Eucharist Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{short description|Christian rite and sacrament}} {{About||Eucharistic liturgies|Christian liturgy|other uses}} {{redirect|Lord's Supper}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}} {{Eucharist}} {{Christianity|expanded=theology}} The '''Eucharist''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|juː|k|ər|ɪ|s|t}} {{respell|YOO|kər|ist}}; from {{lang-grc-x-koine|εὐχαριστία|evcharistía}}, {{lit|thanksgiving}}), also known as '''Holy Communion''', '''Blessed Sacrament''' and the '''Lord's Supper''', is a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Rite (Christianity)|rite]] that is considered a [[sacrament]] in most churches, and as an [[Ordinance (Christianity)|ordinance]] in others. Christians believe that the rite was instituted by [[Jesus]] at the [[Last Supper]], the night before [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion]], giving his [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] bread and wine. Passages in the [[New Testament]] state that he commanded them to "do this in memory of me" while referring to the bread as "my body" and the cup of wine as "the blood of my covenant, which is poured out for many".<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|22:19-20}}, {{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|11:23–25}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wright |first1=N. T. |author-link=N. T. Wright |title=The Meal Jesus Gave Us: Understanding Holy Communion |date=2015 |location=Louisville, Kentucky |isbn=9780664261290 |page=63 |edition=Revised}}</ref> According to the [[Synoptic Gospels]] this was at a [[Passover]] meal.<ref name="EB">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist |title=Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Eucharist |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=2023-04-01}}</ref> The elements of the Eucharist, [[sacramental bread|bread]], either [[Leavening agent|leavened]] or [[Unleavened bread|unleavened]], and [[sacramental wine|wine]] (non-alcoholic grape juice in some [[Protestantism|Protestant]] traditions), are consecrated on an [[altar]] or a [[communion table]] and consumed thereafter. The consecrated elements are the end product of the [[Anaphora (liturgy)|Eucharistic Prayer]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stmartin-in-the-fields.org/keeping-the-feast/|title=Keeping the Feast: Thoughts on Virtual Communion in a Lockdown Era|date=27 March 2020 |access-date=21 August 2023}}</ref> Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. The [[Catholic Church]] states that the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ under the species of bread and wine. It maintains that by the consecration, the [[Substance theory|substances]] of the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Jesus Christ ([[transubstantiation]]) while the appearances of the bread and wine remain unaltered (e.g. colour, taste, feel, and smell). The [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]] churches agree that an objective change occurs of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] believe the true body and blood of Christ are really present "in, with, and under" the forms of the bread and wine, known as the [[sacramental union]].<ref name="MattoxRoeber2012">{{cite book|last1=Mattox|first1=Mickey L.|last2=Roeber|first2=A. G.|title=Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran Theological Conversation|year= 2012|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|language=en |isbn=978-0802866943|page=54|quote=In this "sacramental union", Lutherans taught, the body and blood of Christ are so truly united to the bread and wine of the Holy Communion that the two may be identified. They are at the same time body and blood, bread and wine. This divine food is given, more-over, not just for the strengthening of faith, nor only as a sign of our unity in faith, nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the union of faith. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means by which the union of faith, effected by God's Word and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained. Intimate union with Christ, in other words, leads directly to the most intimate communion in his holy body and blood.}}</ref> [[Calvinism|Reformed Christians]] believe in a [[Lord's Supper in Reformed theology|real spiritual presence]] of Christ in the Eucharist.<ref name="McKim1998">{{cite book|last=McKim|first=Donald K.|title=Major Themes in the Reformed Tradition|year=1998|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|language=en|isbn=978-1579101046|page=263}}</ref> Anglican [[eucharistic theology|eucharistic theologies]] universally affirm the [[real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]], though [[Evangelical Anglicanism|Evangelical Anglicans]] believe that this is a spiritual presence, while [[Anglo-Catholic]]s hold to a [[wikt:corporeal|corporeal]] presence.<ref name="Poulson1999">{{cite book|last=Poulson|first=Christine|title=The Quest for the Grail: Arthurian Legend in British Art, 1840–1920|year=1999|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0719055379|page=40|quote=By the late 1840s Anglo-Catholic interest in the revival of ritual had given new life to doctrinal debate over the nature of the Eucharist. Initially, 'the Tractarians were concerned only to exalt the importance of the sacrament and did not engage in doctrinal speculation'. Indeed they were generally hostile to the doctrine of transubstantiation. For an orthodox Anglo-Catholic such as Dyce the doctrine of the Real Presence was acceptable, but that of transubstantiation was not.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Campbell|first=Ted|title=Christian Confessions: A Historical Introduction|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=p2mUxxxGt_sC&pg=PA325 325]|year=1996|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=9780664256500}}</ref> As a result of these different understandings, "the Eucharist has been a central issue in the discussions and deliberations of the [[ecumenical]] movement."<ref name="EB"/> {{TOC limit|3}} ==Terminology== [[File:Última Cena - Juan de Juanes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The Eucharist has been a key theme in the depictions of the [[Last Supper in Christian art]],<ref>''Gospel Figures in Art'' by Stefano Zuffi 2003 {{ISBN|978-0892367276}} p. 252</ref> as in this 16th-century [[Vicente Juan Masip|Juan de Juanes]] painting, after [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s ''[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|Last Supper]]''.]] ===Eucharist=== The [[New Testament]] was originally written in the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] language and the Greek noun {{lang|grc|εὐχαριστία}} ({{transliteration|grc|eucharistia}}), meaning "thanksgiving", appears a few times in it,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2169.htm |title=Strong's Greek: 2169. εὐχαριστία (eucharistia) – thankfulness, giving of thanks |publisher=Biblehub.com |access-date=2019-05-16}}</ref> while the related Greek verb {{lang|grc|εὐχαριστήσας}} is found several times in New Testament accounts of the Last Supper,<ref>{{cite web |title=Strong's Greek: 2168. εὐχαριστέω (eucharisteó) – to be thankful |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2168.htm |website=biblehub.com |access-date=19 November 2020}}</ref><ref name=LaV>{{citation|url=https://www.google.com/search?q=LaVerdiere+%22oldest+attestation%22|first=Eugene|last=LaVerdiere|title=The Eucharist in the New Testament and the Early Church|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0814661529|pages=1–2}}</ref><ref name=Schr>[[Thomas R. Schreiner]], Matthew R. Crawford, ''[http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=Schreiner+Crawford+%22called+the+Eucharist%22&btnG= The Lord's Supper]'' (B&H Publishing Group 2011 {{ISBN|978-0805447576}}), p. 156</ref><ref>John H. Armstrong, ''[http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=%22eucharist+is+derived+from+the+words+of+institution%22&btnG= Understanding Four Views on the Lord's Supper]'' (Zondervan 2009 {{ISBN|978-0310542759}})</ref><ref>Robert Benedetto, James O. Duke, ''[http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=Benedetto+%22gospel+writers+used%22&btnG= The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History]'' (Westminster John Knox Press 2008 {{ISBN|978-0664224165}}), volume 2</ref> including the earliest such account:<ref name=LaV/> {{blockquote|For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks ({{lang|grc|εὐχαριστήσας}}), he broke it, and said, "This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me".|1 Corinthians 11:23–24<ref>[[s:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#11:23|1 Corinthians 11:23–24]]</ref>}} The term {{transliteration|grc|eucharistia}} (thanksgiving) is that by which the rite is referred to<ref name=LaV/> in the ''[[Didache]]'' (a late 1st or early 2nd century document),<ref name="Kodell">''Eucharist in the New Testament'' by Jerome Kodell 1988 {{ISBN|0814656633}}</ref>{{rp|51}}<ref name=textDid>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1z2lDqiMfTMC&q=concerning+the+eucharist |title='Didache' 9:1 |pages=22–23 |access-date=2019-05-16|isbn=978-0814658314 |last1=Milavec |first1=Aaron |year=2003 |publisher=Liturgical Press }}</ref><ref name=Bromiley437 >''Theological Dictionary of the New Testament'' by Gerhard Kittel, Gerhard Friedrich and Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1985 {{ISBN|0802824048}}</ref>{{rp|437}}<ref>Stanley E. Porter, [http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=Porter+%22observe+the+thanksgiving%22&btnG= Dictionary of Biblical Criticism and Interpretation] (Taylor & Francis 2007 {{ISBN|978-0415201001}})</ref>{{rp|207}} by [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (who died between 98 and 117)<ref name=Bromiley437 /><ref>Epistle to the Ephesians 13:1; Epistle to the Philadelphians 4; Epistle to the Smyrnaeans 7:1, 8:1</ref> and by [[Justin Martyr]] (''[[First Apology of Justin Martyr|First Apology]]'' written between 155 and 157).<ref name="Guy196">''Introducing Early Christianity'' by Laurie Guy {{ISBN|0830839429}} p. 196</ref><ref name=Bromiley437 /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.x.ii.iii.html |title=''First Apology'', 66 |publisher=Ccel.org |date=2005-06-01 |access-date=2019-05-16}}</ref><!-- In its instructions on the Eucharist,<ref name=LaV/> the Didache also uses {{lang|grc|εὐχαριστίζω}} (to "eucharistize"),<ref name=textDid/><ref>''The Didache: faith, hope, & life of the earliest Christian communities'' by Aaron Milavec 2003 {{ISBN|0809105373}} p. 429</ref><ref>''The Christian Sacraments of initiation: baptism, confirmation, Eucharist'' by Kenan B. Osborne 1998 {{ISBN|0809128861}} p. 176</ref> a verbal form of {{lang|grc|εὐχαριστία}},<ref name=textDid/> and, again in relation to the rite,<ref name=LaV/> Justin Martyr uses another verbal form: {{lang|grc|εὐχαριστῶ}} ("to thank"),<ref>''First Apology'', 65</ref> --> Today, "the Eucharist" is the name still used by [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Catholics]], [[Anglicans]], [[Presbyterians]], and [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]. Other [[Protestant]] denominations rarely use this term, preferring "Communion", "the Lord's Supper", "Remembrance", or "the Breaking of Bread". [[Latter-day Saints]] call it "[[Sacrament (LDS Church)|the Sacrament]]".<ref name="LDS_Sacrament"/> {{anchor|Supper}} ===Lord's Supper=== In the [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] Paul uses the term "Lord's Supper", in Greek {{lang|grc|Κυριακὸν δεῖπνον}} ({{transliteration|grc|Kyriakon deipnon}}), in the early 50s of the 1st century:<ref name=LaV/><ref name=Schr/> {{blockquote|When you come together, it is not the Lord's Supper you eat, for as you eat, each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else. One remains hungry, another gets drunk.|1 Corinthians 11:20–21<ref>[[s:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#11:20|11:20–21]]</ref>}} So Paul's use of the term "Lord's Supper" in reference to the Corinthian banquet is powerful and interesting; but to be an actual name for the Christian meal, rather than a meaningful phrase connected with an ephemeral rhetorical contrast, it would have to have some history, previous or subsequent.<ref>Andrew B. McGowan, "The Myth of the Lord's Supper", ''Catholic Biblical Quarterly'' 77.3 (July 2015), 503-21</ref> Nevertheless, given its existence in the biblical text, "Lord's Supper" came into use after the Protestant Reformation and remains the predominant term among [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]], such as [[Baptists]] and [[Pentecostals]].<ref>Christopher A. Stephenson, ''Types of Pentecostal Theology: Method, System, Spirit'', OUP US, 2012{{ISBN?}}</ref>{{rp|123}}<ref>Roger E. Olson, ''The Westminster Handbook to Evangelical Theology'', Westminster John Knox Press, UK, 2004</ref>{{rp|259}}<ref>Edward E. Hindson, Daniel R. Mitchell, ''The Popular Encyclopedia of Church History: The People, Places, and Events That Shaped Christianity'', Harvest House Publishers, US, 2013, {{ISBN?}}</ref>{{rp|371}} They also refer to the observance as an [[Ordinance (Christianity)|ordinance]] rather than a sacrament. [[File:Last-supper-from-Kremikovtsi.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Kremikovtsi Monastery]] fresco (15th century) depicting the [[Last Supper]] celebrated by Jesus and his disciples. The early Christians too would have celebrated this meal to commemorate Jesus' death and subsequent resurrection.]] [[File:Cathedral Fribourg vitrail Eucharistie 01.jpg|thumb|Eucharistic window (1898–1900) by [[Józef Mehoffer]]]] ===Communion=== {{anchor|Communion}} Use of the term ''Communion'' (or ''Holy Communion'') to refer to the Eucharistic rite began by some groups originating in the [[Protestant Reformation]]. Others, such as the Catholic Church, do not formally use this term for the rite, but instead mean by it the act of partaking of the consecrated elements;<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.ocp.org/en-us/blog/entry/music/holy-communion-eucharist|first=Jethro|last=Higgins|title=Holy Communion: What is the Eucharist?|publisher=Oregon Catholic Press|year=2018}}</ref> they speak of receiving Holy Communion at Mass or outside of it, they also use the term [[First Communion]] when one receives the Eucharist for the first time. The term ''Communion'' is derived from [[Latin language|Latin]] {{lang|la|communio}} ("sharing in common"), translated from the Greek {{lang|grc|κοινωνία}} ({{transliteration|grc|koinōnía}}) in 1 Corinthians 10:16: {{blockquote|The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the ''communion'' of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the ''communion'' of the body of Christ?|1 Corinthians 10:16}} ===Other terms=== ====Breaking of bread==== The phrase {{lang|grc|κλάσις τοῦ ἄρτου}} ({{transliteration|grc|klasis tou artou}}, 'breaking of the bread'; in later liturgical Greek also {{lang|grc|ἀρτοκλασία}} {{transliteration|grc|artoklasia}}) appears in various related forms five times in the New Testament<ref>{{Bibleref2|Luke|24:35}}; {{Bibleref2|Acts|2:42}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|2:46}}, {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|20:7}} and {{bibleref2-nb|Acts|20:11}}</ref> in contexts which, according to some, may refer to the celebration of the Eucharist, in either closer or symbolically more distant reference to the Last Supper.<ref>{{cite book |last=Richardson |first=Alan |title=Introduction to the Theology of the New Testament |year=1958 |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoth00rich |url-access=registration |location=London |publisher=[[SCM Press]] |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoth00rich/page/364 364]}}</ref> This term is used by the [[Plymouth Brethren]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia| encyclopedia=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church; Nature| editor1-last=Cross| editor1-first=F. L.|editor2-last=Livingstone| editor2-first=E. A.| year=1974| title=Plymouth Brethren| bibcode=1987Natur.329..578B| last1=Bayne| first1=Brian L.| volume=329| page=578 | doi=10.1038/329578b0| pmid=3309679| issue=6140| publisher=Oxford University Press| doi-access=free}}</ref> ====Sacrament or Blessed Sacrament==== The "[[Blessed Sacrament]]", the "Sacrament of the Altar", and other variations, are common terms used by Catholics,<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1330}}</ref> Lutherans<ref>{{cite web |title=Small Catechism (6): The Sacrament of the Altar |url=http://www.christlutheranchurch.org.uk/site/2007/06/23/small-catechism-6-the-sacrament-of-the-altar/ |publisher=Christ Lutheran Church |access-date=24 June 2020}}</ref> and some Anglicans ([[Anglo-Catholics]])<ref>{{cite web |last1=Prestige |first1=Leonard |title=Anglo-Catholics: What they believe |url=http://anglicanhistory.org/sspp/prestige1927.html |via=anglicanhistory.org |publisher=[[Society of SS. Peter and Paul]] |access-date=23 June 2020 |date=1927}}</ref> for the consecrated elements, particularly when [[reserved sacrament|reserved]] in a [[Church tabernacle|tabernacle]]. In [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] the term "[[Sacrament (Mormonism)|The Sacrament]]" is used of the rite.<ref name="LDS_Sacrament"/> ====Mass==== {{main|Mass (liturgy)|Mass in the Catholic Church}} The term "[[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]" is used in the [[Catholic Church]], the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] churches (especially the [[Church of Sweden|Churches of Sweden]], [[Church of Norway|Norway]] and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland|Finland]]), and by some Anglicans. It derives from the Latin word {{lang|la|missa}}, a dismissal: {{lang|la|"[[Ite missa est]]",}} or "go, it is sent", the very last phrase of the service.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', s.v. [http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/114665 "mass"].</ref> That Latin word has come to imply "mission" as well because the congregation is sent out to serve Christ.<ref>{{cite web |title=Concluding Rites |url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/the-mass/order-of-mass/concluding-rites/index.cfm |website=www.usccb.org |access-date=14 September 2018 }}</ref> At least in the Catholic Church, the Mass is a long rite in two parts: the [[Liturgy of the Word]] and the [[Liturgy of the Eucharist]]. The former consists of readings from the Bible and a [[homily]], or sermon, given by a priest or deacon. The latter, which follows seamlessly, includes the "[[Offertory|Offering]]" of the bread and wine at the altar, their consecration by the priest through prayer, and their reception by the congregation in Holy Communion.<ref>{{cite web |title=liturgy of the Eucharist {{!}} Definition & Rite |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/liturgy-of-the-Eucharist |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=21 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Among the many other terms used in the Catholic Church are "Holy Mass", "the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord", the "Holy Sacrifice of the Mass", and the "Holy Mysteries".<ref>{{cite book | author=Catholic Church | year=2006 |title=Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church | page=275 | publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana }}, and {{cite book | author=Catholic Church | year=1997 | title=Catechism of the Catholic Church | pages=1328–32 | publisher=United States Conference of Catholic Bishops | isbn=978-1574551105 | url=https://archive.org/details/catechismofcatho2000cath | url-access=registration }}</ref> ====Divine Liturgy and Divine Service==== The term [[Divine Liturgy]] ({{lang-grc-gre|Θεία Λειτουργία}}) is used in [[Byzantine Rite]] traditions, whether in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] or among the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]]. These also speak of "the Divine Mysteries", especially in reference to the consecrated elements, which they also call "the Holy Gifts".{{efn|Within [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], the "Oblation" is the term used in the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac]], [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic]] and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian]] churches, while "Consecration" is used in the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]. "Oblation" and "Consecration" are of course used also by the Eastern Catholic Churches that are of the same liturgical tradition as these churches. Likewise, in the [[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]] language of Ireland and Scotland the word {{lang|ga|Aifreann}}, usually translated into English as "Mass", is derived from [[Late Latin]] {{lang|la|Offerendum}}, meaning "oblation", "offering".}} The term [[Divine Service (Lutheran)|Divine Service]] ({{lang-de|Gottesdienst}}) has often been used to refer to Christian worship more generally and is still used in [[Lutheranism|Lutheran churches]], in addition to the terms "Eucharist", "Mass" and "Holy Communion".<ref name="Spicer2016">{{cite book|last=Spicer|first=Andrew|title=Lutheran Churches in Early Modern Europe|year= 2016|publisher=Routledge|language=en |isbn=978-1351921169|page=185}}</ref> Historically this refers (like the term "worship" itself) to service of God, although more recently it has been associated with the idea that God is serving the congregants in the liturgy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fblcchicago.org/worship/the-lutheran-way-of-worship|title=The Lutheran Way of Worship|last=Kellerman|first=James|publisher=First Bethlehem Lutheran Church|language=en|access-date=12 June 2017|archive-date=19 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619130622/http://fblcchicago.org/worship/the-lutheran-way-of-worship|url-status=dead}}</ref> ====Other Eastern rites==== Some Eastern rites have yet more names for Eucharist. [[Holy Qurbana]] is common in [[Syriac Christianity]] and ''Badarak''<ref>{{Citation|last=Hovhanessian|first=Vahan|chapter=Badarak (Patarag)|date=2011|publisher=American Cancer Society|language=en|doi=10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc0112|isbn=978-0470670606|title=The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization}}</ref> in the [[Armenian Rite]]; in the [[Alexandrian Rite]], the term ''Prosfora'' (from the Greek {{lang|grc|προσφορά}}) is common in [[Christianity in Egypt|Coptic Christianity]] and ''Keddase'' in [[Ethiopian Christianity|Ethiopian]] and [[Christianity in Eritrea|Eritrean Christianity]].<ref name="Bradshaw2012">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ms20-mUmdYwC&q=Coptic+eucharist&pg=PA142|title=The Eucharistic Liturgies: Their Evolution and Interpretation|last1=Bradshaw|first1=Paul F.|last2=Johnson|first2=Maxwell E.|date=2012|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0814662663|language=en}}</ref> ==History== {{Further|Origin of the Eucharist}} [[File:Juan de Juanes 002.jpg|thumb|right|upright|''Christ with the Eucharist'', [[Vicente Juan Masip]], 16th century.]] ===Biblical basis=== The [[Last Supper]] appears in all three [[Synoptic Gospels]]: [[Gospel according to Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel according to Mark|Mark]], and [[Gospel according to Luke|Luke]]. It also is found in the [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]],<ref name=EB/><ref>Tyndale Bible Dictionary / editors, Philip W. Comfort, Walter A. Elwell, 2001 {{ISBN|0842370897}}, article: ''Lord's Supper, The''</ref><ref>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church / editors, F. L. Cross & E. A. Livingstone 2005 {{ISBN|978-0192802903}}, article ''Eucharist''</ref> which suggests how early Christians celebrated what [[Paul the Apostle]] called the Lord's Supper. Although the [[Gospel of John]] does not reference the Last Supper explicitly, some argue that it contains theological allusions to the early Christian celebration of the Eucharist, especially in the chapter 6 [[Bread of Life Discourse]] but also in other passages.<ref>{{Cite book|title = "A Hard Saying" : The Gospel and Culture|last = Moloney|first = Francis|publisher = The Liturgical Press|year = 2001|pages = 109–30}}</ref> ====Gospels==== In the [[synoptic gospels]], Mark 14:22–25,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Mark|14:22–25}}</ref> Matthew 26:26–29<ref>{{Bibleverse|Matthew|26:26–29}}</ref> and Luke 22:13–20<ref>{{Bibleverse|Luke|22:13–20}}</ref> depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper prior to his crucifixion. The versions in Matthew and Mark are almost identical,<ref>Heron, Alisdair >I.C. ''Table and Tradition'' Westminster Press, Philadelphia (1983) p. 3 {{ISBN|9780664245160}}</ref> but the Gospel of Luke presents a textual difference, in that a few manuscripts omit the second half of verse 19 and all of verse 20 ("given for you […] poured out for you"), which are found in the vast majority of ancient witnesses to the text.<ref>Metzger, Bruce M. ''A Textual Commentary on the New Testament'' UBS (1971) pp. 173ff {{ISBN?}}</ref> If the shorter text is the original one, then Luke's account is independent of both that of Paul and that of Matthew/Mark. If the majority longer text comes from the author of the third gospel, then this version is very similar to that of Paul in 1 Corinthians, being somewhat fuller in its description of the early part of the Supper,<ref>Heron, Alisdair >I.C. ''Table and Tradition'' Westminster Press, Philadelphia (1983) p. 5</ref> particularly in making specific mention of a cup being blessed before the bread was broken.<ref>Caird, G.B. ''The Gospel of Luke'' Pelican (1963) p. 237 {{ISBN?}}</ref> In the one prayer given to posterity by Jesus, the [[Lord's Prayer]], the word [[epiousion]]—which is otherwise unknown in Classical Greek literature—was interpreted by some early Christian writers as meaning "super-substantial", and hence a possible reference to the Eucharist as the [[Bread of Life]].<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|2837}}</ref> In the Gospel of John, however, the account of the Last Supper does not mention Jesus taking bread and "the cup" and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead, it recounts other events: his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him, with each other, and with God.<ref name="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref><ref>Tyndale Bible Dictionary / editors, Philip W. Comfort, Walter A. Elwell, 2001 {{ISBN|0842370897}}, article: "John, Gospel of"</ref> Some would find in this unity and in the washing of the feet the deeper meaning of the Communion bread in the other three gospels.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://vatikos.wordpress.com/2013/10/11/eucharist-and-gospel-of-john/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015050651/http://vatikos.wordpress.com/2013/10/11/eucharist-and-gospel-of-john/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-10-15|title=Eucharist and Gospel of John|date=2013-10-11|work=VatiKos Theologie|access-date=2017-12-10|language=en-US}}</ref> In John 6:26–65,<ref>{{bibleverse|John|6:26–65}}</ref> a long discourse is attributed to Jesus that deals with the subject of the living bread; John 6:51–59<ref>{{bibleverse|John|6:51–59}}</ref> also contains echoes of Eucharistic language. ====First Epistle to the Corinthians==== 1 Corinthians 11:23–25<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|11:23–25}}</ref> gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus' Last Supper: "The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and said, 'This is my body, which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.'" The Greek word used in the passage for 'remembrance' is {{lang|grc|ἀνάμνησιν}} ({{transliteration|grc|[[Anamnesis (Christianity)|anamnesis]]}}), which itself has a much richer theological history than the English word "remember". [[File:Agape feast 07.jpg|thumb|right|Early Christian painting of an Agape feast.]] The expression "The Lord's Supper", derived from [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]'s usage in 1 Corinthians 11:17–34,<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|11:17–34}}</ref> may have originally referred to the [[Agape feast]] (or love feast), the shared [[communal meal]] with which the Eucharist was originally associated.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lambert |first=J.C. |title=''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'' |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. |year=1978 |edition=reprint |isbn=978-0802880451 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/internationalsta0002unse }}</ref> The Agape feast is mentioned in Jude 12<ref>{{bibleverse|Jude|12}}</ref> but "The Lord's Supper" is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine. ===Early Christian sources=== The ''[[Didache]]'' (Greek: {{lang|grc|Διδαχή}}, "teaching") is an [[Early Church]] treatise that includes instructions for [[baptism]] and the Eucharist. Most scholars date it to the late 1st century,<ref>[[Bruce Metzger]], ''The canon of the New Testament''. 1997</ref> and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.<ref>"There are now two quite separate Eucharistic celebrations given in Didache 9–10, with the earlier one now put in second place". Crossan. ''The historical Jesus''. Citing Riggs, John W. 1984</ref>{{efn|"9.1 Concerning the thanksgiving give thanks thus: 9.2 First, concerning the cup: "We give thanks to you, our Father, For the holy vine of David your servant which you have revealed to us through Jesus your servant. To you be glory for ever". 9.3 And concerning the fragment: "We give thanks to you, our Father, For the life and knowledge, which you have revealed to us through Jesus your servant". But let no one eat or drink of your Eucharist, unless they have been baptized into the name of the Lord; for concerning this also the Lord has said, "Give not that which is holy to the dogs". 10.1 After you have had your fill, give thanks thus: 10.2 We give thanks to you holy Father for your holy Name which you have made to dwell in our hearts and for the knowledge, faith and immortality which you have revealed to us through Jesus your servant. To you be glory for ever. 10.3 You Lord almighty have created everything for the sake of your Name; you have given human beings food and drink to partake with enjoyment so that they might give thanks; but to us you have given the grace of spiritual food and drink and of eternal life through Jesus your servant. 10.4 Above all we give you thanks because you are mighty. To you be glory for ever. 10.5 Remember Lord your Church, to preserve it from all evil and to make it perfect in your love. And, sanctified, gather it from the four winds into your kingdom which you have prepared for it. Because yours is the power and the glory for ever. ..."}} The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14.{{efn|"14.1 But every Lord's day do ye gather yourselves together, and break bread, and give thanksgiving after having confessed your transgressions, that your sacrifice may be pure. 14.2. But let no one that is at variance with his fellow come together with you, until they be reconciled, that your sacrifice may not be profaned. 14.3. For this is that which was spoken by the Lord: In every place and time offer to me a pure sacrifice; for I am a great King, saith the Lord, and my name is wonderful among the nations."}} [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (born {{circa|35 or 50}}, died between 98 and 117), one of the Apostolic Fathers,{{efn|The tradition that Ignatius was a direct disciple of the [[Apostle John]] is consistent with the content of his letters.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www./|title=Introduction to the Roberts-Donaldson translation of his writings |access-date=2007-10-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229052738/http://www./|archive-date=29 December 2007}}</ref>}} mentions the Eucharist as "the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ": {{blockquote|They abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer, because they confess not the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again. [...] Let that be deemed a proper Eucharist, which is [administered] either by the bishop, or by one to whom he has entrusted it.|Smyrnaeans, 7–8<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0109.htm Letter to the Smyrnaeans, 7-8]</ref>}} {{blockquote|Take heed, then, to have but one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup to [show forth ] the unity of His blood; one altar; as there is one bishop, along with the presbytery and deacons, my fellow-servants: that so, whatsoever you do, you may do it according to [the will of] God.|Philadephians, 4<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0108.htm Letter to the Philadelphians, 4]</ref>}} [[Justin Martyr]] (born {{c.|100}}, died {{c.|165}}) mentions in this regard: {{blockquote|And this food is called among us {{lang|grc|Εὐχαριστία}} [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh.<ref>{{cite book |last1=St. Justin Martyr |title=CHURCH FATHERS: The First Apology Chapter 66 |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm |access-date=5 December 2021}}</ref><ref>See [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.lxv.html First Apology], 65–67</ref>}} [[Paschasius Radbertus]] (785–865) was a Carolingian theologian, and the abbot of [[Corbie Abbey|Corbie]], whose best-known and influential work is an exposition on the nature of the Eucharist written around 831, entitled {{lang|la|De Corpore et Sanguine Domini}}. In it, Paschasius agrees with [[Ambrose|St Ambrose]] in affirming that the Eucharist contains the true, historical body of Jesus Christ. According to Paschasius, God is truth itself, and therefore, his words and actions must be true. Christ's proclamation at the [[Last Supper]] that the bread and wine were his body and blood must be taken literally, since God is truth.<ref name="Chazelle">Chazelle</ref>{{rp|9}} He thus believes that the [[transubstantiation]] of the bread and wine offered in the Eucharist really occurs. Only if the Eucharist is the actual body and blood of Christ can a Christian know it is salvific.<ref name="Chazelle"/>{{rp|10}}{{efn|Radbertus was canonized in 1073 by [[Pope Gregory VII]]. His works are edited in {{lang|la|[[Patrologia Latina]]}}, volume 120 (1852).}} === Jews and the Eucharist === The concept of the Jews both destroying and partaking in some perverted version of the Eucharist has been a vessel to promote [[anti-Judaism]] and anti-Jewish ideology and violence. In medieval times, Jews were often depicted stabbing or in some other way physically harming communion wafers.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}} These characterizations drew parallels to the idea that the Jews killed Christ; murdering this transubstantiation or "host" was thought of as a repetition of the event. Jewish people's eagerness to destroy hosts were also a variation of [[blood libel]] charges, with Jews being accused of murdering bodies of Christ, whether they be communion wafers or Christian children. The blood libel charges and the concept of Eucharist are also related in the belief that blood is efficacious, meaning it has some sort of divine power.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Niremberg |first=David |title=Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |date=February 4, 2013 |isbn=9780393347913 |location=New York}}</ref> ==Eucharistic theology== {{Main|Eucharistic theology}} Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence of [[Christ]] in this rite. However, Christians differ about exactly how, where and how long Christ is present in it.<ref name="EB"/> [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], and the [[Church of the East]] teach that the reality (the "substance") of the elements of bread and wine is wholly changed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ, while the appearances (the "species") remain. [[Transubstantiation]] ("change of the substance") is the term used by Catholics to denote {{em|what}} is changed, not to explain {{em|how}} the change occurs, since the Catholic Church teaches that "the signs of bread and wine become, ''in a way surpassing understanding'', the Body and Blood of Christ".<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3Z.HTM Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1333] (emphasis added)</ref> The Orthodox use various terms such as transelementation, but no explanation is official as they prefer to leave it a mystery. [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]]s believe Christ to be "truly and substantially present" with the bread and wine that are seen in the Eucharist,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mahler|first=Corey|date=2019-12-10|title=Art. X: Of the Holy Supper {{!}} Book of Concord|url=https://bookofconcord.org/apology-of-the-augsburg-confession/article-x/|access-date=2021-11-16|website=bookofconcord.org|language=en-US}}</ref> in a manner referred to as the [[sacramental union]]. They attribute the real presence of Jesus' living body to his word spoken in the Eucharist, and not to the faith of those receiving it. They also believe that "forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation" are given through the words of Christ in the Eucharist to those who believe his words ("given and shed for you").<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mahler|first=Corey|date=2020-10-21|title=Part VI {{!}} Book of Concord|url=https://bookofconcord.org/small-catechism/part-vi/|access-date=2021-11-16|website=bookofconcord.org|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Calvinism|Reformed Christians]] also believe Christ to be present in the Eucharist, but describe this presence as a [[Lord's Supper in Reformed theology|spiritual presence]], not a physical one.<ref>{{cite book |last=Horton |first=Michael S. |author-link=Michael Horton (theologian) |title=People and Place: A Covenant Ecclesiology |year=2008 |location=Louisville, KY |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |isbn=978-0664230715 |page=126}}</ref> Anglicans adhere to [[Anglican eucharistic theology|a range of views]] depending on [[churchmanship]] although the teaching in the Anglican [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] holds that the body of Christ is received by the faithful only in a heavenly and spiritual manner, a doctrine also taught in the Methodist [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]]. Christians adhering to the theology of [[Memorialism]], such as the [[Anabaptist Church]]es, do not believe in the concept of the real presence, believing that the Eucharist is only a ceremonial remembrance or [[memorialism|memorial]] of the death of Christ.<ref name="Finger2010">{{cite book |last1=Finger |first1=Thomas N. |title=A Contemporary Anabaptist Theology: Biblical, Historical, Constructive |date=26 February 2010 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-7890-1 |page=186 |language=English |quote=Anabaptists here, despite sharp disagreement with Zwingli over baptism, generally affirmed his memorialism.}}</ref> The ''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'' document of the [[World Council of Churches]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text?set_language=en |title=Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry (Faith and Order Paper no. 111, the "Lima Text") |publisher=Oikoumene.org |date=1982-01-15 |access-date=2019-05-16 |archive-date=7 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107040653/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text?set_language=en |url-status=dead }}</ref> attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ", "the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us", "the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of his [[Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist|real presence]]", "Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the Kingdom". ==Ritual and liturgy== Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a [[sacrament]].{{efn|For example, Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, "Anglo-Catholic" Anglicans, Old Catholics; and cf. the presentation of the Eucharist as a sacrament in the ''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'' document<ref>[http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry. html#c10499 ''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'' document]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> of the [[World Council of Churches]]}} Some [[Protestants]] (though not all) prefer to instead call it an ''[[Ordinance (Christianity)|ordinance]]'', viewing it not as a specific channel of [[divine grace]] but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ. ===Catholic Church=== {{Main|Eucharist in the Catholic Church}} [[File:Ecce Agnus Dei.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|At a Solemn [[Tridentine Mass]], the Host is displayed to the people before Communion.]] In the Catholic Church the Eucharist is considered as a [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacrament]], according to the church the Eucharist is "the source and summit of the Christian life."<ref>{{cite book |title=Lumen gentium 11 |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |access-date=1 January 2019}}</ref> "The other sacraments, and indeed all ecclesiastical ministries and works of the apostolate, are bound up with the Eucharist and are oriented toward it. For in the blessed Eucharist is contained the whole spiritual good of the Church, namely Christ himself, our Pasch."<ref>{{cite book |title=Presbyterorum ordinis 5 |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19651207_presbyterorum-ordinis_en.html |access-date=1 January 2019}}</ref> ("Pasch" is a word that sometimes means Easter, sometimes Passover.)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Definition of PASCH|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Pasch|access-date=2020-10-27|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en}}</ref> ====As a sacrifice==== {{Main|Eucharist in the Catholic Church#Eucharist in the Mass}} In the Eucharist the same sacrifice that Jesus made only once on the cross is made present at every Mass. According to [[Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church]], "The Eucharist is the very sacrifice of the Body and Blood of the Lord Jesus which he instituted to perpetuate the sacrifice of the cross throughout the ages until his return in glory."<ref>{{cite web |title=Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church #271|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/compendium_ccc/documents/archive_2005_compendium-ccc_en.html#The%20sacraments%20of%20Christian%20initiation |website=www.vatican.va |access-date=28 December 2018}}</ref> "When the Church celebrates the Eucharist, she commemorates Christ's Passover, and it is made present the sacrifice Christ offered once for all on the cross remains ever present. [...] The Eucharist is thus a sacrifice because it re-presents (makes present) the same and only sacrifice offered once for all on the cross"<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1362–67}}</ref> The sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are one single sacrifice: "The victim is one and the same: the same now offers through the ministry of priests, who then offered himself on the cross; only the manner of offering is different."<ref name="scborromeo.org">{{cite web| url = http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/para/1367.htm| title = Catechism of the Catholic Church #1367}}</ref> In the holy sacrifice of the Mass, "it is Christ himself, the eternal high priest of the New Covenant who, acting through the ministry of the priests, offers the Eucharistic sacrifice. And it is the same Christ, really present under the species of bread and wine, who is the offering of the Eucharistic sacrifice."<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/para/1410.htm| title = Catechism of the Catholic Church #1410}}</ref> ====As a real presence==== {{Main|Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist}} [[File:20190529 Spain and Portugal El Camino Pilgrimage 1063 (48002601588).jpg|thumb|Eucharistic celebration at the [[Sanctuary of Fátima|Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima]].]] According to the [[Catholic Church]] Jesus Christ is present in the Eucharist in a true, real and substantial way, with his body, blood, soul and divinity.<ref>{{cite book |title=Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church #282 |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/compendium_ccc/documents/archive_2005_compendium-ccc_en.html |access-date=28 November 2021}}</ref> By the [[consecration]], the [[Substance theory|substances]] of the bread and wine actually become the substances of the body and blood of Christ ([[transubstantiation]]) while the appearances or "species" of the bread and wine remain unaltered (e.g. colour, taste, feel, and smell). This change is brought about in the eucharistic prayer through the efficacy of the word of Christ and by the action of the Holy Spirit.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Real Presence of Jesus Christ in the Sacrament of the Eucharist: Basic Questions and Answers|url=http://www.usccb.org/prayer-and-worship/the-mass/order-of-mass/liturgy-of-the-eucharist/the-real-presence-of-jesus-christ-in-the-sacrament-of-the-eucharist-basic-questions-and-answers.cfm|website=United States Conference of Catholic Bishops|access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Aquinas|first1=Thomas|title=Summa Theologiæ Article 2|url=http://www.newadvent.org/summa/4075.htm|website=New Advent|access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.hanover.edu/texts/trent/ct13.html |title=Council of Trent, Decree concerning the Most Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, chapter IV and canon II |publisher=History.hanover.edu |access-date=2019-05-16}}</ref> The Eucharistic presence of Christ begins at the moment of the consecration and endures as long as the Eucharistic species subsist,<ref>Council of Trent, Decree concerning the Most Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist, canon III</ref><ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1377}}</ref> that is, until the Eucharist is digested, physically destroyed, or decays by some natural process<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mulcahy, O.P.|first1=Bernard|title=The Holy Eucharist|url=http://www.kofc.org/un/es/resources/cis/cis320.pdf|website=kofc.org|publisher=Knights of Columbus|access-date=4 January 2017|ref=p. 32}}</ref> (at which point, theologian [[Thomas Aquinas]] argued, the substance of the bread and wine cannot return).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Aquinas|first1=Thomas|title=Summa Theologiae, Question 77|url=http://www.newadvent.org/summa/4077.htm#article4|website=New Advent|publisher=Kevin Knight|access-date=4 January 2017}}</ref> The [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]] in 1215 spoke of the bread and wine as "transubstantiated" into the body and blood of Christ: "His body and blood are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the forms of bread and wine, the bread and wine having been transubstantiated, by God's power, into his body and blood".{{efn|A misprint in the English translation of the Medieval Sourcebook: Canons of the Fourth Lateran Council, 1215 gives {{lang|la|"transubstantiatio"}} in place of {{lang|la|"transubstantiatis"}} in Canon 1,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/lateran4.html |title=Canon 1. |access-date=6 January 2011 |archive-date=31 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531072307/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/lateran4.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref> as opposed to the original: {{lang|la|"Iesus Christus, cuius corpus et sanguis in sacramento altaris sub speciebus panis et vini veraciter continentur, {{em|transsubstantiatis}} pane in corpus, et vino in sanguinem potestate divina"}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://catho.org/9.php?d=bxw#bo5 |title=Denzinger 8020 |publisher=Catho.org |access-date=2019-05-16}}</ref>}}<ref>{{Catholic|prescript=|wstitle=Fourth Lateran Council (1215)}}. [http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Councils/ecum12-2.htm#Confession of Faith ''Fourth Lateran Council: 1215''], 1. Confession of Faith, retrieved 2010-03-13.</ref> In 1551, the [[Council of Trent]] definitively declared: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread,<ref>{{Bibleverse|John|6:51}}</ref> it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called [[transubstantiation]]."<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1376}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Under Julius III Council of Trent Session 13 Chapter IV |url=https://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/TRENT13.HTM |access-date=19 December 2018 |archive-date=6 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206044115/http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/TRENT13.HTM |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://history.hanover.edu/texts/trent/ct13.html Session XIII, chapter IV]; cf. canon II)</ref> The church holds that the body and blood of Jesus can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or [[extraordinary minister of Holy Communion]]) says "The Body of Christ" when administering the Host and "The Blood of Christ" when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire. "Christ is present whole and entire in each of the species and whole and entire in each of their parts, in such a way that the breaking of the bread does not divide Christ."<ref>{{cite web |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church – The sacrament of the Eucharist #1377 |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a3.htm |website=www.vatican.va |access-date=28 December 2018}}</ref> [[File:BentoXVI-51-11052007 (frag).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Pope Benedict XVI]] celebrates a Mass.]] The Catholic Church sees as the main basis for this belief the words of Jesus himself at his Last Supper: the [[Synoptic Gospels]]<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|26:26–28|NAB}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|14:22–24|NAB}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|22:19–20|NAB}}</ref> and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul's]] recount that Jesus at the time of taking the bread and the cup said: "This is my body […] this is my blood."<ref>{{bibleref2|1cor|11:23–25||1 Cor. 11:23–25}}</ref> The Catholic understanding of these words, from the [[Patristics|Patristic]] authors onward, has emphasized their roots in the covenantal history of the Old Testament. The interpretation of Christ's words against this Old Testament background coheres with and supports belief in the [[Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://stephenpimentel.tripod.com/papers/eucharist2.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210092453/http://stephenpimentel.tripod.com/papers/eucharist2.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-12-10 |title='Abrahamic, Mosaic, and Prophetic Foundations of the Eucharist'. ''Inside the Vatican'' 16, no. 4 (2008): 102–05 |access-date=2019-05-16}}</ref> ===Reception and devotions=== According to the Catholic Church doctrine receiving the Eucharist in a state of [[mortal sin]] is a [[sacrilege]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.catholicity.com/baltimore-catechism/lesson28.html|title=Holy Communion|website=www.catholicity.com}}</ref> and only those who are in a state of grace, that is, without any mortal sin, can receive it.<ref>{{cite book |title=Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church # 291 |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/compendium_ccc/documents/archive_2005_compendium-ccc_en.html |access-date=20 August 2019}}</ref> Based on 1 Corinthians 11:27–29, it affirms the following: "Anyone who is aware of having committed a mortal sin must not receive Holy Communion, even if he experiences deep contrition, without having first received [[Penance (Catholic Church)|sacramental absolution]], unless he has a grave reason for receiving Communion and there is no possibility of going to confession."<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1385}}</ref><ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|1457}}</ref> Since the Eucharist is the body and blood of Christ, "the worship due to the sacrament of the Eucharist, whether during the celebration of the Mass or outside it, is the worship of {{lang|la|latria}}, that is, the adoration given to God alone.""<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.vatican.va/archive/compendium_ccc/documents/archive_2005_compendium-ccc_en.html| title = Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church #286}}</ref> The Blessed Sacrament can be exposed (displayed) on an [[altar]] in a [[monstrance]]. Rites involving the exposure of the Blessed Sacrament include [[Benediction]] and [[eucharistic adoration]]. According to [[Catholic theology]], the host, after the Rite of Consecration, is no longer bread, but is the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ. Catholics believe that Jesus is the sacrificial [[Lamb of God]] prefigured in the [[Old Testament]] [[Passover]]. Unless the flesh of that Passover sacrificial lamb was consumed, the members of the household would not be saved from death. As the Passover was the [[Old Covenant]], so the Eucharist became the [[New Covenant]]. (Matthew 26:26–28, Mark 14:22-24, Luke 22: 19–20, and John 6:48–58) ===Eastern Orthodoxy=== [[File:Liturgy St James 1.jpg|thumb|Eucharistic elements prepared for the Divine Liturgy]] {{Main|Divine Liturgy}} Within [[Eastern Christianity]], the Eucharistic service is called the "Divine Liturgy" ([[Byzantine Rite]]) or similar names in other rites. It comprises two main divisions: the first is the "Liturgy of the Catechumens" which consists of introductory litanies, antiphons and scripture readings, culminating in a reading from one of the [[Gospels]] and, often, a [[homily]]; the second is the "Liturgy of the Faithful" in which the Eucharist is offered, consecrated, and received as Holy Communion. Within the latter, the actual Eucharistic prayer is called the ''[[anaphora (liturgy)|anaphora]]'', (literally "offering" or "carrying up", from the Greek {{lang|grc|ἀνα- + φέρω}}). In the [[Rite of Constantinople]], two different anaphoras are currently used: one is attributed to [[John Chrysostom]], the other to [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil the Great]]. In the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]], a variety of anaphoras are used, but all are similar in structure to those of the Constantinopolitan Rite, in which the Anaphora of Saint John Chrysostom is used most days of the year; Saint Basil's is offered on the Sundays of [[Great Lent]], the eves of [[Christmas]] and [[Theophany]], [[Maundy Thursday|Holy Thursday]], [[Holy Saturday]], and upon his feast day (1 January). At the conclusion of the Anaphora the bread and wine are held to be the body and blood of Christ. Unlike the Latin Church, the [[Byzantine Rite]] uses leavened bread, with the leaven symbolizing the presence of the Holy Spirit.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zSXu17g7BRwC&pg=PA90 |first=Steven |last=Runciman |title=The Great Church in Captivity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1968 |isbn=978-0521313100 |page=90}}</ref> The [[Greek Orthodox Church]] utilizes leavened bread in their celebration.<ref>[https://www.orthodoxanswers.org/why-do-the-orthodox-use-leavened-bread-since-leaven-is-a-symbol-of-sin-is-not-christs-body-sinless/ Why do the Orthodox use leavened bread since leaven is a symbol of sin? Is not Christ's body sinless? ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826183243/https://www.orthodoxanswers.org/why-do-the-orthodox-use-leavened-bread-since-leaven-is-a-symbol-of-sin-is-not-christs-body-sinless/ |date=26 August 2018 }} – orthodoxanswers.org. Retrieved 26 August 2018.</ref> Conventionally this change in the elements is understood to be accomplished at the [[epiclesis]] ("invocation") by which the [[Holy Spirit]] is invoked and the [[consecration]] of the bread and wine as the genuine body and blood of Christ is specifically requested, but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary (albeit lengthy) prayer, no one moment within it can readily be singled out. ===Protestantism=== ====Anabaptists==== Anabaptist denominations, such as the [[Mennonite]]s and German Baptist Brethren Churches like the [[Church of the Brethren]] churches and congregations have the [[lovefeast|Agape feast]], [[footwashing]], as well as the serving of the bread and wine in the celebration of the [[Lovefeast]]. In the more modern groups, Communion is only the serving of the Lord's Supper. In the communion meal, the members of the Mennonite churches renew their covenant with God and with each other.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/O745ME.html |title=Ordinances |publisher=Gameo|date=24 August 2013 |access-date=11 October 2013}}</ref> ====Moravian/Hussite ==== The [[Moravian Church]] adheres to a view known as the "sacramental presence",<ref name="Atwood2010">{{cite book|last=Atwood|first=Craig D.|title=Community of the Cross: Moravian Piety in Colonial Bethlehem|date=1 November 2010|publisher=Penn State Press|language=en|isbn=9780271047508|page=165|quote=In the eighteenth century, the Moravians consistently promoted the Lutheran doctrine of the real presence, which they described as a "sacramental presence."}}</ref> teaching that in the [[sacrament]] of [[Holy Communion]]:<ref name="VelikoGros2005"/> {{blockquote|Christ gives his body and blood according to his promise to all who partake of the elements. When we eat and drink the bread and the wine of the Supper with expectant faith, we thereby have communion with the body and blood of our Lord and receive the forgiveness of sins, life, and salvation. In this sense, the bread and wine are rightly said to be Christ's body and blood which he gives to his disciples.<ref name="VelikoGros2005">{{cite book|last1=Veliko|first1=Lydia|last2=Gros|first2=Jeffrey|title=Growing Consensus II: Church Dialogues in the United States, 1992–2004|year=2005|publisher=Bishop's Committee for Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs, United States Conference of Catholic Bishops|language=en|isbn=978-1574555578|page=90}}</ref>}} [[Nicolaus Zinzendorf]], a [[bishop]] of the Moravian Church, stated that Holy Communion is the "most intimate of all connection with the person of the Saviour."<ref name="Knouse2008">{{cite book|last=Knouse|first=Nola Reed|title=The Music of the Moravian Church in America|year=2008|publisher=University Rochester Press|language=en|isbn=978-1580462600|page=34|quote=Holy Communion, of course, is a central act of worship for all Christians, and it should come as no surprise that it was also highly esteemed in the Moravian Church. Zinzendorf referred to it as the "most intimate of all connection with the person of the Saviour." The real presence of Christ was thankfully received, though, typically, the Moravians refrained from delving too much into the precise way the Savior was sacramentally present}}</ref> The Order of Service for the observance of the Lord's Supper includes a salutation, hymns, the [[right hand of fellowship]], prayer, consecration of the elements, distribution of the elements, partaking of the elements, and a benediction.<ref name="Moravian2010">{{cite web |title=The Observance of the Lord's Supper |url=https://www.moravian.org/2018/06/the-observance-of-the-lords-supper/ |publisher=Moravian Church |access-date=13 October 2022 |language=English |date=2010}}</ref> Moravian Christians traditionally practice footwashing before partaking in the Lord's Supper, although in certain Moravian congregations, this rite is observed chiefly on [[Maundy Thursday]].<ref name="Vos2009">{{cite book |last1=Vos |first1=Nelvin |title=Inter-Actions: Relationships of Religion and Drama |date=16 May 2009 |publisher=University Press of America |isbn=978-0-7618-4470-9 |page=34 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Benham">{{cite book |last1=Benham |first1=William |title=The Dictionary of Religion |date=1887 |publisher=Cassell |page=719 |language=English}}</ref> ====Anglican==== {{Main|Eucharist in Anglicanism}} [[File:Holy Communion, Owen Jones.png|thumb|Illuminated title of "The Holy Communion" from the [[Book of Common Prayer (1845 illuminated version)|1845 illustrated ''Book of Common Prayer'']].]] Anglican theology on the matter of the Eucharist is nuanced. The Eucharist is neither wholly a matter of transubstantiation nor simply devotional and [[Memorialism|memorialist]] in orientation. The Anglican churches do not adhere to the belief that the Lord's Supper is merely a devotional reflection on Christ's death. For some Anglicans, Christ is spiritually present in the fullness of his person in the Eucharist. The [[Church of England]] itself has repeatedly refused to make official any definition of "the presence of Christ". Church authorities prefer to leave it a mystery while proclaiming the consecrated bread and wine to be "spiritual food" of "Christ's Most Precious Body and Blood"; the bread and wine are an "outward sign of an inner grace".<ref>Book of Common Prayer Catechism</ref>{{rp|859}} The words of administration at communion allow for real presence or for a real but spiritual presence (Calvinist receptionism and virtualism). This concept was congenial to most Anglicans well into the 19th century.<ref>''The Study of Liturgy'', Revised Edition, SPCK London, 1992, p. 316.</ref> From the 1840s, the Tractarians reintroduced the idea of "the real presence" to suggest a corporeal presence, which could be done since the language of the BCP rite referred to the body and blood of Christ without details as well as referring to these as spiritual food at other places in the text. Both are found in the Latin and other rites, but in the former, a definite interpretation as corporeal is applied. Both receptionism and virtualism assert the real presence. The former places emphasis on the recipient and the latter states "the presence" is confected by the power of the Holy Spirit but not in Christ's natural body. His presence is objective and does not depend on its existence from the faith of the recipient. The liturgy petitions that elements "be" rather than "become" the body and blood of Christ leaving aside any theory of a change in the natural elements: bread and wine are the outer reality and "the presence" is the inner invisible except as perceived in faith.<ref>''The Study of Liturgy''</ref>{{rp|314–324}} In 1789, the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]] in the United States restored explicit language that the Eucharist is an [[oblation]] (sacrifice) to God. Subsequent revisions of the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' by member churches of the [[Anglican Communion]] have done likewise (the Church of England did so in the [[Book of Common Prayer (1928, England)|proposed 1928 prayer book]]).<ref>The Study of Liturgy</ref>{{rp|318–324}} The so-called "[[Black Rubric]]" in the [[Book of Common Prayer (1552)|1552 prayer book]], which allowed kneeling when receiving Holy Communion was omitted in the [[Book of Common Prayer (1559)|1559 edition]] at Queen [[Elizabeth I]]'s insistence. It was reinstated in the [[1662 prayer book]], modified to deny any corporal presence of Christ's natural flesh and blood, which are in Heaven and not here. {{citation needed|date=August 2023}} ====Baptists==== [[File:Communion Baptist.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.15|The serving of elements individually, to be taken in unison, is common among Baptists.]] The bread and "fruit of the vine" indicated in Matthew, Mark and Luke as the elements of the Lord's Supper<ref>{{bibleref|Matthew|26:26–29}}, {{bibleref|Mark|14:22–25}}, {{bibleref|Luke|22:19}}</ref> are interpreted by many [[Baptists]] as unleavened bread (although leavened bread is often used) and, in line with the historical stance of some Baptist groups (since the mid-19th century) against partaking of alcoholic beverages, [[grape juice]], which they commonly refer to simply as "the Cup".<ref>See, e.g., {{cite book | first=J. R. | last=Graves | year=1928 | title=What is It to Eat and Drink Unworthily | publisher=Baptist Sunday School Committee | oclc=6323560}}</ref> The unleavened bread also underscores the symbolic belief attributed to Christ's breaking the bread and saying that it was his body. A [[saltine cracker|soda cracker]] is often used. Some Baptists consider the Communion to be primarily an act of remembrance of Christ's atonement, and a time of renewal of personal commitment ([[memorialism]]) such as [[Free Will Baptist|Free Will Baptists]], while others, such as [[Particular Baptists]] affirm the Reformed doctrine of a [[Eucharistic theology#Pneumatic presence|pneumatic presence]],<ref name="Wax2007"/> which is expressed in the [[1689 Baptist Confession of Faith|Second London Baptist Confession]], specifically in Chapter 30, Articles 3 and 7. This view is prevalent among [[Southern Baptists]], those in the [[Founders Ministries|Founders movement]] (a Calvinistic movement among some [[Independent Baptists]]),and several individuals in other Baptist associations.<ref name="Wax2007">{{cite web |last1=Wax |first1=Trevin |title=Baptists and the Lord's Supper |url=https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/blogs/trevin-wax/baptists-and-the-lords-supper/ |publisher=[[The Gospel Coalition]] |access-date=27 April 2022 |language=English |date=6 June 2007 |quote=There are many other Baptists in history who have understood the "spiritual presence" of Christ in the Lord's Supper.}}</ref> Communion practices and frequency vary among congregations. A typical practice is to have small cups of juice and plates of broken bread distributed to the seated congregation. In other congregations, communicants may proceed to the altar to receive the elements, then return to their seats. A widely accepted practice is for all to receive and hold the elements until everyone is served, then consume the bread and cup in unison. Usually, music is performed and Scripture such as the precise verses of Jesus speaking at the Last Supper is read during the receiving of the elements. Some Baptist churches are closed-Communionists (even requiring full membership in the local church congregation before partaking), with others being partially or fully open-Communionists. It is rare to find a Baptist church where the Lord's Supper is observed every Sunday; most observe monthly or quarterly, with some holding Communion only during a designated Communion service or following a worship service. Adults and children in attendance who have not made a profession of faith in Christ are expected to not participate. ====Lutheran==== {{Main|Eucharist in Lutheranism}} {{see also|Divine Service (Lutheran)}} [[File:EucharistELCA.JPG|right|thumb|Table set for the Eucharist in an ELCA service]] [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] believe that the body and blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with, and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink the body and blood of Christ himself as well as the bread and wine in the Eucharistic [[Lutheran sacraments|sacrament]].<ref>[[Augsburg Confession]], Article 10</ref> The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as the "[[sacramental union]]".<ref name="MattoxRoeber">{{cite book |last1=Mattox |first1=Mickey L. |last2=Roeber |first2=A. G. |title=Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Catholic, and Lutheran Theological Conversation |date=2012 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0802866943 |page=54 |language=English |quote=In this "sacramental union," Lutherans thought, the body and blood of Christ are so united to the bread and wine of the Holy Communion that the two may be identified. They are at the same time body and blood, bread and wine. This divine food is given, more-over, not just for the strengthening of faith, nor only as a sign of our unity in faith, nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of faith, nor only as a sign of our unity in faith, nor merely as an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very body and blood of Christ precisely for the strengthening of union of faith. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means by which the union of faith, effected by God's Word and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained. Intimate union with Christ, in other words, leads directly to the most intimate communion in his holy body and blood.}}</ref><ref>F. L. Cross, ed., ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', second edition, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), 340 ''sub loco''.</ref> Others have erroneously called this [[consubstantiation]], a [[Lollardist]] doctrine, though this term is specifically rejected by Lutheran churches and theologians since it creates confusion about the actual doctrine and subjects the doctrine to the control of a non-biblical philosophical concept in the same manner as, in their view, does the term "[[transubstantiation]]".<ref>J. T. Mueller, ''Christian Dogmatics: A Handbook of Doctrinal Theology'', (St. Louis: CPH, 1934), 519; cf. also Erwin L. Lueker, ''Christian Cyclopedia'', (St. Louis: CPH, 1975), under the entry "consubstantiation".</ref> While an official movement exists in Lutheran congregations to celebrate Eucharist weekly, using formal rites very similar to the Catholic and "high" Anglican services, it was historically common for congregations to celebrate monthly or even quarterly.<ref>[http://www.livingwordmedina.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7&Itemid=8 What Lutherans Believe About Holy Communion] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320044022/http://www.livingwordmedina.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7&Itemid=8 |date=20 March 2011 }}. Retrieved 2011–04–25.</ref><ref>[http://www.lutheransonline.com/servlet/lo_ProcServ/dbpage=page&mode=display&gid=20052995655655607101111555&pg=20053264518475013601111555 How Lutherans Worship] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110324191349/http://www.lutheransonline.com/servlet/lo_ProcServ/dbpage%3Dpage%26mode%3Ddisplay%26gid%3D20052995655655607101111555%26pg%3D20053264518475013601111555 |date=24 March 2011 }} at LutheransOnline.com. Retrieved 2011–04–24.</ref> Even in congregations where Eucharist is offered weekly, there is not a requirement that every church service be a Eucharistic service, nor that all members of a congregation must receive it weekly.<ref>[http://www.elca.org/Growing-In-Faith/Worship/Learning-Center/FAQs/Weekly-Communion.aspx How do we move to weekly Communion?] at elca.org Retrieved 2011-09-18</ref> ====Open Brethren and Exclusive Brethren==== Among [[Open Brethren|Open]] assemblies, also termed [[Plymouth Brethren]], the Eucharist is more commonly called the Breaking of Bread or the Lord's Supper. They believe it is only a symbolic reenactment of the Last Supper and a memorial,<ref name="Gibson">{{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=Jean |title=Lesson 13: The Lord's Supper |url=http://plymouthbrethren.org/article/4960 |publisher=Plymouth Brethren Writings |access-date=27 April 2022 |language=English}}</ref> and is central to the worship of both individual and assembly.<ref name="Darby">Darby, J.N., quoted in Bradshaw, P.F. ''The new SCM dictionary of liturgy and worship''</ref>{{rp|375}} In principle, the service is open to all [[baptism|baptized]] Christians, but an individual's eligibility to participate depends on the views of each particular assembly. The service takes the form of non-liturgical, open worship with all male participants allowed to pray audibly and select hymns or readings. The breaking of bread itself typically consists of one leavened loaf, which is prayed over and broken by a participant in the meeting<ref>Muller, G. (1860) ''A Narrative of some of the Lord's dealings with George Muller''</ref>{{rp|279–281}} and then shared around. The wine is poured from a single container into one or several vessels, and these are again shared around.<ref>Bradshaw, P.F. ''The new SCM dictionary of liturgy and worship''</ref>{{rp|375}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.brethrenonline.org/faqs/Brethren.htm|archiveurl=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518150855/http://brethrenonline.org/faqs/Brethren.htm|url-status=dead|title=Brethren Online FAQs|archive-date=18 May 2016}}</ref> The [[Exclusive Brethren]] follow a similar practice to the [[Open Brethren]]. They also call the Eucharist the Breaking of Bread or the Lord's Supper.<ref name="Darby" /> ====Reformed (Continental Reformed, Presbyterian and Congregationalist)==== {{Main|Lord's Supper in Reformed theology}} In the [[Reformed tradition]] (which includes the [[Continental Reformed Church]]es, the [[Presbyterian Church]]es, and the [[Congregationalist Church]]es), the Eucharist is variously administered. The Calvinist view of the Sacrament sees a real presence of Christ in the supper which differs both from the objective ontological presence of the Catholic view, and from the real absence of Christ and the mental recollection of the memorialism of the Zwinglians<ref>McGrath, Alister E. ''Reformation Thought'' Oxford: Blackwell (2003)</ref>{{rp|189}} and their successors. [[File:South Leith communion token reverse.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Many Presbyterian churches historically used [[communion token]]s to provide entrance to the Lord's Supper.]] The bread and wine become the means by which the believer has real communion with Christ in his death and Christ's body and blood are present to the faith of the believer as really as the bread and wine are present to their senses but this presence is "spiritual", that is the work of the Holy Spirit.<ref>Hendry, George S. ''The Westminster Confession for Today'' SCM (1960) p. 232</ref> There is no standard frequency; John Calvin desired weekly communion, but the city council only approved monthly, and monthly celebration has become the most common practice in Reformed churches today. Many, on the other hand, follow [[John Knox]] in celebration of the Lord's supper on a quarterly basis, to give proper time for reflection and inward consideration of one's own state and sin. Recently, Presbyterian and Reformed Churches have been considering whether to restore more frequent communion, including weekly communion in more churches, considering that infrequent communion was derived from a memorialist view of the Lord's Supper, rather than Calvin's view of the sacrament as a means of grace.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.opc.org/OS/html/V6/4l.html|title=The Lord's Supper: How Often?|author=D. G. Hart and John R. Muether|journal=[[Ordained Servant]]|volume=6|issue=4|date=October 1997}}</ref> Some churches use bread without any [[leavening agent|raising agent]] (whether [[yeast]] or another [[leaven]].) in view of the use of [[Matzah|unleavened bread]] at [[Passover seder|Jewish Passover meals]], while others use any bread available. The [[Presbyterian Church (USA)]], for instance, prescribes "bread common to the culture". Harking back to the [[regulative principle of worship]], the Reformed tradition had long eschewed coming forward to receive communion, preferring to have the elements distributed throughout the congregation by the presbyters (elders) more in the style of a shared meal. Over the last half a century it is much more common in Presbyterian churches to have Holy Communion monthly or on a weekly basis. It is also becoming common to receive the elements by intinction (receiving a piece of consecrated bread or wafer, dipping it in the blessed wine, and consuming it). Wine and grape juice are both used, depending on the congregation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Question & Answer: The Orthodox Presbyterian Church |url=https://opc.org/qa.html?question_id=138 |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=opc.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>[https://www.anglicancommunion.org/media/42392/ialc_report_on_elements_used_in_communion.pdf Eucharistic Food and Drink / A report of the Inter-Anglican Liturgical Commission to the Anglican Consultative Council1] anglicancommunion.org</ref> Most Reformed churches practice "open communion", i.e., all believers who are united to a church of like faith and practice, and who are not living in sin, would be allowed to join in the Sacrament. ====Methodist==== [[File:Methodistcommunion6.jpg|upright=0.7|thumb|right|A United Methodist minister consecrating the elements]] The British ''Catechism for the use of the people called Methodists'' states that, "[in the Eucharist] Jesus Christ is [[Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist|present]] with his worshipping people and gives himself to them as their Lord and Saviour".<ref name="Methcat">{{cite book|title=A Catechism for the use of people called Methodists|date=2000|publisher=Methodist Publishing House|location=Peterborough, England|isbn=978-1858521824|page=26}}</ref> Methodist theology of this sacrament is reflected in one of the fathers of the movement, [[Charles Wesley]], who wrote a Eucharistic hymn with the following stanza:<ref name="AbrahamWatson2013">{{cite book|last1=Abraham|first1=William J.|last2=Watson|first2=David F.|title=Key United Methodist Beliefs|year=2013|publisher=Abingdon Press|language=en |isbn=978-1426756610|pages=103–04}}</ref> <poem> We need not now go up to Heaven, To bring the long sought Saviour down; Thou art to all already given, Thou dost e'en now Thy banquet crown: To every faithful soul appear, And show Thy real presence here! </poem> Reflecting [[Wesleyan covenant theology]], Methodists also believe that the Lord's Supper is a sign and seal of the [[covenant of grace]].<ref name="Crowther1815">{{cite book|last=Crowther|first=Jonathan |title=A Portraiture of Methodism|year=1815|language=en|page=224|quote=The Methodists believe, that the covenant of grace has been administered and renewed in different ages of the world. [...] Under the gospel, Christ the substance, prefigured by these shadows, being exhibited, the ordinances in and by which this covenant is dispensed, are ''the preaching of the word'', and the administration of the sacraments of ''baptism'' and the ''Lord's Supper'': which ordinances, though fewer in number, and administered with more simplicity, and less external glory, yet hold forth this covenant in greater fulness, evidence, and spiritual efficacy to all nations, both Jews and Gentiles.}}</ref><ref name="Watson1852">{{cite book|last=Watson|first=Richard|title=An exposition of the gospels of St. Matthew and St. Mark: and some other detached parts of Holy Scripture|year=1852|publisher=George Lane & Levi Scott|language=en|page=282|quote=This covenant, the blood of Christ, that is, the pouring forth of his blood as a sacrficial victim, at once procured and ratified; so that it stands firm to all truly penitent and contrite spirits who believe in him: and of this great truth, the Lord's Supper was the instituted sign and seal; and he who in faith drinks of the cup, having reference to its signification, that blood of Christ which confirms to true believers the whole covenant of grace, is assured thereby of its faithfulness and permanence, and derives to himself the fulness of its blessings.}}</ref> In many [[List of Methodist denominations|Methodist denominations]], non-alcoholic wine (grape juice) is used, so as to include those who do not take alcohol for any reason, as well as a commitment to the Church's historical support of [[Temperance movement|temperance]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Alcohol|url=http://www.methodist.org.uk/who-we-are/views-of-the-church/alcohol|publisher=[[Methodist Church of Great Britain]]|access-date=10 November 2017|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.umc.org/en/content/ask-the-umc-what-do-i-need-to-know-about-holy-communion-in-the-united-methodist-church|title=What do I need to know about communion in the UMC?|website=The United Methodist Church}}</ref> Variations of the [[Eucharistic Prayer]] are provided for various occasions, including communion of the sick and brief forms for occasions that call for greater brevity. Though the ritual is standardized, there is great variation amongst Methodist churches, from typically high-church to low-church, in the enactment and style of celebration. Methodist clergy are not required to be vested when celebrating the Eucharist. [[John Wesley]], a founder of Methodism, said that it was the duty of Christians to receive the sacrament as often as possible. Methodists in the United States are encouraged to celebrate the Eucharist every Sunday, though it is typically celebrated on the first Sunday of each month, while a few go as long as celebrating quarterly (a tradition dating back to the days of [[circuit rider (religious)|circuit riders]] that served multiple churches). Communicants may receive standing, kneeling, or while seated. Gaining more wide acceptance is the practice of receiving by intinction (receiving a piece of consecrated bread or wafer, dipping it in the blessed wine, and consuming it). The most common alternative to intinction is for the communicants to receive the consecrated juice using small, individual, specially made glass or plastic cups known as [[communion cup]]s.<ref>[http://www.christianbook.com/Christian/Books/product Communion Cups, 1000] from Broadman / Holman Church Supply. Christianbook.com. Accessed 5 July 2009.</ref> The [[United Methodist Church]] practices open communion (which it describes as an "[[open table]]"), inviting "all who intend a Christian life, together with their children" to receive the eucharistic elements.<ref>UMC 1992, 29.</ref> ''The Doctrines and Discipline of the Methodist Church'' specifies, on days during which Holy Communion is celebrated, that "Upon entering the church let the communicants bow in prayer and in the spirit of prayer and meditation approach the Blessed Sacrament."<ref>{{cite book|title=The Doctrines and Discipline of the Methodist Church|year=1960|publisher=The Methodist Publishing House|location=Nashville, Tennessee |language=en|page=522}}</ref> ====Nondenominational Christians==== [[File:Lord's cup and Bread.JPG|thumb|right|Communion elements: [[Matzah|matzo]] is sometimes used for bread, emphasising the "re-creation" of the Last Supper.]] Many non-denominational Christians, including the [[Churches of Christ]], receive communion every Sunday. Others, including [[Evangelical]] churches such as the [[Church of God (Anderson, Indiana)|Church of God]] and [[Calvary Chapel]], typically receive communion on a monthly or periodic basis. Many non-denominational Christians hold to the Biblical [[autonomy]] of local churches and have no universal requirement among congregations. Some [[Churches of Christ]], among others, use [[grape juice]] and unleavened wafers or unleavened bread and practice open communion. ===Syriac Christianity=== ====Edessan Rite (Church of the East)==== {{Main|Holy Qurbana}} '''Holy Qurbana''' or '''Qurbana Qaddisha''', the "Holy Offering" or "Holy Sacrifice", refers to the Eucharist as celebrated according to the [[East Syrian Rite|East Syriac Christianity]]. The main [[Anaphora (liturgy)|Anaphora]] of the East Syrian tradition is the [[Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari]]. ====Syro-Antiochene Rite (West Syriac)==== {{Main|Holy Qurobo}} '''Holy Qurobo''' or '''Qurobo Qadisho''' refers to the Eucharist as celebrated in the [[West Syrian Rite|West Syrian traditions]] of [[Syriac Christianity]], while that of the West Syrian tradition is the [[Liturgy of Saint James]]. Both are extremely old, going back at least to the third century, and are the oldest extant liturgies continually in use. ===Restorationism=== ====Irvingian==== In the [[Irvingian Church]]es, Holy Communion, along with Holy Baptism and Holy Sealing, is one of the three [[sacraments]].<ref name="Whalen1981">{{cite book |last1=Whalen |first1=William Joseph |title=Minority Religions in America |date=1981 |publisher=Alba House |isbn=978-0-8189-0413-4 |page=104 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Nomos1992">{{cite book |title=Decisions of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) Federal Republic of Germany |date=1992 |publisher=Nomos |isbn=978-3-8329-2132-3 |page=6 |language=English}}</ref> It is the focus of the Divine Service in the liturgies of Irvingism.<ref>{{cite web |title=Professing Christ in Holy Communion |url=https://www.nac-usa.org/go-deeper/devotionals/2017-devotionals/item/1826-professing-christ-in-holy-communion.html |publisher=[[New Apostolic Church]] |access-date=8 February 2021 |language=English |date=2017 |archive-date=29 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429205629/https://www.nac-usa.org/go-deeper/devotionals/2017-devotionals/item/1826-professing-christ-in-holy-communion.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Edward Irving]], who founded the Irvingian Churches, such as the [[New Apostolic Church]], taught the [[real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]], emphasizing "the ''humiliated'' humanity of Christ in the Lord's Supper."<ref name="Lee2018">{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=David Y. T. |title=A Charismatic Model of the Church: Edward Irving's Teaching in a 21st-century Chinese Context |date= 2018 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-5275-1208-5 |page=167 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Bennett2014">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=David Malcolm |title=Edward Irving Reconsidered: The Man, His Controversies, and the Pentecostal Movement |year=2014 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-62564-865-5 |page=292 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="NAC2020">{{cite web |title=8.2.12 The real presence of the body and blood of Christ in Holy Communion |url=https://nak.org/en/kennenlernen/katechismus?chapter=8.2 |publisher=[[New Apostolic Church]] |access-date=8 February 2021 |language=English |date=18 December 2020|work=The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church}}</ref> Additionally, the Irvingian Churches affirm the "real presence of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion":<ref name="NAC2020"/> {{blockquote|Jesus Christ is in the midst of the congregation as the crucified, risen, and returning Lord. Thus His once-brought sacrifice is also present in that its effect grants the individual access to salvation. In this way, the celebration of Holy Communion causes the partakers to repeatedly envision the sacrificial death of the Lord, which enables them to proclaim it with conviction (1 Corinthians 11: 26).<ref>{{cite web |title=8.2.13 The real presence of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ in Holy Communion |url=https://nak.org/en/kennenlernen/katechismus?id=486cc250-3c08-4bf9-bc8b-149d3628fcf1 |publisher=[[New Apostolic Church]] |access-date=8 February 2021 |language=English |date=18 December 2020|work=The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church}}</ref>}} In the Irvingian tradition of Restorationist Christianity, [[consubstantiation]] is taught as the explanation of how the real presence is effected in the liturgy.<ref name="NAC">{{cite web |title=The Catechism of the New Apostolic Church: 8.2.12 The real presence of the body and blood of Christ in Holy Communion |url=https://nak.org/en/abouttheNAC/catechism?_ld=1&chapter=8.2.12 |publisher=[[New Apostolic Church]] |language=English |date=18 December 2020|quote=Rather, the substance of Christ's body and blood is joined to them (consubstantiation).}}</ref> ====Seventh-day Adventists==== In the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] the Holy Communion service customarily is celebrated once per quarter. The service includes the ordinance of [[footwashing]] and the Lord's Supper. Unleavened bread and unfermented (non-alcoholic) grape juice is used. [[Open communion]] is practised: all who have committed their lives to the Saviour may participate. The communion service must be conducted by an ordained pastor, minister or church elder.<ref>Seventh-day Adventist Church Manual, 17th edition, 2005, pp. 81–86. Published by the secretariat, [[General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists]].</ref><ref>Seventh-day Adventists Believe: An exposition of the fundamental beliefs of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. 2nd edition, 2005. Copyright Ministeral Association, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists. Chapter 16: The Lord's Supper</ref> ====Jehovah's Witnesses==== [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] commemorate Jesus' death annually on the evening that corresponds to the Passover,<ref>''Reasoning From The Scriptures'', Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1989, p. 265.</ref> [[Quartodeciman|Nisan 14]], according to the ancient [[Jewish calendar]].<ref>''Insight on the Scriptures'', Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1988, p. 392.</ref> They generally refer to the observance as "the Lord's Evening Meal" or the "Memorial of Christ's Death". They believe the event is the only annual religious observance commanded for Christians in the Bible.<ref>"Jehovah is a God of Covenants", ''The Watchtower'', 1 February 1998, p. 8, "Jesus instituted the only annual religious observance commanded for Christians—the Memorial of his death."</ref> Of those who attend the Memorial, a small minority worldwide partake of the wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only [[144,000#Jehovah's Witnesses|144,000]] people will go to heaven, to serve as under-priests and co-rulers with [[Christ the King]] in [[God's Kingdom]]. They are referred to as the "anointed" class. They believe that the baptized "[[other sheep]]" also benefit from the ransom sacrifice, and are respectful observers and viewers of the Lord's Supper, but they hope to obtain everlasting life in Paradise restored on earth.<ref name=jwbh>{{cite book|title=What Does the Bible Really Teach?|url=http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1102005155|publisher=Watch Tower Society|page=207}}</ref> The Memorial, held after sundown, includes a sermon on the meaning and importance of the celebration and gathering, and includes the circulation of unadulterated red wine and unleavened bread (matzo). Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the bread represents Jesus' perfect body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine represents his perfect blood which he shed to redeem fallen man from inherited sin and death. The wine and the bread (sometimes referred to as "emblems") are viewed as symbolic and commemorative; the Witnesses do not believe in [[transubstantiation]] or [[consubstantiation]].<ref name=jwbh /><ref>"Discerning What We Are – At Memorial Time", ''The Watchtower'', 15 February 1990, p. 16.</ref> ====Latter-day Saints==== {{main|Sacrament (LDS Church)}} In [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], the "Holy Sacrament of the Lord's Supper",<ref name="LDS_Sacrament">See, e.g., {{cite book |first= B. H. |last= Roberts |year= 1938 |title= Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |publisher= Deseret News Press |oclc= 0842503005 |title-link= Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints }}</ref> more simply referred to as the Sacrament, is administered every Sunday (except General Conference or other special Sunday meeting) in each [[Ward (LDS Church)|Latter-Day Saint Ward]] or branch worldwide at the beginning of [[Sacrament meeting]]. The Sacrament, which consists of both ordinary bread and water (rather than wine or grape juice), is prepared by [[Priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|priesthood]] holders prior to the beginning of the meeting. At the beginning of the Sacrament, [[Priest (Latter Day Saints)|priests]] say specific prayers to bless the bread and water.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/20.75-84?lang=eng |title= Doctrine and Covenants 20:75 |publisher= LDS Church |access-date= 2009-06-19}}</ref> The Sacrament is passed row-by-row to the congregation by priesthood holders (typically [[Deacon (Latter Day Saints)|deacons]]).<ref name="lds. org">{{cite web |url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/handbook-2-administering-the-church/priesthood-ordinances-and-blessings/priesthood-ordinances-and-blessings |title= Handbook 2: Administering the Church, Chapter 20.4.3 |access-date=2011-10-30}}</ref> The prayer recited for the bread and the water is found in the [[Book of Mormon]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Moroni 4 |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/moro/4?lang=eng |website=ChurchofJesusChrist.org |access-date=14 September 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Moroni 5 |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/moro/5?lang=eng |website=ChurchofJesusChrist.org |access-date=14 September 2018 }}</ref> and Doctrine and Covenants. The prayer contains the above essentials given by Jesus: "Always remember him, and keep his commandments […] that they may always have his Spirit to be with them." (Moroni, 4:3.)<ref>{{cite web |title=The Restoration of the Sacrament |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1992/01/the-restoration-of-the-sacrament-part-1-loss-and-christian-reformations?lang=eng |website=ChurchofJesusChrist.org |access-date=14 September 2018 }}</ref> ==Non-observing denominations== ===Salvation Army=== While the [[Salvation Army]] does not reject the Eucharistic practices of other churches or deny that their members truly receive grace through this sacrament, it does not practice the sacraments of Communion or [[baptism]]. This is because they believe that these are unnecessary for the living of a Christian life, and because in the opinion of Salvation Army founders William and Catherine Booth, the sacrament placed too much stress on outward ritual and too little on inward spiritual conversion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waterbeachsalvationarmy.org.uk/what-to-know-more/why-does-the-salvation-army-not-baptise-or-hold-communion/ |title=Why Does the Salvation Army Not Baptize or Hold Communion Services? |publisher=Waterbeachsalvationarmy.org.uk |date=1987-02-28 |access-date=2019-05-16 |archive-date=13 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213024753/http://www.waterbeachsalvationarmy.org.uk/what-to-know-more/why-does-the-salvation-army-not-baptise-or-hold-communion/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Quakers=== Emphasizing the inward spiritual experience of their adherents over any outward ritual, [[Quakers]] (members of the Religious Society of Friends) generally do not baptize or observe Communion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fgcquaker.org/discover/faqs-about-quakers|title=FAQs|website=Friends General Conference}}</ref> ===Christian Scientists=== Although the early [[Church of Christ, Scientist]] observed Communion, founder [[Mary Baker Eddy]] eventually discouraged the physical ritual as she believed it distracted from the true spiritual nature of the sacrament. As such, [[Christian Scientist]]s do not observe physical communion with bread and wine, but spiritual communion at two special Sunday services each year by "uniting together with Christ in silent prayer and on bended knee."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://christiansciencesocal.org/do-christian-scientists-take-communion/|title=Do Christian Scientists take Communion?|website=Christian Science Committee on Publication for Southern California}}</ref> ===Shakers=== The United Society of Believers (commonly known as [[Shakers]]) do not take communion, instead viewing every meal as a Eucharistic feast.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/last-shakers|title=The Last Shakers?|website=Commonweal Magazine}}</ref> ==Practice and customs== ===Open and closed communion=== {{Main|Open communion|Closed communion|Full communion}} [[File:Eucharist001.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|In the [[Latin Church]] of the [[Catholic Church]], the administration of the Eucharist to children requires that they have sufficient knowledge and careful preparation to receive the body of Christ with faith and devotion.]] [[Christianity|Christian]] denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may celebrate the Eucharist with those with whom they are not in [[full communion]]. The apologist [[Justin Martyr]] ({{c.|150}}) wrote of the Eucharist "of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm|title=Church Fathers: The First Apology (St. Justin Martyr)|website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> This was continued in the practice of dismissing the [[catechumen]]s (those still undergoing instruction and not yet baptized) before the sacramental part of the liturgy, a custom which has left traces in the expression "[[Mass of the Catechumens]]" and in the [[Byzantine Rite]] exclamation by the deacon or priest, "The doors! The doors!", just before recitation of the Creed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oca.org/reflections/berzonsky/the-doors|title=The Doors|first=Vladimir|last=Berzonsky|website=www.oca.org|date=24 January 2010 }}</ref> Churches such as the [[Catholic]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches practice [[closed communion]] under normal circumstances. However, the Catholic Church allows administration of the Eucharist, at their spontaneous request, to properly disposed members of the eastern churches ([[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Church of the East]]) not in full communion with it and of other churches that the [[Holy See]] judges to be sacramentally in the same position as these churches; and in grave and pressing need, such as danger of death, it allows the Eucharist to be administered also to individuals who do not belong to these churches but who share the Catholic Church's faith in the reality of the Eucharist and have no access to a minister of their own community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P2S.HTM |title=Code of Canon Law, canon 844 |publisher=Intratext.com |date=2007-05-04 |access-date=2019-05-16}}</ref> Some [[Protestant]] communities exclude non-members from Communion. The [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] (ELCA) practices open communion, provided those who receive are baptized,<ref>[http://www.religionresourcesonline.org/different-types-of-religion/evangelical-lutheran.php Evangelical Lutheran] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707222431/http://www.religionresourcesonline.org/different-types-of-religion/evangelical-lutheran.php |date=7 July 2011 }}. Retrieved 2013–03–23.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elca.org/Who-We-Are/Our-Three-Expressions/Churchwide-Organization/Ecumenical-and-Inter-Religious-Relations/Full-Communion-Partners.aspx |title=ELCA Full Communion Partners |publisher=Elca.org |access-date=2019-05-16}}</ref> but the [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]] and the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]] (WELS) practice closed communion, excluding non-members and requiring communicants to have been given [[Luther's Small Catechism|catechetical]] instruction.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wels.net/faq/close-communion-and-membership/|title=Close communion and membership|website=WELS|date=14 May 2015 }}</ref><ref>[https://www.lcms.org/Document.fdoc?src=lcm&id=3285 "Guidelines for Congregational, District, and Synodical Communion Statements"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009175326/http://www.lcms.org/Document.fdoc?src=lcm&id=3285 |date=9 October 2016 }} ''www.lcms.org''. Retrieved 2016–12–28.</ref> The [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada]], the [[Evangelical Church in Germany]], the [[Church of Sweden]], and many other Lutheran churches outside of the U.S. also practice open communion. Some use the term "close communion" for restriction to members of the same denomination, and "closed communion" for restriction to members of the local congregation alone. Most [[Protestant]] communities including [[Congregational churches]], the [[Church of the Nazarene]], the [[Assemblies of God]], [[Methodism|Methodists]], most [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]] and [[Baptist]]s, [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]], and [[Churches of Christ]] and other [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational churches]] practice various forms of [[open communion]]. Some churches do not limit it to only members of the congregation, but to any people in attendance (regardless of Christian affiliation) who consider themselves to be Christian. Others require that the communicant be a baptized person, or a member of a church of that denomination or a denomination of "like faith and practice". Some Progressive Christian congregations offer communion to any individual who wishes to commemorate the life and teachings of Christ, regardless of religious affiliation.{{efn|In most United Church of Christ local churches, the Communion Table is "open to all Christians who wish to know the presence of Christ and to share in the community of God's people".<ref>(Book of Worship). [http://www.ucc.org/worship/communion/ Holy Communion: A Practice of Faith in the United Church of Christ]</ref>}} Most Latter-Day Saint churches practice closed communion; one notable exception is the [[Community of Christ]], the second-largest denomination in this movement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cofchrist.org/sacraments/communion.asp|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226040957/http://www.cofchrist.org/sacraments/communion.asp|url-status=dead|title=Community of Christ: Communion|archivedate=26 February 2011}}</ref> While The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the largest of the LDS denominations) technically practice a closed communion, their official direction to local Church leaders (in Handbook 2, section 20.4.1, last paragraph) is as follows: "Although the sacrament is for Church members, the bishopric should not announce that it will be passed to members only, and nothing should be done to prevent nonmembers from partaking of it."<ref>{{cite web |title=20. Priesthood Ordinances and Blessings |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/handbook-2-administering-the-church/priesthood-ordinances-and-blessings/priesthood-ordinances-and-blessings |website=ChurchofJesusChrist.org |access-date=14 September 2018 }}</ref> In the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]] the Eucharist is only given to those who have come prepared to receive the life-giving body and blood. Therefore, in a manner to worthily receive, believers fast the night before the liturgy, from around 6pm or the conclusion of evening prayer, and remain fasting until they receive Holy Qurbana the next morning. Additionally, members who plan to receive the holy communion have to follow a strict guide of prescribed prayers from the [[Shehimo]], or the book of common prayers, for the week.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ministry of Liturgical Development |title=Service Book of the Holy Qurbono |date= 2017 |publisher=Malankara Orthodox Church Publications |location=Devalokam, Kottayam |isbn=978-0-9972544-4-0 |edition=1st}}</ref> ===Preparation=== {{Main|Eucharistic discipline}} ====Catholic==== The Catholic Church requires its members to receive the [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacrament]] of [[Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)|Penance or Reconciliation]] before taking Communion if they are aware of having committed a [[mortal sin]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P39.HTM|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628182123/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P39.HTM|url-status=dead|title=Code of Canon Law, canon 916|archivedate=28 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/la/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_19901018_codex-can-eccl-orient-2.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130144307/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_19901018_codex-can-eccl-orient-2_lt.html#TITULUS_XVI|url-status=dead|title=Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum orientalium, die XVIII Octobris anno MCMXC – Ioannes Paulus PP. II | Ioannes Paulus II|archivedate=30 November 2012|website=www.vatican.va}}</ref> and to prepare by fasting, prayer, and other works of piety.<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P39.HTM|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628182123/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P39.HTM|url-status=dead|title=Code of Canon Law, canon 919|archive-date=28 June 2011}}</ref> ====Eastern Orthodox==== Traditionally, the Eastern Orthodox church has required its members to have observed all church-appointed fasts (most weeks, this will be at least Wednesday and Friday) for the week prior to partaking of communion, and to fast from all food and water from midnight the night before. In addition, Orthodox Christians are to have made a recent confession to their priest (the frequency varying with one's particular priest),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orthodoxchristian.info/pages/communion.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721004058/http://www.orthodoxchristian.info/pages/Communion.htm|url-status=dead|title=Preparing to Receive Holy Communion|archive-date=21 July 2008}}</ref> and they must be at peace with all others, meaning that they hold no grudges or anger against anyone.<ref name="How to Prepare for the Eucharist">{{Cite web|url=http://www.stgeorgegoc.org/eucharist.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509063618/http://www.stgeorgegoc.org/eucharist.html|url-status=dead|title=How to Prepare for the Eucharist|archive-date=9 May 2013}}</ref> In addition, one is expected to attend [[Vespers]] or the [[All-Night Vigil]], if offered, on the night before receiving communion.<ref name="How to Prepare for the Eucharist"/> Furthermore, various pre-communion prayers have been composed, which many (but not all) Orthodox churches require or at least strongly encourage members to say privately before coming to the Eucharist.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stlukeorthodox.com/html/parishinfo/preparation.cfm |title=Preparation for Holy Communion |publisher=Stlukeorthodox.com |date=2001-02-04 |access-date=2019-05-16 |archive-date=25 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125015935/http://www.stlukeorthodox.com/html/parishinfo/preparation.cfm |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, all this will typically vary from priest to priest and jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but abstaining from food and water for several hours beforehand is a fairly universal rule. ====Protestant confessions==== Many Protestant congregations generally reserve a period of time for self-examination and private, silent confession just before partaking in the Lord's Supper.{{cn|date=September 2023}} ===Adoration=== [[File:London September 2021 Eucharist Procession and Worship.jpg|thumb|Worshippers kneel and bow in the street during the Eucharist Procession, London, England.]] {{Further|Eucharistic adoration}} [[File:Eucharistic Adoration.jpg|thumb|upright|The Eucharist displayed in a [[monstrance]], flanked by candles]] Eucharistic adoration is a practice in the [[Latin Church]], Anglo-Catholic and some Lutheran traditions, in which the [[#Other terms|Blessed Sacrament]] is exposed to and adored by the faithful. When this exposure and adoration is constant (twenty-four hours a day), it is called "Perpetual Adoration". In a parish, this is usually done by volunteer parishioners; in a [[monastery]] or convent, it is done by the resident [[monk]]s or [[nun]]s. In the ''Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament'', the Eucharist is displayed in a [[monstrance]], typically placed on an altar, at times with a light focused on it, or with candles flanking it. ===Health issues=== ====Gluten==== {{Main|Coeliac disease#Christian churches and the Eucharist}} The [[gluten]] in wheat bread is dangerous to people with [[celiac disease]] and other [[gluten-related disorders]], such as [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity]] and [[wheat allergy]].<ref name=MulderWanrooijQuotation>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mulder CJ, van Wanrooij RL, Bakker SF, Wierdsma N, Bouma G |title=Gluten-free diet in gluten-related disorders |journal=Dig. Dis. |volume=31|issue=1|pages=57–62|date=2013|pmid=23797124|doi=10.1159/000347180 |s2cid=14124370 |type= Review |quote= The only treatment for [[coeliac disease|CD]], [[dermatitis herpetiformis]] (DH) and [[gluten ataxia]] is lifelong adherence to a [[gluten-free diet|GFD]].}}</ref><ref name=HischenhuberCrevelQuotation>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hischenhuber C, Crevel R, Jarry B, Mäki M, Moneret-Vautrin DA, Romano A, Troncone R, Ward R|title=Review article: safe amounts of gluten for patients with wheat allergy or coeliac disease |journal=Aliment Pharmacol Ther |volume=23|issue=5|pages=559–75|date=1 March 2006|pmid =16480395|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.02768.x |s2cid=9970042 |quote=For both [[wheat allergy]] and coeliac disease the dietary avoidance of wheat and other gluten-containing cereals is the only effective treatment.|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=VoltaCaio2015Quotation>{{cite journal |vauthors=Volta U, Caio G, De Giorgio R, Henriksen C, Skodje G, Lundin KE|title=Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol |volume=29|issue=3|pages=477–91|date=Jun 2015 |pmid=26060112 |doi=10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006 |quote=A recently proposed approach to [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity|NCGS]] diagnosis is an objective improvement of gastrointestinal symptoms and extra-intestinal manifestations assessed through a rating scale before and after [[gluten-free diet|GFD]]. Although a standardized symptom rating scale is not yet applied worldwide, a recent study indicated that a decrease of the global symptom score higher than 50% after GFD can be regarded as confirmatory of NCGS (Table 1) [53]. […] After the confirmation of NCGS diagnosis, according to the previously mentioned work-up, patients are advized to start with a GFD [49].}}</ref> For the Catholic Church, this issue was addressed in the 24 July 2003 letter<ref>[http://www.adoremus.org/CDF_Lowgluten-mustum2003.html letter] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229140229/http://www.adoremus.org/CDF_Lowgluten-mustum2003.html |date=29 December 2010 }}</ref> of the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], which summarized and clarified earlier declarations. The Catholic Church believes that the matter for the Eucharist must be wheaten bread and fermented wine from grapes: it holds that, if the gluten has been entirely removed, the result is not true wheaten bread.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/Liturgy/zlitur47.htm |title=Gluten-free Hosts |access-date=2008-04-22 |last=McNamara |first=Father Edward |date=2004-09-14 |work=ZENIT International News Agency |archive-date=4 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080504055320/http://www.ewtn.com/library/Liturgy/zlitur47.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> For celiacs, but not generally, it allows low-gluten bread. It also permits Holy Communion to be received under the form of either bread or wine alone, except by a priest who is celebrating Mass without other priests or as principal celebrant.<ref>The same 24 July 2003 letter of the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]].</ref> Many Protestant churches offer communicants gluten-free alternatives to wheaten bread, usually in the form of a rice-based or other gluten-free wafer.<ref>Jax Peter Lowell, [https://books.google.com/books?id=IRhm1A2_EkkC ''The Gluten-Free Bible''], p. 279.</ref> ===={{anchor|Alcohol}}Alcohol==== {{See also|Christian views on alcohol}} The Catholic Church believes that grape juice that has not begun even minimally to ferment cannot be accepted as wine, which it sees as essential for celebration of the Eucharist. For non-alcoholics, but not generally, it allows the use of [[mustum]] (grape juice in which fermentation has begun but has been suspended without altering the nature of the juice), and it holds that "since Christ is sacramentally present under each of the species, communion under the species of bread alone makes it possible to receive all the fruit of Eucharistic grace. For pastoral reasons, this manner of receiving communion has been legitimately established as the most common form in the Latin rite."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P42.HTM|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616060732/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P42.HTM|url-status=dead|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church – IntraText|archivedate=16 June 2012|website=www.vatican.va}}</ref> As already indicated, the one exception is in the case of a priest celebrating Mass without other priests or as principal celebrant. The water that in the [[Roman Rite]] is prescribed to be mixed with the wine must be only a relatively small quantity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P3A.HTM|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204185953/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P3A.HTM|url-status=dead|title=Code of Canon Law, canon 924 §1|archivedate=4 December 2010}}</ref> The practice of the [[Coptic Church]] is that the mixture should be two parts wine to one part water.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.copticchurch.net/topics/thecopticchurch/sacraments/4_eucharist.html |title=Sacrament of the Eucharist: Rite of Sanctification of the Chalice |publisher=Copticchurch.net |access-date=2019-05-16}}</ref> Some Protestant churches allow communion in a non-alcoholic form, either normatively or as a pastoral exception. Since the invention of the necessary technology, grape juice which has been [[pasteurization|pasteurized]] to stop the fermentation process the juice naturally undergoes and de-alcoholized wine from which most of the alcohol has been removed (between 0.5% and 2% remains) are commonly used, and more rarely water may be offered.<ref>Compare John Howard Spahr, [http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1605 I Smell the Cup] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921224625/http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1605 |date=21 September 2008 }}, ''Christian Century'', 12 March 1974, pp. 257–59.</ref> Exclusive use of unfermented grape juice is common in [[Baptist]] churches, the [[United Methodist Church]], [[Seventh-day Adventists]], [[Christian Churches/Churches of Christ]], [[Churches of Christ]], [[Church of God (Anderson, Indiana)]], some [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Assemblies of God]], [[Pentecostals]], [[Evangelicals]], the [[Christian Missionary Alliance]], and other American [[Nondenominational Christianity|independent]] Protestant churches. ====Transmission of diseases==== {{See also|Impact of the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic on religion}} Risk of infectious disease transmission related to use of a common communion cup exists but it is low. No case of transmission of an infectious disease related to a common communion cup has ever been documented. Experimental studies have demonstrated that infectious diseases can be transmitted. The most likely diseases to be transmitted would be common viral illnesses such as the [[common cold]]. A study of 681 individuals found that taking communion up to daily from a common cup did not increase the risk of infection beyond that of those who did not attend services at all.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Risk of Infectious Disease Transmission from a Common Communion Cup |first1=Lilia P. |last1=Manangan |first2=Lynne M. |last2=Sehulster |first3=Linda |last3=Chiarello |first4=Dawn N. |last4=Simonds |first5=William R. |last5=Jarvis |journal=American Journal of Infection Control |date=October 1998 |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=538–39 |url=http://www.ntnl.org/index.php/component/docman/doc_download/470-common-cup-cdc |doi=10.1016/s0196-6553(98)70029-x |pmid=9795685 |access-date=2 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203012335/http://www.ntnl.org/index.php/component/docman/doc_download/470-common-cup-cdc |archive-date=3 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Pellerin | first1 = J. | last2 = Edmond | first2 = M. B. | doi = 10.1016/j.ijid.2013.05.001 | title = Infections associated with religious rituals | journal = International Journal of Infectious Diseases | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = e945–48 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23791225| doi-access = free }}</ref> In influenza epidemics, some churches suspend the giving wine at communion, for fear of spreading the disease. This is in full accord with Catholic Church belief that communion under the form of bread alone makes it possible to receive all the fruit of Eucharistic grace. However, the same measure has also been taken by churches that normally insist on the importance of receiving communion under both forms. This was done in 2009 by the [[Church of England]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christiantoday.com/article/archbishops.advise.against.sharing.chalice.during.swine.flu.pandemic/23882.htm |title=Archbishops advise against sharing chalice during swine flu pandemic |publisher=Christiantoday.com |date=2009-07-27 |access-date=2019-05-16}}</ref> Some fear contagion through the handling involved in distributing the hosts to the communicants, even if they are placed on the hand rather than on the tongue. Accordingly, some churches use mechanical wafer dispensers or "pillow packs" (communion wafers with wine inside them). While these methods of distributing communion are not generally accepted in Catholic parishes, one parish provides a mechanical dispenser to allow those intending to commune to place in a bowl, without touching them by hand, the hosts for use in the celebration.<ref>{{cite news| first= Sumathi |last=Reddy |url= https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704415104576065982762908782 |title= Hands Off After Wafer Scare| newspaper= Wall Street Journal| date=7 January 2011| access-date=2012-10-12}}</ref> ==See also== {{div col}} ===Eucharistic theology=== * [[Eucharistic theology]] * [[Eucharistic miracle]] * [[Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]] ===Liturgical worship=== * [[Anaphora (liturgy)|Eucharistic Prayers]] * [[Holy Qurbana]] * [[Holy Qurobo]] * [[Armenian Rite]] * [[Divine Liturgy]] * [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] * [[Canon of the Mass]] ===Eucharistic practice=== * [[Closed communion]] * [[Communion under both kinds]] * [[First Communion]] * [[Fraction (religion)]] * [[Intinction]] * [[Open communion]] * [[Sacramental wine]] * [[Thanksgiving after Communion]] ===Views of different churches=== * [[Eucharist in Anglicanism]] * [[Eucharist in the Catholic Church]] * [[Sacrament (Latter Day Saints)]] * [[Sacramental union]] (Lutheran) * [[Transubstantiation]] (Catholicism) ===Sacramental theology=== * [[Baptism]] * [[Concomitance (doctrine)|Concomitance]] * [[Sacrament]] ===History=== * [[Origin of the Eucharist]] ([[The Last Supper]]) * [[Marburg Colloquy]] (1529) * [[Sacramentarians]] ([[Protestant Reformation]] period, approx. 16th Century) * ''[[The Adoration of the Sacrament]]'' by Martin Luther (1523) * [[Confession Concerning Christ's Supper]] by Martin Luther (1528) * [[Ubiquitarians]] (1530 and 1540) * [[Receptionism]] (16th and 17th-century Anglicans) * [[Year of the Eucharist]] (2004–2005) * [[Host desecration]] ===Mandaeism=== * [[Pihta]] * [[Fatira]] * [[Hamra (Mandaeism)|Hamra]] ===Others=== * [[Agape feast]] * [[Catholic social teaching]] * [[Catholic theology of the body]] * [[Perichoresis]] {{div col end}} == Notes == {{notelist}} {{NoteFoot}} ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book | author = Aquinas, Thomas | url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_vfRkHnukgrUC | title = De venerabili sacramento altaris| via = [[Internet Archive|archive.org]] | language = la | pages = [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_vfRkHnukgrUC/page/n43 4], 324 | publisher = Bibliotheca Vaticana | year = 1571 | location = Rome| author-link = Thomas Aquinas }} (English translation: {{cite book | author = H.A Rawes | url = https://archive.org/details/breadoflifeorstt00thomuoft/page/n7 | title = The Bread of life: or St. Thomas Aquinas on the Adorable Sacrament of the Altar | language = en | year = 1871| author-link = Henry Augustus Rawes }} *{{cite book|chapter=[[s:Sermons from the Latins/Sermon 34|The Blessed Eucharist.]] |title=Sermons from the Latins|year=1902|publisher= Benziger Brothers|first=Robert|last=Bellarmine|author-link=Robert Bellarmine}} *{{cite book|chapter=[[s:The Faith of Catholics/Section 2#177|The Eucharist.]]|title=The Faith of Catholics: confirmed by Scripture, and attested by the Fathers of the five first centuries of the Church, Volume 1|year=1830|publisher=Jos. Booker.|first=Joseph|last=Berington|author-link=Joseph Berington}} * Bouyer, Louis. ''Eucharist: Theology and Spirituality of the Eucharistic Prayer'', trans. by Charles Underhill Quinn. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. ''N.B''.: Despite what the subtitle may suggest, the book discusses the Christian Eucharist in further aspects than alone the "Canon of the Mass". {{ISBN|0268004986}} * [[Martin Chemnitz|Chemnitz, Martin]]. ''The Lord's Supper''. J. A. O. Preus, trans. St. Louis: Concordia, 1979. {{ISBN|057003275X}} * [[Catholic Church|Church, Catholic]]. "The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent" Translated by H.J. Schroeder, published by Tan Books and Publishers, Inc., Rockford, IL *{{cite book|chapter=[[s:The catechism of the Council of Trent/Part 2: The Holy Eucharist|Part 2: The Holy Eucharist]]|title=The catechism of the Council of Trent|year=1829|publisher=Lucas Brothers|translator=James Donovan|author=Council of Trent}} * [[Gregory Dix|Dix, Gregory]]. ''The Shape of the Liturgy''. London: Continuum International, 2005. {{ISBN|0826479421}} * [[Concepcion Cabrera de Armida|Cabrera de Armida, Concepcion]]. ''[[I Am: Eucharistic Meditations on the Gospel]]'', Alba House Publishing 2001 {{ISBN|0818908904}} * Elert, Werner. ''Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries''. N. E. Nagel, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1966. {{ISBN|0570042704}} * Felton, Gayle. ''This Holy Mystery''. Nashville: Discipleship Resources, 2005. {{ISBN|088177457X}} * Father Gabriel. ''Divine Intimacy''. London, UK: Baronius Press Ltd., 2013 reprint ed. {{ISBN|978-1905574438}} * Grime, J. H. ''Close Communion and Baptists'' * [[Scott Hahn|Hahn, Scott]]. ''The Lamb's Supper: Mass as Heaven on Earth''. Darton, Longman, Todd. 1999. {{ISBN|0232525005}} * Henke, Frederick Goodrich ''A Study in the Psychology of Ritualism''. University of Chicago Press, 1910 * Jurgens, William A. ''The Faith of the Early Fathers''. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1970. {{ISBN|0814604323}} * Kolb, Robert and Timothy J. Wengert, eds. ''[[The Book of Concord]]: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church''. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0800627407}} * Latinovic, Vladimir, ''Christologie und Kommunion Vol. 1: Entstehung und Verbreitung der homoousianischen Christologie'', Münster: Aschendorff-Verlag 2018. {{ISBN|978-3402133583}} * Latinovic, Vladimir, ''Christologie und Kommunion Vol. 2: Liturgische Einführung und Rezeption der homoousianischen Christologie'', Münster: Aschendorff-Verlag 2020. {{ISBN|978-3402247518}} * Latinovic, Vladimir, ''Christologie und Kommunion Vol. 3: Auswirkungen auf die Frömmigkeit und den Eucharistieempfang'', Münster: Aschendorff-Verlag 2022. {{ISBN|978-3402249482}} * Lefebvre, Gaspar. ''The Saint Andrew Daily Missal''. Reprint. Great Falls, MT: St. Bonaventure Publications, Inc., 1999 * Löhr, Hermut, ed., ''Abendmahl'' (Themen der Theologie 3), Tübingen: UTB / Mohr Siebeck 2012. {{ISBN|978-3825234997}} * Macy, Gary. ''The Banquet's Wisdom: A Short History of the Theologies of the Lord's Supper''. (2005, {{ISBN|1878009508}}) * Magni, JA ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20070926225820/http://en.scientificcommons.org/3141585 The Ethnological Background of the Eucharist]''. Clark University. ''American Journal of Religious Psychology and Education'', IV (No. 1–2), March, 1910. *{{cite book|chapter=[[s:Sermons (Massillon)/Sermon 32|Sermon XXXII.—On the Dispositions for the Communion]]|title=Sermons by John-Baptist Massillon|year=1879|publisher=Thomas Tegg and Son|first=Jean-Baptiste|last=Massillon|author-link=Jean-Baptiste Massillon}} * McBride, Alfred, O. Praem. ''Celebrating the Mass''. Our Sunday Visitor, 1999. * Neal, Gregory. ''Grace Upon Grace: Sacramental Theology and the Christian Life.'' 2014. {{ISBN|1490860061}} * [[John Williamson Nevin|Nevin, John Williamson]]. ''The Mystical Presence: A Vindication of the Reformed or Calvinistic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist''. 1846; Wipf & Stock reprint, 2000. {{ISBN|1579103480}}. * [[Thomas Oden|Oden, Thomas C]]. ''Corrective Love: The Power of Communion Discipline''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1995. {{ISBN|0570048036}} * Piolanti, Antonio, ed. ''Eucharistia: il mistero dell'altare nel pensiero e nella vita della Chiesa''. Roma: Desclée, 1957. * Rasperger (Raspergero), Christopher (Christophorus, Christoph, Christophoro, Christophe) ''Two hundred interpretations of the words: This is my Body'', Ingolstadt, 1577 [https://web.archive.org/web/20080919014231/http://www.angelfire.com/ms/seanie/eucharist/rasperger2.html Latin text]. (Latin title: ''Ducentae paucorum istorum et quidem clarissimorum Christi verborum: Hoc est Corpus meum; interpretationes''; German title: ''Zweihundert Auslegungen der Worte das ist mein Leib''.) * [[Hermann Sasse|Sasse, Hermann]]. ''This Is My Body: Luther's Contention for the Real Presence in the Sacrament of the Altar''. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001. {{ISBN|1579107664}} * [[Alexander Schmemann|Schmemann, Alexander]]. ''The Eucharist''. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0881410187}} * Scotland, N. A. D. ''Eucharistic Consecration in the First Four Centuries and Its Implications for Liturgical Reform'', in series, ''Latimer Studies'', 31. Oxford, Eng.: Latimer House, 1989. {{ISBN|094630730X}} * Stoffer, Dale R. ''The Lord's Supper: Believers Church Perspectives'' * Stookey, L.H. ''Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church''. Nashville: Abingdon, 1993. {{ISBN|0687120179}} * Tissot, J. ''The Interior Life''. 1916, pp. 347–49. * [[N.T. Wright|Wright, N. T]]. ''The Meal Jesus Gave Us'' * Yarnold, G.D. ''The Bread Which We Break''. London: Oxford University Press, 1960. 119 p. {{refend}} ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080914124311/http://www.catholicliturgy.com/index.cfm/FuseAction/TextContents/Index/4/SubIndex/67/TextIndex/9 The Ordinary of the Mass, Roman Rite] according to the current edition of the Roman Missal * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110609042650/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3W.HTM Sacrament of the Eucharist] – Catechism of the Catholic Church * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160310205704/http://www.lutheransonline.com/servlet/CpsServlet/dbpage%3Dpage%26mode%3Ddisplay%26gid%3D20052995655655607101111555%26pg%3D20053264518475013601111555 A Brief Exposition of the Divine Service] {{Christianity footer}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Eucharist| ]] [[Category:Anglican Eucharistic theology]] [[Category:Anglican sacraments]] [[Category:Ceremonial food and drink]] [[Category:Christian terminology]] [[Category:Eastern Orthodox liturgy]] [[Category:Eucharist in the Catholic Church]] [[Category:Last Supper]] [[Category:Lutheran Eucharistic theology]] [[Category:Lutheran sacraments and rites]] [[Category:New Testament Greek words and phrases]] [[Category:Order of Mass]] [[Category:Sacraments]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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