo477>''Theology of the New Testament'' by Udo Schnelle (1 November 2009), {{ISBN|0801036046}}, page 477.</ref>

{{blockquote|The God that made the world and all things therein, he, being Lord of heaven and earth}}

Paul also reflects on the relationship between God and Christians:<ref name=Udo477/>

{{blockquote|...that they should seek God, if haply they might feel after him and find him, though he is not far from each one of us for in him we live.}}

The [[Pauline epistles]] also include a number of references to the Holy Spirit, with the theme which appears in [[1 Thessalonians]] 4:8<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Thessalonians|4:8}}</ref> – "...God, the very God who gives you his Holy Spirit" – appearing throughout his epistles.<ref name=Dunn418 >''Theology of Paul the Apostle'' by James D. G. Dunn 2003 {{ISBN|0-567-08958-4}} pages 418–420</ref> In John 14:26,<ref>{{Bibleref2|John|14:26}}</ref> Jesus also refers to "the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name".<ref>''[[iarchive:anointedcommunit0000burg|The anointed community: the Holy Spirit in the Johannine tradition]]'' by [[Gary M. Burge]] 1987 {{ISBN|0-8028-0193-5}} pages 14–21</ref>

By the end of the 1st century, [[Clement of Rome]] had repeatedly referred to the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and linked the Father to creation in 1 Clement 19.2,<ref>[[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume IX/The Epistles of Clement/The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians/Chapter 19|1 Clement 19.2]]</ref> stating: "let us look steadfastly to the Father and creator of the universe".<ref name=Veli70>''The Doctrine of God: A Global Introduction'' by [[Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen]] 2004 {{ISBN|0801027527}} pages 70–73</ref> By the middle of the 2nd century, in ''Against Heresies'', [[Irenaeus]] had emphasized (in Book 4, chapter 5)<ref>[[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume I/IRENAEUS/Against Heresies: Book IV/Chapter V.|''Against Heresies'', Book 4, chapter 5]]</ref> that [[Creator deity|the Creator]] is the "one and only God" and the "maker of heaven and earth".<ref name=Veli70/> These preceded the formal presentation of the concept of [[Trinity]] by [[Tertullian]] early in the 3rd century.<ref name=Veli70/>

The period from the late 2nd century to the beginning of the 4th century (approximately 180–313) is generally called the "epoch of the [[Great Church]]" and also the [[Ante-Nicene Period]], and witnessed significant theological development, and the consolidation and formalization of a number of Christian teachings.<ref name=Rahner375>Peter Stockmeier in the ''Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi'' edited by [[Karl Rahner]] {{ISBN|0860120066}} (New York: Sea-bury Press, 1975) page 375-376: "In the following period, c. 180–313, these structures already determine essentially the image of the Church which claims a universal mission in the Roman Empire. It has rightly been termed the period of the Great Church, in view of its numerical growth, its constitutional development and its intense theological activity."</ref>

From the 2nd century onward, [[Western Church|western]] creeds started with an affirmation of belief in "God the Father (Almighty)" and the primary reference of this phrase was to "God in his capacity as Father and creator of the universe".<ref name="Kelly">Kelly, J.N.D. ''Early Christian Creeds'' Longmans:1960, p.136; p.139; p.195 respectively</ref> This did not exclude either the fact the "eternal father of the universe was also the Father of Jesus the Christ" or that he had even "vouchsafed to adopt [the believer] as his son by grace".<ref name="Kelly" /> [[Eastern Church|Eastern]] creeds (those known to have come from a later date) began with an affirmation of faith in "one God" and almost always expanded this by adding "the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible" or words to that effect.<ref name="Kelly" />

[[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], and other Christian theologians have described God with the Latin term {{lang|la|ipsum esse}}, a phrase that translates roughly to "being itself".<ref>{{Citation|chapter=St Augustine and Being|title=Journal of the History of Philosophy|date=19 August 1968 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=79–80 |doi=10.1353/hph.1968.a229574 |s2cid=169898847 | chapter-url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/229574/summary}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|chapter=Saint Thomas Aquinas|title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2018 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aquinas/}}</ref> God's [[aseity]] makes the Christian God not "a being" but rather "being itself", and can be explained by phrases such as "that which is with no reliance on anything external for its being" or "the necessary condition for anything to exist at all".

As time passed, theologians and philosophers developed more precise understandings of the nature of God and began to produce systematic lists of his attributes. These varied in detail, but traditionally the attributes fell into two groups: those based on ''negation'' (that God is impassible) and those positively based on ''eminence'' (that God is infinitely good).<ref name="Hirschberger"/> [[Ian Ramsey]] suggested that there are three groups, and that some attributes, such as ''simplicity'' and ''perfection'', have a different logical dynamic which from such attributes as ''infinite goodness'' since there are relative forms of the latter but not of the former.<ref>Ian T. Ramsey, ''Religious Language'' SCM 1967, pp.50ff</ref>

=== Name ===
{{Main article|Names of God in Christianity}}
[[File:Jhwh4.jpg|thumb|The [[Tetragrammaton]] YHWH, the name of God written in Hebrew, old church of [[Ragunda]], Sweden]]

In Christian theology, the name of God has always held deeper significance than purely being a label, considered instead to have divine origin and be based upon divine revelation.<ref name=Systematic47>''Systematic Theology'' by [[Louis Berkhof]] (24 September 1996) {{ISBN|0802838200}} pages47-51</ref><ref name=mercer336 >''Mercer dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 {{ISBN|0-86554-373-9}} page 336</ref> The Bible usually uses the name of God in the singular (e.g., Exodus 20:7<ref>{{Bibleverse|Exodus|20:7}}</ref> or Psalms 8:1),<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ps.|8:1}}</ref> generally using the terms in a very general sense rather than referring to any special designation of God.<ref name="Berkhof">''Manual Of Christian Doctrine'' by Louis Berkhof (1 August 2007), {{ISBN|1930367902}}, pages 19–23.</ref> However, general references to the name of God may branch to other special forms which express his multifaceted attributes.<ref name="Berkhof"/> The Old Testament reveals [[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]] (often vocalized with vowels as "Yahweh" or "Jehovah") as the personal name of God, along with certain titles including [[Elyon|El Elyon]] and [[El Shaddai]].<ref name="Parke-Taylor2006">{{cite book |last1=Parke-Taylor |first1=G. H. |title=Yahweh: The Divine Name in the Bible |date=1 January 2006 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]] |isbn=978-0-88920-652-6 |page=4 |language=en|quote=The Old Testament contains various titles and surrogates for God, such as El Shaddai, El Elyon, Haqqadosh (The Holy One), and Adonai. In chapter three, consideration will be given to names ascribed to God in the patriarchal period. Gerhard von Rad reminds us that these names became secondary after the name YHWH had been known to Israel, for "these rudimentary names which derive from old traditions, and from the oldest of them, never had the function of extending the name so as to stand alongside the name Jahweh to serve as fuller forms of address; rather, they were occasionally made use of in place of the name Jahweh." In this respect YHWH stands in contrast to the principal deities of the Babylonians and the Egyptians. "Jahweh had only one name; Marduk had fifty with which his praises as victor over Tiamat were sung in hymns. Similarly, the Egyptian god Re is the god with many names.}}</ref><ref name="USCCB2008">{{cite web |title=The Name of God in the Liturgy |url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/the-mass/frequently-asked-questions/the-name-of-god-in-the-liturgy.cfm |publisher=[[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]] |language=en |year=2008|quote=…pronouncing the God of Israel's proper name," known as the holy or divine tetragrammaton, written with four consonants, YHWH, in the Hebrew alphabet. In order to vocalize it, it is necessary to introduce vowels that alter the written and spoken forms of the name (i.e. "Yahweh" or "Jehovah").}}</ref> [[Jah]] or Yah is an abbreviation of Jahweh/Yahweh/Jehovah; it is often used by Christians in the interjection [[Hallelujah]], meaning "Praise Jah", which is used to give God glory.<ref name="Loewen2020">{{cite book |last1=Loewen |first1=Jacob A. |title=The Bible in Cross Cultural Perspective |date=1 June 2020 |publisher=William Carey Publishing |isbn=978-1-64508-304-7 |page=182 |language=English|quote=Shorter forms of Yahweh: The name Yahweh also appears in a shortened form, transliterated Jah (pronounced Yah) in the Revised Version and the American Standard Version, either in the text or footnote: "my song is Jah" (Ex 15:2); "by Jah, his name" (Ps 68:4); "I shall not see Jah in Jah's land (Is 38:11). It is common also in such often untranslated compounds as hallelujah 'praise Jah' (Ps 135:3; 146:10, 148:14), and in proper names like Elijah, 'my God is Jah,' Adonijah, 'my Lord is Jah,' Isaiah, 'Jah has saved.'|edition=Revised }}</ref> In the New Testament, ''Theos'', ''[[Kyrios]]'', and ''Pater'' ({{lang|grc|πατήρ}}, "father" in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]) are additional words used to reference God.<ref name="GreenMcKnightMarshall1992">{{cite book |last1=Green |first1=Joel B. |last2=McKnight |first2=Scot |last3=Marshall |first3=I. Howard |title=Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship |date=18 February 1992 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-1777-1 |page=271 |language=en|quote=Many of the uses of ''kyrios'' for God are in citations of the OT and in expressions derived from the OT (e.g., "angel of the Lord"), and in these passages the term functions as the Greek translation of the Hebrew OT name for God, Yahweh. For example, twenty-five of the uses of ''kyrios'' for God in Luke are in the first two chapters, where the phrasing is so heavily influenced by the OT. The third frequently used term for God is "Father" (''patēr''), doubtless the most familiar term for God in Christian tradition and also perhaps the most theologically significant title for God in the NT. Unlike the other terms for God already mentioned—without exception in the Synoptics, and with only a few exceptions in John--"Father" as a title for God appears only in the sayings attributed to Jesus (the Johannine exceptions are in editorial remarks by the Evangelist in 1:14, 18, a saying of Philip in 14:8 and the crowd's claim in 8:41).}}</ref><ref name="Berkhof"/>

Respect for the name of God is one of the [[Ten Commandments]], which is viewed not only as an avoidance of the improper use of the name of God, but also a commandment to exalt it, through both pious deeds and praise.<ref name=Miller>''The Ten Commandments: Interpretation: Resources for the Use of Scripture in the Church'' by [[Patrick D. Miller]] (6 August 2009) {{ISBN|0664230555}} page 111</ref> This is reflected in the first petition in the [[Lord's Prayer]] addressed to [[God the Father]]: "Hallowed be thy Name".<ref>''Theology of the New Testament'' by Georg Strecker (2000) {{ISBN|0664223362}} page 282</ref>

In the theology of the [[Early Church Fathers]], the name of God was seen as representative of the entire system of "divine truth" revealed to the faithful "that believe in his name"<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:12}}</ref> or "walk in the name of the Lord our God"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Micah|4:5}}</ref><ref name=Pink23>''Ten Commandments'' by [[Arthur W. Pink]] (30 December 2007) {{ISBN|1589603753}} pages 23–24</ref><ref name=Cyril>''John 11–21'' (Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture) by Joel C. Elowsky (23 May 2007) {{ISBN|0830810994}} page 237</ref> In Revelation 3:12,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Revelation|3:12}}</ref> those who bear the name of God are "destined for Heaven". John 17:6<ref>{{Bibleverse|John|17:6}}</ref> presents the teachings of Jesus as the manifestation of the name of God to his disciples.<ref name=Pink23/>

John 12:27<ref>{{Bibleverse|John|12:27}}</ref> presents the sacrifice of Jesus the [[Lamb of God]], and the ensuing salvation delivered through it as the glorification of the name of God, with the voice from Heaven confirming Jesus' petition ("Father, glorify thy name") by saying: "I have both glorified it, and will glorify it again", referring to the Baptism and [[crucifixion of Jesus]].<ref name=WBC274>'' Wiersbe Bible Commentary'' by [[Warren W. Wiersbe]] (1 November 2007), {{ISBN|0781445396}}, page 274.</ref>

=== {{anchor|Attributes and nature of God}}Attributes and nature ===
{{Main article|Attributes of God in Christianity}}
{{Attributes of God}}
The theological underpinnings of the attributes and nature of God have been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity. In the 2nd century, [[Irenaeus]] addressed the issue and expounded on some attributes; for example, Book IV, chapter 19 of ''Against Heresies''<ref>([[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume I/IRENAEUS/Against Heresies: Book IV/Chapter XIX.|Book IV, Chapter 19]]</ref> states: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things".<ref name=Irena27>''Irenaeus of Lyons'' by Eric Francis Osborn (26 November 2001) {{ISBN|0521800064}} pages 27–29</ref> Irenaeus based his attributes on three sources: Scripture, prevailing mysticism and popular piety.<ref name=Irena27/> Today, some of the attributes associated with God continue to be based on statements in the Bible, such as the [[Lord's Prayer]], which states that the Father is in Heaven, while other attributes are derived from theological reasoning.<ref name=SGuthrie>''Christian Doctrine'' by [[Shirley C. Guthrie]] (1 July 1994) {{ISBN|0664253687}}</ref>{{rp|111, 100}}

In the 8th century, [[John of Damascus]] listed eighteen attributes for God in his ''An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith'' (Book 1, chapter 8).<ref>[[Wikisource:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume IX/John of Damascus/An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith/Book I/Chapter 8|Book 1, Chapter 8]]</ref><ref name=Globe352>''Global Dictionary of Theology'' by William A. Dyrness, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Juan F. Martinez and Simon Chan (10 October 2008), {{ISBN|0830824545}}, pages 352–353.</ref> These eighteen attributes were divided into four groups based on time (such as being everlasting), space (such as being boundless), matter or quality and the list continues to be influential to date, partially appearing in some form in various modern formulations.<ref name=Globe352/> In the 13th century, [[Thomas Aquinas]] focused on a shorter list of just eight attributes, namely ''simplicity'', ''perfection'', ''goodness'', ''incomprehensibility'', ''omnipresence'', ''immutability'', ''eternity'' and ''oneness''.<ref name=Globe352/> Other formulations include the 1251 list of the [[Fourth Lateran Council]], which was then adopted at [[Vatican I]] in 1870 and the [[Westminster Shorter Catechism]] in the 17th century.<ref name=Globe352/>

Two attributes of God that place him above the world, yet acknowledge his involvement in the world, are [[Transcendence (philosophy)#Religious definition|transcendence]] and [[immanence]].<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/><ref name="Young 2008"/><ref name="Cross-Livingstone 2005"/> Transcendence means that God is eternal and infinite, not controlled by the created world and beyond human events.<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/> Immanence means that God is involved in the world, and Christian teachings have long acknowledged his attention to human affairs.<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/> However, unlike [[Pantheism|pantheistic]] religions, in Christianity, God's being is not of the substance of the created universe.<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/>

Traditionally, some theologians such as [[Louis Berkhof]] distinguish between the ''communicable'' attributes (those that human beings can also have) and the ''incommunicable'' attributes (those that belong to God alone).<ref name="Berkhof"/> However, others such as [[Donald Macleod (theologian)|Donald Macleod]] hold that all the suggested classifications are artificial and without basis.<ref>[[Donald Macleod (theologian)|Donald Macleod]], ''Behold Your God'' ([[Christian Focus Publications]], 1995), pages 20–21.</ref>

There is a general agreement among theologians that it would be a mistake to conceive of the essence of God existing by itself and independently of the attributes or of the attributes being an additional characteristic of the Divine Being. They are essential qualities which exist permanently in his very Being and are co-existent with it. Any alteration in them would imply an alteration in the essential being of God.<ref name="Berkhof"/>

Hick suggests that when listing the attributes of God, the starting point should be his ''self-existence'' ("aseity") which implies his eternal and unconditioned nature. Hick goes on to consider the following additional attributes: ''Creator'' being the source of all that composes his creation ({{lang|la|"creatio ex nihilo"}}) and the sustainer of what he has brought into being; ''personal''; ''loving, good''; and ''holy''.<ref>John H. Hick, ''Philosophy of Religion'' Prentice-Hall 1973, pp. 7–14</ref> Berkhof also starts with ''self-existence'' but moves on to ''immutability''; ''infinity'', which implies ''perfection'' ''eternity'' and ''omnipresence''; ''unity''. He then analyses a series of intellectual attributes: ''knowledge-omniscience''; ''wisdom''; ''veracity'' and then, the moral attributes of ''goodness'' (including love, grace, mercy and patience); ''holiness'' and ''righteousness'' before dealing finally with his ''sovereignty''.<ref>Berkhof, Louis ''Systematic Theology'', Banner of Truth 1963, pp. 57–81 & p. 46 respectively.</ref>

[[Gregory of Nyssa]] was one of the first theologians to argue, in opposition to [[Origen]], that God is ''[[Infinity|infinite]]''. His main argument for the infinity of God, which can be found in ''Against Eunomius'', is that God's goodness is limitless, and as God's goodness is [[essence|essential]], God is also limitless.<ref>''The Brill Dictionary of Gregory of Nyssa''. (Lucas Francisco Mateo-Seco and Giulio Maspero, eds.) 2010. Leiden: Brill, p. 424</ref>

===Depiction===
{{See also|Religious images in Christian theology}}
[[File:Enluminure Drogon c.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Use of the symbolic [[Hand of God (art)|Hand of God]] in the [[Ascension of Christ|Ascension]] from the [[Drogo Sacramentary]], {{circa|850}}]]
Many early Christians believed that a number of verses within the Bible,{{efn|One example is John 1:18: "No man has seen God at any time".<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:18}}</ref>}} were meant to apply not only to God, but to all attempts aiming to depict God.<ref name="James Cornwell page 24">James Cornwell, 2009 ''Saints, Signs, and Symbols: The Symbolic Language of Christian Art'' {{ISBN|0-8192-2345-X}} page 2</ref> However, early Christian art, such as that of the [[Dura Europos church]], displays the [[Hand of God (art)|Hand of God]], a theological symbol representing the right hand of God, and Christ himself, along with many saints, are depicted. The [[Dura Europos synagogue]] nearby has numerous instances of the Hand of God symbol throughout its extensive decorative scheme, and is the only ancient synagogue with an extant decorative scheme. Dating to the mid-3rd century, the symbol was likely adopted into [[Early Christian art]] from [[Jewish art]].

The Hand of God was common in [[Late Antique]] art in both the East and West, and remained the main way of symbolizing the actions or approval of God the Father in the West until the end of the [[Romanesque art|Romanesque period]].{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} In art depicting specific Biblical scenes, such as the [[Baptism of Jesus]], where a specific [[God the Father in Western art|representation of God the Father]] was indicated, the Hand of God was used increasingly from the [[Carolingian art|Carolingian period]] until the end of the [[Romanesque art|Romanesque]].<ref>Hachlili, Rachel. ''Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Diaspora, Part 1'', BRILL, 1998, {{ISBN|90-04-10878-5}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-10878-3}}. pp. 144–145.</ref>

The use of religious images in general continued to increase up to the end of the 7th century, to the point that in 695, upon assuming the throne, [[Byzantine emperor]] [[Justinian II]] put an image of Christ on the obverse side of his gold coins, resulting in a rift which ended the use of [[Byzantine]] coin types in the Islamic world.<ref>Robin Cormack, 1985 ''Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons'', {{ISBN|0-540-01085-5}}</ref> However, the increase in religious imagery did not include depictions of God the Father. For instance, while the eighty second canon of the [[Council of Trullo]] in 692 did not specifically condemn images of the Father, it suggested that [[icon]]s of Christ were preferred over Old Testament shadows and figures.<ref>Steven Bigham, 1995 ''Image of God the Father in Orthodox Theology and Iconography'' {{ISBN|1-879038-15-3}} page 27</ref>
[[File:God the Father with His Right Hand Raised in Blessing.jpg|thumb|''God the Father with His Right Hand Raised in Blessing'', with a triangular halo representing the Trinity, [[Girolamo dai Libri]] {{circa|1555}}]]
The beginning of the 8th century witnessed the suppression and destruction of religious icons as the [[Byzantine iconoclasm]] (literally, "image struggle" or "war on icons") began. Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]] (717–741) suppressed the use of icons by imperial edict of the Byzantine Empire, presumably due to a military loss which he attributed to the undue veneration of icons.<ref>According to accounts by Patriarch Nikephoros and the chronicler Theophanes.</ref> The edict (which was issued without consulting the church) forbade the veneration of religious images, but did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or religious symbols such as the cross.<ref>Warren Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, 1997</ref> Theological arguments against icons then began to appear with [[Iconoclasm|iconoclasts]] arguing that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of Jesus at the same time. In this atmosphere, no public depictions of God the Father were even attempted and such depictions only began to appear two centuries later.

The [[Second Council of Nicaea]] in 787 effectively ended the first period of Byzantine iconoclasm and restored the honouring of icons and holy images in general.<ref>Edward Gibbon, 1995 ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' {{ISBN|0-679-60148-1}} page 1693</ref> However, this did not immediately translate into large scale depictions of God the Father. Even supporters of the use of icons in the 8th century, such as [[John of Damascus]], drew a distinction between images of God the Father and those of Christ.

In his treatise ''On the Divine Images'', John of Damascus wrote: "In former times, God who is without form or body, could never be depicted. But now when God is seen in the flesh conversing with men, I make an image of the God whom I see".<ref>St. John of Damascus, ''Three Treatises on the Divine Images'' {{ISBN|0-88141-245-7}}</ref> The implication is that insofar as God the Father or the Spirit did not become man, visible and tangible images and portrait icons would be inaccurate, and that what was true for the whole Trinity before Christ remains true for the Father and the Spirit, but not for the Word.{{explain|date=December 2021}} John of Damascus wrote:<ref>Steven Bigham, 1995 ''Image of God the Father in Orthodox Theology and Iconography'' {{ISBN|1-879038-15-3}} page 29</ref><blockquote>
If we attempt to make an image of the invisible God, this would be sinful indeed. It is impossible to portray one who is without body: invisible, uncircumscribed and without form.
</blockquote>

Around 790, [[Charlemagne]] ordered a set of four books that became known as the [[Libri Carolini]] ("Charles' books") to refute what his court mistakenly understood to be the iconoclast decrees of the Byzantine [[Second Council of Nicaea]] regarding sacred images. Although not well known during the Middle Ages, these books describe the key elements of the Catholic theological position on sacred images. To the [[Western Church]], images were just objects made by craftsmen, to be utilized for stimulating the senses of the faithful, and to be respected for the sake of the subject represented, not in themselves.

The [[Council of Constantinople (869)]] (considered ecumenical by the Western Church, but not the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Church]]) reaffirmed the decisions of the Second Council of Nicaea and helped stamp out any remaining coals of iconoclasm. Specifically, its third canon required the image of Christ to have veneration equal with that of a Gospel book:<ref>Gesa Elsbeth Thiessen, 2005 ''Theological aesthetics'' {{ISBN|0-8028-2888-4}} page 65</ref><blockquote>
We decree that the sacred image of our Lord Jesus Christ, the liberator and Savior of all people, must be venerated with the same honor as is given the book of the holy Gospels. For as through the language of the words contained in this book all can reach salvation, so, due to the action which these images exercise by their colors, all wise and simple alike, can derive profit from them.
</blockquote>

Images of God the Father were not directly addressed in Constantinople in 869. A list of permitted icons was enumerated at this Council, but symbols of God the Father were not among them.<ref>Steven Bigham, 1995 ''Image of God the Father in Orthodox Theology and Iconography'' {{ISBN|1-879038-15-3}} page 41</ref> However, the general acceptance of icons and holy images began to create an atmosphere in which God the Father could be symbolized.

Prior to the 10th century, no attempt was made to use a human figure to symbolize [[God the Father]] in [[Western art]].<ref name="James Cornwell page 24" /> Yet, Western art eventually required some way to illustrate the presence of the Father, so through successive representations a set of artistic styles for symbolizing the Father using a man gradually emerged around the 10th century. A rationale for the use of a human figure is the belief that God created the soul of Man in the image of his own (thus allowing humanity to transcend the other animals).

It appears that when early artists designed to represent God the Father, fear and awe restrained them from a usage of the whole human figure. Typically only a small part would be used as the image, usually the hand, or sometimes the face, but rarely a whole human figure. In many images, the figure of the Son supplants the Father, so a smaller portion of the person of the Father is depicted.<ref name="Adolphe Napoléon Didron pages 169">Adolphe Napoléon Didron, 2003 ''Christian iconography: or The history of Christian art in the middle ages'' {{ISBN|0-7661-4075-X}} pages 169</ref>
[[File:Andrea_del_Verrocchio,_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Depiction of two hands of God and the Holy Spirit as a dove in ''[[The Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio)|The Baptism of Christ]]'' by [[Andrea del Verrocchio]] and [[Leonardo da Vinci]], 1472]]

By the 12th century depictions of God the Father had started to appear in French [[illuminated manuscript]]s, which as a less public form could often be more adventurous in their iconography, and in [[stained glass]] church windows in England. Initially the head or bust was usually shown in some form of frame of clouds in the top of the picture space, where the Hand of God had formerly appeared; the [[Baptism of Jesus|Baptism of Christ]] on the famous [[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège|baptismal font in Liège]] of [[Rainer of Huy]] is an example from 1118 (a Hand of God is used in another scene). Gradually the amount of the human symbol shown can increase to a half-length figure, then a full-length, usually enthroned, as in [[Giotto]]'s [[fresco]] of c. 1305 in [[Padua]].<ref name="ReferenceA">[[Arena Chapel]], at the top of the triumphal arch, ''God sending out the angel of the Annunciation''. See Schiller, I, fig 15</ref>

In the 14th century the [[Naples Bible]] carried a depiction of God the Father in the [[Burning bush]]. By the early 15th century, the [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]] has a considerable number of symbols, including an elderly but tall and elegant full-length figure walking in the [[Garden of Eden]], which show a considerable diversity of apparent ages and dress. The [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)#Lorenzo Ghiberti|"Gates of Paradise" of the Florence Baptistry]] by [[Lorenzo Ghiberti]], begun in 1425 use a similar tall full-length symbol for the Father. The [[Rohan Book of Hours]] of about 1430 also included depictions of God the Father in half-length human form, which were now becoming standard, and the Hand of God becoming rarer. At the same period other works, like the large Genesis [[altarpiece]] by the Hamburg painter [[Meister Bertram]], continued to use the old depiction of Christ as ''Logos'' in Genesis scenes. In the 15th century there was a brief fashion for depicting all three persons of the Trinity as [[Trinity#Less common types of depiction|similar or identical figures with the usual appearance of Christ]].

In an early Venetian school [[Coronation of the Virgin]] by [[Giovanni d'Alemagna]] and [[Antonio Vivarini]], (c. 1443) The Father is depicted using the symbol consistently used by other artists later, namely a patriarch, with benign, yet powerful countenance and with long white hair and a beard, a depiction largely derived from, and justified by, the near-physical, but still figurative, description of the [[Ancient of Days]].<ref>Bigham Chapter 7</ref>

: ...the Ancient of Days did sit, whose garment was white as snow, and the hair of his head like the pure wool: his throne was like the fiery flame, and his wheels as burning fire. ([[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 7:9)

In the ''Annunciation'' by [[Benvenuto di Giovanni]] in 1470, God the Father is portrayed in the red robe and a hat that resembles that of a Cardinal. However, even in the later part of the 15th century, the symbolic representation of the Father and the Holy Spirit as "hands and dove" continued, e.g. in [[The Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio)|Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ]] in 1472.<ref>Arthur de Bles, 2004 ''How to Distinguish the Saints in Art by Their Costumes, Symbols and Attributes'' {{ISBN|1-4179-0870-X}} page 32</ref>

In Renaissance paintings of the adoration of the Trinity, God may be depicted in two ways, either with emphasis on The Father, or the three elements of the Trinity. The most usual depiction of the Trinity in Renaissance art depicts God the Father using an old man, usually with a long beard and patriarchal in appearance, sometimes with a triangular [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]] (as a reference to the Trinity), or with a [[papal crown]], specially in Northern Renaissance painting. In these depictions, the Father may hold a globe or book (to symbolize God's knowledge and as a reference to how knowledge is deemed divine). He is behind and above Christ on the Cross in the [[Throne of Mercy]] iconography. A dove, the symbol of the Holy Spirit may hover above.<ref>[https://news.artnet.com/market/introduction-to-medieval-iconography-32889 Bourlier, Cyriil. "Introduction to Medieval Iconography", ''Artnet News'', October 28, 2013]</ref> Various people from different classes of society, e.g. kings, popes or martyrs may be present in the picture. In a Trinitarian [[pietà]], God the Father is often symbolized using a man wearing a papal dress and a papal crown, supporting the dead Christ in his arms. They are depicted as floating in heaven with angels who carry the [[instruments of the Passion]].<ref>Irene Earls, 1987 ''Renaissance art: a topical dictionary'' {{ISBN|0-313-24658-0}} pages 8 and 283</ref>
{{multiple image
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|image1=The Creation of Adam.jpg
|image2=Creación de Adán-crop.jpg
|footer=The famous ''[[The Creation of Adam]]'' by [[Michelangelo]] (''below'', detail of the hand of God), c. 1512
}}
Representations of God the Father and the Trinity were attacked both by Protestants and within Catholicism, by the [[Jansenist]] and [[Baianist]] movements as well as more orthodox theologians. As with other attacks on Catholic imagery, this had the effect both of reducing church support for the less central depictions, and strengthening it for the core ones. In the [[Catholic Church]], the pressure to restrain religious imagery resulted in the highly influential decrees of the final session of the [[Council of Trent]] in 1563. The Council of Trent decrees confirmed the traditional Catholic doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person, not the image.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.hanover.edu/texts/trent/ct25.html|title=CT25|access-date=30 December 2016}}</ref> The Council also reserved the right of bishops, and in cases of new artistic novelties, the Pope, to suppress images deemed non-canonical or heretical.

Traditional artistic depictions of God the Father which followed the conventions of the church were relatively uncontroversial in Catholic art thereafter, but less common, unusual depictions of the [[Trinity]] were condemned. In 1745 [[Pope Benedict XIV]] explicitly supported the [[Throne of Mercy]] depiction, referring to the "Ancient of Days", but in 1786 it was still necessary for [[Pope Pius VI]] to issue a [[papal bull]] condemning the decision of an Italian church council to remove all images of the Trinity from churches, including standard canonical ones.<ref>Bigham, 73–76</ref>

God the Father is symbolized in several Genesis scenes in [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]], most famously ''[[The Creation of Adam]]'' (whose image of near touching hands of God and Adam is iconic of humanity, being a reminder that Man is created in the Image and Likeness of God ({{Bibleref2|Gen|1:26|NRSV}})).God the Father is depicted as a powerful figure, floating in the clouds in [[Assumption of the Virgin (Titian)|Titian's ''Assumption of the Virgin'']] in the [[Frari of Venice]], long admired as a masterpiece of [[High Renaissance]] art.<ref>Louis Lohr Martz, 1991 ''From Renaissance to baroque: essays on literature and art'' {{ISBN|0-8262-0796-0}} page 222</ref> The [[Church of the Gesù]] in Rome includes a number of 16th century depictions of [[God the Father]]. In some of these paintings the [[Trinity]] is still alluded to in terms of three angels, but [[Giovanni Battista Fiammeri]] also depicted God the Father as a man riding on a cloud, above the scenes.<ref>Gauvin A. Bailey, 2003 ''Between Renaissance and Baroque: Jesuit art in Rome'' {{ISBN|0-8020-3721-6}} page 233</ref>

[[File:RubensLastJudgeDetail.jpg|thumb|right|Rubens' ''Last Judgment'' (detail), 1617]]
In several of his painting, such as the ''[[The Great Last Judgement (Rubens)|Last Judgment]]'', [[Rubens]] depicted God the Father using the image that by then had become widely accepted—a bearded patriarchal figure above the fray.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Esposito |first1=Teresa |title=Ignis artificiosus. Images of God and the Universe in Rubens's Depiction of Antique Shields |journal=Early Modern Low Countries |date=11 December 2018 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=244 |doi=10.18352/emlc.70 |doi-access=free }}</ref> While representations of God the Father were growing in Italy, Spain, Germany and the Low Countries, there was resistance elsewhere in Europe, even during the 17th century. In 1632 most members of the [[Star Chamber]] court in England (except the [[Archbishop of York]]) condemned the use of the images of the Trinity in church windows, and some considered them illegal.<ref>Charles Winston, 1847 ''An Inquiry Into the Difference of Style Observable in Ancient Glass Paintings, Especially in England'' {{ISBN|1-103-66622-3}}, (2009) page 229</ref> Later in the 17th century [[Sir Thomas Browne]] wrote that he considered the representation of God the Father using an old man "a dangerous act" that might lead to, in his words, "Egyptian symbolism".<ref name=":2">Sir Thomas Browne's Works, 1852, {{ISBN|0559376871}}, 2006 page 156</ref> In 1847, [[Charles Winston]] was still critical of such images as a "[[Romish]] trend" (a derisive term used to refer to Roman Catholics) that he considered best avoided in England.<ref>Charles Winston, 1847 ''An Inquiry Into the Difference of Style Observable in Ancient Glass Paintings, Especially in England'' {{ISBN|1-103-66622-3}}, (2009) page 230</ref>

In 1667 the 43rd chapter of the [[Great Moscow Synod|Great Moscow Council]] specifically included a ban on a number of symbolic depictions of God the Father and the Holy Spirit, which then also resulted in a whole range of other icons being placed on the forbidden list,<ref>Oleg Tarasov, 2004 ''Icon and devotion: sacred spaces in Imperial Russia'' {{ISBN|1-86189-118-0}} page 185</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://genuineorthodoxchurch.com/moscow_1666.htm|title=Council of Moscow – 1666–1667|access-date=30 December 2016}}</ref> mostly affecting Western-style depictions which had been gaining ground in Orthodox icons. The Council also declared that the person of the Trinity who was the "Ancient of Days" was Christ, as ''Logos'', not God the Father. However some icons continued to be produced in [[Russia]], as well as [[Greece]], [[Romania]], and other [[Eastern Orthodoxy by country|Orthodox Christian-majority countries]].

== Kingdom of God and eschatology ==
<!--Note that the material on End times and Judgement was added here rather
than the section below on Jesus because that is in a Trinatarian section, yet nontrinatarians do have beliefs on Judgement, so it best fits here.-->

=== Kingship and Kingdom ===
{{Main article|Kingdom of God (Christianity)}}
[[File:Gottvater thronend Westfalen 15 Jh.jpg|thumb|upright|God the Father on a throne, [[Westphalia]], Germany, late 15th century]]
The Christian characterization of the relationship between God and humanity involves
the notion of the "Kingship of God", whose origins go back to the Old Testament, and may be seen as a consequence of the creation of the world by God.<ref name=Image478/><ref name=Mercer490>''Mercer Dictionary of the Bible'' by Watson E. Mills, Edgar V. McKnight and Roger A. Bullard (1 May 2001) {{ISBN|0865543739}} page 490</ref> The "enthronement psalms" ([[Psalms]] [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Psalms#45|45]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Psalms#93|93]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Psalms#96|96]],
[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Psalms#97|97–99]]) provide a background for this view with the exclamation "The Lord is King".<ref name=Image478/> However, in later Judaism a more "national" view was assigned to God's Kingship in which the awaited Messiah may be seen as a liberator and the founder of a new state of Israel.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi'' by Karl Rahner (28 December 2004) {{ISBN|0860120066}} page 1351</ref>

The term "Kingdom of God" does not appear in the Old Testament, although "his Kingdom" and "your Kingdom" are used in some cases when referring to God.<ref>''Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible'' by Kevin J. Vanhoozer, N. T. Wright, Daniel J. Treier and Craig Bartholomew (20 Jan 2006) {{ISBN|0801026946}} page 420</ref> However, the Kingdom of God (the Matthean equivalent being "[[Kingdom of heaven (Gospel of Matthew)|Kingdom of Heaven]]") is a prominent phrase in the [[Synoptic Gospels]] (appearing 75 times), and there is near unanimous agreement among scholars that it represents a key element of the teachings of Jesus.<ref name=Image478>''Dictionary of Biblical Imagery'' by Leland Ryken, James C. Wilhoit and Tremper Longman III (11 November 1998) {{ISBN|0830814515}} pages 478–479</ref><ref name=FranceK1/> Yet, [[R. T. France]] points out that while the concept of "Kingdom of God" has an intuitive meaning to lay Christians, there is hardly any agreement among scholars about its meaning in the New Testament.<ref name=FranceK1>''Divine Government: God's Kingship in the Gospel of Mark'' by [[R. T. France]] (10 Mar 2003) {{ISBN|1573832448}} pages 1–3</ref> Some scholars see it as a Christian lifestyle, some as a method of world evangelization, some as the rediscovery of charismatic gifts, others relate it to no present or future situation, but the [[world to come]].<ref name=FranceK1/> France states that the phrase Kingdom of God is often interpreted in many ways to fit the theological agenda of those interpreting it.<ref name=FranceK1/>

=== End times ===
{{Main|Christian eschatology}}

Interpretations of the term Kingdom of God have given rise to wide-ranging [[Christian eschatology|eschatological debates]] among scholars with diverging views, yet no consensus has emerged among scholars.<ref name=familiar77/><ref name=Chil255>''Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research'' by Bruce Chilton and Craig A. Evans (Jun 1998) {{ISBN|9004111425}} pages 255–257</ref><ref name=Royce246>''An Introduction to the New Testament and the Origins of Christianity'' by Delbert Royce Burkett (22 July 2002) {{ISBN|0521007208}} page 246</ref> From [[Augustine]] to the [[Protestant Reformation]] the arrival of the Kingdom had been identified with the formation of the Christian Church, but this view was later abandoned and by the beginning of the 20th century the [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic interpretation]] of the Kingdom had gained ground.<ref name=familiar77>''Familiar Stranger: An Introduction to Jesus of Nazareth'' by Michael James McClymond (22 March 2004) {{ISBN|0802826806}} pages 77–79</ref><ref name=Royce246/><ref name=Ladd55>''A Theology of the New Testament'' by [[George Eldon Ladd]] (2 September 1993) {{ISBN|0802806805}} pages 55–57</ref> In this view (also called the "consistent eschatology") the Kingdom of God did not start in the 1st century, but is a future apocalyptic event that is yet to take place.<ref name=familiar77/>

[[File:Langenzenn Stadtkirche - Fenster Wilhelm II 3.jpg|thumb|upright|An angel blows the "last trumpet", as in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:52|1 Corinthians 15:52]], [[Langenzenn]], Germany, 19th century]]
By the middle of the 20th century, [[realized eschatology]], which in contrast viewed the Kingdom as non-apocalyptic but as the manifestation of divine sovereignty over the world (realized by the [[ministry of Jesus]]), had gathered a scholarly following.<ref name=familiar77/> In this view the Kingdom is held to be available in the present.<ref name=Chil255/> The competing approach of [[Inaugurated eschatology]] was later introduced as the "already and not yet" interpretation.<ref name=familiar77/> In this view the Kingdom has already started, but awaits full disclosure at a future point.<ref name=Chil255/> These diverging interpretations have since given rise to a good number of variants, with various scholars proposing new eschatological models that borrow elements from these.<ref name=familiar77/><ref name=Chil255/>

=== Judgement ===
{{see also|Last Judgement}}
<!--Note that the material on Judgement was added here rather than the section below
on Jesus because that is in a Trinatarian section, yet nontrinatarians do have beliefs on Judgement, so it best fits here.-->
[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Hebrews#12:23|Hebrews 12:23]] refers to "God the Judge of all", and the notion that all humans will eventually "[[Last judgment|be judged]]" is an essential element of Christian teachings.<ref name=Millard391/> A number of New Testament passages (e.g., {{Bibleref2|John|5:22}} and {{Bibleref2|Acts|10:42}}) and later [[creed|credal confessions]] indicate that the task of judgement is assigned to Jesus.<ref name=Millard391/><ref name=Pann390>''Systematic Theology'' Vol 2 by [[Wolfhart Pannenberg]] (27 October 2004) {{ISBN|0567084663}} pages 390–391</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#5:22|John 5:22]] states that "neither does the Father judge any man, but he has given all judgment unto the Son".<ref name=Millard391>''Introducing Christian Doctrine'' (2nd Edition) by [[Millard J. Erickson]] (1 April 2001) {{ISBN|0801022509}} pages 391–392</ref> [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#10:42|Acts 10:42]] refers to the resurrected Jesus as: "he who is ordained of God to be the Judge of the living and the dead."<ref name=Millard391/> The role played by Jesus in the judgement of God is emphasized in the most widely used Christian confessions, with the [[Nicene Creed]] stating that Jesus "sits on the right hand of the Father; shall come again, with glory, to judge the living and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end".<ref name=Metz157/> The [[Apostles' Creed]] includes a similar confession.<ref name=Metz157>''The Oxford Companion to the Bible'' by Bruce M. Metzger and Michael David Coogan (14 October 1993) ISBN page 157</ref>

A number of gospel passages warn against sin and suggest a path of righteousness to avoid the judgement of God.<ref name=Kittle936/> For instance, the [[Sermon on the Mount]] in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#5:22|Matthew 5:22–26]] teaches the avoidance of sin and the Parables of the Kingdom ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#13:49|Matthew 13:49]]) state that at the moment of judgement the angels will "sever the wicked from among the righteous and shall cast them into the furnace of fire".<ref name=Kittle936/> Christians can thus enjoy forgiveness that lifts them from the judgement of God by following the teachings of Jesus and through a personal fellowship with him.<ref name=Kittle936>''Theological Dictionary of the New Testament'' (Volume III) by Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich (Jun 1966) {{ISBN|0802822452}} pages 936</ref>

== Trinitarianism ==
{{Main article|Trinity}}

=== History and foundation ===
{{Further|Trinitarianism in the Church Fathers}}
In early Christianity, the concept of salvation was closely related to the invocation of the "Father, Son and Holy Spirit".<ref name="Vickers2"/><ref name=PCPhan3>''The Cambridge Companion to the Trinity'' by Peter C. Phan 2011 {{ISBN|0521701139}} pages 3–4</ref> Since the 1st century, Christians have called upon God with the name "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in prayer, baptism, communion, exorcism, hymn-singing, preaching, confession, absolution and benediction.<ref name="Vickers2">Vickers, Jason E. ''Invocation and Assent: The Making and the Remaking of Trinitarian Theology.'' Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2008. {{ISBN|0-8028-6269-1}} pages 2–5</ref><ref name=PCPhan3/> This is reflected in the saying: "Before there was a 'doctrine' of the Trinity, Christian prayer invoked the Holy Trinity".<ref name="Vickers2"/>

[[File:Dogmatic sarcophagus.JPG|thumb|upright|left|The earliest known depiction of the Trinity, [[Dogmatic Sarcophagus]], 350 AD<ref>Elizabeth Lev, "Dimming the Pauline Spotlight; Jubilee Fruits" [http://www.zenit.org/article-26288?l=english Zenit 2009-06-25]</ref> [[Vatican Museums]].]]
The term "Trinity" does not explicitly appear in the Bible, but Trinitarians believe the concept as later developed is consistent with biblical teachings.<ref name=mercer935/><ref name=Kelly115>Kelly, J.N.D. ''Early Christian Doctrines'' A & C Black: 1965, p 115</ref> The [[New Testament]] includes a number of the usages of the three-fold liturgical and [[doxology|doxological]] formula, e.g., [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/2 Corinthians#1:21|2 Corinthians 1:21–22]] stating: "he that establisheth us with you in Christ, and anointed us, is God; who also sealed us, and gave [us] the earnest of the Spirit in our hearts".<ref name=mercer935/><ref name=RA122/> Christ receiving "authority and co-equal divinity" is mentioned in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#28:18|Matthew 28:18]]: "All authority hath been given unto me in heaven and on earth" as well as [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#3:35|John 3:35]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#13:3|John 13:3]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#17:1|John 17:1]].<ref name=RA122/> And the Spirit being both "of God" and "of Christ" appears in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#4:6|Galatians 4:6]], the [[Book of Acts]] ([[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#16:7|16:7]]), [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#15:26|John 15:26]] and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Romans#8:14|Romans 8:14–17]].<ref name=RA122>[[Alan Richardson (priest)|Richardson, Alan]]. ''An Introduction to the Theology of the New Testament'' SCM: 1961, p122f,158</ref>

The general concept was expressed in early writings from the beginning of the 2nd century forward, with [[Irenaeus]] writing in his ''Against Heresies'' ([[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume I/IRENAEUS/Against Heresies: Book I/Chapter X.|Book I Chapter X]]):<ref name="Vickers2"/>

: "The Church ... believes in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit".

Around AD 213 in ''Adversus Praxeas'' ([[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume III/Anti-Marcion/Against Praxeas/III|chapter 3]]) [[Tertullian]] provided a formal representation of the concept of the [[Trinity]], i.e., that God exists as one "substance" but three "Persons": The Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.<ref name=Olson29>''The Trinity'' by Roger E. Olson, Christopher Alan Hall 2002 {{ISBN|0802848273}} pages 29–31</ref><ref>''Tertullian, First Theologian of the West'' by Eric Osborn (4 Dec 2003) {{ISBN|0521524954}} pages 116–117</ref> In defense of the coherence of the Trinity Tertullian wrote ([[Wikisource:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume III/Anti-Marcion/Against Praxeas/III|Adversus Praxeas 3]]): "The Unity which derives the Trinity out of its own self is so far from being destroyed, that it is actually supported by it." Tertullian also discussed how the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.<ref name=Olson29/>

The [[First Council of Nicaea]] in AD 325 and later the [[First Council of Constantinople]] in AD 381 defined the dogma "in its simplest outlines in the face of pressing [[heresy|heresies]]" and the version used thereafter dates to 381.<ref name=Fair48 >''Life in the Trinity: An Introduction to Theology with the Help of the Church Fathers'' by Donald Fairbairn (28 September 2009) {{ISBN|0830838732}} pages 48–50</ref> In the 5th century, in the [[Western Church|west]], [[Augustine of Hippo]] expanded on the theological development in his ''[[On the Trinity]]'', while the major development in the [[Eastern Church|east]] was due to [[John of Damascus]] in the 8th century.<ref name=berk83>''Systematic Theology'' by Louis Berkhof (24 September 1996) {{ISBN|0802838200}} page 83</ref> The theology eventually reached its classical form in the writings of [[Thomas Aquinas]] in the 13th century.<ref name=berk83/><ref name="ODCC-Trin" />

Bernhard Lohse (1928–1997) states that the doctrine of the Trinity does not go back to non-Christian sources such as [[Plato]] or [[Hinduism]] and that all attempts at suggesting such connections have floundered.<ref>''A Short History of Christian Doctrine'' by Bernhard Lohse 1978 {{ISBN|0800613414}} page 37</ref> The majority of Christians are now Trinitarian and regard belief in the Trinity as a test of true [[orthodoxy]] of belief.<ref name="Vickers2" />

=== The doctrine ===
[[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|right|A diagram of the [[Trinity]] consisting of [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]] (Jesus), and [[God the Holy Spirit]]]]
The doctrine of the Trinity is considered by most Christians to be a core tenet of their faith.<ref name=Behr/><ref name=Fair48 /> It can be summed up as:<ref name=Behr>''The Nicene Faith: Formation Of Christian Theology'' by John Behr (30 June 2004) {{ISBN|088141266X}} pages 3–4</ref>

: "The One God exists in Three Persons and One Substance."

Strictly speaking, the doctrine is a mystery that can "neither be known by unaided human reason", nor "cogently demonstrated by reason after it has been revealed"; even so "it is not contrary to reason" being "not incompatible with the principles of rational thought".<ref name="ODCC-Trin">''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (1974), Cross & Livingstone (eds), art "Trinity, Doctrine of"</ref>

The doctrine was expressed at length in the 4th-century ''[[Athanasian Creed]]'' of which the following is an extract:<ref name=Fair48 /><ref name=mercer935>''Mercer Dictionary of the Bible'' edited by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 2001 {{ISBN|0865543739}} page 935</ref>

<poem style="margin-left:3em;">
We worship one God in [[Trinity]], and Trinity in Unity;
Neither confounding the persons nor dividing the substance.
For there is one Person of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the Holy Spirit.
But the [[Godhead in Christianity|Godhead]] of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, is all one; the Glory equal, the Majesty co-eternal.
Such as the Father is, such is the Son, and such is the Holy Spirit.
</poem>

To [[Trinity|Trinitarian]] Christians (which include [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Christians]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christians]], and most [[Protestant]] denominations), God the Father is not at all a separate god from the Son and the Holy Spirit, the other [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostases]] ("Persons") of the [[Godhead in Christianity|Christian Godhead]].<ref name=UCP>''Critical Terms for Religious Studies.'' Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998. ''Credo Reference.''27 July 2009</ref>

While "Father" and "Son" implicitly invoke masculine sex, the [[gender of God in Christianity]] has historically been treated as metaphorical, and not as representing the real nature of God.<ref>Dennis O'Neill, ''Passionate Holiness: Marginalized Christian Devotions for Distinctive Peoples'' (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=qjl1H9GcetMC&pg=PA8 p. 8].</ref><ref name="CCCs239">"Deum humanam sexuum transcendere distinctionem. Ille nec vir est nec femina, Ille est Deus." From "Pater per Filium revelatus", ''Catechismus Catholicae Ecclesiae''. (Citta del Vaticano: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1993): 1-2-1-1-2 ¶ 239. ([https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P17.HTM Official English translation] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303003725/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P17.HTM |date=3 March 2013 }})</ref>

The 20th century witnessed an increased theological focus on the doctrine of the Trinity, partly due to the efforts of [[Karl Barth]] in his four volume ''[[Church Dogmatics]]''.<ref name=PCPhan173>''The Cambridge Companion to the Trinity'' by Peter C. Phan 2011 {{ISBN|0521701139}} pages 173–174</ref> This theological focus relates the revelation of the [[Logos (Christianity)|Word of God]] to the Trinity, and argues that the doctrine of Trinity is what distinguishes the "Christian concept of God" from all other religions.<ref name=PCPhan173/><ref>''The Trinity: Global Perspectives'' by Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen (17 January 2007) {{ISBN|0664228909}} page 8</ref>

==== The Father ====
{{Main article|God the Father}}
{{see also|Paterology}}
[[File:GodInvitingChristDetail.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|[[God the Father in Western art|Depiction of God the Father]] (detail) offering the right hand throne to Christ, [[Pieter de Grebber]], 1654.]]
The emergence of Trinitarian theology of God the Father in [[early Christianity]] was based on two key ideas: first the shared identity of the [[Yahweh]] of the Old Testament and the God of Jesus in the New Testament, and then the self-distinction and yet the unity between Jesus and his Father.<ref name=Triglobal10>''The Trinity: Global Perspectives'' by Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen (17 January 2007) {{ISBN|0664228909}} pages 10–13</ref><ref name=global169>''Global Dictionary of Theology'' by William A. Dyrness, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Juan F. Martinez and Simon Chan (10 October 2008) {{ISBN|0830824545}} pages 169–171</ref> An example of the unity of Son and Father is [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#11:27|Matthew 11:27]]: "No one knows the Son except the Father and no one knows the Father except the Son", asserting the mutual knowledge of Father and Son.<ref name=Bromiley571 >''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 {{ISBN|0-8028-3785-9}} page 571-572</ref>

The concept of fatherhood of God does appear in the Old Testament, but is not a major theme.<ref name=Triglobal10/><ref name=Veli37/> While the view of God as the Father is used in the Old Testament, it only became a focus in the New Testament, as Jesus frequently referred to it.<ref name=Triglobal10/><ref name=Veli37/> This is manifested in the [[Lord's prayer]] which combines the earthly needs of daily bread with the reciprocal concept of forgiveness.<ref name=Veli37/> And Jesus' emphasis on his special relationship with the Father highlights the importance of the distinct yet unified natures of Jesus and the Father, building to the unity of Father and Son in the Trinity.<ref name=Veli37>''The Doctrine of God: A Global Introduction'' by Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 2004 {{ISBN|0801027527}} pages 37–41</ref>

The paternal view of God as the Father extends beyond Jesus to his disciples, and the entire church, as reflected in the petitions Jesus submitted to the Father for his followers at the end of the ''[[Farewell Discourse]]'', the night before [[crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion]].<ref name=RobN26 >''Symbols of Jesus'' by Robert C. Neville (4 February 2002) {{ISBN|0521003539}} pages 26–27</ref> Instances of this in the Farewell Discourse are [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#14:20|John 14:20]] as Jesus addresses the disciples: "I am in my Father, and you in me, and I in you" and in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#17:22|John 17:22]] as he prays to the Father: "I have given them the glory that you gave me, that they may be one as we are one."<ref>''Jesus and His Own: A Commentary on John 13–17'' by Daniel B. Stevick (29 April 2011) Eeardmans {{ISBN|0802848656}} page 46</ref>

In Trinitarian theology, God the Father is the "arche" or "principium" (''beginning''), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit, and is considered the eternal source of the Godhead.<ref name=alan36/> The Father is the one who eternally begets the Son, and the Father eternally breathes the Holy Spirit. The Son is eternally born from God the Father, and the Spirit eternally proceeds from the Father,<ref name=Veli70/><ref name=alan36>''The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology'' by Alan Richardson and John Bowden (1 January 1983) {{ISBN|0664227481}} page 36</ref> and, in the Western tradition, also [[Filioque|from the Son]].

Yet, notwithstanding this difference as to origin, Father is one with, co-equal to, co-eternal, and [[Consubstantiality|con-substantial]] with the Son and the Holy Spirit, each Person being the one eternal God and in no way separated, who is the creator: all alike are uncreated and omnipotent.<ref name=Veli70/> Thus, the Divine Unity consists of God the Father, with his Son and his Spirit distinct from God the Father and yet perfectly united together in him.<ref name=Veli70/> Because of this, the Trinity is beyond reason and can only be known by revelation.<ref>''The Oxford Handbook of the Trinity'' by Gilles Emery O. P. and Matthew Levering (27 Oct 2011) {{ISBN|0199557810}} page 263</ref><ref name=VaticanReason>Paragraphs [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p2.htm#242 242] [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p2.htm#245 245] [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p2.htm#237 237]. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' (2nd Edition). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2021.</ref>

Trinitarians believe that God the Father is not [[pantheism|pantheistic]], in that he is not viewed as identical to the universe, but exists outside of creation, as its Creator.<ref name=Kess68/><ref name=Bromo515/> He is viewed as a loving and caring God, a Heavenly Father who is active both in the world and in people's lives.<ref name=Kess68>''God Our Father'' by John Koessler (13 September 1999) {{ISBN|0802440681}} page 68</ref><ref name=Bromo515>''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Mar 1982) {{ISBN|0802837824}} pages 515–516</ref> He created all things visible and invisible in love and wisdom, and man for his own sake.<ref name=Kess68/><ref name=Bromo515/><ref>Paragraphs [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p6.htm#356 356] and [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p4.htm#295 295]. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' (2nd Edition). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2021.</ref>

==== The Son ====
{{Main article|God the Son|Son of God (Christianity)}}
{{see also|Christology|Christ the Logos|Jesus in Christianity|Person of Christ}}
[[File:Витраж в Петропавловском соборе.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Stained glass]] window of Christ, [[Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg|Peter and Paul Cathedral]], St. Petersburg, Russia.]]
Since [[early Christianity]], a number of [[Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament|titles have been attributed]] to Jesus, including, [[Messiah]] (Christ) and the [[Son of God]].<ref name=Bowden101/><ref name=Brom128 /> Theologically, these are different attributions: Messiah refers to his fulfilling the expected Old Testament prophecies, while Son of God refers to a paternal relationship.<ref name=Bowden101>''The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology'' by Alan Richardson and John Bowden (1 January 1983) {{ISBN|0664227481}} page 101</ref><ref name=Brom128>''Historical Theology: An Introduction'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 2000 {{ISBN|0567223574}} pages 128–129</ref> God the Son is distinct from both Messiah and Son of God and its theology as part of the doctrine of the Trinity was formalized well over a century after those.<ref name=Brom128 /><ref name=mini307>''Christology: Biblical And Historical'' by Mini S. Johnson {{ISBN|8183240070}} page 307</ref><ref>''The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History'' by Joseph F. Kelly (1 September 2009) {{ISBN|0814653766}} pages 19–22</ref>

According to the [[Gospel]]s, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and [[Nativity of Jesus|born]] from [[Mary, mother of Jesus|the Virgin Mary]].<ref name=Pract/> The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]], [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], [[Ministry of Jesus|preaching, teaching, and healing]]. The narrative of the gospels place significant emphasis on the death of Jesus, devoting about one third of the text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.<ref name=Turner613 >''Matthew'' by David L. Turner 2008 {{ISBN|0-8010-2684-9}} page 613</ref> The core Christian belief is that through [[Crucifixion of Jesus|the death]] and [[resurrection of Jesus]], [[original sin|sinful]] humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of [[eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref name=Harris12/> The belief in the redemptive nature of Jesus' death predates the Pauline letters and goes back to the earliest days of Christianity and the [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem church]].<ref>''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'' by Larry W. Hurtado (14 September 2005) {{ISBN|0802831672}} pages 130–133</ref> The [[Nicene Creed]]'s statement that "for our sake he was crucified" is a reflection of this core belief.<ref name=Harris12>''Christian Theology'' by J. Glyndwr Harris (Mar 2002) {{ISBN|1902210220}} pages 12–15</ref>

The two Christological concerns as to how Jesus could be truly God while preserving faith in the existence of one God and how the human and the divine could be combined in one person were fundamental concerns from well before the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325).<ref name=Bromo50>''Historical Theology: An Introduction'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 2000 {{ISBN|0567223574}} pages 50–51</ref> However, the theology of "God the Son" was eventually reflected in the statement of the Nicene Creed of the 4th century.<ref>''Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World'' by G. W. Bowersock, Peter Brown and Oleg Graba 1999 {{ISBN|0674511735}} page 605</ref>

The [[Chalcedonian Definition]] of 451, accepted by the majority of Christians, holds that Jesus is [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] and "[[Hypostatic union|true God and true man]]" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again.<ref>''A Short History of Christian Doctrine'' by Bernhard Lohse (5 January 1978) {{ISBN|0800613414}} pages 90–93</ref> The [[Third Council of Constantinople]] in 680 then held that both divine and human wills exist in Jesus, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will.<ref>The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology by Alan Richardson and John Bowden (1 January 1983) {{ISBN|0664227481}} page 169</ref>

In mainstream Christianity, Jesus Christ as [[God the Son]] is the [[Person of Christ|second Person]] of the Holy Trinity, due to his eternal relation to the first Person (God as Father).<ref name=Millard>''Introducing Christian Doctrine'' (2nd Edition) by Millard J. Erickson (1 April 2001) {{ISBN|0801022509}} pages 237–238</ref> He is considered coequal with the Father and Holy Spirit and is all God and all human: the Son of God as to his divine nature, while as to his human nature he is from the lineage of David.<ref name=Pract>''Practical Christian Theology:'' by Floyd H. Barackman 1998 {{ISBN|0825423740}} pages 149–151</ref><ref name=Millard/><ref>''Encyclopedia of Theology: A Concise Sacramentum Mundi'' by Karl Rahner (28 December 2004) ISBN pages 692-694</ref><ref>For Biblical passages see: {{Bibleref2|Rom|1:3,4}}{{Bibleref2|Galatians|4:4}}; {{Bibleref2|John|1:1–14}};{{Bibleref2-nb|Jn|5:18–25}};{{Bibleref2-nb|Jn|10:30–38}}</ref>

More recently, discussions of the theological issues related to God the Son and its role in the Trinity were addressed in the 20th century in the context of a "Trinity-based" perspective on divine revelation.<ref>''Introduction to the Theology of Karl Barth'' by Geoffrey William Bromiley (3 November 2000) {{ISBN|0567290549}} page 19</ref><ref>''The Renewal of Trinitarian Theology: Themes, Patterns & Explorations'' by Roderick T. Leupp (1 October 2008) {{ISBN|0830828893}} page 31</ref>

==== The Holy Spirit ====
{{Main article|Holy Spirit in Christianity}}
[[File:Holy Spirit as Dove (detail).jpg|thumb|upright|left|Church [[stained glass]] representation of the Holy Spirit as a dove, [[Bernini]] c. 1660.]]
In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit is one of the three divine persons of the Trinity who make up the single [[Ousia|substance]] of God; that is, the Spirit is considered to act in concert with and share an essential nature with [[God the Father]] and God the Son (Jesus).{{sfn|Kärkkäinen|2002|p=120-121}}<ref name=Pan332/> The New Testament has much to say about the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit's presence was especially felt following the ascension of Christ, although not to the exclusion of an early presence as attested by the Old Testament and throughout the New Testament.<ref name=Stagg/>{{rp|p.39}} The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit, or [[pneumatology]] (from Greek ''[[pneuma]]'' or "spirit"), was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully explored and developed, and there is thus greater theological diversity among Christian understandings of the Spirit than there is among understandings of the Son and the Father.{{sfn|Kärkkäinen|2002|p=120-121}}<ref name=Pan332>''Systematic Theology Vol 1'' by Wolfhart Pannenberg (11 November 2004) {{ISBN|0567081788}} page 332</ref> Within Trinitarian theology, the Holy Spirit is usually referred to as the "Third Person" of the triune God—with the Father being the First Person and the Son the Second Person.{{sfn|Kärkkäinen|2002|p=120-121}}

Reflecting the [[Annunciation]] in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#1:35|Luke 1:35]], the early [[Apostles' Creed]] states that Jesus was "conceived by the Holy Spirit".<ref>''Invitation to Theology'' by Michael Jinkins (26 January 2001) {{ISBN|0830815627}} pages 60 and 134–135</ref> The [[Nicene Creed]] refers to the Holy Spirit as "the Lord and Giver of Life" who with the Father and the Son together is "worshiped and glorified".<ref>''Invitation to Theology'' by Michael Jinkins (26 January 2001) {{ISBN|0830815627}} page 193</ref> While in the act of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]], [[God the Son]] became manifest as the [[Son of God]], the same did not take place for ''God the Holy Spirit'' which remained unrevealed.<ref name=Donnell >''The mystery of the Triune God'' by John Joseph O'Donnell 1988 {{ISBN|0-7220-5760-1}} page 75</ref> Yet, as in [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#6:19|1 Corinthians 6:19]] God the Spirit continues to dwell in bodies of the faithful.<ref name=Donnell /><ref name=Wiersbe471 >''The Wiersbe Bible Commentary: The Complete New Testament'' by Warren W. Wiersbe 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-7814-4539-9}} page 471</ref>

In Christian theology Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith.<ref name=Erickson265>{{cite book| author = Millard J. Erickson| year = 1992| title = Introducing Christian Doctrine.| publisher = Baker Book House| pages = 265–270}}</ref> The new believer is "born again of the Spirit".<ref>Though the term "[[Born again (Christianity)|born again]]" is most frequently used by evangelical Christians, most denominations do consider that the new Christian is a "new creation" and "born again". See for example the Catholic Encyclopedia [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm]</ref>

The Holy Spirit enables Christian life by dwelling in the individual believers and enables them to live a righteous and faithful life.<ref name=Erickson265/> He acts as Comforter or [[Paraclete]], one who intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of trial. He acts to convince unredeemed persons both of the sinfulness of their actions and thoughts, and of their moral standing as sinners before God.<ref>''The Holy Spirit and His Gifts''. [[J. Oswald Sanders]]. Inter-Varsity Press. chapter 5.</ref> The Holy Spirit both ''inspired'' the writing of the scriptures and now ''interprets'' them to the Christian and church.<ref>{{cite book| author = T C Hammond| editor1-last=Wright|editor1-first=David F | year = 1968| title = In Understanding be Men: A Handbook of Christian Doctrine| edition= sixth| publisher = [[Inter-Varsity Press]]| page = 134}}</ref>

=== Trinitarian differences ===
In [[Eastern Orthodox Christian theology|Eastern Orthodox theology]], [[ousia|essence]] of God being that which is beyond human comprehension and can not be defined or approached by human understanding.<ref>''The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Orthodox Church'' by [[Vladimir Lossky]] ISBN page 77</ref> Roman Catholic teachings are somewhat similar in considering the mysteries of the Trinity as being beyond human reason.<ref name=VaticanReason/> However, differences exist in that in [[Roman Catholic theology]] and teaching, God the Father is the eternal source of the Son (begot the Son by an eternal generation) and of the Holy Spirit (by an eternal procession [[Filioque|from the Father and the Son]]) and the one who breathes the Holy Spirit with and through the Son, but the Eastern Orthodox consider the Spirit to proceed from the Father alone.<ref>''Systematic Theology'' by Francis Schussler Fiorenza and John P. Galvin (1 May 2011) {{ISBN|0800662911}} pages 193–194</ref>

Most [[Protestant denominations]] and other traditions arising since the [[Reformation]] hold general Trinitarian beliefs and theology regarding God the Father similar to that of Roman Catholicism. This includes churches arising from [[Anabaptism]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Baptist]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Methodism]], [[Moravian Church|Moravianim]], [[Plymouth Brethren]], [[Quakerism]] and [[Reformed Christianity]]. Likewise, ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' describes the Trinity as "the central dogma of Christian theology".<ref name="Kraybill2010">{{cite book |last1=Kraybill |first1=Donald B. |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Amish, Brethren, Hutterites, and Mennonites |date=1 November 2010 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-9911-9 |language=en |quote=The classical doctrine of the Trinity—God as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—has been generally accepted by Anabaptist groups but not highly developed.}}</ref><ref name="ODCC">The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press, 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-19-280290-3}}), article ''Trinity, doctrine of the''</ref><ref name="Tavast2012">{{cite book |last1=Tavast |first1=Timo |title=Unity in the Triune God: Trinitarian Theology in the Full-Communion Agreements of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America |date=21 December 2012 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-61097-901-6 |page=152 |language=en |quote=The Moravian side's trinitarian emphasis in ecumenically-oriented ecclesiology can be generally concluded as follows: first, it deals with the ontological foundation of the church's unity and structure. As chapter 4 elucidates, the first aspect, that is, the church's ontological foundation, is stated in ''Following Our Shepherd to Full Communion''. The Moravians emphasize that the Holy Trinity has called the church into being and that the triune God is the source of the church's being and mission. In addition, the idea of the church's and its member's ontological participation in the Trinity is clearly presented by the Moravians: the church is linked "in an intimate union with the Triune God."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Barley |first1=L. M. |last2=Field |first2=C. D. |last3=Kosmin |first3=B. A. |last4=Nielsen |first4=J. S. |title=Religion: Recurrent Christian Sources, Non-Recurrent Christian Data, Judaism, Other Religions |date=28 June 2014 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-1-4832-9599-2 |page=25 |language=en}}</ref> However, a precise representative view of Protestant Trinitarian theology regarding "God the Father", etc., is more difficult to provide, given the diverse and less centralized nature of the various Protestant churches.<ref name="ODCC"/>

== Nontrinitarianism ==
{{Main article|Nontrinitarianism}}
Some Christian traditions reject the doctrine of the Trinity, and are called nontrinitarian.<ref name=Metzger3643>{{cite book |last=Metzger |first=Paul Louis |title=Trinitarian soundings in systematic theology |date=2005 |publisher=T & T Clark International |location=London |pages=36, 43 |isbn=0567084108}}</ref> These groups differ from one another in their views, variously depicting Jesus as a divine being second only to God the Father, [[Yahweh]] of the Old Testament in human form, God (but not eternally God), prophet, or simply a holy man.<ref name=Metzger3643 /> Some broad definitions of [[Protestantism]] categorise these nontrinitarian traditions as Protestant, but most definitions do not.<ref name=Melton543>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1-last=Melton |editor1-first=J. Gordon |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |date=2008 |publisher=Checkmark Books |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0816077465 |page=543}}</ref>

Nontrinitarianism goes back to the early centuries of Christian history and groups such as the [[Arianism|Arians]], [[Ebionites]], [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]], and others.<ref name=Mac117>''Theology: The Basics'' by [[Alister E. McGrath]] (21 September 2011) {{ISBN|0470656751}} pages 117–120</ref> These nontrinatarian views were rejected by many bishops such as [[Irenaeus]] and subsequently by the [[Ecumenical council]]s. The [[Nicene Creed]] raised the issue of the relationship between Jesus' divine and human natures.<ref name=Mac117/> After it was rejected by the Council of Nicea, nontrinitarianism was rare among Christians for many centuries, and those rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity faced hostility from other Christians, but the 19th century saw the establishment of a number of groups in North America and elsewhere.<ref name="Melton543"/>

In [[Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs]], only God the Father is the one almighty God, even over his Son Jesus Christ. While the Witnesses acknowledge Christ's pre-existence, perfection, and unique "Sonship" with God the Father, and believe that Christ had an essential role in creation and redemption, and is the Messiah, they believe that only the Father is without beginning.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures|volume=2|year=1988|page=1019}}</ref>

<ref name="churchofjesuschrist.org">{{cite web |last1=Holland |first1=Jeffrey R. |title=The Only True God and Jesus Christ Whom He Hath Sentrist |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/general-conference/2007/10/the-only-true-god-and-jesus-christ-whom-he-hath-sent.p5?lang=eng#p5 |website=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |access-date=29 November 2021}}</ref>

[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] teaches that the Godhead is a divine unity of three distinct beings: [[Elohim]] (the Father), [[Jehovah]] (the Son, or Jesus), and [[the Holy Ghost]]. In Latter-day Saint theology, the Father and the Son both possess glorified, perfected, physical bodies "as tangible as man's,"<ref>{{cite web |last1=Doctrine and Covenants |title=130:22–23 |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/130?lang=eng |website=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints}}</ref> whereas the Holy Ghost has a body of spirit only. Latter-day Saints recognize the divinity of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, and understand that these beings are "one in every significant and eternal aspect imaginable except believing Them to be three persons combined in one substance..." which Latter-day Saints believe is "...a Trinitarian notion never set forth in the scriptures because it is not true."<ref name="churchofjesuschrist.org"/> Latter-day Saints believe that God is omniscient, omnipotent, and omni-benevolent.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Dahl |author-first=Paul E. |year=1992 |contribution=Godhead |contribution-url=https://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Godhead |editor-last=Ludlow |editor-first=Daniel H. |editor-link=Daniel H. Ludlow |title=[[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]] |location=New York City |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishing]] |pages=552–553 |isbn=0-02-879602-0 |oclc=24502140 |via=[[Harold B. Lee Library]] |access-date=15 October 2021}}</ref>

[[Oneness Pentecostalism|Oneness Pentecostals]] advance a form of [[Modalistic Monarchianism]] that states that there is one God, a singular divine Spirit, who manifests himself in many ways, including as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.<ref>{{cite book |last=Reed |first=David A. |year=2018 |origyear=2008 |title="In Jesus' Name": The History and Beliefs of Oneness Pentecostals |chapter=From Issue to Doctrine: The Revelation of God and the Name, One Lord and One Baptism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rAD1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA175 |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Journal of Pentecostal Theology: Supplement Series |volume=31 |pages=175–205 |isbn=978-90-04-39708-8 |issn=0966-7393}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Christianity|Religion}}
* [[Attributes of God in Christianity]]
* [[Catholic Church#Nature of God|Catholic Church § Nature of God]]
* [[Conceptions of God]]
* [[Diversity in early Christian theology]]
* [[Ethical monotheism]]
* [[Existence of God]]
* [[God in Abrahamic religions]]
** [[God in the Baháʼí Faith]]
** [[God in Judaism]]
** [[God in Islam]]
** [[God in Mormonism]]
** [[Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs#God|Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs § God]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Christine |author-link=Christine Hayes |year=2012 |chapter=Understanding Biblical Monotheism |title=Introduction to the Bible |location=New Haven and London |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |series=The Open Yale Courses Series |pages=15–28 |isbn=9780300181791 |jstor=j.ctt32bxpm.6}}
* Jenkins, David. ''Guide to the Debate about God''. London: Lutterworth Press, 1966.
* {{cite book |last=Jinkins |first=Michael |year=2001 |title=Invitation to Theology: A Guide to Study, Conversation & Practice |location=Westmont, Illinois |publisher=[[InterVarsity Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMjUsJwt3f4C |isbn=9780830815623}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Kärkkäinen |editor-first=Veli-Matti |editor-link=Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen |title=Holy Spirit and Salvation: The Sources of Christian Theology|year=2010 |location=Louisville, Kentucky |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buA7YKLWe6YC |isbn=9780664231361}}
* {{cite book |last=Kärkkäinen |first=Veli-Matti |year=2002 |title=Pneumatology: The Holy Spirit in Ecumenical, International, and Contextual Perspective |location=Ada, Michigan |publisher=[[Baker Academic]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XI6iB7Cry6AC |isbn=9780801024481}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Ratzinger |author-first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Ratzinger |year=2004 |origyear=1968 |chapter=Part One: God – Chapter II: The Biblical Belief in God |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LJlkwvExekkC&pg=PA116 |title=[[Introduction to Christianity]] |location=San Francisco |publisher=[[Ignatius Press]] |edition=2nd Revised |pages=116–136 |isbn=9781586170295 |lccn=2004103523 |s2cid=169456327}}
* {{citation |last= Reeves |first= Michael |title= ''Delighting in the Trinity: An Introduction to the Christian Faith'' ISBN 978-0-8308-4707-5 |date= 2022 }}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box}}

* [http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/npnf103/cache/npnf103.txt Augustine ''On the Holy Trinity'']
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15047a.htm The Blessed Trinity] Article in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''

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