Eastern Orthodoxy

{{Short description|Major branch of Christianity}}
{{About|the religion, doctrine and tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church|the institution and history of the largest church associated with Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church}}{{Distinguish|Oriental Orthodox Churches}}{{for|related subjects|Orthodox (disambiguation)}}
{{Eastern Christianity sidebar}}
{{Christianity}}

'''Eastern Orthodoxy''', otherwise known as '''Eastern Orthodox Christianity''' or '''Byzantine Christianity''',<ref name="Holt 2012">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Holt |first=Andrew |title=Byzantine Christianity |year=2012 |origyear=2011 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization |location=[[Chichester, West Sussex]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |doi=10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc0212 |isbn=9780470670606 |quote=Byzantine Christianity originated in the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] where it evolved concurrently with the emerging Byzantine state. It was the dominant form of Eastern Christianity throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and during this period [[Eastern Orthodox theology|it developed a complex theological system]] with [[Eastern Orthodox worship|unique spiritual practices]]. Byzantine Christianity's fortunes were in many ways tied to the Byzantine state, because when the empire experienced expansion and heightened influence so did the faith. [...] Although [[Fall of Constantinople|the empire eventually fell]] under the weight of centuries of [[Arab–Byzantine wars|Islamic aggression]], much of Byzantine Christianity has survived in the modern [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox churches]].}}</ref> is one of the three main [[Branches of Christianity|branches]] of [[Chalcedonian Christianity]], alongside [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]].<ref name="McAuliffe2008">{{cite book |last=McAuliffe |first=Garrett |year=2008 |title=Culturally Alert Counseling: A Comprehensive Introduction |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4129-1006-4 |page=532 |quote=About one-third of the world's population is considered Christian and can be divided into three main branches: (1) Roman Catholicism (the largest coherent group, representing over one billion baptized members); (2) Orthodox Christianity (including Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy); and (3) Protestantism (comprising many denominations and schools of thought, including Anglicanism, Reformed, Presbyterianism, Lutheranism, Methodism, Evangelicalism, and Pentecostalism).}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mirola |first1=William |last2=Monahan |first2=Susanne C. |title=Religion Matters: What Sociology Teaches Us About Religion In Our World |year=2016 |location=[[London]] and [[New York City]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-34451-3 |quote=Orthodox Churches represent one of the three major branches of Christianity, along with Roman Catholicism and Protestantism.}}</ref> Like the [[Pentarchy]] of the first millennium, the mainstream (or "[[Canon law of the Eastern Orthodox Church|canonical]]") [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] is [[Organization of the Eastern Orthodox Church|organised]] into [[autocephalous]] churches independent from each other. In the 21st century, the [[Organization of the Eastern Orthodox Church#Autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches|number of mainstream autocephalous churches is seventeen]]; there also exist [[Organization of the Eastern Orthodox Church#Unrecognised churches|autocephalous churches unrecognized by those mainstream ones]]. Autocephalous churches choose their own [[Primate (bishop)|primate]]. Autocephalous churches can have [[Ecclesiastical jurisdiction|jurisdiction]] (authority) over other churches, some of which have the status of "[[Autonomy (Eastern Orthodoxy)|autonomous]]" which means they have more autonomy than simple [[eparchies]].

Many of these jurisdictions correspond to the territories of one or more modern states; the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Patriarchate of Moscow]], for example, corresponds to Russia and some of the other [[post-Soviet states]].<ref>Richters, Katja. ''The Post-Soviet Russian Orthodox Church: Politics, Culture and Greater Russia'' (2014)</ref> They can also include [[Metropolis (religious jurisdiction)|metropolises]], [[bishoprics]], [[parishes]], [[monasteries]], or outlying [[Metochion|metochions]] corresponding to diasporas that can also be located outside the country where the primate resides (e.g., the case of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] whose [[canonical territory]] is located partly in [[northern Greece]] and the east); sometimes they overlap (the case of [[Moldova]] where the jurisdictions of the patriarchs [[Patriarch of All Romania|of Bucharest]] and [[Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'|of Moscow]] overlap).

The spread of Eastern Orthodoxy began in the [[Eastern Mediterranean|eastern area]] of the [[Mediterranean Basin]] within [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Greek culture]].<ref name="Holt 2012"/> Its communities share an understanding, teaching and offices of great similarity, with a strong sense of seeing each other as parts of one Church. Every Eastern Orthodox Christian sees his or her year punctuated by the [[Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar|liturgical calendar]] of the church on which they depend. Eastern Orthodoxy holds that the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] proceeds from the [[God the Father|Father]] and rejects the ''[[Filioque]]'' clause ("and the [[God the Son|Son]]") added to the [[Nicene Creed]] by the [[Latin Church]], on the grounds that no [[Synod|council]] was called for the addition.<ref>{{cite web |author=Fr. Lawrence Farley |url=https://www.oca.org/reflections/fr.-lawrence-farley/the-filoque-clause |title=The Filioque Clause |date=2012-07-11 |website=Orthodox Church in America |access-date=2022-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026161646/https://www.oca.org/reflections/fr.-lawrence-farley/the-filoque-clause |archive-date=2015-10-26 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Theology ==

{{Main|Eastern Orthodox Christian theology}}

=== Trinity ===

Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in the [[Trinity]], three distinct, divine persons (''[[hypostasis (philosophy)|hypostases]]''), without overlap or [[Sabellianism|modality]] among them, who each have one divine [[essence]] (''ousia'', Greek: οὐσία)—uncreated, immaterial, and [[God and eternity|eternal]].{{sfn|Ware|1993|pp=208–211}} These three persons are typically distinguished by their relation to each other. The [[God the Father|Father]] is eternal and not begotten and does not proceed from any, the [[God the Son|Son]] is eternal and begotten of the Father, and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]] is eternal and proceeds from the Father.<ref name="Theokritoff 2010">{{cite book |author-last=Theokritoff |author-first=Elizabeth |year=2010 |orig-date=2008 |chapter=Part I: Doctrine and Tradition – Creator and creation |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jP2vivMSezMC&pg=PA63 |editor1-last=Cunningham |editor1-first=Mary B. |editor2-last=Theokritoff |editor2-first=Elizabeth |title=The Cambridge Companion to Orthodox Christian Theology |location=[[Cambridge]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=63–77 |doi=10.1017/CCOL9780521864848.005 |isbn=9781139001977 |access-date=2022-02-04 |archive-date=2023-09-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921092741/https://books.google.com/books?id=jP2vivMSezMC&pg=PA63 |url-status=live }}</ref> Eastern Orthodox doctrine regarding the Trinity is summarised in the [[Nicene Creed#Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed|Nicene Creed]].{{sfn|Ware|1993|p=202}}

Eastern Orthodox Christians believe in a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] [[God in Christianity|conception of God]] (God is only one), which is both [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] (wholly independent of, and removed from, the material universe) and [[Immanence|immanent]] (involved in the material universe).<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/> In discussing God's relationship to his creation, Eastern Orthodox theology [[Essence–Energies distinction|distinguishes]] between God's eternal essence, which is totally transcendent, and his ''uncreated energies'', which is how he reaches humanity.<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/> The God who is transcendent and the God who touches mankind are one and the same.<ref name="Theokritoff 2010"/> That is, these energies are not something that proceed from God or that God produces, but rather they are God himself: distinct, yet inseparable from God's inner being.{{sfn|Ware|1993|pp=67–69}} This view is often called [[Palamism]].

In understanding the Trinity as "one God in three persons", "three persons" is not to be emphasised more than "one God", and vice versa. While the three persons are distinct, they are united in one divine essence, and their oneness is expressed in community and action so completely that they cannot be considered separately. For example, their salvation of mankind is an activity engaged in common: "Christ became man by the good will of the Father and by the cooperation of the Holy Spirit. Christ sends the Holy Spirit who proceeds from the Father, and the Holy Spirit forms Christ in our hearts, and thus God the Father is glorified." Their "communion of essence" is "indivisible". Trinitarian terminology—essence, hypostasis, etc.—are used "philosophically", "to answer the ideas of the heretics", and "to place the terms where they separate error and truth."{{sfn|Hierotheos|1998|pp=128–130}}

=== Sin, salvation, and the incarnation ===

[[File:John Damascus (arabic icon).gif|alt=|thumb|304x304px|[[John of Damascus]]]]

When Eastern Orthodox Christians refer to fallen nature they are not saying that human nature has become evil in itself. Human nature is still formed in the image of God; humans are still God's creation, and God has never created anything evil, but fallen nature remains open to evil intents and actions. It is sometimes said among the Eastern Orthodox that humans are "inclined to sin"; that is, people find some sinful things attractive. It is the nature of temptation to make sinful things seem the more attractive, and it is the fallen nature of humans that seeks or succumbs to the attraction. Eastern Orthodox Christians reject the [[Augustinianism|Augustinian position]] that the descendants of Adam and Eve are actually guilty of the original sin of their ancestors.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Matusiak |first1=Fr. John |title=Original Sin |publisher=Orthodox Church in America |url=http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=3&SID=3 |access-date=23 May 2014 |ref=none |archive-date=7 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607095648/http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=3&SID=3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Resurrection of Christ ===

[[File:1678. Сашэсце ў пекла.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A 17th-century [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] icon of the Resurrection|273x273px]]

The Eastern Orthodox Church understands the death and resurrection of Jesus to be real historical events, as described in the gospels of the [[New Testament]].

=== Christian life ===

Church teaching is that Eastern Orthodox Christians, through baptism, enter a new life of salvation through repentance whose purpose is to share in the life of God through the work of the Holy Spirit. The Eastern Orthodox Christian life is a spiritual pilgrimage in which each person, through the [[imitation of Christ]] and ''[[hesychasm]]'',{{sfn|Hierotheos|1998|pp=234–237,(241=Glossary)}} cultivates the practice of unceasing prayer. Each life occurs within the life of the church as a member of the [[body of Christ]].{{sfn|George|2006|p=[http://orthodoxinfo.com/general/theosis-english.pdf 34]}} It is then through the fire of God's love in the action of the Holy Spirit that each member becomes more holy, more wholly unified with Christ, starting in this life and continuing in the next.{{sfn|Oxford Dict Christian Church|3rd ed}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fitzgerald |first1=Fr. Thomas |title=Spirituality |publisher=Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America |year=2014 |url=http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith7114 |access-date=15 May 2014 |ref=none |archive-date=29 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329012245/http://goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith7114 |url-status=live }}</ref> The church teaches that everyone, being born in God's image, is called to [[Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)|theosis]], fulfillment of the image in likeness to God. God the creator, having divinity by nature, offers each person participation in divinity by cooperatively accepting His gift of grace.{{sfn|George|2006|p=[http://orthodoxinfo.com/general/theosis-english.pdf 21]}}

The Eastern Orthodox Church, in understanding itself to be the [[Body of Christ]], and similarly in understanding the Christian life to lead to the unification in Christ of all members of his body, views the church as embracing all Christ's members, those now living on earth, and also all those through the ages who have passed on to the heavenly life. The church includes the Christian saints from all times, and also judges, prophets and righteous Jews of the first covenant, Adam and Eve, even the angels and heavenly hosts.{{sfn|Hierotheos|1998|pp=25–30}} In Eastern Orthodox services, the earthly members together with the heavenly members worship God as one community in Christ, in a union that transcends time and space and joins heaven to earth. This unity of the Church is sometimes called the ''[[communion of the saints]]''.{{sfn|Hierotheos|1998|p=23}}

=== Virgin Mary and other saints ===

[[File:Tinos panagia evangelistria 200707 04.jpg|thumb|[[Our Lady of Tinos]] is the major [[Marian shrine]] in Greece]]
[[File:Vladimirskaya.jpg|thumb|The [[Theotokos of Vladimir]], one of the most venerated of Orthodox Christian icons of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]]]]

Pre-eminent among the saints is the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]] (commonly referred to as ''Theotokos'' or ''Bogoroditsa'': "[[Mother of God]]"). In [[Eastern Orthodox theology]], the Mother of God is the fulfillment of the Old Testament archetypes revealed in the [[Ark of the Covenant]] (because she carried the New Covenant in the person of Christ) and the [[burning bush]] that appeared before [[Moses]] (symbolising the Mother of God's carrying of God without being consumed).<ref>{{cite book|last=Meyendorff|first=Gregory of Nyssa; transl., introduction and notes by Abraham J. Malherbe and Everett Ferguson; preface by John|title=The life of Moses|year=1978|publisher=Paulist Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8091-2112-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/gregoryofnyssa00abra/page/59 59]|url=https://archive.org/details/gregoryofnyssa00abra/page/59|access-date=4 October 2013}}</ref>

The Eastern Orthodox believe that Christ, from the moment of his conception, was both fully God and fully human. Mary is thus called the ''Theotokos'' or ''Bogoroditsa'' as an affirmation of the divinity of the one to whom she gave birth. It is also believed that her virginity was not compromised in conceiving God-incarnate, that she was not harmed and that she remained forever a virgin. Scriptural references to "brothers" of Christ are interpreted as kin. Due to her unique place in salvation history according to Eastern Orthodox teaching, Mary is honoured above all other saints in this religion and especially venerated for the great work that God accomplished through her.{{sfn|Ware|1993|pp=257–258}}

The Eastern Orthodox Church regards the bodies of all saints as holy because of their participation in prescribed rituals called [[Eastern Orthodox Church#Holy_mysteries_(sacraments)|holy mysteries]]. Physical items connected with saints are also regarded as holy, through their participation in the earthly works of those saints. According to Eastern Orthodox church teaching and tradition, God himself bears witness to this holiness of saints' [[relic|relics]] through the many miracles connected with them that have been reported throughout history since biblical times, often including healing from disease and injury.{{sfn|Ware|1993|p=234}}

=== Eschatology ===

{{main|Christian eschatology}}
[[File:Torcello - Santa Maria Assunta.Last Judgement.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|''Last Judgment'': 12th-century [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] mosaic from [[Torcello]] Cathedral]]

Eastern Orthodox Christians believe that when a person dies the soul is temporarily separated from the body. Though it may linger for a short period on Earth, it is ultimately escorted either to paradise ([[Abraham's bosom]]) or the darkness of [[Christian views on Hades|Hades]], following the [[Particular judgment|Temporary Judgment]]. Orthodox do not accept the doctrine of [[Purgatory]], which is held by Catholicism. The soul's experience of either of these states is only a "foretaste"—being experienced only by the soul—until the [[Last Judgment|Final Judgment]], when the soul and body will be reunited.<ref>[http://www.pravoslavieto.com/docs/eng/Orthodox_Catechism_of_Philaret.htm ''The Longer Catechism of The Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church''], an Orthodox catechism from 1830, by [[Filaret, Metropolitan of Moscow|Metropolitan Philaret]]. Start with item 366 or 372. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703171158/http://www.pravoslavieto.com/docs/eng/Orthodox_Catechism_of_Philaret.htm |date=July 3, 2007 }}</ref><ref name=soul>Rose, Father Seraphim, ''The Soul After Death'', St. Herman Press, Platina, CA, c. 1980</ref>

The Eastern Orthodox believe that the state of the soul in Hades can be affected by the love and prayers of the righteous up until the Last Judgment.<ref>[http://www.pravoslavieto.com/docs/eng/Orthodox_Catechism_of_Philaret.htm ''The Longer Catechism''], Item 377. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703171158/http://www.pravoslavieto.com/docs/eng/Orthodox_Catechism_of_Philaret.htm |date=July 3, 2007 }}</ref> For this reason the Church offers a special [[prayer for the dead]] on the third day, ninth day, fortieth day, and the one-year anniversary after the death of an Eastern Orthodox Christian. There are also several days throughout the year that are set aside for general commemoration of the departed, sometimes including nonbelievers. These days usually fall on a Saturday, since it was on a Saturday that Christ lay in the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre|Tomb]].<ref name=soul/>

The Eastern Orthodox believe that after the Final Judgment:
* All souls will be reunited with their [[Resurrection of the Dead|resurrected bodies]].
* All souls will fully experience their spiritual state.
* Having been perfected, the saints will forever progress towards a deeper and fuller love of God, which equates with eternal happiness.<ref name=soul/>

=== Bible ===

[[File:Paris psaulter gr139 fol5v.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|''David glorified by the women of Israel'' from the [[Paris Psalter]], example of the [[Macedonian art (Byzantine)]] (sometimes called the [[Macedonian Renaissance]])]]

The official Bible of the Eastern Orthodox Church contains the [[Septuagint]] text of the [[Old Testament]], with the [[Book of Daniel]] given in the translation by [[Theodotion]]. The [[Patriarchal Text]] is used for the [[New Testament]].<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last = Collins|editor1-first = John Joseph|editor2-last = Flint|editor2-first = Peter W.|editor3-last = VanEpps|editor3-first = Cameron|page = 586|date = 2002|title = The Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception|volume = 2|chapter = The Textual History of Septuagint-Daniel and Theodotion Daniel|first = Alexander A.|last = Di Lella|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kvtbNQtMqEUC&pg=PA586|publisher = Brill|isbn = 9780391041288|access-date = 2022-02-04|archive-date = 2023-09-21|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230921092742/https://books.google.com/books?id=kvtbNQtMqEUC&pg=PA586|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1= Geisler|first1=Norman L.|last2=Nix|first2=William E. |date = 2012|title = From God to Us: How We Got Our Bible|publisher = Moody Publishers|isbn = 9780802428820}}</ref> Orthodox Christians hold that the Bible is a verbal icon of Christ, as proclaimed by the [[Second Council of Nicaea|7th ecumenical council]].{{sfn|Ware|1991|p=209}} They refer to the Bible as [[holy scripture]], meaning writings containing the foundational truths of the Christian faith as revealed by Christ and the [[Holy Spirit]] to its divinely inspired human authors. Holy scripture forms the primary and authoritative written witness of [[holy tradition]] and is essential as the basis for all Orthodox teaching and belief.{{sfn |Ware|1991|p=209 (quoting [[John Chrysostom|St. John Chrysostom]]): "It is impossible for a man to be saved if he does not read the Scriptures."}}

Once established as holy scripture, there has never been any question that the Eastern Orthodox Church holds the full list{{which?|date=November 2022}} of books to be venerable and beneficial for reading and study,<ref>Pomazansky, Michael, Orthodox Dogmatic Theology, pp. 33–34</ref> even though it informally holds some books in higher esteem than others, the four gospels highest of all. Of the subgroups significant enough to be named, the "[[Anagignoskomena]]" (ἀναγιγνωσκόμενα, "things that are read") comprises ten of the Old Testament books rejected in the [[Protestant Bible|Protestant canon]],{{Efn|Including the [[deuterocanonical books]]|name=deuterocanonical}} but deemed by the Eastern Orthodox worthy to be read in worship services, even though they carry a lesser esteem than the 39 books of the [[Hebrew Bible|Hebrew canon]].<ref>{{cite book| author = S.T. Kimbrough| title = Orthodox And Wesleyan Scriptural Understanding And Practice| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=q-vhwjamOioC&pg=PA23| year = 2005| publisher = St Vladimir's Seminary Press| isbn = 978-0-88141-301-4| page = 23| access-date = 2016-02-20 }}</ref> The lowest tier contains the remaining books not accepted by either Protestants or Catholics, among them, [[Psalm 151]]. Though it is a psalm, and is in the book of psalms, it is not classified as being within the Psalter (the first 150 psalms).<ref>Orthodox Study Bible, St. Athanasius Academy of Theology, 2008, p. 778, commentary</ref>

Eastern Orthodoxy does not subscribe to the doctrine of ''[[sola scriptura]]''. Rather, Eastern Orthodoxy teaches that its church has defined what Scripture is, and therefore, its church also interprets the meanings of Scripture.<ref>Ware, Bishop Kallistos (Timothy), [http://orthodoxinfo.com/phronema/ware_howto.aspx ''How to Read the Bible''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201235402/http://orthodoxinfo.com/phronema/ware_howto.aspx |date=2022-02-01 }}, retrieved 11 June 2013</ref>

Scriptures are understood by Eastern Orthodox interpretation to contain historical fact, poetry, idiom, metaphor, simile, moral fable, parable, prophecy and [[wisdom literature]], and each bears its own consideration in its interpretation. While divinely inspired, the text still consists of words in human languages, arranged in humanly recognisable forms. The Eastern Orthodox Church does not oppose honest critical and historical study of the Bible.<ref name="Ware1991">{{harvnb|Ware|1991|pp=210–215}}</ref>

=== Holy tradition and patristic consensus ===

In Eastern Orthodoxy,  "[[Vincentian Canon|that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, and by all]]", the faith taught by Jesus to the apostles, given life by the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] at [[Pentecost]], and passed down to future generations without additions and without subtractions, is known as [[holy tradition]].{{sfn|Ware|1993|pp=195–196}}<ref>Letter of 1718, in [[George Williams (priest)|George Williams]], ''The Orthodox Church of the East in the 18th Century'', p. 17</ref> Holy tradition does not change in the Eastern Orthodox Church because it encompasses those things that do not change: the nature of the one God in Trinity, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, the history of God's interactions with his peoples, the Law as given to the Israelites, all Christ's teaching as given to the disciples and Jews and recorded in scripture, including the parables, the prophecies, the miracles, and his own example to humanity in his extreme humility. It encompasses also the worship of the church, which grew out of the worship of the synagogue and temple and was extended by Christ at the last supper, and the relationship between God and his people which that worship expresses, which is also evidenced between Christ and his disciples. It includes the authority that Christ bestowed on his disciples when he made them apostles.<ref>Bible: {{Bibleverse|Matthew|16:19|NKJV}}</ref>

Holy tradition is firm, even unyielding, but not rigid or legalistic; instead, it lives and breathes within the church.<ref>[[Vladimir Lossky]], ''Tradition is the Life of the Holy Spirit in the Church''.</ref> For example, the New Testament was entirely written by the early church (mostly the apostles). The whole Bible was accepted as scripture by means of holy tradition practised within the early church. The writing and acceptance took five centuries, by which time the holy scriptures themselves had become in their entirety a part of holy tradition.{{sfn|Ware|1991|p=205}} But holy tradition did not change, because "that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, and by all" remained consistent, without additions, and without subtractions. The historical development of the Divine Liturgy and other worship services and devotional practices of the church provide a similar example of extension and growth "without change".{{sfn|Ware|1991|p=213}}

Besides these, holy tradition includes the doctrinal definitions and statements of faith of the seven ecumenical councils, including the [[Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]], and some later local councils, patristic writings, [[Canon law of the Eastern Orthodox Church|canon law]], and icons. Not all portions of holy tradition are held to be equally strong. Some—the holy scriptures foremost, certain aspects of worship, especially in the Divine Liturgy, the doctrines of the ecumenical councils, the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed—possess a verified authority that endures forever, irrevocably. However, with local councils and patristic writings, the church applies a selective judgement. Some councils and writers have occasionally fallen into error, and some contradict each other.<ref name="Ware1991" />

In other cases, opinions differ, no consensus is forthcoming, and all are free to choose. With agreement among the Church Fathers, though, the authority of interpretation grows, and full patristic consensus is very strong. With canon law (which tends to be highly rigorous and very strict, especially with clergy) an unalterable validity also does not apply, since canons deal with living on earth, where conditions are always changing and each case is subject to almost infinite variation from the next.<ref name=Ware1991/>

By tradition, the Eastern Orthodox Church, when faced with issues that are larger than a single bishop can resolve, holds a local council. The bishops convene (as St. Paul called the Corinthians to do) to seek the ''mind of the church''.<ref>Bible: {{Bibleverse|1 Cor|1:10|NKJV}}</ref> A council's declarations or edicts then reflect its consensus (if one can be found). An ecumenical council is only called for issues of such importance, difficulty or pervasiveness that smaller councils are insufficient to address them. Ecumenical councils' declarations and canons carry binding weight by virtue of their representation across the whole church, by which the mind of the church can be readily seen. However, not all issues are so difficult as to require an ecumenical council to resolve. Some doctrines or decisions, not defined in a formal statement or proclaimed officially, nevertheless are held by the church unshakably and unanimously without internal disturbance, and these, also reflecting the mind of the church, are just as firmly irrevocable as a formal declaration of an ecumenical council. Lack of formality does not imply lack of authority within holy tradition.<ref name=Ware1991/>

=== Territorial expansion and doctrinal integrity ===

As the church increased in size through the centuries, the logistic dynamics of operating such large entities shifted: patriarchs, metropolitans, archimandrites, abbots and abbesses, all rose up to cover certain points of administration.

== Liturgy ==

{{Main|Byzantine Rite|Eastern Orthodox worship|Western Rite Orthodoxy}}
[[File:Meister der Sophien-Kathedrale von Ohrid 001.jpg|thumb|[[Fresco]] of [[Basil the Great]], in the church of [[Church of Saint Sophia, Ohrid|Saint Sophia]], [[Ohrid]]. The saint is shown [[consecration|consecrating]] the [[Sacred Mysteries|Gifts]] during the [[Divine Liturgy]] which bears his name.|282x282px]]

=== Church calendar ===

Lesser cycles also run in tandem with the annual ones. A weekly cycle of days prescribes a specific focus for each day in addition to others that may be observed:<ref>{{cite web |title=The Five Cycles |work=Orthodox Worship |publisher=The Diocese of Eastern Pennsylvania, Orthodox Church in America |url=http://doepa.org/about_orthodoxy.html |access-date=24 June 2015 |archive-date=13 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713125935/http://doepa.org/about_orthodoxy.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{blockquote|text=Each day of the Weekly Cycle is dedicated to certain special memorials. Sunday is dedicated to [[Resurrection of Jesus|Christ's Resurrection]]; Monday honors the holy bodiless powers (angels, archangels, etc.); Tuesday is dedicated to the prophets and especially the greatest of the prophets, [[John the Baptist|St. John the Forerunner and Baptist of the Lord]]; Wednesday is consecrated to the Cross and recalls Judas' betrayal; Thursday honors the holy apostles and hierarchs, especially [[Saint Nicholas|St. Nicholas, Bishop of Myra in Lycia]]; Friday is also consecrated to the Cross and recalls the day of the Crucifixion; Saturday is dedicated to All Saints, especially the [[Theotokos|Mother of God]], and to the memory of all those who have departed this life in the hope of resurrection and eternal life.}}

=== Church services ===

{{Main|Canonical hours#Byzantine Rite usage}}
{{Empty section|date=November 2021}}

==== Music and chanting ====

{{Expand section|date=February 2022}}
[[File:Patriarchate Constantinopolis.jpg|thumb|Chanters singing on the [[kliros]] at the [[Church of St. George, Istanbul|Church of St. George]], [[Patriarchate of Constantinople]]]]

For the composition of religious chant, the [[Octoechos]], an eight-[[Mode (music)|tone (mode)]] system, analogous to the [[Gregorian mode]]s in the West, and to other ancient Christian musical systems, is used. [[Byzantine music]] is [[Microtonal music|microtonal]].

Northern Slavs, however, have used simpler tonal systems evolved through the sundry local types of [[Znamenny chant]]; today [[Western culture#Music|Western music]], often with [[four-part harmony]], and the "tones" are simply sets of melodies.

There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures.{{sfn|Ware|1993|p=238}}

== Traditions ==

=== Monasticism ===

{{Main|Eastern Orthodox monasticism|Degrees of Eastern Orthodox monasticism}}
[[File:Katharinenkloster Sinai BW 2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] (6th century), [[Sinai Peninsula]], [[Egypt]]|220x220px]]

The Eastern Orthodox Church places emphasis and awards a high level of prestige to traditions of [[monasticism]] and [[asceticism]] with roots in [[Early Christianity]] in the [[Near East]] and Byzantine [[Anatolia]]. The most important centres of Christian Orthodox monasticism are [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] in the [[Sinai Peninsula]] ([[Egypt]]) and [[Mount Athos]] in [[Northern Greece]].

All bishops are monks; if a man who is not a monk is elected a bishop, he must be tonsured a monk before he may be consecrated. Customarily, also, a man must either be a monk or be married to be ordained.

=== Icons and symbols ===

{{See also|Christian symbolism}}
{{Empty section|date=November 2021}}

==== Icons ====

{{Further|Icon}}
Aspects of the [[iconography]] borrow from the pre-Christian [[Roman art|Roman]] and [[Hellenistic art]]. [[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Henry Chadwick]] wrote, "In this instinct there was a measure of truth. The representations of Christ as the Almighty Lord on his judgment throne owed something to pictures of Zeus. Portraits of the Mother of God were not wholly independent of a pagan past of venerated mother-goddesses. In the popular mind the saints had come to fill a role that had been played by heroes and deities."<ref>Henry Chadwick, The Early Church, 283.</ref>

Icons can be found adorning the walls of churches and often cover the inside structure completely.{{sfn|Ware|1993|p=271}} Most Eastern Orthodox homes have an area set aside for family prayer, usually an eastern facing wall, where are hung many icons. Icons have been part of Orthodox Christianity since the beginning of the church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/things/icons.htm |title=Icons – Orthodox Christianity – Religion Facts |access-date=5 March 2015 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322064748/http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/things/icons.htm |archive-date=March 22, 2015 }}</ref>

==== Iconostasis ====

{{Main|Iconostasis}}
[[File:People's Salvation Cathedral - Days of Consecration 3.jpg|thumb|224x224px|Iconostasis of the [[Romanian People's Salvation Cathedral]]]]

An ''iconostasis'', also called the ''templon'', is a wall of [[icons]] and religious paintings, separating the [[nave]] from the [[sanctuary]] in a [[church (building)|church]]. ''Iconostasis'' also refers to a portable icon stand that can be placed anywhere within a church. The modern iconostasis evolved from the [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] [[templon]] in the 11th century. The evolution of the iconostasis probably owes a great deal to 14th-century [[Hesychasm|Hesychast]] [[mysticism]] and the wood-carving genius of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]].

The first ceiling-high, five-leveled Russian iconostasis was designed by [[Andrey Rublyov]] in the [[cathedral of the Dormition]] in [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]] in 1408.

==== Cross ====

[[File:Greek cross.svg|thumb|[[Greek Cross|Greek cross]]]]
[[File:OrthodoxCrossblack.svg|thumb|[[Russian Orthodoxy|Russian Orthodox]] cross]]

The small top crossbar represents the sign that [[Pontius Pilate]] nailed above Christ's head. It often is inscribed with an acronym, "INRI", Latin for "[[INRI|Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews]]" or "INBI", Greek Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ βασιλεύς τῶν Ἰουδαίων for "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews"; however, it is often replaced or amplified by the phrase "The King of Glory" in order to answer Pilate's statement with Christ's affirmation, "My Kingdom is not of this world".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Binz|first=Stephen J.|title=The Names of Jesus|publisher=Twenty-Third Publications|year=2004|isbn=9781585953158|location=New London|pages=81–82}}</ref>

Other crosses associated with the Eastern Orthodox Church are the more traditional single-bar crosses, budded designs, the [[Greek cross]], the [[Latin cross]], the [[Jerusalem cross]] (cross pattée), [[Celtic cross]]es, and others.<ref>A good explanation of the 3-bar cross was written by Orthodox symbologist Alexander Roman and can be found at http://www.ukrainian-orthodoxy.org/questions/2010/threeBarCross.php {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201124021/http://www.ukrainian-orthodoxy.org/questions/2010/threeBarCross.php |date=2022-02-01 }}</ref> A common symbolism of the slanted foot stool is the foot-rest points up, toward Heaven, on Christ's right hand-side, and downward, to Hades, on Christ's left. "Between two thieves Thy Cross did prove to be a balance of
righteousness: wherefore one of them was dragged down to Hades by the
weight of his blasphemy ''[the balance points downward]'', whereas the other was lightened of his transgressions unto the comprehension of theology ''[the balance points upward]''. O Christ God, glory to Thee."<ref>{{cite web|title = An Explanation of the Traditional Russian Orthodox Three-bar Cross|url = http://www.synaxis.info/old-rite/0_oldbelief/instructional_eng/cross_symbolism.html|website = www.synaxis.info|access-date = 2015-10-17|archive-date = 2015-07-04|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150704065215/http://www.synaxis.info/old-rite/0_oldbelief/instructional_eng/cross_symbolism.html|url-status = live}}</ref>

=== Art and architecture ===

{{Main|Eastern Orthodox church architecture}}
[[File:Orthodox-Church-interior.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|An illustration of the traditional interior of an Eastern Orthodox church.]]

The [[Archdiocesan Cathedral of the Holy Trinity]] on New York City's [[Upper East Side]] is the largest Eastern Orthodox Christian church in the [[Western Hemisphere]].<ref name="StudentEd">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_F5yntZocGIC&q=%22holy+trinity%22+cathedral+greek++74&pg=PA147 |title=The Orthodox Church: Student Edition |author=Thomas E. FitzGerald |access-date=5 January 2013 |isbn=978-0-275-96438-2 |year=1998 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |archive-date=21 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921092743/https://books.google.com/books?id=_F5yntZocGIC&q=%22holy+trinity%22+cathedral+greek++74&pg=PA147 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Local customs ===

[[File:Broken vases on Holy Saturday in Corfu.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Shards of pottery vases on the street, after being thrown from the windows of nearby houses. A [[Holy Saturday]] tradition in [[Corfu]].|alt=]]

Locality is also expressed in regional terms of churchly jurisdiction, which is often also drawn along national lines. Many Orthodox churches adopt a national title (e.g. [[Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania|Albanian Orthodox]], [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church|Bulgarian Orthodox]], [[Georgian Orthodox Church|Georgian Orthodox]], [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]], [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Romanian Orthodox]], [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]], [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Orthodox]], [[Orthodox Church of Ukraine|Ukrainian Orthodox]], etc.) and this title can identify which language is used in services, which bishops preside, and which of the typica is followed by specific [[wikt:congregation|congregations]]. In the Middle East, Orthodox Christians are usually referred to as ''[[Rum (endonym)|Rum]]'' ("Roman") Orthodox, because of their historical connection with the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire]].{{sfn|Binns|2002|p=3}}

== Holy mysteries (sacraments) ==

Those things which in the West are often termed [[sacraments]] or [[sacramentals]] are known among the Eastern Orthodox as the "sacred mysteries". While the Roman Catholic Church numbers seven sacraments, and many Protestant groups list two (baptism and the Eucharist) or even none, the Eastern Orthodox do not limit the number. However, for the sake of convenience, [[catechism]]s often speak of the seven great mysteries. Among these are [[Holy Communion]] (the most direct connection), [[baptism]], [[Chrismation]], [[Confession (religion)|confession]], [[unction]], [[matrimony]], and [[ordination]]. But the term also properly applies to other sacred actions such as monastic [[tonsure]] or the blessing of [[Holy water in Eastern Christianity|holy water]], and involves fasting, almsgiving, or an act as simple as lighting a candle, burning incense, praying or asking God's blessing on food.{{sfn|Ware|1993|pp=274–277}}

=== Baptism ===

[[File:GreekOrthodoxBaptism1.jpg|thumb|right|An Eastern Orthodox baptism]]

[[Baptism]] is the mystery which transforms the old and sinful person into a new and pure one; the old life, the sins, any mistakes made are gone and a clean slate is given. Through baptism a person is united to the [[Body of Christ]] by becoming a member of the Eastern Orthodox Church. During the service, [[Holy water in Eastern Christianity|water]] is blessed. The catechumen is fully immersed in the water three times in the name of the Trinity. This is considered to be a death of the "old man" by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection.{{sfn|Ware|1993|pp=277–278}}

Properly, the mystery of baptism is administered by bishops and priests; however, [[Emergency baptism|in emergencies any Eastern Orthodox Christian can baptise]].{{sfn|Ware|1993|p=278}}

=== Chrismation ===

[[Chrismation]] (sometimes called [[confirmation]]) is the mystery by which a baptised person is granted the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]] through anointing with Holy [[Chrism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=52 |title=The Orthodox Faith |author=Fr. Thomas Hopko |year=1981 |publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press |access-date=11 November 2013 |archive-date=25 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111025114723/http://oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=52 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sfn|Ware|1993|pp=278–279}} It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Eastern Orthodox Church.{{sfn|Harakas|1987|pp=56–57}} As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so Chrismation is a person's participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at [[Pentecost]].<ref name=ware1993p279>{{harvnb|Ware|1993|p=279}}</ref>

A baptised and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christian is a full member of the church and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.<ref name=ware1993p279/>

Anointing with chrism substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the [[New Testament]].{{sfn|Harakas|1987|p=57}}

=== Holy Communion (Eucharist) ===

[[File:Liturgy St James 1.jpg|thumb|Eucharistic elements prepared for the Divine Liturgy|alt=]]

[[Eucharist|Communion]] is given only to baptised and chrismated Eastern Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer and confession. The priest administers the gifts with a spoon, called a "cochlear", directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice.{{sfn|Ware|1993|p=287}} From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive holy communion.<ref name="ware1993p279" />

=== Repentance (Confession) ===

{{Main|Confession (religion)}}
There are many different practices regarding how often Eastern Orthodox Christians should go to confession. Some Patriarchates advise confession before each reception of [[Holy Communion]], others advise confessing during each of the four fasting periods ([[Great Lent]], [[Nativity Fast]], [[Apostles' Fast]] and [[Dormition Fast]]), and there are many additional variants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orthodox-christian-comment.co.uk/confession_communion_preparation_for_communion.htm |title=Confession, Communion and Preparation for Communion |date=31 Aug 2007 |website=Orthodox Christian Comment |access-date=11 Apr 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120021323/http://www.orthodox-christian-comment.co.uk/confession_communion_preparation_for_communion.htm |archive-date=20 November 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Marriage ===

{{main|Marriage in the Eastern Orthodox Church}}
[[File:Wedding of Nicholas II and Alexandra Feodorovna by Laurits Tuxen (1895, Hermitage).jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The wedding of Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia]].]]

From the Orthodox perspective, marriage is one of the holy mysteries or sacraments. As well as in many other Christian traditions, for example in Catholicism, it serves to unite a woman and a man in eternal union and love before God, with the purpose of following Christ and his Gospel and raising up a faithful, holy family through their holy union.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_02021994_families_en.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110405033300/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_02021994_families_en.html|url-status=dead|title=Letter to Families by Pope John Paul II|archive-date=April 5, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = John Meyendorff| title = Marriage: An Orthodox Perspective| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YSSCUO1tonkC&pg=PA13| year = 1975| publisher = St. Vladimir's Seminary Press| isbn = 978-0-913836-05-7| page = 13| access-date = 2016-02-20| archive-date = 2023-09-21| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230921092743/https://books.google.com/books?id=YSSCUO1tonkC&pg=PA13| url-status = live}}</ref> The church understands marriage to be the union of one man and one woman, and certain Orthodox leaders have spoken out strongly in opposition to the civil institution of [[same-sex marriage]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://saintandrew.net/documents/FINALOrthodoxBishopsProp8Statement.pdf |title=Statement of Orthodox Christian Bishops |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610200407/http://saintandrew.net/documents/FINALOrthodoxBishopsProp8Statement.pdf |archive-date=10 June 2011 |url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oca.org/news/590 |title=OCA Reaffirms SCOBA Statement in Wake of Massachusetts Same-Sex Marriage Ruling |date=17 May 2004 |access-date=4 August 2010 |archive-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100622082955/http://www.oca.org/news/590 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Jesus said that "when they rise from the dead, they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like angels in heaven" (Mk 12:25). For the Orthodox Christian this passage should not be understood to imply that Christian marriage will not remain a reality in the Kingdom, but points to the fact that relations will not be "fleshy", but "spiritual".<ref name=meyendorff70/> Love between wife and husband, as an icon of relationship between Christ and Church, is eternal.<ref name=meyendorff70>{{cite book| author = John Meyendorff| title = Marriage: An Orthodox Perspective| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YSSCUO1tonkC&pg=PA18| year = 1975| publisher = St. Vladimir's Seminary Press| isbn = 978-0-913836-05-7| page = 18| access-date = 2016-02-20| archive-date = 2023-09-21| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230921092743/https://books.google.com/books?id=YSSCUO1tonkC&pg=PA18| url-status = live}}</ref>

The church does recognise that there are rare occasions when it is better that couples do separate, but there is no official recognition of civil divorces. For the E. Orthodox, to say that marriage is indissoluble means that it should not be broken, the violation of such a union, perceived as holy, being an offense resulting from either adultery or the prolonged absence of one of the partners. Thus, permitting remarriage is an act of compassion of the church towards sinful man.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/liturgics/athenagoras_remarriage.htm|title=Marriage, Divorce and Remarriage in the Orthodox Church: Economia and Pastoral Guidance|publisher=The Orthodox research Institute|author=Mgr. Athenagoras Peckstadt, Bishop of Sinope|date=18 May 2005|access-date=19 November 2008|archive-date=20 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120133149/http://orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/liturgics/athenagoras_remarriage.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Holy orders ===

[[Image:Kheirotonia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Eastern Orthodox [[subdeacon]] being ordained to the [[diaconate]]. The [[bishop]] has placed his [[omophorion]] and right hand on the head of the candidate and is reading the ''Prayer of [[Christian laying on of hands|Cheirotonia]]''.]]

Widowed priests and [[deacons]] may not remarry and it is common for such members of the clergy to retire to a monastery (see [[clerical celibacy]]). This is also true of widowed wives of clergy, who do not remarry and become nuns when their children are grown. Only men are allowed to receive [[holy orders]], although [[deaconesses]] historically had both liturgical and pastoral functions within the church.<ref name="Karras">{{cite journal |last= Karras |first= Valerie A. |title= Female Deacons in the Byzantine Church |pages= 272–316 |date=June 2004 |journal= Church History |volume= 73 |issue= 2 |doi= 10.1017/S000964070010928X |s2cid= 161817885 |issn= 0009-6407 
}}</ref>

In 2016, the Patriarchate of Alexandria decided to reintroduce the order of deaconess.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-03-09|title=Orthodox Church debate over women deacons moves one step closer to reality|url=https://religionnews.com/2017/03/09/orthodox-church-debate-over-women-deacons-moves-one-step-closer-to-reality/|access-date=2021-11-12|website=Religion News Service|archive-date=2021-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112025044/https://religionnews.com/2017/03/09/orthodox-church-debate-over-women-deacons-moves-one-step-closer-to-reality/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=Second Day of Deliberations of the Holy Synod of the Patriarchate of Alexandria|url=http://www.patriarchateofalexandria.com/index.php?module=news&action=details&id=1207|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222133346/http://www.patriarchateofalexandria.com/index.php?module=news&action=details&id=1207|archive-date=2016-12-22|access-date=2021-11-12|website=patriarchateofalexandria.com|quote=Regarding the issue of the institution of Deaconesses, it was decided to revive this and a tripartite committee of Hierarchs was appointed for a detailed consideration of the subject.}}</ref> In February 2017, [[Patriarch Theodore II of Alexandria|Patriarch Theodore II]] consecrated five women to be deacons within the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Patriarchate of Alexandria]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-11-30|title=Orthodox move for women deacons is 'revitalization' not 'innovation'|url=https://www.ncronline.org/news/theology/orthodox-move-women-deacons-called-revitalization-not-innovation|access-date=2021-11-12|website=National Catholic Reporter|archive-date=2023-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326030550/https://www.ncronline.org/news/theology/orthodox-move-women-deacons-called-revitalization-not-innovation|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Distribution==
{{main|Eastern Orthodoxy by country}}
[[File:World Eastern Orthodox population.png|thumb|right|250px|Eastern Orthodox population by country]]
Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion in the world's largest country by land area, Russia (77%),<ref name="VTSIOM">{{Cite web|url=http://wciom.ru/index.php?id=268&uid=13365|title=VTSIOM|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2020-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929201730/https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=268&uid=13365%2F|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Public Opinion Foundation">{{Cite web|url=https://fom.ru/obshchestvo/10953|title=Ценности: религиозность / ФОМ|website=fom.ru|access-date=2022-08-31|archive-date=2020-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731170154/https://fom.ru/obshchestvo/10953|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>There is no official census of religion in Russia, and estimates are based on surveys only. In August 2012, [http://sreda.org/arena ARENA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143249/http://sreda.org/arena |date=2018-06-12 }} determined that about 48% of Russians are Christians (including Orthodox, Catholic, Protestant, and non-denominational), which is slightly less than an absolute 50%+ majority. However, later that year the [http://www.levada.ru/17-12-2012/v-rossii-74-pravoslavnykh-i-7-musulman Levada Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231020830/http://www.levada.ru/17-12-2012/v-rossii-74-pravoslavnykh-i-7-musulman |date=2012-12-31 }} determined that 76% of Russians are Christians, and in June 2013 the [http://fom.ru/obshchestvo/10953 Public Opinion Foundation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415213226/https://fom.ru/obshchestvo/10953 |date=2020-04-15 }} determined that 65% of Russians are Christians. These findings are in line with [http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-exec/ Pew] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004115616/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-exec/ |date=2018-10-04 }}'s 2010 survey, which determined that 73.6% of Russians are Christians, with [http://wciom.ru/index.php?id=268&uid=13365 VTSIOM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929201730/https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=268&uid=13365%2F |date=2020-09-29 }}'s 2010 survey (~77% Christian), and with [http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf#page=40 Ipsos MORI] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013643/http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf |date=2013-01-17 }}'s 2011 survey (69%).</ref> where roughly half the world's Eastern Orthodox Christians live. The religion is also heavily concentrated in the rest of [[Eastern Europe]], where it is the majority religion in Ukraine (65.4%<ref name=Razumkov2016>[http://old.razumkov.org.ua/upload/Religiya_200516_A4.compressed.pdf РЕЛІГІЯ, ЦЕРКВА, СУСПІЛЬСТВО І ДЕРЖАВА: ДВА РОКИ ПІСЛЯ МАЙДАНУ (''Religion, Church, Society and State: Two Years after Maidan'')] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422181327/http://old.razumkov.org.ua/upload/Religiya_200516_A4.compressed.pdf |date=2017-04-22 }}, 2016 report by [[Razumkov Center]] in collaboration with the All-Ukrainian Council of Churches. pp. 27–29.</ref>–77%),<ref name="pewforum1">{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |title=Pewforum: Christianity (2010) |access-date=2014-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805020311/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |archive-date=2013-08-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Romania (81%),<ref name=CIAWeb/> [[Belarus]] (48%<ref name="Belarus2011">{{Cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.by/upload/pdf/religion_eng.pdf |title=Religion and denominations in the Republic of Belarus by the Commissioner on Religions and Nationalities of the Republic of Belarus from November 2011 |access-date=2022-02-04 |archive-date=2017-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014085840/http://www.mfa.gov.by/upload/pdf/religion_eng.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>–73%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/05/10/religious-belief-and-national-belonging-in-central-and-eastern-europe/|title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe|date=May 10, 2017|access-date=August 31, 2022|archive-date=August 31, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831193441/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/05/10/religious-belief-and-national-belonging-in-central-and-eastern-europe/|url-status=live}}</ref>), Greece (98%),<ref name=CIAWeb>{{cite web |title=Field Listing :: Religions |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003300/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 13, 2007 |access-date=22 May 2014 |ref=none }}</ref> [[Serbia]] (86%),<ref name=CIAWeb/> [[Bulgaria]] (86%),<ref name=CIAWeb/> [[Moldova]] (90%),<ref name=CIAWeb/> [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (80%),<ref name=CIAWeb/> [[North Macedonia]] (70%),<ref name=CIAWeb/> [[Cyprus]] (80%)<ref name=CIAWeb/> and [[Montenegro]] (73%);<ref name=CIAWeb/> it is also predominant in the disputed territories of [[Abkhazia]], [[South Ossetia]] and [[Transnistria]].

Significant minorities are present in several European countries, such as: [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (31%),<ref name=CIAWeb/> [[Latvia]] (24%), [[Estonia]] (24%), [[Albania]] (7–10%),<ref name="albania">[[Religion in Albania#Religious demography]]</ref> [[Lithuania]] (4%), [[Croatia]] (4%), [[Slovenia]] (2%), [[Germany]] (2%)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Germany Religions – Demographics |url=https://www.indexmundi.com/germany/religions.html |access-date=2023-11-22 |website=indexmundi.com |language=en}}</ref> and [[Finland]] (1.5%). In the [[former USSR|former Soviet republics]] of [[Central Asia]], Eastern Orthodoxy constitutes the dominant religion in northern [[Kazakhstan]], representing 17.9% of the population of the region,<ref name="2013table28">[http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/data-tables/total-by-topic.aspx Table 28, 2013 Census Data – QuickStats About Culture and Identity – Tables] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122042347/http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/data-tables/total-by-topic.aspx |date=2017-11-22 }}.</ref> and is also a significant minority in [[Kyrgyzstan]] (10%), [[Turkmenistan]] (4%), [[Uzbekistan]] (3%), [[Azerbaijan]] (2%),<ref name=CIAWeb/> and [[Tajikistan]] (1%). 

Significant Eastern Orthodox populations in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] (primarily [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]]) are [[Lebanon]] (8%),<ref name="freedom">[https://web.archive.org/web/20101123103408/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148830.htm Lebanon – International Religious Freedom Report 2010] U.S. Department of State. Retrieved on 14 February 2010.</ref> [[Syria]] (5–8%), [[Jordan]] (2–5%),<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jordan Religions – Demographics |url=https://www.indexmundi.com/jordan/religions.html |access-date=2022-09-17 |website=indexmundi.com |language=en |archive-date=2022-08-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817191536/https://www.indexmundi.com/jordan/religions.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Vela |first=Justin |date=2015-02-14 |title=Jordan: The safe haven for Christians fleeing ISIL |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/jordan-the-safe-haven-for-christians-fleeing-isil-1.36000 |access-date=2022-09-17 |website=The National |language=en |archive-date=2022-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171157/https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/jordan-the-safe-haven-for-christians-fleeing-isil-1.36000 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[State of Palestine]] (1%–2.5%),<ref name="cia.gov">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/west-bank/|title=West Bank|date=August 10, 2022|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov|access-date=February 4, 2022|archive-date=July 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722231029/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/west-bank/|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Israel]] (1–2%).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-10-17 |title=The Christian communities in Israel – May 2014 |url=http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Spotlight/Pages/The-Christian-communities-in-Israel-May-2014.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017004653/http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/AboutIsrael/Spotlight/Pages/The-Christian-communities-in-Israel-May-2014.aspx |archive-date=2015-10-17 |access-date=2022-09-17 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Israel |date=2022-09-02 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel/#people-and-society |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en |access-date=2022-09-17 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913131645/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/israel/#people-and-society |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Orthodoxy]]
*[[Eastern Orthodox theology]]
*[[Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar]]
*[[Revised Julian calendar]]
*[[Western Rite Orthodoxy]]
*[[Russian Orthodox cross]]
*[[List of Eastern Orthodox saints]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==

=== Citations ===

{{Reflist}}

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==Further reading==
{{refbegin|40em}}
* {{cite book|last=Adeney|first=Walter F.|title=The Greek and Eastern Churches|year=1908|location=New York|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|url=https://archive.org/download/greekeasternchu00aden/greekeasternchu00aden.pdf}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Buxhoeveden|editor-first1=Daniel|editor-last2=Woloschak|editor-first2=Gayle|title=Science and the Eastern Orthodox Church|year=2011|edition=1st|location=Farnham|publisher=Ashgate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5wKiAgAAQBAJ|isbn=9781409481614|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2023-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921092819/https://books.google.com/books?id=5wKiAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Dvornik|first=Francis|author-link=Francis Dvornik|title=The Photian Schism: History and Legend|year=1948|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/photianschism0000dvor|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|last=Erickson|first=John H.|author-link=John H. Erickson|title=The Challenge of Our Past: Studies in Orthodox Canon Law and Church History|year=1991|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XgRrh2M08p0C|isbn=9780881410860|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2023-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921093246/https://books.google.com/books?id=XgRrh2M08p0C|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Erickson|first=John H.|author-link=John H. Erickson|title=The Local Churches and Catholicity: An Orthodox Perspective|journal=The Jurist|year=1992|volume=52|pages=490–508|url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/juristcu52&div=35|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2020-11-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104155109/https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/juristcu52&div=35|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Fairbairn|first=Donald|author-link=Donald Fairbairn|title=Eastern Orthodoxy through Western Eyes|year=2002|location=Louisville, KY|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKYM6FVxYKIC|isbn=9780664224974|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2023-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921093248/https://books.google.com/books?id=eKYM6FVxYKIC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=FitzGerald|first=Thomas|chapter=Eastern Christianity in the United States|title=The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity|year=2007|location=Malden, MA|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|pages=269–279|isbn=9780470766392|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fHtSuvaVAAoC|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2023-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921093248/https://books.google.com/books?id=fHtSuvaVAAoC|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hussey|first=Joan M.|author-link=Joan M. Hussey|title=The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire|year=1986|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnZAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9780198269014|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2023-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921093249/https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnZAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
* Krindatch, Alexei D. ed., ''Atlas of American Orthodox Christian Churches'' (Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2011) [http://www.coptics.info/Books/AtlasAmericanOrthodoxChurchesSample.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006040625/http://www.coptics.info/Books/AtlasAmericanOrthodoxChurchesSample.pdf |date=2016-10-06 }}.
* {{Cite book|last=Lossky|first=Vladimir|author-link=Vladimir Lossky|title=The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church|year=1957|edition=1.|location=London|publisher=J. Clarke|isbn=9780227675366|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11cJAQAAIAAJ|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2023-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921093249/https://books.google.com/books?id=11cJAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mascall|first=Eric Lionel|author-link=Eric Lionel Mascall|title=The Recovery of Unity: A Theological Approach|year=1958|location=London|publisher=Longmans|url=https://archive.org/details/recoveryofunityt0000masc|url-access=registration}}
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* {{Cite book|editor-last=McGuckin|editor-first=John Anthony|editor-link=John Anthony McGuckin|title=The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity|year=2011|volume=1|location=Malden, MA|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=9781405185394 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3y2wwEACAAJ|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2023-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921093249/https://books.google.com/books?id=N3y2wwEACAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=McGuckin|editor-first=John Anthony|editor-link=John Anthony McGuckin|title=The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity|year=2011|volume=2|location=Malden, MA|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_jYsAQAAMAAJ|isbn=9781405185394|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2023-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230921093755/https://books.google.com/books?id=_jYsAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}
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* {{Cite book|last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|year=1956|title=History of the Byzantine State|location=Oxford|publisher=Basil Blackwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ|access-date=2022-02-04|archive-date=2023-04-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423035501/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ|url-status=live}}
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* [[Constantine B. Scouteris|Scouteris, Constantine]], ''[http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/misc/scouteris_orthodox_church.htm A Brief Outline of the Orthodox Church, Ἐκκλησιαστικός Φάρος, 65 (2004), pp. 60–75.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220203141021/http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/misc/scouteris_orthodox_church.htm |date=2022-02-03 }}''
{{refend}}

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