Frankincense

{{short description|Aromatic resin from Boswellia trees}}
[[File:Frankincense 2005-12-31.jpg|thumb|Frankincense from [[Yemen]]]]
[[File:Boswellia-sacra-greenhouse.jpg|thumb|''[[Boswellia carteri]]'' tree that produces frankincense, growing inside [[Biosphere 2]]]]
'''Frankincense''', also known as '''olibanum''' ({{IPA|en|oʊˈlɪbənəm}}),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Medical Definition of OLIBANUM |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/olibanum |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> is an [[Aroma compound|aromatic]] [[resin]] used in [[incense]] and [[perfume]]s, obtained from trees of the genus ''[[Boswellia]]'' in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Burseraceae]]. The word is from [[Old French]] {{lang|fro|franc encens}} ('high-quality incense').<ref name="OED1933_Frankincense" /> There are several [[species]] of ''Boswellia'' that produce true frankincense:<ref name="NG-20191213">{{cite news | vauthors = Fobar R |title=Frankincense trees—of biblical lore—are being tapped out for essential oils |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/12/frankincense-trees-declining-overtapping/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213163409/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/12/frankincense-trees-declining-overtapping/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 13, 2019 |access-date=16 December 2019 |work=National Geographic |date=13 December 2019}}</ref> ''[[Boswellia sacra]]'' ([[synonym (taxonomy)|syn.]] ''B. bhaw-dajiana'', syn. ''B. carteri''), ''[[Boswellia frereana|B. frereana]]'', ''[[Boswellia serrata|B. serrata]]'' (''B. thurifera'', Indian frankincense), and ''[[Boswellia papyrifera|B. papyrifera]]''. Resin from each is available in various grades, which depends on the time of harvesting. The resin is hand-sorted for quality.

==Etymology==
The English word ''frankincense'' derives from the [[Old French]] expression {{lang|fro|franc encens}}, meaning 'true [[incense]]', maybe with the sense of 'high quality [[incense]]'.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Frankincense (n.)|url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=frankincense |access-date=26 November 2023 |website=Etymonline}}</ref><ref name="OED1933_Frankincense">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Frankincense|date=1933|encyclopedia=The Oxford English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.271841/page/n515/mode/1up|access-date=2021-07-04|edition=reprint 1978|volume=IV: F–G|page=512|language=en}}</ref> The adjective {{wikt-lang|fro|franc}} in Old French meant 'noble, true', in this case perhaps 'pure'; although ''franc'' is ultimately derived from the tribal name of the [[Franks]], it is not a direct reference to them in the word ''francincense''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Frank |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/frank#etymonline_v_11874 |access-date=26 November 2023 |website=Etymonline}}</ref> 

The word for frankincense in the [[Koine Greek]] of the New Testament, {{lang-grc-koi|λίβανος|translit=líbanos|label=none}} (or {{lang-grc-koi|λιβανωτός|translit=libanōtós|label=none}}), is [[cognate]] with the name of [[Lebanon]] ({{lang-el|Λίβανος|links=no}}); the same can be said with regard to Arabic, Phoenician, Hebrew,<ref name="Brown1995" /> and {{lang-la|lĭbănus|label=[[Vulgar Latin]]}}.<ref name="LatinDict1879_libanus">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=lĭbănus|entry=II|encyclopedia=A Latin Dictionary|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3DLibanus1|access-date=2021-07-15|year=1879| veditors = Lewis CT, Short C |via=Perseus digital library, Tufts University|language=en}}</ref> This is postulated to be because they both derive from the word for 'white' and that the [[Spice trade|spice route]] went via [[Mount Lebanon]] ({{lang-grc-koi|Λίβανος|translit=Libanos|links=no}}).<ref name="Brown1995">{{cite book| vauthors = Brown JP |title=Israel and Hellas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SSljjU2xlecC&pg=PA210|year=1995|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-014233-4|page=210}}</ref>
{{Lang-la-x-medieval|'''olibanum'''}} derived from {{lang|el|λίβανος}} or {{lang|la|libanus}}. The leading "''o''" may have come from {{Lang-la|oleum|translation=oil|link=none}}, or from the Greek [[Article (grammar)|article]] ''o-'' or Arabic article ''al-''.<ref name="OED1913_Olibanum">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Olibanum|date=1913|encyclopedia=The Oxford English Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99996/page/n389/mode/1up|access-date=2021-07-04|edition=reprint 1978|volume=VII: N–Poy|page=103|language=en}}</ref> Other names include {{lang-ar|اللبان|al-lubān}}, {{lang-fa|کندر|kondor}}, {{lang-syr|בוּסמִין|busmin}}, {{lang-he|לבונה|ləvonā}}, {{lang-bn|লোবান, ধুনো|lōban, dhunō}}, {{lang-so|foox}},  {{lang-la|tūs|label=[[Classical Latin]]}}.<ref name="LatinDict1879_tus">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=tūs |encyclopedia=A Latin Dictionary |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DT%3Aentry+group%3D44%3Aentry%3Dtus |access-date=2021-07-15|year=1879| veditors = Lewis CT, Short C |via=Perseus digital library, Tufts University|language=en}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Boswellia sacra.jpg|thumb|Flowers and branches of the ''[[Boswellia sacra]]'' tree]]

The trees start producing [[resin]] at about eight to 10 years old.<ref name="oman">{{cite web|url=http://www.omanwhs.gov.om/english/Frank/FrankincenseTree.asp|title=Omani World Heritage Sites|publisher=www.omanwhs.gov.om|access-date=2009-01-14|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012183204/http://omanwhs.gov.om/English/Frank/FrankincenseTree.asp|archive-date=2008-10-12}}</ref> Tapping is done two to three times per year with the final taps producing the best tears because of their higher aromatic [[terpene]], [[sesquiterpene]] and [[diterpene]] content. Generally speaking, the more opaque resins are the best quality. Cheap resin is produced in the [[Horn of Africa]], which is the [[Roman Catholic Church]]'s major source.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8505251.stm|title=Frankincense: Could it be a cure for cancer?|date=2010-02-09|access-date=2021-07-04|website=BBC World News| vauthors = Howell J }}</ref>

The main species in trade are:
* ''[[Boswellia sacra]]'': [[South Arabia]].{{r|"Michael2012"|page=10}}
** ''Boswellia bhaw-dajiana'' (older spelling ''Boswellia bhau-dajiana''): Horn of Africa<!--Do not add or rewrite to "Somalia" or "Somaliland"  because these words invite edit-wars of territorial dispute which is irrelevant to the topic.-->.{{r|"Thulin1987"|page=487}} It is a [[Synonym (taxonomy)|synonym]] of ''Boswellia sacra''
** ''Boswellia carteri'' (older spelling ''Boswellia carterii''): Horn of Africa<!--Do not add or rewrite to "Somalia" or "Somaliland"  because these words invite edit-wars of territorial dispute which is irrelevant to the topic.-->, Nubia.{{r|"Michael2012"|page=10}} It was long considered an independent species,<ref name="Birdwood1871">{{Cite journal|title=On the Genus Boswellia, with Descriptions and Figures of three new Species|journal=[[Transactions of the Linnean Society of London]]|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=chi.79869488&view=1up&seq=179&skin=2021| vauthors = Birdwood G |volume=27|pages=111–148, plates Tab.29–32|via=Hathitrust|issue=2|hdl=2027/chi.79869488?urlappend=%3Bseq=179|year=1870|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1870.tb00205.x|language=en|access-date=2021-07-16|hdl-access=free}} <!--paywall {{DOI|10.1111/j.1096-3642.1870.tb00205.x}}--></ref>{{rp|138}} but in the 1980s it was determined to be a synonym of ''Boswellia sacra''.<ref name="Kew_BoswelliaCarteri">{{Cite web|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:127038-1|title=Boswellia carteri Birdw..<!--Intentional double-period to prevent the Cite template from automatically pushing a single-period out of the doublequote.--> |access-date=2021-07-16|website=[[Plants of the World Online]]|publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]|quote=This is a synonym of Boswellia sacra Flück; Not accepted by Govearts,R.(1996).}}</ref><ref name="Thulin1987">{{Cite journal|title=The Frankincense Trees (Boswellia spp., Burseraceae) of Northern Somalia and Southern Arabia|journal=[[Kew Bulletin]]|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4110063| vauthors = Thulin M, Warfa AM |volume=42|via=JSTOR |issue=3|doi=10.2307/4110063|year=1987|pages=488, 492|language=en|jstor=4110063|bibcode=1987KewBu..42..487T |url-access=registration}}</ref>
* ''[[Boswellia serrata]]'' (synonym ''Boswellia thurifera'', Indian frankincense): India.{{r|"Michael2012"|page=10}}
* ''[[Boswellia papyrifera]]'': Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan.{{r|"Michael2012"|page=10}}
* ''[[Boswellia frereana]]'': Horn of Africa<!--Do not add or rewrite to "Somalia" or "Somaliland"  because these words invite edit-wars of territorial dispute which is irrelevant to the topic.-->.{{r|"Michael2012"|page=10}} The resin is less bitter and the fragrance of incense is less "heavy" than ''Boswellia sacra''.{{r|"Thulin1987"|page=497}} Contains no boswellic acids.{{r|"Michael2012"|page=19}}

Other notable species:
* ''[[Boswellia occulta]]'':<ref name="Kew_BoswelliaOcculta">{{Cite web|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:77195494-1|title=Boswellia occulta Thulin|access-date=2021-07-16|website=[[Plants of the World Online]]|publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]}}</ref> Horn of Africa<!--Do not add or rewrite to "Somalia" or "Somaliland"  because these words invite edit-wars of territorial dispute which is irrelevant to the topic.-->. In 2019, it was discovered that Somali harvesters considered ''Boswellia occulta'' to be the same species with ''Boswellia carteri'' even though their shapes are different, and sold resins from both species as the same thing. However, the chemical compositions of their essential oils are completely different.<ref name="Johnson2019">{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson S, DeCarlo A, Satyal P, Dosoky NS, Sorensen A, Setzer WN | title = Organic Certification is Not Enough: The Case of the Methoxydecane Frankincense | journal = Plants | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 88– | date = April 2019 | pmid = 30987305 | pmc = 6524464 | doi = 10.3390/plants8040088 | publisher = MDPI | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Recent studies indicate that frankincense tree populations are declining, partly from [[overexploitation]].<ref name=nyt>{{cite news| vauthors = Klein J |title=Could This Be the End of Frankincense?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/05/science/frankincense-trees-collapse.html?ribbon-ad-idx=5&rref=science|access-date=5 July 2019|work=[[New York Times]]|date=5 July 2019}}</ref><ref name="AP-20161225">{{cite news| vauthors = Patinkin J |title=World's last wild frankincense forests are under threat|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/worlds-last-wild-frankincense-forests-084122152.html|access-date=25 December 2016|work=Yahoo Finance|agency=Associated Press|date=25 December 2016}}</ref> Heavily tapped trees produce seeds that germinate at only 16% while seeds of trees that had not been tapped germinate at more than 80%. In addition, burning, grazing, and attacks by the [[longhorn beetle]] have reduced the tree population.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Melina R |title=Christmas Staple Frankincense 'Doomed,' Ecologists Warn |date=December 21, 2011 |url=http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2011/12/21/christmas-staple-frankincense-doomed-ecologists-warn/ |publisher=LiveScience}}</ref> Conversion (clearing) of frankincense woodlands to agriculture is also a major threat.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dejenea T, Lemenih M, Bongers F |title=Manage or convert Boswellia woodlands? Can frankincense production payoff? |journal=Journal of Arid Environments |date=February 2013 |volume=89 |pages=77–83 |doi=10.1016/j.jaridenv.2012.09.010|bibcode=2013JArEn..89...77D}}</ref>

==Chemical composition==
[[File:Beta-boswellic acid.svg|thumb|Structure of [[boswellic acid|β-boswellic acid]], one of the main active components of frankincense]]

These are some of the chemical compounds present in frankincense:
* acid resin (6%), soluble in alcohol and having the formula '''C'''<sub>20</sub>'''H'''<sub>32</sub>'''O'''<sub>4</sub><ref name="henriettas">{{cite web|url=http://www.henriettes-herb.com/eclectic/kings/boswellia.html|title=Olibanum.—Frankincense. | work=Henriette's Herbal Homepage|publisher=www.henriettes-herb.com|access-date=2009-01-14}}</ref>
* gum (similar to [[gum arabic]]) 30–36%<ref name="henriettas"/>
* 3-acetyl-beta-[[boswellic acid]] (''Boswellia sacra'')<ref name="drdukesdata">{{cite web|url=http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=168|title=Farmacy Query|publisher=www.ars-grin.gov|access-date=2009-01-14|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041110092934/http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=168|archive-date=2004-11-10}}</ref>
* alpha-boswellic acid (''Boswellia sacra'')<ref name="drdukesdata"/>
* [[incensole]] [[acetate]], C<sub>21</sub>H<sub>34</sub>O<sub>3</sub><ref name=NIST>{{cite web | url = http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/inchi?ID=C34701536&Mask=2000 | title = Incensole acetate | work = NIST }}</ref>
* [[phellandrene]]<ref name="henriettas"/>
* [[olibanic acid]]<ref name="Cerutti-Delasalle_2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cerutti-Delasalle C, Mehiri M, Cagliero C, Rubiolo P, Bicchi C, Meierhenrich UJ, Baldovini N | title = The (+)-cis- and (+)-trans-Olibanic Acids: Key Odorants of Frankincense | journal = Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English | volume = 55 | issue = 44 | pages = 13719–13723 | date = October 2016 | pmid = 27699963 | doi = 10.1002/anie.201605242 | hdl = 2318/1609095 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

Among various plants in the genus ''Boswellia'', only ''Boswellia sacra'', ''Boswellia serrata'' and ''Boswellia papyrifera'' have been confirmed to contain significant amounts of boswellic acids.{{r|"Michael2012"|page=10}}<ref name="Michael2012">{{Cite thesis|title=Chemotaxonomic investigations on resins of the frankincense species Boswellia papyrifera, Boswellia serrata and Boswellia sacra, respectively, Boswellia carterii : a qualitative and quantitative approach by chromatographic and spectroscopic methodology| vauthors = Michael P |date=2012-11-09|publisher=Saarland University|url=https://publikationen.sulb.uni-saarland.de/handle/20.500.11880/22895|doi=10.22028/D291-22839|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Simla2005">{{Cite thesis|title=Phytochemical Investigations on Boswellia Species| vauthors = Simla B |date=2005-03-18|publisher=Universität Hamburg|url=https://ediss.sub.uni-hamburg.de/handle/ediss/984|language=en|id={{URN|nbn|de:gbv:18-25030}}}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Weihrauch.jpg|thumb|left|Indirect burning of frankincense on hot coal]]
[[File:Olibanum resin.jpg|thumb|left|Frankincense olibanum resin]]

Frankincense has been traded on the [[Arabian Peninsula]] for more than 5,000 years.{{r|"Simla2005"|page=5}} Frankincense was also traded from the Horn of Africa during the [[Silk Road]] era.<ref>Ulric Killion, ''A Modern Chinese Journey to the West: Economic Globalis]ation And Dualism'', (Nova Science Publishers: 2006), p.66</ref> [[Greeks|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]] wrote in ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The History]]'' that frankincense was harvested from trees in southern Arabia. He reported that the gum was dangerous to harvest because of winged snakes<ref>{{lang|el|ὄφιες ὑπόπτεροι}}</ref> that guard the trees and that the smoke from burning [[Storax balsam|storax]] would drive the snakes away.<ref name="HerodotusMacaulayEng">{{Cite wikisource|wslanguage=en|title=The History of Herodotus|wslink=The History of Herodotus (Macaulay)|author1=Herodotus|author1-link=Herodotus|translator1-last=Macaulay|translator1-first=George Campbell | name-list-style = vanc |year=1904|origyear=5c BCE|chapter=Book_III|page=107|language=en}}</ref><ref name="HerodotusGreek">{{Cite wikisource|wslanguage=el|title=Ιστορίαι (Ηροδότου)|author1=Herodotus|author1-link=Herodotus|chapter=Θάλεια|wspages=107|pages=107–110| veditors = Godley AD |place=Cambridge|year=1920|origyear=5c BCE}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] also mentioned frankincense in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Naturalis Historia]]''.<ref name="PlinyBostockEng">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=THE TREES THAT BEAR FRANKINCENSE|encyclopedia=The Natural History|author=Pliny the Elder|translator1-last=Bostock|translator1-first=John | name-list-style = vanc |chapter-url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D12%3Achapter%3D30|access-date=2021-07-15|volume=XII|chapter=Chapters 30–32|language=en|via=Perseus digital library, Tufts University}}</ref><ref name="PlinyLatin">{{Cite wikisource|wslanguage=la|title=Naturalis Historia|author1=Gaius Plinius Secundus|author1-link=Pliny the Elder|chapter=Liber XII|wspages=51|pages=51–65}}</ref>

Frankincense was reintroduced to [[Western Europe]] by Frankish [[Crusades|Crusaders]],{{Citation needed|date=July 2021|reason=What does "re"-introduced means here?}} and other Western Europeans on their journeys to the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] where it was commonly used in church services. Although named ''frank''incense, the name refers to the quality of incense brought to Western Europe, not to the [[Franks]] themselves.<ref name="OED1933_Frankincense" />

Southern Arabia was an exporter of frankincense in antiquity, with some of it being traded as far as China. The 13th-century Chinese writer and customs inspector [[Zhao Rukuo|Zhao Rugua]] wrote that {{transliteration|zh|Ruxiang}} or {{transliteration|sh|xunluxiang}} ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: {{lang|zh|乳香}} {{transliteration|zh|rǔ xiāng}}/ {{lang|zh|薰陸香}} {{transliteration|zh|xūn lù xiāng}}) comes from the three ''Dashi'' states (Chinese: {{lang|zh|大食}} {{transliteration|zh|dàshí}} - [[Caliphate]] (Arab Muslims)) of ''Maloba'' ([[Murbat]]), ''Shihe'' ([[Shihr]]), and ''Nufa'' ([[Dhofar]]), from the depths of the remotest mountains;<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kauz R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJibpHfnw94C&pg=PA130 |access-date=December 26, 2011 |title=Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea |year=2010 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |page=130 |isbn=978-3-447-06103-2 |quote=The frankincense was first collected in the [[Hadhramaut]] ports of Mirbat, Shihr, and Zufar whence Arab merchant vessels shipped it to Srivijaya, before it was then reexported to China. The term "xunluxiang" derives from the Arab word "kundur". . . According to Li Xun, frankincense originally came from Persia. Laufer refers to the ''Xiangpu'' 香譜 by Hong Chu . . . Zhao Rugua notes: Ruxiang or xunluxiang comes from the three Dashi countries of Murbat (Maloba), Shihr (Shihe), and Dhofar (Nufa), from the depths of the remotest mountains. The tree which yields this drug may generally be compared to the pine tree. Its trunk is notched with a hatchet, upon which the}}</ref> the trunk of the tree is notched with a hatchet, upon which the resin flows out, and, when hardened, turns into incense, which is gathered and made into lumps; it is transported on elephants<!-- <ref name="IUCN_elephant">Note: there are no wild elephants today in South Arabia: {{Cite iucn|title=African Savanna Elephant|date=2020-11-13|access-date=2021-07-15|doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T181008073A181022663.en}}</ref> --> to the ''Dashi'' ports, then on ship to [[Sanfotsi|Sanfoqi]]; which is why it was known as a product of Sanfoqi.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Kauz R |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJibpHfnw94C&pg=PA131 |access-date=December 26, 2011 |title=Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea |year=2010  |editor=Ralph Kauz |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |page=131 |isbn=978-3-447-06103-2 |quote=resin flows out, and, when hardened, turns into incense, which is gathered and made into lumps. It is transported on elephants to the Dashi (on the coast), who then load it upon their ships to exchange it for other commodities in Sanfoqi. This is the reason why it is commonly collected at and known as a product of Sanfoqi.}}</ref>

In [[Christian tradition]], frankincense is one of the gifts given by the [[Biblical Magi]] to Jesus at his [[Nativity of Jesus|nativity]] as described in the [[Gospel of Matthew]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nga.gov/features/rubens-magi/biblical-magi.html |title=Biblical Magi |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=<!--Not stated--> |website=nga.gov |publisher= National Gallery of Art |access-date=20 February 2024 |quote=The Gospel of Matthew (2:1–12) speaks of Magi, or wise men, who followed a star from the East to Bethlehem in search of a newborn king. There they found Mary and the baby Jesus and offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.}}</ref>

==Production==
[[File:Olebanum.jpg|thumb|Frankincense]]
Thousands of tons of frankincense are traded every year to be used in religious ceremonies as incense in [[thurible]]s and by makers of perfumes, natural medicines, and [[essential oil]]s. It can be inhaled or applied to the skin for its supposed health benefits. In the Horn of Africa<!--Do not add or rewrite to "Somalia" or "Somaliland"  because these words invite edit-wars of territorial dispute which is irrelevant to the topic.-->, frankincense is harvested in the [[Bari, Somalia|Bari]] and [[Sanaag]] regions: mountains lying at the northwest of [[Erigavo]]; [[El Afweyn District]]; [[Cal Madow]] mountain range, a westerly escarpment that runs parallel to the coast; Cal Miskeed, including [[Hantaara]] and Habeeno plateau and a middle segment of the frankincense-growing escarpment; [[Karkaar]] mountains or eastern escarpment, which lies at the eastern fringe of the frankinscence escarpment.<ref>{{cite book |author=War-Torn Societies Project International, Somali Programme |title=Rebuilding Somalia: Issues and possibilities for Puntland |date=2001 |publisher=HAAN |location=London |isbn=978-1874209041 |page=[https://archive.org/details/rebuildingsomali00wart/page/124 124] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rebuildingsomali00wart/page/124 }}</ref><ref name="AP-20161225" /> In [[Dhofar]], [[Oman]], frankincense species grow north of [[Salalah]] and were traded in the ancient coastal city of Sumhuram, now [[Khor Rori]].<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Coppi A, Cecchi L, Selvi F, Raffaelli M |date=2010-03-18|title=The Frankincense tree (Boswellia sacra, Burseraceae) from Oman: ITS and ISSR analyses of genetic diversity and implications for conservation|journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |volume=57|issue=7|pages=1041–1052|doi=10.1007/s10722-010-9546-8|s2cid=11915388|issn=0925-9864}}</ref>

==Ecological status==
In 1998, the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] warned that one of the primary frankincense species, ''Boswellia sacra'', is "near threatened". Frankincense trees are not covered by the [[CITES|Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora]], but experts argue that ''Boswellia'' species meet the criteria for protection. In a 2006 study, an ecologist at [[Wageningen University & Research]] claimed that, by the late-1990s, ''Boswellia papyrifera'' trees in Eritrea were becoming hard to find. In 2019, a new paper predicted a 50% reduction in ''Boswellia papyrifera'' within the next two decades. This species, found mainly in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan, accounts for about two-thirds of global frankincense production. The paper warns that all ''Boswellia'' species are threatened by habitat loss and overexploitation. Most ''Boswellia'' grow in harsh, arid regions beset by poverty and conflict. Harvesting and selling the tree's resin is one of the only sources of income for the inhabitants, resulting in overtapping.<ref name="NG-20191213" />

== Health benefits ==
The use of Boswellia resin for spiritual and medicinal purposes dates back to ancient civilizations. Numerous compounds of different chemical categories are identified in the resin; the pharmacological actions of Boswellia resin are attributed to the complementary effects exerted by these compounds. Some clinical studies have weakly demonstrated the effectiveness of frankincense resin in some disease conditions like asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, osteoarthritis and relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, however more studies are necessary.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ernst E | title = Frankincense: systematic review | journal = BMJ | volume = 337 | issue = dec17 2 | pages = a2813 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 19091760 | pmc = 2605614 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.a2813 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stürner KH, Stellmann JP, Dörr J, Paul F, Friede T, Schammler S, Reinhardt S, Gellissen S, Weissflog G, Faizy TD, Werz O, Fleischer S, Vaas LA, Herrmann F, Pless O, Martin R, Heesen C | display-authors = 6 | title = A standardised frankincense extract reduces disease activity in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (the SABA phase IIa trial) | journal = Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry | volume = 89 | issue = 4 | pages = 330–338 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29248894 | doi = 10.1136/jnnp-2017-317101 | s2cid = 3647860 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The essential oil obtained from the oleogum resin of Boswellia serrata showed antimicrobial activities.<ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Ayub MA, Hanif MA, Sarfraz RA, Shahid M |date=2018-01-01|title=Biological activity of Boswellia serrata Roxb. oleo gum resin essential oil: effects of extraction by supercritical carbon dioxide and traditional methods |journal=International Journal of Food Properties|language=en|volume=21|issue=1|pages=808–820|doi=10.1080/10942912.2018.1439957|s2cid=102917835|issn=1094-2912|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sadhasivam S, Palanivel S, Ghosh S | title = Synergistic antimicrobial activity of Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. (Burseraceae) essential oil with various azoles against pathogens associated with skin, scalp and nail infections | journal = Letters in Applied Microbiology | volume = 63 | issue = 6 | pages = 495–501 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27730658 | doi = 10.1111/lam.12683 | s2cid = 3375723 }}</ref> A 2022 study<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Almutairi |first1=Megren Bin Faisal |last2=Alrouji |first2=Mohammed |last3=Almuhanna |first3=Yasir |last4=Asad |first4=Mohammed |last5=Joseph |first5=Babu |title=In-Vitro and In-Vivo Antibacterial Effects of Frankincense Oil and Its Interaction with Some Antibiotics against Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens |journal=Antibiotics |date=10 November 2022 |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=1591 |doi=10.3390/antibiotics11111591 |pmid=36358246 |pmc=9686721 |doi-access=free }}</ref> stated that "frankincense oil has a weak inhibitory effect against MRSA and MDR-P. aeruginosa"; and in vivo studies on animals revealed that frankincense oleogum resin exhibits neuroprotective activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ameen AM, Elkazaz AY, Mohammad HM, Barakat BM | title = Anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activity of boswellic acids in rotenone parkinsonian rats | journal = Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology | volume = 95 | issue = 7 | pages = 819–829 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28249117 | doi = 10.1139/cjpp-2016-0158 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rajabian A, Sadeghnia H, Fanoudi S, Hosseini A | title = Genus ''Boswellia'' as a new candidate for neurodegenerative disorders | journal = Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 277–286 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 32440312 | pmc = 7229515 | doi = 10.22038/ijbms.2020.35288.8419 }}</ref>

==Uses==
[[File:Dabqaad.jpg|thumb|Frankincense is often prepared inside a [[censer]], such as the [[Sepiolite|meerschaum]] ''[[dabqaad]]'' traditionally used in Horn of Africa.]]
The Egyptians cleansed body cavities in the [[Mummy|mummification]] process with frankincense and [[natron]]. In [[Iranian traditional medicine|Persian medicine]], it is used for diabetes, gastritis and stomach ulcer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mehrzadi S, Tavakolifar B, Huseini HF, Mosavat SH, Heydari M | title = The Effects of Boswellia serrata Gum Resin on the Blood Glucose and Lipid Profile of Diabetic Patients: A Double-Blind Randomized Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial | journal = Journal of Evidence-Based Integrative Medicine | volume = 23 | pages = 2515690X18772728 | year = 2018 | pmid = 29774768 | pmc = 5960856 | doi = 10.1177/2515690X18772728 }}</ref> The oil is used in [[Abrahamic religions]] to cleanse a house or building of bad or evil energy—including used in exorcisms and to bless one's being (like the [[bakhoor]] commonly found in [[Persian Gulf]] cultures by spreading the fumes towards the body).

The [[incense offering]] occupied a prominent position in the sacrificial legislation of the ancient Hebrews.<ref>''The Jewish Encyclopedia'', vol. VI, Funk and Wagnalls Company: New York 1904, p. 568</ref> The [[Book of Exodus]] (30:34–38) prescribes frankincense, blended with equal amounts of three aromatic spices, to be ground and burnt in the sacred altar before the [[Ark of the Covenant]] in the wilderness [[Tabernacle]], where it was meant to be a holy offering—not to be enjoyed for its fragrance. Scholars have identified frankincense as what the [[Book of Jeremiah]] (6:20) relates was imported from [[Sheba]] during the 6th century BC [[Babylonian captivity]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Bower A |author-link=Archibald Bower |title=An Universal History, from the Earliest Account of Time to the Present; Compiled from Original Authors and Illustrated with Maps, Cuts, Notes, Chronological and other Tables (part i) |volume=16 |date=1734–1747 |location=London|page=257 |url=https://archive.org/details/AnUniversalHistoryFOLIOEDITION1734}}</ref> Frankincense is mentioned in the [[New Testament]] as one of the three gifts (with [[gold]] and [[myrrh]]) that the [[Biblical Magi|magi]] "from the East" presented to the [[Christ Child]] ({{Bibleverse||Matthew|2:11}}).

In [[traditional Chinese medicine]], frankincense ({{lang-zh|乳香}} {{transliteration|zh|rǔ xiāng}}) along with myrrh ({{lang|zh|沒藥}} {{transliteration|zh|mò yào}}) are considered to have anti-bacterial properties and blood-moving uses.{{Citation needed|date=July 2018}} It can be used topically or orally, also used in surgical and internal medicine of traditional Chinese medicine. It is used to relieve pain, remove blood stasis, promote blood circulation and treat deafness, stroke, locked jaw, and abnormalities in women's [[menstruation]].

===Essential oil===
[[File:FrankinsenceEssOil.png|thumb|Frankincense (''Boswellia carteri'') [[essential oil]]]]
The [[essential oil]] of frankincense is produced by [[steam distillation]] of the tree resin. The oil's chemical components are 75% [[monoterpene]]s, [[sesquiterpene]]s, and [[ketone]]s. Contrary to some commercial claims, steam distilled frankincense oils do not contain the insufficiently volatile boswellic acids (triterpenoids), although they may be present in solvent extractions. The chemistry of the essential oil is mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, such as alpha-pinene, Limonene, alpha-Thujene, and beta-Pinene with small amounts of [[terpenoid|diterpenoid]] components being the upper limit in terms of molecular weight.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Verghese J, Joy MT, Retamar JA, Malinskas GG, Catalan CA, Gros EG |year=1987 |title=A Fresh Look at the Constituents of Indian Olibanum Oil |journal=Flavour Fragr. J. |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=99–102 |doi=10.1002/ffj.2730020304  }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hayashi S, Amemori H, Kameoka H, Hanafusa M, Furukawa K |year=1998 |title=Comparison of Volatile Compounds from Olibanum from Various Countries |journal=J. Essent. Oil Res. |volume=10 |pages=25–30 |doi=10.1080/10412905.1998.9700833}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Basar S, Koch A, König WA | title = A verticillane-type diterpene from Boswellia carterii essential oil. | journal = Flavour and Fragrance Journal | date = September 2001 | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 315–8 | doi = 10.1002/ffj.992 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frank A, Unger M | title = Analysis of frankincense from various Boswellia species with inhibitory activity on human drug metabolising cytochrome P450 enzymes using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry after automated on-line extraction | journal = Journal of Chromatography A | volume = 1112 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 255–62 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16364338 | doi = 10.1016/j.chroma.2005.11.116 }}</ref>

Essential oils can be diluted and applied to skin or the fragrance can be inhaled.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Health Benefits of Frankincense Essential Oil |url=https://www.webmd.com/diet/health-benefits-frankincense-essential-oil |access-date=2022-11-15 |website=WebMD |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* Trade
** [[Land of Frankincense]] (Frankincense Trail), site in Oman
** [[Incense trade route]], a large network around the Mediterranean and beyond
** [[Nabataeans]], a trader tribe
* Literature
** [[Desi Sangye Gyatso]], author of a Tibetan herbal
** [[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus book)]]
* Similar plants and products
** [[Elemi]], resin or tree
** [[Myrrh]], resin
** [[Bursera graveolens|''Palo santo (Bursera graveolens)'']], tree
** [[Agarwood]]
** [[Benzoin (resin)]]
** [[Copal]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Woolley CL, Suhail MM, Smith BL, Boren KE, Taylor LC, Schreuder MF, Chai JK, Casabianca H, Haq S, Lin HK, Al-Shahri AA, Al-Hatmi S, Young DG | display-authors = 6 | title = Chemical differentiation of Boswellia sacra and Boswellia carterii essential oils by gas chromatography and chiral gas chromatography-mass spectrometry | journal = Journal of Chromatography A | volume = 1261 | pages = 158–63 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22835693 | doi = 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.06.073 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Müller WW |author-link=Walter W. Müller |title= Weihrauch: Ein arabisches Produkt und seine Bedeutung in der Antike |journal=Pauly-Wissowas Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft |publisher=Alfred Druckenmüller Verlag |location=Munich |date=1978 |issue=15 |pages=700–777 }}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Groom N | date = 1981 | title = Frankincense & Myrrh: A Study of the Arabian Incense Trade. | publisher = International Book Centre, Incorporated | isbn = 0-86685-593-9}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Maloney GA | date = 1997 | title = Gold, Frankincense, and Myrrh: An Introduction to Eastern Christian Spirituality. | publisher = Crossroads Publishing Company | isbn = 0-8245-1616-8 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{commons category-inline}}
* {{wikiquote-inline|Frankincense}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Frankincense |volume=11 |short=x}}

{{Non-timber forest products}}
{{Nativity of Jesus}}

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[[Category:Boswellia| ]]
[[Category:Incense material]]
[[Category:Resins]]
[[Category:Plant products]]