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Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Postgraduate academic degree awarded by most universities worldwide}} {{Redirect|PhD|other uses|PHD (disambiguation)}} {{pp-move}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2017}} {{Infobox examination | name = Doctor of Philosophy | image_name = | image_size = | image_alt = | caption = | abbreviation = PhD<br />DPhil | type = [[Postgraduate education]] | test_admin = | skills_tested = | purpose = | year_started = | year_terminated = <!-- {{End date|YYYY}} --> | duration = 3 to 8 years | score_range = | score_validity = | offered = | attempt_restriction = | regions = | language = | test_takers = | prerequisite = [[Bachelor's degree]]<br>[[Master's degree]]<br><small>(varied by country and institution)</small> | fee = | score_users = | qualification_rate = | website = | footnotes = }} A '''Doctor of Philosophy''' ('''PhD''', '''Ph.D.''', or '''DPhil'''; [[Latin]]: {{lang|la|philosophiae doctor}} or {{Lang|la|doctor philosophiae}}) is the most common [[Academic degree|degree]] at the highest academic level, awarded following a course of study and research. The degree is abbreviated PhD and sometimes, especially in the U.S., as Ph.D. It is derived from the Latin {{Lang|la|Philosophiae Doctor}}, pronounced as three separate letters ({{IPAc-en|p|iː|eɪ|tʃ|ˈ|d|iː}}, {{respell|PEE|aych|DEE}}).<ref>{{Cite web |title=PhD |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/phd |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507011809/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/phd |archive-date=7 May 2019 |access-date=27 January 2017 |website=Oxford Living Dictionaries – British and World English |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ph.D. |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/ph.d. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011095719/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/ph.d. |archive-date=11 October 2017 |access-date=27 January 2017 |website=Oxford Living Dictionaries – North American English |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=PhD |encyclopedia=[[Merriam-Webster]] |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/PhD |access-date=27 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202031655/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/PhD |archive-date=2 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The abbreviation DPhil, from the English "Doctor of Philosophy",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robert Currie |title=The History of the University of Oxford: The twentieth century |date=1994 |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |isbn=9780198229742 |editor-last=Brian Harrison |page=125 |chapter=The Arts and Social Studies, 1914–1939 |quote=Very few persons had received even an honorary DLitt by 1916 when the Reverend E. M. Walker, Senior Tutor of [[The Queen's College, Oxford|Queen's]], proposed, as the ''[[Oxford Magazine]]'' put it, that the University 'should divert the stream' of American aspirants to the German universities' degree of ''philosophiae doctor'' by opening the DLitt to persons offering a suitable dissertation nine terms after graduation. Apart from a successful move led by Sidney Ball, philosophy tutor at [[St John's College, Oxford|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OP5ePl7i5EIC&pg=PA125 |St John's]], to distinguish the proposed arrangement from both the DLitt and the German PhD by adopting the English title "doctor of philosophy" (DPhil), the scheme meet with little opposition}}</ref> is used by a small number of [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] universities,<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is a DPhil? |url=https://uni-of-oxford.custhelp.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/185 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017035026/https://uni-of-oxford.custhelp.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/185 |archive-date=17 October 2015 |access-date=14 January 2014 |publisher=University of Oxford |quote=A DPhil is the Oxford term for a PhD.}}</ref> including the [[University of Oxford]] and formerly the [[University of York]] and [[University of Sussex]] in the United Kingdom.<ref name="sussex-dphil">{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=MPhil/DPhil in Life History Research |url=http://www.sussex.ac.uk/clhlwr/courses/mphildphil |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803093456/http://www.sussex.ac.uk/clhlwr/courses/mphildphil |archive-date=3 August 2020 |access-date=26 April 2020 |publisher=Centre for Life History and Life Writing Research, [[University of Sussex]] |location=UK}}</ref> PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Since it is an earned research degree, those studying for a PhD are required to produce original research that expands the boundaries of knowledge, normally in the form of a [[Thesis|dissertation]], and defend their work before a panel of other experts in the field. The completion of a PhD is typically required for employment as a [[university professor]], [[research]]er, or [[scientist]] in many fields.<ref>{{Cite news |date=16 December 2010 |title=The disposable academic |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/christmas-specials/2010/12/16/the-disposable-academic |url-status=live |access-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107202356/https://www.economist.com/christmas-specials/2010/12/16/the-disposable-academic |archive-date=7 January 2021}}</ref> {{toc limit}} ==Definition== [[File:Phdposing.png|thumb|A group of new PhD graduates with their professors at [[Worcester Polytechnic Institute]] in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]]]] In the context of the Doctor of Philosophy and other similarly titled degrees, the term "philosophy" does not refer to the field or academic discipline of [[philosophy]], but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is "love of wisdom". In most of Europe, all fields (history, philosophy, [[social science]]s, mathematics, and [[natural philosophy]]/[[natural science|sciences]])<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chang |first=Sooyoung |title=Academic Genealogy of Mathematicians |publisher=World Scientific |year=2010 |isbn=978-981-4282-29-1 |page=183 |doi=10.1142/7420|url=http://www.gbv.de/dms/tib-ub-hannover/615221998.pdf }}</ref> other than [[theology]], [[law]], and [[medicine]] (the so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of [[liberal arts education|liberal arts]] was known as the "faculty of philosophy". A PhD candidate must submit a project, [[thesis]], or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic [[research]], which is in principle worthy of publication in a [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]] journal.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last1=Dinham |first1=S. |title=The Experience of Disseminating the Results of Doctoral Research |last2=Scott |first2=C. |journal=Journal of Further and Higher Education |year=2001 |volume=25 |pages=45–55 |doi=10.1080/03098770020030498 |s2cid=146687739}}</ref> In many countries, a candidate must [[Thesis defense|defend]] this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university. Universities sometimes award other types of doctorate besides the PhD, such as the [[Doctor of Musical Arts]] (D.M.A.) for music performers, [[Doctor of Juridical Science]] (S.J.D.) for legal scholars and the [[Doctor of Education]] (Ed.D.) for studies in education. In 2005 the [[Special:WhatLinksHere/European University Association|European University Association]] defined the "Salzburg Principles", 10 basic principles for third-cycle degrees (doctorates) within the [[Bologna Process]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kirsti Koch Christensen |date=2005 |title=BOLOGNA SEMINAR: DOCTORAL PROGRAMMES FOR THE EUROPEAN KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY |url=http://eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/Salzburg_Report_final.1129817011146.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011095904/http://eua.be/eua/jsp/en/upload/Salzburg_Report_final.1129817011146.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |access-date=7 July 2017 |publisher=European Universities Association}}</ref> These were followed in 2016 by the "Florence Principles", seven basic principles for doctorates in the arts laid out by the [[European League of Institutes of the Arts]], which have been endorsed by the [[European Association of Conservatoires]], the [[International Association of Film and Television Schools]], the International Association of Universities and Colleges of Art, Design and Media, and the [[Society for Artistic Research]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=THE 'FLORENCE PRINCIPLES' ON THE DOCTORATE IN THE ARTS |url=http://www.elia-artschools.org/userfiles/File/customfiles/1-the-florence-principles20161124105336_20161202112511.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221161920/http://www.elia-artschools.org/userfiles/File/customfiles/1-the-florence-principles20161124105336_20161202112511.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2016 |access-date=21 December 2016}}</ref> The specific requirements to earn a PhD degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, and time period, from entry-level research degrees to [[higher doctorate]]s. During the studies that lead to the degree, the student is called a ''doctoral student'' or ''PhD student''; a student who has completed any necessary coursework and related examinations and is working on their thesis/dissertation is sometimes known as a ''doctoral candidate'' or ''PhD candidate''. A student attaining this level may be granted a [[Candidate of Philosophy]] degree at some institutions or may be granted a [[master's degree]] ''en route'' to the doctoral degree. Sometimes this status is also colloquially known as "ABD", meaning "[[All But Dissertation|all but dissertation]]".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Schuman |first=Rebecca |date=2014-08-01 |title=ABD Company |work=Slate |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/education/2014/08/abds_all_but_dissertation_ph_d_candidates_who_can_t_quite_finish.html |url-status=live |access-date=2018-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831192619/http://www.slate.com/articles/life/education/2014/08/abds_all_but_dissertation_ph_d_candidates_who_can_t_quite_finish.html |archive-date=31 August 2018 |issn=1091-2339}}</ref> PhD graduates may undertake a [[postdoc]] in the process of transitioning from study to [[academic tenure]]. Individuals who have earned the Doctor of Philosophy degree use the title ''[[Doctor (title)|Doctor]]'' (often abbreviated "Dr" or "Dr."), although the [[etiquette]] associated with this usage may be subject to the professional ethics of the particular scholarly field, culture, or society. Those who teach at universities or work in academic, educational, or research fields are usually addressed by this title "professionally and socially in a salutation or conversation".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hickey |first=Robert |title=How address the holder of a Doctorate |url=http://www.formsofaddress.info/Doctorate.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625215731/http://www.formsofaddress.info/Doctorate.html |archive-date=25 June 2020 |access-date=2018-08-23 |website=FormsOfAddress.info}}</ref> Alternatively, holders may use [[post-nominal letters]] such as "Ph.D.", "PhD", or "DPhil", depending on the awarding institution. It is, however, considered incorrect to use both the title and post-nominals together.<ref>{{Cite news |title=How to Correctly Use the Titles Dr. & PhD With a Name {{!}} Synonym |url=https://classroom.synonym.com/how-to-correctly-use-the-titles-dr-phd-with-a-name-12082451.html |url-status=live |access-date=2018-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823105528/https://classroom.synonym.com/how-to-correctly-use-the-titles-dr-phd-with-a-name-12082451.html |archive-date=23 August 2018}}</ref> ==History== <!--linked from 'Academic genealogy of theoretical physicists' and 'Erhard Weigel'--> === Medieval and early modern Europe === In the [[Medieval university|universities of Medieval Europe]], study was organized in four faculties: the basic faculty of arts, and the three higher faculties of theology, medicine, and law ([[canon law]] and [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]]). All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees (bachelor of arts, of theology, of laws, of medicine) and final degrees. Initially, the titles of master and doctor were used interchangeably for the final degrees—the title ''Doctor'' was merely a formality bestowed on a Teacher/Master of the art—but by the late [[Middle Ages]] the terms Master of Arts and Doctor of Theology/Divinity, Doctor of Law, and Doctor of Medicine had become standard in most places (though in the German and Italian universities the term ''Doctor'' was used for all faculties).<ref>Ruano-Borbalan, Jean-Claude. (23 July 2022). [https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12522 ''Doctoral education from its medieval foundations to today's globalisation and standardisation'']. [[Wiley (publisher)]] online library.</ref> The doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current PhD degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original [[research]]. No [[thesis|dissertation]] or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements and examinations. Besides these degrees, there was the [[Licentiate (degree)|licentiate]]. Originally this was a license to teach, awarded shortly before the award of the [[Master degree|master's]] or doctoral degree by the diocese in which the university was located, but later it evolved into an [[academic degree]] in its own right, in particular in the continental universities. According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree<!--Keith 1994 does not specify the exact type of the first doctorates--> was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150<!--"at the University of Paris circa 1150"-->.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allan Noble |first=Keith |title=''Changing doctoral degrees: an international perspective'', Society for Research into Higher Education, 1994, p. 8; Bourner, T., Bowden, R., & Laing, S. (2001). "Professional doctorates in England |year=2001 |volume=26 |pages=65–88 |doi=10.1080/03075070020030724 |issue=1 |work=Studies in Higher Education}}</ref> The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal [[teacher's credential]] in the 17th century (circa 1652).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de.dedi2970.your-server.de/biographie-weigels/ |title=Erhard-Weigel-Gesellschaft: Biographie Weigels |website=Erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de |access-date=2016-10-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114124147/http://erhard-weigel-gesellschaft.de.dedi2970.your-server.de/biographie-weigels/ |archive-date=2016-11-14 }}</ref> There were no PhDs in Germany before the 1650s (when they gradually started replacing the MA as the highest academic degree; arguably, one of the earliest German PhD holders is [[Erhard Weigel]] (Dr. phil. hab., Leipzig, 1652).{{citation needed|date=February 2017}} The full course of studies might, for example, lead in succession to the degrees of [[Bachelor of Arts]], [[Licentiate of Arts]], [[Master of Arts]], or [[Bachelor of Medicine]], Licentiate of Medicine, or [[Doctor of Medicine]], but before the early modern era, many exceptions to this existed. Most students left the university without becoming masters of arts, whereas regulars (members of monastic orders) could skip the arts faculty entirely.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pedersen |first=Olaf |title=The first universities: Studium generale and the origins of university education in Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-59431-8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=de Ridder-Symoens |first=Hilde |title=A history of the university in Europe: Universities in the Middle Ages |title-link=A History of the University in Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-36105-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rashdall |first=Hastings |title=The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1964}}</ref> === Educational reforms in Germany === This situation changed in the early 19th century through the educational reforms in [[Germany]], most strongly embodied in the model of the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]], founded and controlled by the [[Prussian government]] in 1810. The arts faculty, which in Germany was labelled the faculty of philosophy, started demanding contributions to research,<ref name="Redefining the Doctorate">{{Cite book |last=Park |first=C. |url=https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/about/external/publications/redefining-the-doctorate.pdf |title=Redefining the Doctorate |publisher=The Higher Education Academy |year=2007 |location=York, UK |page=4 |access-date=2 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014331/https://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/about/external/publications/redefining-the-doctorate.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> attested by a dissertation, for the award of their final degree, which was labelled Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated as Ph.D.)—originally this was just the German equivalent of the Master of Arts degree. Whereas in the Middle Ages the arts faculty had a set curriculum, based upon the [[trivium (education)|trivium]] and the [[quadrivium]], by the 19th century it had come to house all the courses of study in subjects now commonly referred to as sciences and humanities.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rüegg |first=Walter |title=A History of the University in Europe: Volume 3, Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (1800–1945) |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Professors across the humanities and sciences focused on their advanced research.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turner |first=R. Steven |title=The Growth of Professorial Research in Prussia, 1818 to 1848-Causes and Context |year=1971 |volume=3 |pages=137–182 |doi=10.2307/27757317 |jstor=27757317 |journal=Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences}}</ref> Practically all the funding came from the central government, and it could be cut off if the professor was politically unacceptable.{{Relevance inline|date=May 2015}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lenoir |first=Timothy |title=Revolution from above: The Role of the State in Creating the German Research System, 1810–1910 |year=1998 |volume=88 |pages=22–27 |jstor=116886 |issue=2 |journal=The American Economic Review}}</ref> These reforms proved extremely successful, and fairly quickly the German universities started attracting foreign students, notably from the United States. The American students would go to Germany to obtain a PhD after having studied for a bachelor's degree at an American college. So influential was this practice that it was imported to the United States, where in 1861 [[Yale University]] started granting the PhD degree to younger students who, after having obtained the bachelor's degree, had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a [[thesis]] or dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities.<ref>See, for instance, {{Cite journal |last=Rosenberg |first=R. P. |title=Eugene Schuyler's Doctor of Philosophy Degree: A Theory Concerning the Dissertation |year=1962 |volume=33 |pages=381–386 |doi=10.2307/1979947 |jstor=1979947 |issue=7 |journal=The Journal of Higher Education}}</ref> In Germany, the name of the doctorate was adapted after the philosophy faculty started being split up − e.g. Dr. rer. nat. for doctorates in the faculty of natural sciences − but in most of the English-speaking world the name "Doctor of Philosophy" was retained for research doctorates in all disciplines. The PhD degree and similar awards spread across Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The degree was introduced in France in 1808, replacing [[diploma]]s as the highest academic degree; into Russia in 1819, when the ''[[Doktor Nauk]]'' degree, roughly equivalent to a PhD, gradually started replacing the [[specialist diploma]], roughly equivalent to the MA, as the highest academic degree; and in Italy in 1927, when PhDs gradually started replacing the [[Laurea]] as the highest academic degree.{{citation needed|date=February 2017}} ===History in the United Kingdom === [[File:PhD graduand shaking hands with Sir Dominic Cadbury, the Chancellor of the University of Birmingham - 20120705.jpg|thumb|A new PhD graduate from the [[University of Birmingham]], wearing a [[Tudor bonnet|doctor's bonnet]], shakes hands with the Chancellor.]] Research degrees first appeared in the UK in the late 19th century in the shape of the [[Doctor of Science]] (DSc or ScD) and other such "higher doctorates". The [[University of London]] introduced the DSc in 1860, but as an advanced study course, following on directly from the BSc, rather than a research degree. The first higher doctorate in the modern sense was [[Durham University]]'s DSc, introduced in 1882.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tina Barnes |url=http://www.ukcge.ac.uk/media/Download.aspx?MediaId=1328 |title=Higher Doctorates in the UK 2013 |date=2013 |publisher=UK Council for Graduate Education |isbn=978-0-9563812-7-9 |page=6 |format=PDF |quote=The UK higher doctorate has a long history with the first (a DSc) being offered by Durham University in 1882 |access-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020142801/http://www.ukcge.ac.uk/Media/Download.aspx?MediaId=1328 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> This was soon followed by other universities, including the [[University of Cambridge]] establishing its ScD in the same year and the [[University of London]] transforming its DSc into a research degree in 1885. These were, however, very advanced degrees, rather than research-training degrees at the PhD level. [[Harold Jeffreys]] said that getting a Cambridge ScD was "more or less equivalent to being proposed for the Royal Society."<ref name="maths PhD history">{{Cite web |last=John Aldrich |title=The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom: Historical Notes for the Mathematics Genealogy Project |url=http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Doc1.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103452/http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Doc1.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=27 September 2016}}</ref> In 1917, the current PhD degree was introduced, along the lines of the American and German model, and quickly became popular with both British and foreign students.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Simpson, Renate |title=How the PhD came to Britain: A Century of Struggle for Postgraduate Education |date=June 1983 |publisher=Open University Press |isbn=978-0-900868-95-5}}</ref> The slightly older degrees of Doctor of Science and Doctor of Literature/Letters still exist at British universities; together with the much older degrees of [[Doctor of Divinity]] (DD), [[Doctor of Music]] (DMus), [[Doctor of Civil Law]] (DCL), and [[Doctor of Medicine]] (MD), they form the higher doctorates, but apart from honorary degrees, they are only infrequently awarded. In English (but not Scottish) universities, the Faculty of Arts had become dominant by the early 19th century. Indeed, the higher faculties had largely atrophied, since medical training had shifted to teaching hospitals,<ref>C. Singer and S.W.F. Holloway, Early Medical Education in England in Relation to the Pre-History of the University of London, Med Hist. 1960 January; 4(1): 1–17.</ref> the legal training for the common law system was provided by the [[Inns of Court]] (with some minor exceptions, see [[Doctors' Commons]]), and few students undertook formal study in theology. This contrasted with the situation in the continental European universities at the time, where the preparatory role of the Faculty of Philosophy or Arts was to a great extent taken over by secondary education: in modern France, the [[Baccalauréat]] is the examination taken at the end of secondary studies. The reforms at the [[Humboldt University]] transformed the Faculty of Philosophy or Arts (and its more recent successors such as the Faculty of Sciences) from a lower faculty into one on a par with the Faculties of Law and Medicine. Similar developments occurred in many other continental European universities, and at least until reforms in the early 21st century, many European countries (e.g., Belgium, Spain, and the Scandinavian countries) had in all faculties triple degree structures of bachelor (or candidate) − licentiate − doctor as opposed to bachelor − master − doctor; the meaning of the different degrees varied from country to country, however. To this day, this is also still the case for the pontifical degrees in theology and canon law; for instance, in [[sacred theology]], the degrees are [[Bachelor of Sacred Theology]] (STB), [[Licentiate of Sacred Theology]] (STL), and [[Doctor of Sacred Theology]] (STD), and in [[canon law]]: [[Bachelor of Canon Law]] (JCB), [[Licentiate of Canon Law]] (JCL), and [[Doctor of Canon Law]] (JCD). ===History in the United States === Until the mid-19th century, advanced degrees were not a criterion for professorships at most colleges. That began to change as the more ambitious scholars at major schools went to [[Germany]] for one to three years to obtain a PhD in the sciences or humanities.<ref>Carl Diehl, ''Americans and German scholarship, 1770–1870'' (1978).</ref><ref>Henry Geitz, Jürgen Heideking, and Jurgen Herbst, eds. ''German influences on education in the United States to 1917'' (1995).</ref> [[Graduate school]]s slowly emerged in the [[United States]]. Although honorary PhDs had been awarded in the [[United States]] beginning in the early 19th century, the first earned PhD in the nation was at [[Bucknell University]] in [[Lewisburg, Pennsylvania]], which awarded the nation's first doctorate in 1852 to Ebenezer Newton Elliott.<ref name="HonPhD">{{Cite book |last1=John Seiler Brubacher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0O1yXnXkWIsC&pg=PA192 |title=Higher Education in Transition: A History of American Colleges and Universities |last2=Willis Rudy |date=1 January 1997 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=9781412815383 |page=192 |access-date=30 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507011802/https://books.google.com/books?id=0O1yXnXkWIsC&pg=PA192 |archive-date=7 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nine years later, in 1861, [[Yale University]] awarded three PhDs to [[Eugene Schuyler]], [[Arthur Williams Wright]], and James Morris Whiton.<ref name="Rosenberg">{{Cite journal |last=Rosenberg |first=Ralph P. |title=The First American Doctor of Philosophy Degree: A Centennial Salute to Yale, 1861–1961 |date=1961 |volume=32 |pages=387–394 |doi=10.2307/1978076 |jstor=1978076 |issue=7 |journal=Journal of Higher Education}}</ref> although honorary PhDs had been awarded in the U.S. for almost a decade. Over the following two decades, [[Harvard University]], [[New York University]], [[Princeton University]], and the [[University of Pennsylvania]], also began granting the degree. Major shifts toward graduate education were foretold by the opening of [[Clark University]] in 1887 which offered only graduate programs and the [[Johns Hopkins University]] which focused on its PhD program. By the 1890s, Harvard, Columbia, Michigan and Wisconsin were building major graduate programs, whose alumni were hired by new research universities. By 1900, 300 PhDs were awarded annually, most of them by six universities. It was no longer necessary to study in Germany.<ref>[[Roger L. Geiger]], "Research, graduate education, and the ecology of American universities: An interpretive history." in Lester F. Goodchild and Harold S. Weschler, eds., '' The History of Higher Education'' (2nd ed, 1997), pp 273–89</ref><ref>Laurence R. Veysey, ''The emergence of the American university'' (1970) is the standard history; see pp 121–79.</ref> However, half of the institutions awarding earned PhDs in 1899 were undergraduate institutions that granted the degree for work done away from campus.<ref name=HonPhD/> Degrees awarded by universities without legitimate PhD programs accounted for about a third of the 382 doctorates recorded by the US Department of Education in 1900, of which another 8–10% were honorary.<ref name=NSF/> At the start of the 20th century, U.S. universities were held in low regard internationally and many American students were still traveling to Europe for PhDs. The lack of centralised authority meant anyone could start a university and award PhDs. This led to the formation of the [[Association of American Universities]] by 14 leading research universities (producing nearly 90% of the approximately 250 legitimate research doctorates awarded in 1900), with one of the main goals being to "raise the opinion entertained abroad of our own Doctor's Degree."<ref name="NSF">{{Cite web |last1=Lori Thurgood |last2=Mary J. Golladay |last3=Susan T. Hill |date=October 2006 |title=Historical Background |url=http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06319/chap2.cfm |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/5902/20160210224027/http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/nsf06319/chap2.cfm |archive-date=10 February 2016 |website=U.S. Doctorates in the 20th Century |publisher=[[National Science Foundation]] |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In Germany, the national government funded the universities and the research programs of the leading professors. It was impossible for professors who were not approved by Berlin to train [[graduate student]]s. In the United States, by contrast, private universities and state universities alike were independent of the federal government. Independence was high, but funding was low. The breakthrough came from private foundations, which began regularly supporting research in science and history; large corporations sometimes supported engineering programs. The postdoctoral fellowship was established by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] in 1919. Meanwhile, the leading universities, in cooperation with the learned societies, set up a network of scholarly journals. "[[Publish or perish]]" became the formula for faculty advancement in the research universities. After World War II, state universities across the country expanded greatly in undergraduate enrollment, and eagerly added research programs leading to masters or doctorate degrees. Their graduate faculties had to have a suitable record of publication and research grants. Late in the 20th century, "publish or perish" became increasingly important in colleges and smaller universities.<ref>Christopher Jencks and David Riesman. The academic revolution (1968) ch 1.</ref> == Requirements == [[File:BJCroome UCT PhD Graduation 2008.jpg|thumb|A [[South Africa|South African]] PhD graduate (on right, wearing ceremonial gown)]] Detailed requirements for the award of a PhD degree vary throughout the world and even from school to school. It is usually required for the student to hold an [[Honours degree]] or a [[Master's degree]] with high academic standing, in order to be considered for a PhD program.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} In the US, Canada, India, and Denmark, for example, many universities require coursework in addition to research for PhD degrees. In other countries (such as the UK) there is generally no such condition, though this varies by university and field.<ref>Indeed there is a 'new route' to the PhD in some UK institutions where in an individual may complete a series of postgraduate level taught courses as a part of the doctoral programme. This is called the 'New Route PhD', an integrated PhD that resembles somewhat the American PhD program. For a list of programmes and institutions offering the 'new route' see http://www.newroutephd.ac.uk/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706142804/http://www.newroutephd.ac.uk/ |date=6 July 2014 }}</ref> Some individual universities or departments specify additional requirements for students not already in possession of a [[bachelor's degree]] or equivalent or higher. In order to submit a successful PhD admission application, copies of academic transcripts, letters of recommendation, a research proposal, and a personal statement are often required. Most universities also invite for a special interview before admission. A candidate must submit a project, [[thesis|thesis, or dissertation]] often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]] context.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Moreover, some PhD programs, especially in science, require one to three published articles in peer-reviewed journals. In many countries, a candidate must [[Thesis defense|defend]] this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university; in other countries, the dissertation is examined by a panel of expert examiners who stipulate whether the dissertation is in principle passable and any issues that need to be addressed before the dissertation can be passed. Some universities in the non-[[English language|English]]-speaking world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the anglophone PhD degree for their research doctorates (see the [[Bologna process]]).<ref>The term "doctor of philosophy" is not always applied by those countries to graduates in disciplines other than [[philosophy]] itself. These doctoral degrees, however, are sometimes identified in English as PhD degrees.</ref> A PhD student or candidate is conventionally required to study on campus under close supervision. With the popularity of distance education and e-learning technologies, some universities now accept students enrolled into a distance education part-time mode. In a "[[sandwich degree|sandwich]] PhD" program, PhD candidates do not spend their entire study period at the same university. Instead, the PhD candidates spend the first and last periods of the program at their home universities and in between conduct research at another institution or [[field research]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 November 2012 |title=Categories of PhD Candidates |url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Education-Programmes/PhD-Programme/Categories-of-PhD-Candidates.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126092704/https://www.wur.nl/en/Education-Programmes/PhD-Programme/Categories-of-PhD-Candidates.htm |archive-date=26 November 2018 |access-date=26 November 2018 |website=Wageningen University}}; {{cite web | url = http://www.rug.nl/fmns-research/career/PhDScholarships/GrantsPhD | title = PhD scholarship programmes | work = University of Groningen Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science | date = 7 January 2010 }}; {{cite web | url = http://www.informatik.uni-kl.de/en/studium/studiengaenge/promprog/sandwichprom | title = Sandwich PhD | work = echnissche Universitat Kaiserslautern }}</ref> Occasionally a "sandwich PhD" will be awarded by two universities.<ref>{{Cite news |date=11 February 2012 |title=Higher education: Agreement reached with Glasgow for 'sandwich' PhD |work=Express Tribune |url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/334682/higher-education-agreement-reached-with-glasgow-for-sandwich-phd/ |url-status=live |access-date=12 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212163326/http://tribune.com.pk/story/334682/higher-education-agreement-reached-with-glasgow-for-sandwich-phd/ |archive-date=12 February 2012}}</ref> == Value and criticism == A career in academia generally requires a PhD, although in some countries it is possible to reach relatively high positions without a doctorate. In North America, professors are increasingly being required to have a PhD, and the percentage of faculty with a PhD may be used as a university ratings measure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2009 FT rankings table and criteria list |url=http://rankings.ft.com/exportranking/global-mba-rankings/pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090408012200/http://rankings.ft.com/exportranking/global-mba-rankings/pdf |archive-date=8 April 2009 |access-date=8 May 2017}}</ref> The motivation may also include increased [[salary]], but in many cases, this is not the result. Research by Bernard H. Casey of the University of Warwick, U.K, suggests that, over all subjects, PhDs provide an earnings premium of 26% over non-accredited graduates, but notes that master's degrees already provide a premium of 23% and a bachelor's 14%. While this is a small return to the individual (or even an overall deficit when tuition and lost earnings during training are accounted for), he claims there are significant benefits to society for the extra research training.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a912992314 |title=The economic contribution of Ph.D.s |year=2009 |volume=31 |access-date=15 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109184245/https://taylorandfrancis.com/ |archive-date=9 January 2022 |url-status=live |issue=3 |work=Journal of Higher Education Management and Policy}}</ref> However, some research suggests that overqualified workers are often less satisfied and less productive at their jobs.<ref name="Economist" /> These difficulties are increasingly being felt by graduates of professional degrees, such as law school, looking to find employment. PhD students may need to take on debt to undertake their degree.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2012-05-06 |title=From Graduate School to Welfare |work=The Chronicle of Higher Education |url=http://www.chronicle.com/article/From-Graduate-School-to/131795/ |url-status=live |access-date=2017-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112131750/http://www.chronicle.com/article/From-Graduate-School-to/131795/ |archive-date=12 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Even A PhD Couldn't Keep This Man Off Food Stamps |work=Business Insider |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/this-mans-phd-hasnt-kept-him-off-food-stamps-or-the-unemployment-line-2012-5 |url-status=live |access-date=2017-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820030002/http://www.businessinsider.com/this-mans-phd-hasnt-kept-him-off-food-stamps-or-the-unemployment-line-2012-5 |archive-date=20 August 2017}}</ref> A PhD is also required in some positions outside academia, such as research jobs in major international agencies. In some cases, the Executive Directors of some types of foundations may be expected to hold a PhD{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}. A PhD is sometimes felt to be a necessary qualification in certain areas of employment, such as in foreign policy think-tanks: ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' wrote in 2013 that "[i]f having a master's degree at the minimum is ''de rigueur'' in Washington's foreign policy world, it is no wonder many are starting to feel that the PhD is a necessary escalation, another case of costly [[Signalling (economics)|signaling]] to potential employers".<ref name="Alikhan">{{Cite news |last=Alikhan |first=Faris |date=2 October 2013 |title=The Peril of Credential Creep in Foreign Policy |work=U.S. News |url=https://www.usnews.com/opinion/blogs/world-report/2013/10/02/the-peril-of-credential-creep-in-foreign-policy |url-status=live |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011095649/https://www.usnews.com/opinion/blogs/world-report/2013/10/02/the-peril-of-credential-creep-in-foreign-policy |archive-date=11 October 2017}}]</ref> Similarly, an article on the Australian public service states that "[[Educational inflation|credentialism]] in the public service is seeing a dramatic increase in the number of graduate positions going to PhDs and masters degrees becoming the base entry level qualification".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hare |first=Julie |date=3 April 2014 |title=More PhDs enter public service |work=The Australian |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/higher-education/more-phds-enter-public-service/story-e6frgcjx-1226872615004}}</ref> ''[[The Economist]]'' published an article in 2010 citing various criticisms against the state of PhDs. These included a prediction by economist [[Richard B. Freeman]] that, based on pre-2000 data, only 20% of life science PhD students would gain a faculty job in the U.S., and that in Canada 80% of [[Postdoctoral researcher|postdoctoral research]] fellows earned less than or equal to an average construction worker ($38,600 a year). According to the article, only the fastest developing countries (e.g. China or Brazil) have a shortage of PhDs.<ref name="Economist">{{Cite news |date=2010-12-18 |title=Doctoral degrees: The disposable academic |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/node/17723223 |url-status=live |url-access=limited |access-date=25 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227202207/http://www.economist.com/node/17723223 |archive-date=27 December 2012}}</ref> In 2022, ''Nature'' reported that PhD students' wages in biological sciences in the US do not cover living costs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Woolston |first=Chris |date=2022-05-23 |title=PhD students face cash crisis with wages that don't cover living costs |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=605 |issue=7911 |pages=775–777 |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-01392-w|pmid=35606521 |bibcode=2022Natur.605..775W |s2cid=249015161 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The U.S. higher education system often offers little incentive to move students through PhD programs quickly and may even provide incentive to slow them down. To counter this problem, the United States introduced the [[Doctor of Arts]] degree in 1970 with seed money from the [[Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]]. The aim of the Doctor of Arts degree was to shorten the time needed to complete the degree by focusing on pedagogy over research, although the Doctor of Arts still contains a significant research component. Germany is one of the few nations engaging these issues, and it has been doing so by reconceptualising PhD programs to be training for careers, outside academia, but still at high-level positions. This development can be seen in the extensive number of PhD holders, typically from the fields of law, engineering, and economics, at the very top corporate and administrative positions. To a lesser extent, the UK research councils have tackled the issue by introducing, since 1992, the [[Doctor of Engineering|EngD]].{{Citation needed|reason=Reliable source needed for the Paragraph|date=January 2017}}{{clarify|reason=Appears to be conflating time to move through degrees in the U.S. and issues of training within PhDs in Germany and the U.K.|date=January 2017}} [[Mark C. Taylor (philosopher)|Mark C. Taylor]] opined in 2011 in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' that total reform of PhD programs in almost every field is necessary in the U.S. and that pressure to make the necessary changes will need to come from many sources (students, administrators, public and private sectors, etc.).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=M. |title=Reform the PhD system or close it down |year=2011 |volume=472 |pages=261 |bibcode=2011Natur.472..261T |doi=10.1038/472261a |pmid=21512530 |doi-access=free |issue=7343 |journal=Nature}}</ref> Other articles in ''Nature'' have also examined the issue of PhD reform.<ref name="doi10.1038/nj7343-381a">{{Cite journal |last=Fiske |first=P. |title=What is a PhD really worth? |year=2011 |volume=472 |pages=381 |doi=10.1038/nj7343-381a |doi-access=free |issue=7343 |journal=Nature}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anon |title=Fix the PhD: No longer a guaranteed ticket to an academic career, the PhD system needs a serious rethink |year=2011 |volume=472 |pages=259–260 |bibcode=2011Natur.472R.259. |doi=10.1038/472259b |pmid=21512527 |issue=7343 |journal=Nature |s2cid=205063761|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cyranoski |first1=D. |title=Education: The PhD factory |last2=Gilbert |first2=N. |last3=Ledford |first3=H. |last4=Nayar |first4=A. |last5=Yahia |first5=M. |year=2011 |volume=472 |pages=276–279 |bibcode=2011Natur.472..276C |doi=10.1038/472276a |pmid=21512548 |doi-access=free |issue=7343 |journal=Nature}}</ref> [[Freeman Dyson]], professor emeritus at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], was opposed to the PhD system and did not have a PhD degree.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lin |first=Thomas |date=26 March 2014 |title=A 'Rebel' Without a Ph.D. |work=Quanta Magazine |url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/a-math-puzzle-worthy-of-freeman-dyson-20140326/ |url-status=live |access-date=2017-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112185340/https://www.quantamagazine.org/a-math-puzzle-worthy-of-freeman-dyson-20140326/ |archive-date=12 November 2017}}</ref> On the other hand, it was understood by all his peers that he was a world leading scientist with many accomplishments already under his belt during his graduate study years and he was eligible to gain the degree at any given moment.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} == Degrees around the globe == {{Main|List of doctoral degrees awarded by country}} {{See also|Doctor (title)#Worldwide usage|Doctorate#National variations}} The [[UNESCO]], in its [[International Standard Classification of Education]] (ISCED), states that: "Programmes to be classified at ISCED level 8 are referred to in many ways around the world such as PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar terms. However, it is important to note that programmes with a similar name to 'doctor' should only be included in ISCED level 8 if they satisfy the criteria described in Paragraph 263. For international comparability purposes, the term 'doctoral or equivalent' is used to label ISCED level 8."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paragraph 262 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011 |url=http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=211619&set=4F3F2872_2_352&database=gctd&gp=0&lin=1&ll=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160210050348/http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=211619&set=4F3F2872_2_352&database=gctd&gp=0&lin=1&ll=1 |archive-date=10 February 2016 |access-date=18 February 2012}}</ref> === National variations === In [[German language|German]]-speaking nations, most Eastern European nations, successor states of the former Soviet Union, most parts of Africa, Asia, and many Spanish-speaking countries, the corresponding degree to a Doctor of Philosophy is simply called "Doctor" (''Doktor''), and the subject area is distinguished by a Latin suffix (e.g., "Dr. med." for ''{{lang|la|Doctor medicinae}}'', Doctor of Medicine; "Dr. rer. nat." for ''{{lang|la|Doctor rerum naturalium}}'', Doctor of the Natural Sciences; "Dr. phil." for ''{{lang|la|Doctor philosophiae}}'', Doctor of Philosophy; "[[Doctor of Laws#Germany|Dr. iur.]]" for ''{{lang|la|Doctor iuris}}'', Doctor of Laws).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Albrecht Behmel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oivuDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |title=The Foreigner's Guide to German Universities: Origin, Meaning, and Use of Terms and Expressions in Everyday University Life |last2=Kelly Neudorfer |date=11 October 2016 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=9783838268323 |page=42 |author-link=Albrecht Behmel |access-date=26 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507011751/https://books.google.com/books?id=oivuDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 |archive-date=7 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Argentina === {{See also|Education in Argentina}} ==== Admission ==== In [[Argentina]], the admission to a PhD program at public Argentine University requires the full completion of a<!-- an Argentine(?) --> [[Master's degree]] or a [[Licentiate (degree)|Licentiate]] degree. Non-Argentine Master's titles are generally accepted into a PhD program when the degree comes from a recognized university. ==== Funding ==== While a significant portion of postgraduate students finance their tuition and living costs with teaching or research work at private and state-run institutions, international institutions, such as the Fulbright Program and the Organization of American States (OAS), have been known to grant full scholarships for tuition with apportions for housing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scholarships in Argentina |url=http://spuweb.siu.edu.ar/studyinargentina/pages/study1203.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507074830/http://spuweb.siu.edu.ar/studyinargentina/pages/study1203.php |archive-date=7 May 2010 |access-date=2010-04-28 |publisher=Spuweb.siu.edu.ar}}</ref> Others apply for funds to CONICET, the national public body of scientific and technical research, which typically awards more than a thousand scholarships each year for this purpose, thus guaranteeing many PhD candidates remain within the system. ==== Requirements for completion ==== Upon completion of at least two years' research and coursework as a graduate student, a candidate must demonstrate truthful and original contributions to their specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GFME: Global Foundation for Management Education |url=http://www.gfme.org/global_guide/pdf/13-18%20Argentina.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061031095524/http://www.gfme.org/global_guide/pdf/13-18%20Argentina.pdf |archive-date=2006-10-31 |access-date=2010-04-28}}</ref> The doctoral candidate's work should be presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. This committee should be composed of examiners that are external to the program, and at least one of them should also be external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor, respective to the correspondent field of science that the candidate has contributed with original and rigorous research, is received after a successful defense of the candidate's dissertation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Comisión Nacional de Evaluación y Acreditación Universitaria |url=http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item=29&apps=16&id=428&act=ver&idioma=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825184546/http://www.coneau.edu.ar/index.php?item=29&apps=16&id=428&act=ver&idioma=en |archive-date=25 August 2010 |access-date=2010-04-28 |publisher=Coneau.edu.ar |language=es}}</ref> === Australia === {{See also|Education in Australia|Australian Qualifications Framework}} ==== Admission ==== Admission to a PhD program in [[Australia]] requires applicants to demonstrate capacity to undertake research in the proposed field of study. The standard requirement is a bachelor honours degree with either first-class or upper second-class honours. Research master's degrees and coursework master's degrees with a 25% research component are usually considered equivalent. It is also possible for research master's degree students to "upgrade" to PhD candidature after demonstrating sufficient progress. ==== Scholarships ==== PhD students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for their PhD degree. The most common of these was the government-funded [[Australian Postgraduate Award]] (APA) until its dissolution in 2017. It was replaced by Research Training Program (RTP), awarded to students of "exceptional research potential", which provides a living stipend to students of approximately A$34,000 a year (tax-free). RTPs are paid for a duration of 3 years, while a 6-month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home, Graduate Research, University of Tasmania, Australia |url=http://www.utas.edu.au/graduate-research/scholarships/domestic-scholarships/australian-postgraduate-awards |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110311085133/http://www.utas.edu.au/graduate-research/scholarships/domestic-scholarships/australian-postgraduate-awards |archive-date=11 March 2011 |access-date=2013-07-02 |publisher=Utas.edu.au}}</ref> Some universities also fund a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount. Due to a continual increase in living costs, many PhD students are forced to live under the poverty line.<ref>{{Cite book |last=ABC |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/04/30/2231306.htm |title=PhD students living below poverty line |year=2008 |volume=2008 |pages=1–2 |access-date=11 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501102852/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/04/30/2231306.htm |archive-date=1 May 2008 |url-status=live |issue=April |work=ABC News}}</ref> In addition to the more common RTP and university scholarships, Australian students have other sources of scholarship funding, coming from industry, private enterprise, and organisations. ==== Fees ==== Australian citizens, permanent residents, and New Zealand citizens are not charged course fees for their PhD or research master's degree, with the exception in some universities of the student services and amenities fee (SSAF) which is set by each university and typically involves the largest amount allowed by the Australian government. All fees are paid for by the Australian government, except for the SSAF, under the Research Training Program.<ref>{{Cite web |year=2011 |title=HEIMSHELP: Information about requirements and procedures for higher education and VET providers |url=http://www.heimshelp.deewr.gov.au/2_Glossary/R/RESEARCH_TRAINING_SCHEME_RTS.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730123806/http://www.heimshelp.deewr.gov.au/2_Glossary/R/RESEARCH_TRAINING_SCHEME_RTS.htm |archive-date=2008-07-30 |publisher=DEEWR}}</ref> International students and coursework master's degree students must pay course fees unless they receive a scholarship to cover them. ==== Requirements for completion ==== Completion requirements vary. Most Australian PhD programs do not have a required coursework component. The credit points attached to the degree are all in the product of the research, which is usually an 80,000-word thesis<ref>[https://www.anu.edu.au/students/academic-skills/research-writing/introductions/length Current students » Academic skills » Research writing » Introductions » Length] [[Australian National University]].</ref> that makes a significant new contribution to the field. Recent pressure on [[Postgraduate education#Types of postgraduate degrees|higher degree by research (HDR)]] students to publish has resulted in increasing interest in [[Thesis by publication|Ph.D by publication]] as opposed to the more traditional Ph.D by dissertation, which typically requires a minimum of two publications, but which also requires traditional thesis elements such as an introductory [[exegesis]], and linking chapters between papers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Denise |url=https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=ecuworks2013 |title=Completing a PhD by publication: a review of Australian policy and implications for practice |date=22 April 2013 |volume=32 |pages=355–368 |doi=10.1080/07294360.2012.692666 |ref=jackson2013completing |access-date=5 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429154004/https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=ecuworks2013 |archive-date=29 April 2019 |url-status=live |issue=3 |journal=Higher Education Research & Development |s2cid=145372065}}</ref> The PhD thesis is sent to external examiners who are experts in the field of research and who have not been involved in the work. Examiners are nominated by the candidate's university, and their identities are often not revealed to the candidate until the examination is complete. A formal oral defence is generally not part of the examination of the thesis, largely because of the distances that would need to be travelled by the overseas examiners; however, since 2016, there is a trend toward implementing this in many Australian universities. At the University of South Australia, PhD candidates who started after January 2016 now undertake an oral defence via an online conference with two examiners.<ref>[https://i.unisa.edu.au/siteassets/policies-and-procedures/docs/academic/guideline-ab-58-ad8_2023.pdf ''Oral Defence of the Thesis in Research Degrees'']. [[University of South Australia]].</ref> === Canada === {{See also|Education in Canada}} ==== Admission ==== Admission to a doctoral programme at a university in [[Canada]] typically requires completion of a [[Master's degree]] in a related field, with sufficiently high grades and proven research ability. In some cases, a student may progress directly from an [[Honours degree|Honours]] [[Bachelor's degree]] to a PhD program; other programs allow a student to fast-track to a doctoral program after one year of outstanding work in a Master's program (without having to complete the Master's).<ref>[https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/advice/how-apply-phd-canada ''How to apply for a PhD in Canada'']. ''[[Times Higher Education]]''.</ref> An application package typically includes a research proposal, letters of reference, transcripts, and in some cases, a writing sample or [[Graduate Record Examinations]] scores. A common criterion for prospective PhD students is the comprehensive or qualifying examination, a process that often commences in the second year of a graduate program. Generally, successful completion of the qualifying exam permits continuance in the graduate program. Formats for this examination include oral examination by the student's faculty committee (or a separate qualifying committee), or written tests designed to demonstrate the student's knowledge in a specialized area (see below) or both. At English-speaking universities, a student may also be required to demonstrate English language abilities, usually by achieving an acceptable score on a standard examination (for example the [[Test of English as a Foreign Language]]). Depending on the field, the student may also be required to demonstrate ability in one or more additional languages. A prospective student applying to French-speaking universities may also have to demonstrate some English language ability. ==== Funding ==== While some students work outside the university (or at student jobs within the university), in some programs students are advised (or must agree) not to devote more than ten hours per week to activities (e.g., employment) outside of their studies, particularly if they have been given funding. For large and prestigious scholarships, such as those from [[NSERC]] and Fonds québécois de la recherche sur la nature et les technologies, this is an absolute requirement. At some Canadian universities, most PhD students receive an award equivalent to part or all of the tuition amount for the first four years (this is sometimes called a tuition deferral or tuition waiver). Other sources of funding include [[teaching assistant]]ships and research assistantships; experience as a teaching assistant is encouraged but not requisite in many programs. Some programs may require all PhD candidates to teach, which may be done under the supervision of their supervisor or regular faculty. Besides these sources of funding, there are also various competitive scholarships, bursaries, and awards available, such as those offered by the federal government via [[Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council|NSERC]], [[Canadian Institutes of Health Research|CIHR]], or [[Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council|SSHRC]].<ref>[https://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/students-etudiants/pg-cs/cgsd-bescd_eng.asp ''Canada Graduate Scholarships — Doctoral program'']. [[Government of Canada]].</ref> ==== Requirements for completion ==== In general, the first two years of study are devoted to completion of coursework and the [[comprehensive examination]]s. At this stage, the student is known as a "PhD student" or "doctoral student." It is usually expected that the student will have completed most of their required coursework by the end of this stage. Furthermore, it is usually required that by the end of eighteen to thirty-six months after the first registration, the student will have successfully completed the comprehensive exams. Upon successful completion of the comprehensive exams, the student becomes known as a "PhD candidate." From this stage on, the bulk of the student's time will be devoted to their own research, culminating in the completion of a PhD thesis or dissertation. The final requirement is an oral defense of the thesis, which is open to the public in some, but not all, universities. At most Canadian universities, the time needed to complete a PhD degree typically ranges from four to six years. It is, however, not uncommon for students to be unable to complete all the requirements within six years, particularly given that funding packages often support students for only two to four years; many departments will allow program extensions at the discretion of the thesis supervisor or department chair. Alternative arrangements exist whereby a student is allowed to let their registration in the program lapse at the end of six years and re-register once the thesis is completed in draft form. The general rule is that graduate students are obligated to pay tuition until the initial thesis submission has been received by the thesis office. In other words, if a PhD student defers or delays the initial submission of their thesis they remain obligated to pay fees until such time that the thesis has been received in good standing.<ref>(26 January 2021). [https://cca-reports.ca/reports/the-labour-market-transition-of-phd-graduates/ ''Degrees of Success: The Expert Panel on the Labour Market Transition of PhD Graduates'']. [[Council of Canadian Academies]].</ref> === China === In [[China]], doctoral programs can be applied directly after obtaining a bachelor's degree or applied after obtaining a master's degree. Those who directly apply for a doctoral program after a bachelor's degree usually need four to five years to obtain a doctorate and will not be awarded a master's degree during the period.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=全日制研究生读几年?学费是多少?-中国教育在线 |url=https://www.eol.cn/ceici/kaoyan-214793.shtml#:~:text=%E5%9C%A8%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA%E4%B8%8A%EF%BC%8C%E7%9B%B4%E5%8D%9A%E7%94%9F,%E5%9C%A8%E5%81%9A%E5%AE%9E%E9%AA%8C%E5%86%99%E8%AE%BA%E6%96%87%E3%80%82 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221211011421/https://www.eol.cn/ceici/kaoyan-214793.shtml |archive-date=2022-12-11 |access-date=2022-12-11 |website=www.eol.cn}}</ref> The courses at the doctoral level are mainly completed in the first and second years, and the remaining years are spent doing experiments/research and writing papers. At most universities, the maximum duration of doctoral study is 7 years. If a doctoral student does not complete their degree within 7 years, it is likely that they can only obtain a study certificate without any degree.<ref name=":1" /> China has thirteen statutory types of academic degrees, which also apply to doctorate degrees. Despite the naming difference, all these thirteen types of doctoral degrees are research and academic degrees that are equivalent to PhD degrees. These thirteen doctorates are:<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2022-09-14 |title=研究生教育学科专业目录(2022 年) |url=http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A22/moe_833/202209/W020220914572994461110.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211013449/http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A22/moe_833/202209/W020220914572994461110.pdf |archive-date=2022-12-11 |access-date=2022-12-10 |website=Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China}}</ref> * Doctor of Philosophy (for the discipline of philosophy) * Doctor of Economics * Doctor of Law * Doctor of Education * Doctor of Literature * Doctor of History * Doctor of Science * Doctor of Engineering * Doctor of Agriculture * Doctor of Medicine (equivalent to a PhD in Medical Sciences) * Doctor of Military * Doctor of Management * Doctor of Fine Arts.<ref name=":2" /> In international academic communication, Chinese doctoral degree recipients sometimes translate their doctorate degree names to ''PhD in Discipline'' (such as ''PhD in Engineering, Computer Science'') to facilitate peer understanding. === Colombia === ==== Admission ==== In [[Colombia]], the PhD course admission may require a master's degree (Magíster) in some universities, specially public universities. However, it could also be applied for a direct doctorate in specific cases, according to the jury's recommendations on the thesis proposal. ==== Funding ==== Most of postgraduate students in Colombia must finance their tuition fees by means of teaching assistant seats or research works. Some institutions such as [[Colciencias]], Colfuturo, CeiBA, and Icetex grant scholarships or provide awards in the form of forgivable loans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Colciencias Call for Scholarships in Colombia |url=http://www.colciencias.gov.co/newconvocatorias2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217025345/http://www.colciencias.gov.co/newconvocatorias2014 |archive-date=17 December 2014 |access-date=2015-03-04}}</ref> ==== Requirements for completion ==== After two or two and a half years, it is expected that the research work of the doctoral candidate be submitted in the form of oral qualification, where suggestions and corrections about the research hypothesis and methodology, as well as on the course of the research work, are performed. The PhD degree is only received after a successful defense of the candidate's thesis is performed (four or five years after the enrollment), most of the time also requiring the most important results having been published in at least one peer-reviewed high-impact international journal. === Finland === In [[Finland]], the degree of ''filosofian tohtori'' (abbreviated ''FT'') is awarded by traditional universities, such as [[University of Helsinki]]. A Master's degree is required, and the doctorate combines approximately 4–5 years of research (amounting to 3–5 scientific articles, some of which must be first-author) and 60 ECTS points of studies.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Matemaattis-luonnontieteellinen tiedekunta |url=http://www.helsinki.fi/ml/jatko-opiskelu/jatkotutkinnot.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204034302/http://www.helsinki.fi/ml/jatko-opiskelu/jatkotutkinnot.html |archive-date=4 February 2015 |access-date=13 January 2015 |website=helsinki.fi}}</ref> Other universities such as [[Aalto University]] award degrees such as ''tekniikan tohtori'' (''TkT'', engineering), ''taiteen tohtori'' (''TaT'', art), etc., which are translated in English to [[Doctor of Science]] (D.Sc.), and they are formally equivalent. The [[Licentiate (degree)|licentiate]] (''filosofian lisensiaatti'' or ''FL'') requires only 2–3 years of research and is sometimes done before an FT. === France === ==== History ==== {{See also|Doctorate#France}} Before 1984 three research doctorates existed in [[France]]: the [[State doctorate]] (''doctorat d'État'', the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (''doctorat de troisième cycle'', created in 1954 and shorter than the State doctorate) and the diploma of doctor-engineer (''diplôme de docteur-ingénieur ''created in 1923), for technical research. After 1984, only one type of doctoral degree remained, called "doctorate" (''Doctorat''). The latter is equivalent to the PhD. ==== Admission ==== Students pursuing the PhD degree must first complete a master's degree program, which takes two years after graduation with a bachelor's degree (five years in total). The candidate must apply to a doctoral research project associated with a [[doctoral advisor]] (Directeur de thèse or directeur doctoral) with a [[habilitation]] throughout the doctoral program. The PhD admission is granted by a [[graduate school#France|graduate school]] (in French, "école doctorale"). A PhD candidate may follow some in-service training offered by the graduate school while continuing their research in a laboratory. Their research may be carried out in a laboratory,{{clarify|it appears that laboratory here is distinct from laboratories at universities, but in the next sentence it says that a candidate doing research at a laboratory may be hired by "the university"|date=July 2022}} at a university or in a company. In the first case, the candidates can be hired by the university or a research organisation. In the last case, the company hires the candidate and they are supervised by both the company's tutor and a lab's professor. Completion of the PhD degree generally requires 3 years after the master's degree but it can last longer in specific cases. ==== Funding ==== The financing of PhD research comes mainly from funds for research of the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. The most common procedure is a short-term [[employment contract]] called doctoral contract: the institution of higher education is the employer and the PhD candidate the employee. However, the candidate can apply for funds from a company, which can host them at its premises (as in the case where PhD candidates do their research at a company). In another possible situation, the company and the institute can sign a funding agreement together so that the candidate still has a public doctoral contract but is works at the company on a daily basis (for example, this is particularly the case for the [[Foundation (nonprofit)|(French) Scientific Cooperation Foundation]]). Many other resources come from some regional/city projects, some associations, etc. === Germany === {{See also|Education in Germany}} ==== Admission ==== In [[Germany]], admission to a doctoral program is generally on the basis of having an advanced degree (i.e., a [[master's degree]], ''[[diplom]]'', [[Magister (degree)|''magister'']], or ''[[staatsexamen]]''), mostly in a related field and having above-average grades. A candidate must also find a [[tenure]]d [[professor]] from a university to serve as the formal advisor and supervisor (''Betreuer'') of the [[dissertation]] throughout the doctoral program.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Requirements – Research in Germany |url=http://www.research-in-germany.org/en/jobs-and-careers/info-for-phd-students/language-requirements.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222123034/http://www.research-in-germany.org/en/jobs-and-careers/info-for-phd-students/language-requirements.html |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=22 February 2020 |website=Research-in-Germany.org |publisher=(German) Federal Ministry of Education and Research}}</ref> This supervisor is informally referred to as ''Doktorvater'' or ''Doktormutter'', which literally translate to "doctor's father" and "doctor's mother" respectively. The formal admission is the beginning of the so-called ''Promotionsverfahren'', while the final granting of the degree is called ''Promotion''. The duration of the doctorate depends on the field. A doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete; those in other fields, two to six years. Most doctorates are awarded with specific Latin designations for the field of research (except for engineering, where the designation is German), instead of a general name for all fields (such as the [[Ph.D.]]). The most important degrees are: * ''[[Dr. rer. nat.]]'' (''rerum naturalium''; [[Natural science|natural]] and [[Formal science|formal]] sciences, i.e. physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, or psychology); * ''Dr. phil.'' (''philosophiae''; humanities such as philosophy, philology, history, and social sciences such as sociology, political science, or psychology as well); * ''Dr. iur.'' (''iuris''; law); * ''Dr. oec.'' (''oeconomiae''; economics); * ''Dr. rer. pol.'' (''rerum politicarum''; economics, business administration, political science); * ''Dr. theol.'' (''theologiae''; theology); * ''Dr. med.'' (''medicinae''; medicine); * ''Dr. med. dent.'' (''medicinae dentariae''; dentistry); * ''Dr. med. vet.'' (''medicinae veterinariae''; veterinary medicine); * ''[[Doktoringenieur|Dr.-Ing.]]'' (engineering). Over fifty such designations exist, many of them rare or no longer in use. As a title, the degree is commonly written in front of the name in abbreviated form, e.g., ''Dr. rer. nat. Max Mustermann'' or ''Dr. Max Mustermann'', dropping the designation entirely. However, leaving out the designation is only allowed when the doctorate degree is not an honorary doctorate, which must be indicated by ''Dr. h.c.'' (from Latin honoris causa). While most German doctorates are considered equivalent to the PhD, an exception is the medical doctorate, where "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study. The [[European Research Council]] decided in 2010 that those doctorates do not meet the international standards of a PhD research degree.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sarah Schmidt |date=1 October 2015 |title=Kommt ein Doktor zum Arzt ... |work=[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]] |url=http://www.sueddeutsche.de/bildung/qualitaet-medizinischer-promotionen-kommt-ein-doktor-zum-arzt--1.2673150 |url-status=live |access-date=15 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406172355/http://www.sueddeutsche.de/bildung/qualitaet-medizinischer-promotionen-kommt-ein-doktor-zum-arzt--1.2673150 |archive-date=6 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bernd Kramer |date=28 September 2015 |title=Akademische Ramschware |work=[[Der Spiegel]] |url=http://www.spiegel.de/lebenundlernen/uni/von-der-leyen-in-der-kritik-schlechte-promotionen-sind-in-der-medizin-ueblich-a-1055039.html |url-status=live |access-date=15 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624133658/http://www.spiegel.de/lebenundlernen/uni/von-der-leyen-in-der-kritik-schlechte-promotionen-sind-in-der-medizin-ueblich-a-1055039.html |archive-date=24 June 2018}}</ref> There are different forms of university-level institution in Germany, but only professors from "Universities" (Univ.-Prof.) can serve as doctoral supervisors – "Universities of Applied Sciences" ([[Fachhochschule]]n) are not entitled to award doctorates,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Higher Education in Germany: Hochschulen vs. Universities |url=http://www.topuniversities.com/blog/higher-education-germany-hochschulen-vs-universities |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210235135/http://www.topuniversities.com/blog/higher-education-germany-hochschulen-vs-universities |archive-date=10 February 2015 |access-date=2015-02-10 |publisher=Quacquarelli Symonds Limited}}</ref> although some exceptions apply to this rule.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ZEIT ONLINE | Lesen Sie zeit.de mit Werbung oder imPUR-Abo. Sie haben die Wahl. |url=https://www.zeit.de/zustimmung?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zeit.de%2F2016%2F48%2Fpromotion-fachhochschule-pro-contra |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709014141/https://www.zeit.de/zustimmung?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zeit.de%2F2016%2F48%2Fpromotion-fachhochschule-pro-contra |archive-date=9 July 2020 |access-date=6 July 2020 |website=www.zeit.de}}</ref> ==== Structure ==== Depending on the university, doctoral students (''Doktoranden'') can be required to attend formal classes or lectures, some of them also including exams or other scientific assignments, in order to get one or more certificates of qualification (''Qualifikationsnachweise''). Depending on the doctoral regulations (''Promotionsordnung'') of the university and sometimes on the status of the doctoral student, such certificates may not be required. Usually, former students, research assistants or lecturers from the same university, may be spared from attending extra classes. Instead, under the tutelage of a single professor or advisory committee, they are expected to conduct independent research. In addition to doctoral studies, many doctoral candidates work as teaching assistants, research assistants, or lecturers. Many universities have established research-intensive ''[[Graduiertenkolleg]]s'' ("graduate colleges"), which are [[graduate school]]s that provide funding for doctoral studies. ==== Duration ==== The typical duration of a doctoral program can depend heavily on the subject and area of research. Usually, three to five years of full-time research work are required. The average time to graduation is 4.5 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Academics.de: Zeitspanne der Promotion: Dauer im Durchschnitt |url=https://www.academics.de/ratgeber/promotion-dauer |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115135643/https://www.academics.de/ratgeber/promotion-dauer |archive-date=15 January 2021 |access-date=3 March 2021}}</ref> In 2014, the median age of new PhD graduates was 30.4 years.<ref name="occ">{{Citation |title=Bestandene Prüfungen |url=https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesellschaftStaat/BildungForschungKultur/Hochschulen/Tabellen/BestandenePruefungenGruppen.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025160450/https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesellschaftStaat/BildungForschungKultur/Hochschulen/Tabellen/BestandenePruefungenGruppen.html |publisher=Statistisches Bundesamt |access-date=2016-03-30 |archive-date=25 October 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> === India === {{see also|Education in India}} In [[India]], a master's degree is usually required to gain admission to a doctoral program. Direct admission to a PhD program after graduating to [[Bachelor of Technology|BTech]] may also be granted by the [[Indian Institutes of Technology|IITs]], the [[Indian Institutes of Information Technology|IIITs]], the [[National Institutes of Technology|NITs]], and the [[Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research]]. In some subjects, completing a [[Master of Philosophy]] (MPhil) is a prerequisite to obtaining funding/[[Research fellow|fellowship]] for a PhD. According to new rules prescribed by the [[University Grants Commission (India)|UGC]], universities must conduct Research Eligibility Tests in ability and the selected subject.<ref>[https://www.ugc.gov.in/pdfnews/4405511_Draft-UGC-PhD-regulations-2022.pdf ''Draft University Grants Commission (Minimum Standards and Procedures for Award of PhD Degree) Regulations, 2022'']. [[University Grants Commission (India)]]. [[NEW DELHI]] 110002</ref> After clearing these tests, the [[shortlisted]] candidates are required to appear for an interview with the available PhD supervisor and give presentations of their research proposal (plan of work or synopsis). During study, candidates must submit progress reports and after successful completion of the coursework, are required to give a pre-submission presentation and finally defend their [[thesis]] in an open defense [[wikt:viva voce|viva-voce]]. It is mandatory in India to qualify for the [[National Eligibility Test]] to apply for a professorship, lectureship or Junior Research Fellowship (NET for LS and JRF) conducted by the [[National Testing Agency]] (NTA).<ref name="Ugc.ac.in">{{Cite web |date=1988-07-22 |title=N E T, Inside H E, University Grants Commission |url=http://www.ugc.ac.in/inside/net.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104111726/http://www.ugc.ac.in/inside/net.html |archive-date=4 January 2010 |access-date=2023-10-02 |publisher=Ugc.ac.in}}</ref> === Italy === ==== History ==== The ''[[Dottorato di ricerca]]'' (research doctorate), abbreviated to "Dott. Ric." or "PhD", is an academic title awarded at the end of a course of not less than three years, admission to which is based on entrance examinations and academic rankings in the Bachelor of Arts ("[[Laurea]]", a three-year diploma) and Master of Arts ("Laurea Magistrale" a two-year diploma). While the standard PhD follows the [[Bologna process]], the [[MD–PhD]] programme may be completed in two years. The first institution in [[Italy]] to create a doctoral program (PhD) was [[Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa]] in 1927 under the historic name ''"Diploma di Perfezionamento"''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=26 April 2012 |title=Student Guidebook, Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa |url=http://download.sns.it/SNSguida_eng.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426041947/http://download.sns.it/SNSguida_eng.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="sns.it">{{Cite web |title=STATUTO DELLA SCUOLA NORMALE SUPERIORE DI PISA (legge 18 giugno 1986, n. 308) |url=http://atticd.sns.it/2004-05/aprile/all_08_A.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126143419/http://atticd.sns.it/2004-05/aprile/all_08_A.pdf |archive-date=26 January 2016 |access-date=31 August 2015 |website=sns.it}}</ref> Further, the research doctorates or PhD (''{{lang|it|Dottorato di ricerca}}'') in Italy were introduced by law and Presidential Decree in 1980,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Law of February 21, 1980, No. 28 |url=http://www.italgiure.giustizia.it/nir/1980/lexs_88887.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104111953/http://www.italgiure.giustizia.it/nir/1980/lexs_88887.html |archive-date=4 November 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Decreto Presidente Repubblica 11 luglio 1980, n. 382 |url=http://www.edscuola.it/archivio/norme/decreti/dpr382_80.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160929114656/http://www.edscuola.it/archivio/norme/decreti/dpr382_80.html |archive-date=29 September 2016 |access-date=2 February 2012 |website=www.edscuola.it}}</ref> referring to the reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Law of 21 February 1980, No. 28 |url=http://www.italgiure.giustizia.it/nir/1980/lexs_88887.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104111953/http://www.italgiure.giustizia.it/nir/1980/lexs_88887.html |archive-date=4 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Decreto Presidente Repubblica 11 luglio 1980, n. 382 |url=http://www.edscuola.it/archivio/norme/decreti/dpr382_80.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160929114656/http://www.edscuola.it/archivio/norme/decreti/dpr382_80.html |archive-date=29 September 2016 |access-date=2 February 2012 |website=edscuola.it}}</ref> The [[Superior Graduate Schools in Italy]]<ref name="ricercaitaliana.it">{{Cite web |title=ResearchItaly, Pagina di transizione |url=http://www.ricercaitaliana.it/scuole_eccellenza.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307083252/http://www.ricercaitaliana.it/scuole_eccellenza.htm |archive-date=7 March 2013 |access-date=2 February 2012 |website=ricercaitaliana.it}}</ref> (''{{lang|it|Scuola Superiore Universitaria}}''),<ref name="bompard2000">{{Cite web |last=Bompard |first=Paul |date=18 February 2000 |title=Italy's big six form network for elite |url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=150222§ioncode=26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923152548/http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=150222§ioncode=26 |archive-date=23 September 2012 |access-date=2 February 2012 |website=Times Higher Education}}</ref> also called ''Schools of Excellence'' (''{{lang|it|Scuole di Eccellenza}}'')<ref name="ricercaitaliana.it" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Scuole, Scuole di Eccellenza |url=http://scuoledieccellenza.it/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130071944/http://scuoledieccellenza.it/ |archive-date=30 November 2020 |access-date=2 February 2012 |website=scuoledieccellenza.it}}</ref> such as [[Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa]] and [[Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies]] still keep their reputed historical ''"Diploma di Perfezionamento"'' PhD title by [[law]]<ref name="sns.it" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Article 3 of the Law of 14 February 1987, No.41 | L. 14 febbraio 1987, n. 41 Istituzione della Scuola superiore di studi universitari e di perfezionamento S. Anna di Pisa |url=http://www.sssup.it/UploadDocs/7768_Legge_istitutiva_SSSA.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214031210/http://www.sssup.it/UploadDocs/7768_Legge_istitutiva_SSSA.pdf |archive-date=14 February 2012 |access-date=2 February 2012}}</ref> and [[MIUR]] Decree.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SITO IN MANUTENZIONE |url=https://www.istruzione.it/avviso_agli_utenti/non_valido.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123611/http://hubmiur.pubblica.istruzione.it/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/1964531c-595a-4c29-906b-978f7b0120c0/servizio_statistico_immatricolazioni2011_2012.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=6 July 2020 |website=www.istruzione.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Università in Italia, Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR) |url=http://guidalaureebiennali.miur.it/pdf/2008/05_Universita.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107000344/http://guidalaureebiennali.miur.it/pdf/2008/05_Universita.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2017 |access-date=2 February 2012}}</ref> ==== Admission ==== Doctorate courses are open, without age or citizenship limits, to all those who already hold a "[[Laurea|laurea magistrale]]" (master degree) or similar academic title awarded abroad which has been recognised as equivalent to an Italian degree by the Committee responsible for the entrance examinations. The number of places on offer each year and details of the entrance examinations are set out in the examination announcement. === Poland === In [[Poland]], a doctoral degree ([[Polish language|Pol.]] ''doktor''), abbreviated to PhD (Pol. ''dr'') is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities in most fields and by the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]], regulated by the [[Polish parliament]] acts and the government orders, in particular by the [[Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland]]. Students with a master's degree or equivalent are accepted to a doctoral entrance exam. The title of PhD is awarded to a scientist who has completed a minimum of three years of PhD studies (Pol. ''studia doktoranckie''; not required to obtain PhD), finished a theoretical or laboratory scientific work, passed all PhD examinations; submitted the [[Thesis (academic document)|dissertation]], a document presenting the author's research and findings,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Master A |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00623298/file/PEER_stage2_10.1016%252Fj.bbadis.2010.07.025.pdf |title=Untranslated regions of thyroid hormone receptor beta 1 mRNA are impaired in human clear cell renal cell carcinoma |year=2010 |volume=1802 |pages=995–1005 |doi=10.1016/j.bbadis.2010.07.025 |pmid=20691260 |display-authors=etal |access-date=27 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190827113200/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00623298/file/PEER_stage2_10.1016%25252Fj.bbadis.2010.07.025.pdf |archive-date=27 August 2019 |url-status=live |doi-access=free |issue=11 |work=Biochim Biophys Acta}}</ref> and successfully defended the doctoral thesis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, by a supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline. === Scandinavia === The doctorate was introduced in [[Sweden]] in 1477 and in [[Denmark-Norway]] in 1479 and awarded in theology, law, and medicine, while the [[Magister (degree)|magister's degree]] was the highest degree at the Faculty of Philosophy, equivalent to the doctorate. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a degree known as a doctorate of philosophy, based upon the German model. Denmark and Norway both introduced the Dr. Phil(os). degree in 1824, replacing the Magister's degree as the highest degree, while [[Uppsala University]] of Sweden renamed its Magister's degree ''Filosofie Doktor'' (fil. dr) in 1863. These degrees, however, became comparable to the German [[Habilitation]] rather than the doctorate, as Scandinavian countries did not have a separate Habilitation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dommasnes |first1=Liv Helga |title=Excavating women: a history of women in European archaeology |last2=Else Johansen Kleppe |last3=Gro Mandt |last4=Jenny-Rita Næss |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-15760-5 |editor-last=Margarita Díaz-Andreu García and Marie Louise Stig Sørensen |location=London |chapter=Women archeologists in retrospect, The Norwegian case |quote=... a Dr. philos. degree, which is the highest academic degree in Norway, roughly equivalent to the German Doktor Habilitation. Traditionally, this degree, which was considered a prerequisite for obtaining top positions within academia, was earned rather late in life, often after one had passed 50 years of age.}}</ref> The degrees were uncommon and not a prerequisite for employment as a professor; rather, they were seen as distinctions similar to the British (higher) doctorates ([[DLitt]], [[DSc]]). Denmark introduced an American-style PhD, the ph.d., in 1989; it formally replaced the [[Licentiate (degree)|Licentiate]]'s degree and is considered a lower degree than the dr. phil. degree; officially, the ph.d. is not considered a doctorate, but unofficially, it is referred to as "the smaller doctorate", as opposed to the dr. phil., "the grand doctorate." Holders of a ph.d. degree are not entitled to style themselves as "Dr."<ref name="cfa">{{Cite web |last=Vestergaard |first=Elisabeth |year=2006 |title=Den danske forskeruddannelse. Rapporter, evalueringer og anbefalinger 1992–2006 |url=http://www.cfa.au.dk/fileadmin/site_files/filer_forskningsanalyse/dokumenter/Notater/Notat_2006_3.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719120623/http://www.cfa.au.dk/fileadmin/site_files/filer_forskningsanalyse/dokumenter/Notater/Notat_2006_3.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2011 |quote=Aarhus: Dansk Center for Forskningsanalyse}}</ref> Currently Denmark distinctions between the dr. phil. as the proper doctorate and a higher degree than the ph.d., whereas in Norway, the historically analogous dr. philos. degree is officially regarded as equivalent to the new ph.d. Today, the Norwegian PhD degree is awarded to candidates who have completed a supervised doctoral programme at an institution,<ref name="Lovdata AHO">{{Cite web |date=8 December 2011 |title=Forskrift for graden philosophiae doctor (ph.d.) ved Arkitektur- og designhøgskolen i Oslo (AHO) |url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2016-10-26-1442?q=ph.d. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507011733/https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2016-10-26-1442?q=ph.d. |archive-date=7 May 2019 |access-date=23 October 2018 |website=Lovdata}}</ref> while candidates with a master's degree who have conducted research on their own may submit their work for a Dr. Philos. defence at a relevant institution.<ref name="Lovdata UiO">{{Cite web |date=19 August 2011 |title=Forskrift for graden doctor philosophiae (dr.philos.) ved Universitetet i Oslo |url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2011-01-05-841?q=doctor%20philosophiae |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507011733/https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/2011-01-05-841?q=doctor%20philosophiae |archive-date=7 May 2019 |access-date=23 October 2018 |website=Lovdata |language=no}}</ref> PhD candidates must complete one trial lecture before they can defend their thesis,<ref name="Lovdata AHO" /> whereas Dr. Philos. candidates must complete two trial lectures.<ref name="Lovdata UiO" /> In Sweden, the doctorate of philosophy was introduced at [[Uppsala University]]'s Faculty of Philosophy in 1863. In Sweden, the Latin term is officially translated into Swedish ''filosofie doktor'' and commonly abbreviated fil. dr or FD. The degree represents the traditional Faculty of Philosophy and encompasses subjects from biology, physics, and chemistry, to languages, history, and social sciences, being the highest degree in these disciplines. Sweden currently has two research-level degrees, the Licentiate's degree, which is comparable to the Danish degree formerly known as the Licentiate's degree and now as the ph.d., and the higher doctorate of philosophy, ''Filosofie Doktor''. Some universities in Sweden also use the term ''teknologie doktor'' for doctorates awarded by institutes of technology (for doctorates in engineering or natural science related subjects such as materials science, molecular biology, computer science etc.). The Swedish term fil. dr is often also used as a translation of corresponding degrees from e.g. Denmark and Norway. === Singapore === [[Singapore]] has six universities offering doctoral study opportunities: [[National University of Singapore]], [[Nanyang Technological University]], [[Singapore Management University]], [[Singapore Institute of Technology]], [[Singapore University of Technology and Design]], and [[Singapore University of Social Sciences]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mather-L’Huillier |first=Nathalie |title=Why do your PhD in Singapore? |url=https://www.findaphd.com/study-abroad/asia/phd-study-in-singapore.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313031441/https://www.findaphd.com/study-abroad/asia/phd-study-in-singapore.aspx |archive-date=13 March 2018 |access-date=13 March 2018 |website=FindAPhD}}</ref> === Spain === In [[Spain]], doctoral degrees are regulated by ''Real Decreto'' (Royal Decree in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) 99/2011 from the 2014/2015 academic year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BOE.es – Documento BOE-A-2011-2541 |url=https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2011-2541 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706064604/https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2011-2541 |archive-date=6 July 2020 |access-date=6 July 2020 |website=www.boe.es| pages=13909–13926 }}</ref> They are granted by a university on behalf of the King, and its diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Teseo |url=https://www.educacion.gob.es/teseo/listarBusqueda.do |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121218020750/https://www.educacion.gob.es/teseo/listarBusqueda.do |archive-date=2012-12-18 |website=educacion.gob.es}}</ref> All doctoral programs are of a research nature. The studies should include original results and can take a maximum of three years, although this period can be extended under certain circumstances to 5 years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Artículo 3.2 del Real Decreto 99/2011, de 28 de enero, por el que se regulan las enseñanzas oficiales de doctorado |url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2011-2541#a3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705151959/https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2011-2541#a3 |archive-date=5 July 2018 |access-date=2018-07-04 |publisher=BOE.es}}</ref> The student must write their thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to science. If approved by her or his "thesis director (or directors)", the study will be presented to a panel of 3–5 distinguished scholars. Any doctor attending the public presentations is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions on their research. If approved, they will receive the doctorate. Four marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory, Pass, Satisfactory, and Excellent. "Cum laude" (with all honours, in Latin) denomination can be added to the Excellent ones if all five members of the tribunal agree.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Artículo 14 del Real Decreto 99/2011, de 28 de enero, por el que se regulan las enseñanzas oficiales de doctorado |url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2011-2541#a14 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705151959/https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2011-2541#a14 |archive-date=5 July 2018 |access-date=2018-07-04 |publisher=BOE.es}}</ref> The social standing of doctors in Spain was evidenced by the fact that [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]] let PhD holders to take seat and cover their heads during an act in the University of Salamanca in which the King took part so as to recognise their merits. This right to cover their heads in the presence of the King is traditionally reserved in Spain to [[Grandees]] and [[Duke]]s. The concession is remembered in solemn ceremonies held by the University by telling Doctors to take seat and cover their heads as a reminder of that royal leave.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Raíces de las normas y tradiciones del protocolo y ceremonial universitario actual: las universidades del Antiguo Régimen y los actos de colación. Protocolo y Etiqueta | date=26 October 2007 |url=http://www.protocolo.org/gest_web/proto_Seccion.pl?rfID=459&arefid=2871&pag=8 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080304102729/http://www.protocolo.org/gest_web/proto_Seccion.pl?rfID=459&arefid=2871&pag=8 |archive-date=4 March 2008 |access-date=2010-04-28 |publisher=Protocolo.org |language=es}}</ref> All Doctor Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994").<ref>{{Cite web |date=1995-05-24 |title=Boletín Oficial del Estado. Texto del Documento |pages=15188–15189 |url=http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1995-12243 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126143419/http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1995-12243 |archive-date=26 January 2016 |access-date=2015-11-11 |publisher=Boe.es}}</ref> === Ukraine === In [[Ukraine]], starting in 2016,<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 September 2016 |title=Урядовий портал – найновіші надходження документів КМУ |url=http://www.kmu.gov.ua/control/ua/cardnpd?docid=248945529 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917233058/http://www.kmu.gov.ua/control/ua/cardnpd?docid=248945529 |archive-date=17 September 2016}}</ref> in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, {{lang-uk|Доктор філософії}}) is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a substantial contribution to scientific knowledge, origination of new directions and visions in science. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine. Upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue their studies and get a post-doctoral degree called "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc. {{lang-uk|Доктор наук}}), which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. === United Kingdom === {{See also|Doctorate#United Kingdom|l1=Doctorates in the United Kingdom|Education in the United Kingdom}} ==== Admission ==== In the [[United Kingdom]], universities admit applicants to PhD programs on a case-by-case basis; depending on the university, admission is typically conditional on the prospective student having completed an undergraduate degree with at least upper second-class honours or a postgraduate master's degree but requirements can vary even within institutions. For example, the [[University of Edinburgh]] requires a minimum of a 2:1 honours degree (or international equivalent) for a PhD in clinical psychology,<ref>[https://www.ed.ac.uk/health/subject-areas/clinical-psychology/postgraduate-research/phd-msc-research/entry ''Entry requirements for the PhD/MSc by Research in Clinical Psychology'']. [[University of Edinburgh School of Health in Social Science]].</ref> while its [[University of Edinburgh Business School|business school]] requires a master's degree with an average of 65% in the taught components and a distinction-level dissertation.<ref>[https://www.business-school.ed.ac.uk/phd/entry-requirements ''PhD Entry Requirements'']. [[University of Edinburgh Business School]].</ref> For students who are not from English-speaking countries, [[UK Visas and Immigration]] requires universities to assess English proficiency. Many do this using [[IELTS]] tests, although the requirements may vary depending on the institution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://takeielts.britishcouncil.org/take-ielts/which-ielts-test/ukvi|title= Looking to work or study in the UK?|website=[[British Council]]|access-date=3 October 2023}}</ref><ref>[https://www.ucas.com/undergraduate/applying-university/international-and-eu-students/applying-university-international-student/what-level-english-do-i-need-get-uk-university “What level of English do I need to get into a UK university?”]. [[UCAS]].</ref><ref>[https://www.ukuni.net/articles/ielts-requirements-applying-uk-university IELTS requirements for applying to a UK university].</ref> 143 UK universities require applicants to undergo IELTS before admission,<ref>[https://www.ukuni.net/index.php/universities Universities in the UK requiring IELTS]. ukuni.net website.</ref> with minimum acceptable scores ranging from 4 to 6.5 and above. However, some universities are willing to accept students without IELTS.<ref>Cassandra Evangeline Benjamin. (20 Sep 2023). [https://edvoy.com/articles/is-it-possible-to-study-in-the-uk-without-ielts/ Is it possible to study in UK without IELTS?].</ref> Students are first accepted onto an [[MPhil]] or [[MRes]] programme and may transfer to PhD regulations upon satisfactory progress, this is sometimes referred to as APG (Advanced Postgraduate) status. This is typically done after one or two years and the research work done may count towards the PhD degree. If a student fails to make satisfactory progress, they may be offered the opportunity to write up and submit for an MPhil degree, e.g. at [[King's College London]] and the [[University of Manchester]]. In many universities, the MPhil is also offered as a stand-alone research degree. PhD students from outside the EU/EEA or other exempt countries are required to comply with the [[Academic Technology Approval Scheme]] (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|Foreign Office]] for courses in sensitive areas where research could be used for weapons development.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS) |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/academic-technology-approval-scheme |website=Gov.UK|access-date=3 October 2023|date=4 July 2023}}</ref> This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about overseas terrorism and weapons proliferation.<ref name="bbcatas">{{Cite web |date=12 March 2007 |title=Postgrad checks worry scientists |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/6441263.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217153348/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/6441263.stm |archive-date=17 December 2008 |access-date=16 September 2008 |website=BBC News}}</ref> ==== Funding ==== In the United Kingdom, funding for PhD students is sometimes provided by government-funded [[UK Research Councils|Research Councils]] (UK Research and Innovation – UKRI) or the [[European Social Fund]], usually in the form of a [[Income tax|tax-free]] [[bursary]] which consists of [[tuition fees]] together with a [[stipend]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Funding for research training |url=https://www.ukri.org/skills/funding-for-research-training/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921001409/https://www.ukri.org/skills/funding-for-research-training/ |archive-date=21 September 2020 |access-date=13 September 2020 |publisher=UK Research and Innovation}}</ref> Tuition fees are charged at different rates for "Home/EU" and "Overseas" students, generally £3,000–£6,000 per year for the former and £9,000–14,500 for the latter (which includes EU citizens who have not been normally resident in the [[European Economic Area|EEA]] for the last three years), although this can rise to over £16,000 at elite institutions. Higher fees are often charged for laboratory-based degrees.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Postgraduate fees in the UK |url=https://www.postgrad.com/fees_and_funding/fees/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213173726/https://www.postgrad.com/fees_and_funding/fees/ |archive-date=13 December 2016 |access-date=12 April 2017 |website=Postgrad.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is a PhD? |url=https://www.prospects.ac.uk/postgraduate-study/phd-study/what-is-a-phd |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014106/https://www.prospects.ac.uk/postgraduate-study/phd-study/what-is-a-phd |archive-date=6 October 2016 |access-date=12 April 2017 |website=Prospects |publisher=Graduate Prospects Ltd |at=How much does it cost?}}</ref> {{As of|2022/23}}, the national indicative fee for PhD students is £4,596, increasing annually, typically with inflation; there is no regulation of the fees charged by institutions, but if they charge a higher fee they may not require Research Council funded students to make up any difference themselves.<ref name="Funding for research training">{{Cite web |title=Funding for research training |url=https://www.ukri.org/our-work/developing-people-and-skills/find-studentships-and-doctoral-training/get-a-studentship-to-fund-your-doctorate/}}</ref> {{As of|2022/23}}, the national minimum stipend for UKRI-funded students is £16,062 per year, increasing annually typically with inflation.<ref name="Funding for research training"/> The period of funding for a PhD project is between three and four years, depending on the research council and the decisions of individual institutions,<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 2016 |title=STFC TRAINING GRANTS (TGs) – ADDITIONAL INFORMATION AND FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQs) |url=https://stfc.ukri.org/files/tg-frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024065557/https://stfc.ukri.org/files/tg-frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=24 October 2020 |access-date=13 September 2020 |publisher=STFC |format=PDF}}</ref> with extensions in funding of up to twelve months available to offset periods of absence for maternity leave, shared parental leave, adoption leave, absences covered by a medical certificate, and extended jury service.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 2020 |title=Terms and conditions of training grants |url=https://www.ukri.org/files/funding/ukri-training-grant-terms-and-conditions-pdf/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024143757/https://www.ukri.org/files/funding/ukri-training-grant-terms-and-conditions-pdf/ |archive-date=24 October 2020 |access-date=13 September 2020}}</ref> PhD work beyond this may be unfunded or funded from other sources. A very small number of scientific studentships are sometimes paid at a higher rate – for example, in London, Cancer Research UK, the ICR and the Wellcome Trust stipend rates start at around £19,000 and progress annually to around £23,000 a year; an amount that is tax and national insurance free. Research Council funding is distributed to Doctoral Training Partnerships and Centres for Doctoral Training, who are responsible for student selection, within the eligibility guidelines established by the Research Councils.<ref name=":0" /> The ESRC (Economic and Social Science Research Council), for example, explicitly state that a 2.1 minimum (or a master's degree) is required.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prospective students |url=https://esrc.ukri.org/skills-and-careers/doctoral-training/prospective-students/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809014052/https://esrc.ukri.org/skills-and-careers/doctoral-training/prospective-students/ |archive-date=9 August 2020 |access-date=13 September 2020 |at=Academic conditions}}</ref> Many students who are not in receipt of external funding may choose to undertake the degree part-time, thus reducing the tuition fees. The tuition fee per annum for part-time PhD degrees are typically 50–60% of the equivalent full-time doctorate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-19 |title=Part Time PhD Guide – Fees, Durations, Benefits & Challenges |url=https://www.discoverphds.com/blog/part-time-phds |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109184218/https://www.discoverphds.com/advice/doctorates/part-time-phds |archive-date=9 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=DiscoverPhDs}}</ref> However, since the duration of a part-time PhD degree is longer than a full-time degree, the overall cost may be the same or higher.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-10-09 |title=Check Out UCAS Advice On Postgrad Fees And Funding... |url=https://www.ucas.com/postgraduate/postgraduate-fees-and-funding |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606141727/https://www.ucas.com/postgraduate/postgraduate-fees-and-funding |archive-date=6 June 2020 |access-date=2020-05-20 |website=UCAS}}</ref> The part-time PhD degree option provides free time in which to earn money for subsistence. Students may also take part in tutoring, work as research assistants, or (occasionally) deliver lectures, at a rate of typically £12–14 per hour, either to supplement existing low income or as a sole means of funding.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bray |first1=M. |title=Demand for private supplementary tutoring: Conceptual considerations, and socio-economic patterns in Hong Kong |last2=Kwok |first2=P. |year=2003 |volume=22 |pages=611–620 |doi=10.1016/S0272-7757(03)00032-3 |issue=6 |journal=Economics of Education Review}}</ref> ==== Completion ==== [[File:Ph.D. gown, Cambridge University.jpg|thumb|A PhD gown at the [[University of Cambridge]], one of the world's oldest and most prestigious universities]] There is usually a preliminary assessment to remain in the program and the thesis is submitted at the end of a three- to four-year program. These periods are usually extended pro rata for part-time students. With special dispensation, the final date for the thesis can be extended for up to four additional years, for a total of seven, but this is rare.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The PhD is in need of revision |url=http://www.universityaffairs.ca/the-phd-is-in-need-of-revision.aspx#latest_data |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731002541/http://www.universityaffairs.ca/the-phd-is-in-need-of-revision.aspx#latest_data |archive-date=31 July 2013 |access-date=5 June 2013 |website=UniversityAffairs.ca}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Data is for Canada, not the UK|date=September 2020}} For full-time PhDs, a four-year time limit has now been fixed and students must apply for an extension to submit a thesis past this point. Since the early 1990s, British funding councils have adopted a policy of penalising departments where large proportions of students fail to submit their theses in four years after achieving PhD-student status (or pro rata equivalent) by reducing the number of funded places in subsequent years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ESRC Society Today |url=http://www.esrcsocietytoday.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/Images/res_grant_linked_studentships_tcm6-12550.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081029194816/http://www.esrcsocietytoday.ac.uk/ESRCInfoCentre/Images/res_grant_linked_studentships_tcm6-12550.pdf |archive-date=29 October 2008 |access-date=2010-04-28 |publisher=ESRC Society Today}}</ref> Inadvertently, this leads to significant pressure on the candidate to minimise the scope of projects with a view on thesis submission, regardless of quality, and discourage time spent on activities that would otherwise further the impact of the research on the community (e.g., publications in high-impact journals, seminars, workshops). Furthermore, supervising staff are encouraged in their career progression to ensure that the PhD students under their supervision finalise the projects in three rather than the four years that the program is permitted to cover. These issues contribute to an overall discrepancy between supervisors and PhD candidates in the priority they assign to the quality and impact of the research contained in a PhD project, the former favouring quick PhD projects over several students and the latter favouring a larger scope for their own ambitious project, training, and impact.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} There has recently been an increase in the number of Integrated PhD programs available, such as at the University of Southampton. These courses include a Master of Research (MRes) in the first year, which consists of a taught component as well as laboratory rotation projects. The PhD must then be completed within the next three years. As this includes the MRes all deadlines and timeframes are brought forward to encourage completion of both MRes and PhD within four years from commencement. These programs are designed to provide students with a greater range of skills than a standard PhD, and for the university, they are a means of gaining an extra years' fees from public sources. ==== Other doctorates ==== Some UK universities (e.g. Oxford) abbreviate their Doctor of Philosophy degree as "DPhil", while most use the abbreviation "PhD"; but these are stylistic conventions, and the degrees are in all other respects equivalent. In the United Kingdom, PhD degrees are distinct from other doctorates, most notably the [[higher doctorate]]s such as [[Doctor of Letters|DLitt]] (Doctor of Letters) or [[Doctor of Science|DSc]] (Doctor of Science), which may be granted on the recommendation of a committee of examiners on the basis of a substantial portfolio of submitted (and usually published) research. However, some UK universities still maintain the option of submitting a thesis for the award of a higher doctorate. Recent years have seen the introduction of professional doctorates, which are the same level as PhDs but more specific in their field.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Professional Doctorate |url=http://www.professionaldoctorates.com/explained.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528152539/http://www.professionaldoctorates.com/explained.asp |archive-date=28 May 2010 |access-date=2010-04-28}}</ref> Most tend not to be solely academic, but combine academic research, a taught component or a professional qualification. These are most notably in the fields of engineering ([[Engineering Doctorate|EngD]]), educational psychology (DEdPsych), occupational psychology (DOccPsych), clinical psychology (DClinPsych), health psychology (DHealthPsy), social work (DSW), nursing (DNP), public administration (DPA), business administration ([[Doctor of Business Administration|DBA]]), and music ([[Doctor of Musical Arts|DMA]]). A more generic degree also used is [[Doctor of Professional Studies|DProf or ProfD]]. These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000–60,000-word thesis component, which together are officially considered equivalent to a PhD degree. === United States === {{Main|Graduate science education in the United States}} {{Further|Doctorate#United States}} In the [[United States]], the PhD degree is the [[terminal degree|highest academic degree]] awarded by universities in most fields of study. There are more than 282 universities in the United States that award the PhD degree, and those universities vary widely in their criteria for admission, as well as the rigor of their academic programs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Listing of Research I Universities |url=http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/classifications/index.asp?key=63&search_flag=true&ref=783&start=783&BASIC2005=15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090904034342/http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/classifications/index.asp?key=63&search_flag=true&ref=783&start=783&BASIC2005=15 |archive-date=4 September 2009 |access-date=26 January 2008 |website=[[Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]] |quote=282 is the sum of all three categories of doctoral universities. Since some primarily undergraduate institutions also award the PhD, the number is greater than 282}}</ref> ==== Requirements ==== Typically, PhD programs require applicants to have a bachelor's degree in a relevant field, and, in many cases in the humanities, a master's degree, reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation, relevant academic coursework, a cogent statement of interest in the field of study, and satisfactory performance on a graduate-level exam specified by the respective program (e.g., [[Graduate Record Exam|GRE]], [[Graduate Management Admission Test|GMAT]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-12-15 |title=Wharton Doctoral Programs: Application Requirements |url=http://www.wharton.upenn.edu/doctoral/admissions/apply/requirements.cfm#scores |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413174951/http://www.wharton.upenn.edu/doctoral/admissions/apply/requirements.cfm#scores |archive-date=13 April 2010 |access-date=2010-04-28 |publisher=Wharton.upenn.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Doctoral admissions |url=http://www2.gsb.columbia.edu/doctoral/admissions |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071019065016/http://www2.gsb.columbia.edu/doctoral/admissions |archive-date=19 October 2007 |website=Columbia University in the City of New York}}</ref> ==== Duration, age structure, statistics ==== Depending on the specific field of study, completion of a PhD program usually takes four to eight years of study after the [[bachelor's degree]]; those students who begin a PhD program with a master's degree may complete their PhD degree a year or two sooner.<ref name="usdoe">{{Cite news |date=2006-06-18 |title=Research Doctorate Programmes |publisher=US Department of Education |url=http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-research-doctorate.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303214708/http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-research-doctorate.html |archive-date=2007-03-03}}</ref> As PhD programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate education, there are significant individual differences in the time taken to complete the degree. Overall, 57% of students who begin a PhD program in the US will complete their degree within ten years, approximately 30% will drop out or be dismissed, and the remaining 13% of students will continue on past ten years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=In humanities, ten years may not be enough to get a Ph.D. |url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/in-humanities-10-years-may-not-be-enough-to-get-a-ph-d/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023010906/https://www.chronicle.com/article/in-humanities-10-years-may-not-be-enough-to-get-a-ph-d/ |archive-date=23 October 2020 |access-date=14 September 2020 |website=The Chronicle of Higher Education|date=27 July 2007 }}</ref> The median age of PhD recipients in the US is 32 years. While many candidates are awarded their degree in their 20s, 6% of PhD recipients in the US are older than 45 years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dance |first=Amber |title=Career change: It's never too late to switch |date=October 2017 |volume=550 |pages=289–291 |language=en |doi=10.1038/nj7675-289a |issue=7675 |journal=Nature|doi-access=free }}</ref> The '''number of PhD diplomas''' awarded by US universities has risen nearly every year since 1957, according to data compiled by the US National Science Foundation. In 1957, US universities awarded 8,611 PhD diplomas; 20,403 in 1967; 31,716 in 1977; 32,365 in 1987; 42,538 in 1997; 48,133 in 2007,<ref>National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics. 2014. ''Doctoral Recipients from U.S. Universities, 2012. Survey of Earned Doctorates''. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation</ref> and 55,006 in 2015.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=PHD programmes: Doctorate deluge |year=2017 |volume=547 |pages=483 |doi=10.1038/nj7664-483b |doi-access=free |issue=7664 |journal=Nature}}</ref> ==== Funding ==== PhD students at US universities typically receive a tuition waiver and some form of annual stipend.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} Many US PhD students work as [[teaching assistant]]s or [[research assistant]]s. Graduate schools increasingly{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} encourage their students to seek outside funding; many are supported by fellowships they obtain for themselves or by their advisers' research grants from government agencies such as the [[National Science Foundation]] and the [[National Institutes of Health]]. Many [[Ivy League]] and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the degree program (if it is short) or for most of it,{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} especially in the forms of tuition waivers/stipends.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PhD Funding Opportunities |url=https://publichealth.yale.edu/admissions/programs/phd/funding.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407154948/http://publichealth.yale.edu/admissions/programs/phd/funding.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2018 |access-date=9 August 2018 |website=Yale (Public Health |publisher=Yale}}</ref> === USSR, Russian Federation and former Soviet Republics === ==== Candidate of Science degree awarded by the State Higher Attestation Commission ==== In [[Russia]], the degree of [[Candidate of Sciences]] ({{lang-ru|кандидат наук}}, Kandidat Nauk) was the first advanced research qualification in the former USSR (it was introduced there in 1934) and some [[Eastern Bloc]] countries ([[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]]) and is still awarded in some post-Soviet states (Russian Federation, Belarus, and others). According to "Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other European countries,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Education in Russia for foreign citizens: Recognition and equivalence of documents of education and scientific degrees |url=http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706064615/http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900.php |archive-date=6 July 2020 |access-date=6 July 2020 |website=en.russia.edu.ru}}</ref>" in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees (like Russian Federation, some post-Soviet states, Germany, Poland, Austria and Switzerland), should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree, and in countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this PhD degree. Since most education systems only have one advanced research qualification granting doctoral degrees or equivalent qualifications (ISCED 2011,<ref name="par270">{{Cite web |title=International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011 |url=http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=211619&set=4F3F2872_2_352&database=gctd&gp=0&lin=1&ll=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160210050348/http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=211619&set=4F3F2872_2_352&database=gctd&gp=0&lin=1&ll=1 |archive-date=10 February 2016 |access-date=18 February 2012}}</ref> par.270), the degree of [[Candidate of Sciences]] (Kandidat Nauk) of the former USSR countries is usually considered to be at the same level as the doctorate or PhD degrees of those countries.<ref name="IIEP2011">{{Cite book |last1=Varghese, N. V. |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001915/191585e.pdf |title=UNESCO-IIEP |last2=Püttmann, V. |publisher=UNESCO-IIEP |year=2011 |location=Paris |pages=11–12 |type=IIEP research papers |access-date=27 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101144001/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001915/191585e.pdf |archive-date=1 November 2013 |url-status=live |work=Trends in Diversification of Post-secondary Education}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/24_245.pdf |title=The Doctorate in the Europe Region |work=CEPES Studies in Higher Education |publisher=UNESCO, CEPES |year=1994 |isbn=92-9069-133-6 |editor-last=Kouptsov, O. |location=Bucharest |page=199 |access-date=27 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915103524/http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/24_245.pdf |archive-date=15 September 2012 |url-status=live}},</ref> According to the Joint Statement by the Permanent Conference of the Ministers for Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder of the Federal Republic of Germany ([[Kultusministerkonferenz]], KMK), [[German Rectors' Conference]] (HRK) and the [[Ministry of Education and Science (Russia)|Ministry of General and Professional Education of the Russian Federation]], the degree of Kandidat Nauk is recognised in Germany at the level of the [[#Germany|German degree of Doktor]] and the degree of [[Doktor Nauk]] at the level of German [[Habilitation]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.hrk-bologna.de/de/download/dateien/HRK_Abkommen_Russland.pdf |title=Gemeinsame Erklärungzur gegenseitigen akademischen Anerkennungvon tudienzeiten und Abschlüssen im Hochschulbereichsowie von Urkunden über russische wissenschaftliche Gradeund deutsche akademische Qualifikationen zwischen HRK |year=1999 |access-date=27 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513213353/http://www.hrk-bologna.de/de/download/dateien/HRK_Abkommen_Russland.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2013 |url-status=live |work=KMK und dem Ministerium für Allgemeine und Berufliche Bildungder Russischen Föderation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.russia.edu.ru/information/legal/law/inter/germ |title=Совместное заявление о взаимном академическом признании периодов обучения в высших учебных заведениях, документов о высшем образовании, российских ученых степенях и германских академических квалификациях |year=1999 |access-date=27 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304030800/http://www.russia.edu.ru/information/legal/law/inter/germ/ |archive-date=4 March 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Russian degree of Kandidat Nauk is also officially recognised by the Government of the [[French Republic]] as equivalent to [[#France|French doctorate]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-05-12 |title=Décret n° 2003-744 du 1er août 2003 portant publication de l'accord entre le Gouvernement de la République française et le Gouvernement de la Fédération de Russie – sur la reconnaissance mutuelle des documents sur les grades et titres universitaires, signé à Saint-Pétersbourg |url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000780537 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821122233/https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000780537 |archive-date=21 August 2018 |access-date=27 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Соглашения об эквивалентности документов об образовании |url=http://www.russia.edu.ru/information/legal/law/inter/soglash/2538.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706104548/http://www.russia.edu.ru/information/legal/law/inter/soglash/2538.php |archive-date=6 July 2020 |access-date=6 July 2020 |website=www.russia.edu.ru}}</ref> According to the International Standard Classification of Education,<ref>{{Cite web |year=2011 |title=International Standard Classification of Education |url=http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=211619&set=4F3F2872_2_352&database=gctd&gp=0&lin=1&ll=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160210050348/http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=211619&set=4F3F2872_2_352&database=gctd&gp=0&lin=1&ll=1 |archive-date=10 February 2016 |access-date=18 February 2012}}</ref> for purposes of international educational statistics, Kandidat Nauk ([[Candidate of Sciences]]) belongs to ISCED level 8, or "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, DLitt, DSc, LLD, Doctorate, or similar. It is mentioned in the Russian version of ISCED 2011 (par.262) on the UNESCO website as an equivalent to PhD belonging to this level.<ref name="par270" /> In the same way as PhD degrees awarded in many English-speaking countries, Kandidat Nauk ([[Candidate of Sciences]]) allows its holders to reach the level of the [[Docent]].<ref name="Luchuk">{{Cite web |year=2012 |title=Лучук О. Коли ми діждемося Вашинґтона? Тоді ж і станем "докторами"! До питання про академічні посади, наукові ступені та вчені звання в українському та американському наукових дискурсах // Україна: культурна спадщина, національна свідомість, державність: Збірник наукових праць. Випуск 21. Львів: Інститут українознавства ім. І.Крип'якевича НАН України |url=http://www.nbuv.gov.ua/portal/soc_gum/Uks/2012_21/40LuchukO.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524231434/http://www.nbuv.gov.ua/portal/soc_gum/Uks/2012_21/40LuchukO.pdf |archive-date=24 May 2013 |access-date=27 November 2012}}</ref> The second doctorate<ref name="IIEP2011" /> (or post-doctoral degree)<ref name="TechnopolisUA">{{Cite web |date=December 2010 |title=Study on the organisation of doctoral programmes in EU neighbouring countries |url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/external-relation-programmes/doc/doctoral/ukraine_en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513134841/http://ec.europa.eu/education/external-relation-programmes/doc/doctoral/ukraine_en.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2013 |website=Technopolis Group, GHK. Ukraine}}</ref><ref name="TechnopolisRU">{{Cite web |date=December 2010 |title=Study on the organisation of doctoral programmes in EU neighbouring countries |url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/external-relation-programmes/doc/doctoral/russia_en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513132634/http://ec.europa.eu/education/external-relation-programmes/doc/doctoral/russia_en.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2013}}</ref> in some [[post-Soviet states]] called [[Doctor of Sciences]] ({{lang-ru|доктор наук}}, [[Doktor Nauk]]) is given as an example of second advanced research qualifications or higher doctorates in ISCED 2011<ref name="par270" /> (par.270) and is similar to [[Habilitation]] in Germany, Poland and several other countries.<ref name="IIEP2011" /><ref name="TechnopolisRU" /> It constitutes a higher qualification compared to PhD as against the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) <ref>{{Cite web |last=A3 |first=EAC |date=31 August 2018 |title=Development of skills |url=https://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/european-policy-cooperation/development-skills_en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805091321/https://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/european-policy-cooperation/development-skills_en |archive-date=5 August 2020 |access-date=6 July 2020 |website=Education and Training – European Commission}}</ref> or Dublin Descriptors.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 March 2004 |title=Shared Dublin Descriptors |url=http://www.tempus.ac.rs/here/tl_files/Dokumenti/Dublinski%20deskriptori.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102730/http://www.tempus.ac.rs/here/tl_files/Dokumenti/Dublinski%20deskriptori.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=10 June 2015 |website=www.tempus.ac.rs}}</ref><ref name="TechnopolisRU" /> About 88% of Russian students studying at state universities study at the expense of budget funds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Статистика Российского образования |url=http://stat.edu.ru/stat/tabl.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227090414/http://stat.edu.ru/stat/tabl.php |archive-date=27 December 2008 |access-date=21 May 2012 |website=stat.edu.ru}}</ref> The average stipend in Russia ({{as of|2011|August|lc=y}}) is $430 a year ($35/month).<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 August 2011 |title=Стипендии на приоритетных специальностях составят от 2 до 4 тыс руб |trans-title=Scholarships for priority specialties will be from 2 to 4 thousand rubles |url=http://ria.ru/edu_news/20110804/411919327.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109224551/http://ria.ru/edu_news/20110804/411919327.html |archive-date=9 November 2013 |website=РИА Новости |language=ru}}</ref> The average tuition fee in graduate school is $2,000 per year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krut |first=Natalia |title=слово берет защита |trans-title=protection takes the floor |url=http://www.careerrussia.ru/detail_new.php?ID=5925 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101115231/http://www.careerrussia.ru/detail_new.php?ID=5925 |archive-date=1 November 2012 |website=CareerRussia.ru}}</ref> ==== PhD degree awarded by university==== [[File:Spbu-phd-dimploma-sample-2013.jpg|thumb|PhD SPbSU certificate]] On 19 June 2013, for the first time in the Russian Federation, defenses were held for the PhD degree awarded by universities, instead of the Candidate of Sciences degree awarded by the State Supreme Certification Commission.<ref>{{Cite web |title=N.V. Kuznetsov, P. Neittaanmäki, G.A. Leonov, Supervisors' manifest on the first PhD SPbSU (2013) |url=http://math.spbu.ru/user/nk/PDF/2013-First-PhD-SPbSU-Renat-Yuldashev-Supervisors.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126173800/https://math.spbu.ru/user/nk/PDF/2013-First-PhD-SPbSU-Renat-Yuldashev-Supervisors.pdf |archive-date=26 January 2020 |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=PhD SPbU – Saint Petersburg University |url=https://english.spbu.ru/news/135-phd |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128204611/https://english.spbu.ru/news/135-phd |archive-date=28 January 2020 |access-date=28 January 2020 |website=english.spbu.ru}}</ref> Renat Yuldashev, the graduate of the Department of Applied Cybernetics of the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics of St. Petersburg State University, was the first to defend his thesis in field of mathematics according to new rules for the PhD SPbSU degree.<ref name="thesisRY-2013">{{Cite web |title=R. Yuldashev, Dissertation "Nonlinear Analysis and Synthesis of Phase-Locked Loops (supervisors: N. Kuznetsov, G. Leonov, P. Neittaanmäki), Saint-Petersburg State University Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 1, 2013 (PhD thesis) |url=http://apcyb.spbu.ru/wp-content/uploads/2013-Renat-Yuldashev-Firts-PhD-SPbU-Math-Studies-Vol-1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126173636/http://apcyb.spbu.ru/wp-content/uploads/2013-Renat-Yuldashev-Firts-PhD-SPbU-Math-Studies-Vol-1.pdf |archive-date=26 January 2020 |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref> For the defense procedure in the field of mathematics, it was used the experience of joint Finnish-Russian research and educational program organized in 2007 by the Faculty of Information Technology of the University of Jyväskylä and the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics of St. Petersburg State University: co-chairs of the program — N. Kuznetsov, G. Leonov, P. Neittaanmäki, were organizers of the first defenses and co-supervisors of dissertations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=R.Yuldashev, Dissertation "Synthesis of Phase-Locked Loop" (supervisors: N. Kuznetsov, G. Leonov, P. Neittaanmäki, T. Tiihonen), Jyväskylä University Printing House, 2013 |url=https://jyx.jyu.fi/bitstream/handle/123456789/42622/978-951-39-5490-1_vaitos18122013.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127191621/https://jyx.jyu.fi/bitstream/handle/123456789/42622/978-951-39-5490-1_vaitos18122013.pdf |archive-date=27 January 2020 |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref> == Models of supervision == At some universities, there may be training for those wishing to supervise PhD studies. There is much literature available, such as Delamont, Atkinson, and Parry (1997). Dinham and Scott (2001) have argued that the worldwide growth in research students has been matched by the increase in the number of what they term "how-to" texts for both students and supervisors, citing examples such as Pugh and Phillips (1987). These authors report empirical data on the benefits to a PhD candidate from publishing; students are more likely to publish with adequate encouragement from their supervisors. Wisker (2005) has reported that research into this field distinguishes two models of supervision: The technical-rationality model of supervision, emphasising technique; and the negotiated order model, which is less mechanistic, emphasising fluid and dynamic change in the PhD process. These two models were first distinguished by Acker, Hill and Black (1994; cited in Wisker, 2005). Considerable literature exists on the expectations that supervisors may have of their students (Phillips & Pugh, 1987) and the expectations that students may have of their supervisors (Phillips & Pugh, 1987; Wilkinson, 2005) in the course of PhD supervision. Similar expectations are implied by the Quality Assurance Agency's Code for Supervision (Quality Assurance Agency, 1999; cited in Wilkinson, 2005). == PhD in the workforce == PhD graduates represent a relatively small, elite group within most countries — around 1.1% of adults among OECD countries.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Figure 6.17. Share of doctorate holders in the population (2017) |doi=10.1787/888933941538}}</ref> Slovenia, Switzerland and Luxembourg have higher numbers of PhD Graduates per capita as illustrated here. For Slovenia, this is because MSc degrees before [[Bologna Process]] are ranked at the same level of education as PhD. Without the MSc, Slovenia has 1.4% PhD graduates, which is comparable to the average in OECD and EU-23 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sever |first=Maja |title=Centennial celebration of the first doctorate awarded at Slovenian universities |url=https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/en/News/Index/8968 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106095619/https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/en/News/Index/8968 |archive-date=6 January 2022 |access-date=6 January 2022 |website=Republic of Slovenia, Statistical Office}}</ref> <br />[[File:Share_of_doctorate_holders_in_the_population_(%25)_Horizontal.svg|alt=]] == International PhD equivalent degrees == {{Columns-list| * Afghanistan: دکتورا * Albania: Doktorature.(Dr.) * Algeria: Doctorat, دكتوراه * Argentina: Doctorado (Dr.) * Armenia: գիտությունների թեկնածու * Austria: Doktor (Dr., plural: DDr.) * Australia: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * Azerbaijan: [[:az:Fəlsəfə doktoru|Fəlsəfə doktoru]] (Dr.) * Bangladesh: [[Doctorate]] * Belarus: кандидат наук * Belgium (Dutch-speaking): [[Doctor (title)|Doctor]] (dr. or PhD) * Belgium (French-speaking): [[Doctorat]] (dr. or PhD) * Bosnia and Herzegovina: Doktor nauka * Brazil: [[:pt:Doutorado|Doutorado]] (DSc) * Bulgaria: [[:bg:Доктор|Доктор]] * Burma: [[:my:ပါရဂူ|ပါရဂူ]] * Canada: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * China: [[:zh:博士|博士]] (Bo-shi) * Chile: Doctorado * Colombia: Doctorado * Costa Rica: PhD or Doctorado (Dr.) * Croatia: Doktor znanosti * Cuba: [[Doctorado]] (DrC) * Czech Republic: kandidát věd ([[Candidate of Sciences|CSc.]]) was used until 1998, since 1998 doktor (Ph.D.) is used; doktorát (degree) * Denmark: [[Licentiate (degree)|Licentiate]], [[Magister (degree)|Magister]], PhD (the ''doctorates'' are higher degrees) * Dominican Republic: [[Doctorado]] * Ecuador: Doctorado * El Salvador: [[Doctorado]] * Egypt: [[Doctorat]], [[:ar:دكتوراه|دكتوراه]] * Estonia: Doktor (Dr) * Ethiopia: [[:am:ዶክተር|ዶክተር]], Doctor (PhD, Dr.) * Finland: [[:fi:Filosofian tohtori|Filosofian tohtori]] and any degree of tohtori * France: [[Doctorate#Country-specific practice|Doctorat]] * Georgia: დოქტორი * Germany: [[:de:Doktor|Doktor]] * Greece: [[:el:Διδακτορικό δίπλωμα|Διδακτορικό]] * Hong Kong: [[:zh:博士|博士]] ([[Doctor (title)|Doctor]]) * Hungary: Doktor (Dr.) * India: [[Doctorate]] * Indonesia: Doktor (Dr.) * Iran: [[:fa: دکترای تخصصی|دکتری تخصصی]], دکترای تخصصی, (PhD) , (دکتر) , (پی اچ دی (title)) * Iraq: [[:ar:دكتوراه|دكتوراه]] (Duktorah) * Ireland: an Doctúireacht * Israel: [[:he: דוקטור|דוקטורט]] ("doctorat") * Italy: [[Dottorato di ricerca]] (Dott. Ric. or Ph.D.) * Japan: 博士 (''hakase'') * Jordan: دكتوراه (Doctorah) * Korea: 박사 (''baksa'') * Kuwait: دكتوراه (Dektoraah) * Kurdistan: دکتۆرا (Doctorah) * Kyrgyzstan (Илим доктору) * Latin America: [[Doctorado]]/[[Doctorate]] * Latvia: [[:lv:Zinātņu doktors|Zinātņu doktors]] * Lebanon: دكتوراه (doktorah) * Lithuania: [[:lt:Daktaras|Daktaras]] * Macau: 博士 (Doutoramento) * North Macedonia: Докторат * Malaysia: Doktor Falsafah * Mauritius: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * Mexico: [[Doctorado]] * Mongolia: Эрдэмтэн * Morocco: [[Doctorat]] * Mozambique: Doutoramento * Nepal: Doctor * Netherlands: [[Doctor (title)|Doctor]] (dr. or PhD) * New Zealand: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * Nigeria: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * Norway: [[Magister (degree)|Magister]], [[Licentiate (degree)|Licentiate]], [[doctorate]]s (traditionally considered higher degrees), PhD * Pakistan: [[Doctor (title)|Doctor]] * Palestine: [[:ar:دكتوراه|دكتوراه]] (doktorah) * Paraguay: PhD or Doctorado (Dr.) * Peru: [[Doctorado]] * Philippines: Doktor * Poland: [[:pl:Doktor (stopień naukowy)|Doktor]] * Portugal: [[:pt:Doutorado|Doutorado]] * Romania: [[Doctorat]] * Russia: [[Candidate of Sciences|кандидат наук]] (PhD), [[:ru: доктор наук]] (Sc.D.) * Saudi Arabia: [[:ar:دكتوراه|دكتوراه]] * Singapore: [[Doctor (title)|Doctor]] * Serbia: [[:sr:Доктор наука|Доктор наука]] * Slovakia: Doktor filozofie (PhD) * Slovenia: Doktor znanosti * Somalia: Dhaqtarka Falsafada * South Africa: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Doctor) * Spain: [[Doctorado]] * Sweden: [[:sv:Filosofie doktor|Filosofie doktor]] (fil.dr., FD) * Switzerland: [[Doctorate|Doctorat]] (Dr) * Syria: [[:ar:دكتوراه|دكتوراه]] (doktorah) * Taiwan: [[:zh:博士|博士]] (Mandarin: Bo-shi; Taiwanese: Phok-sū) * Thailand: ดุษฎีบัณฑิต * Tunisia: [[:ar:دكتوراه|دكتوراه]] (doktorah) * Turkey: [[Doctorate|Doktora]] * Uganda: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * United Arab Emirates: [[:ar:دكتوراه|دكتوراه]] (doktorah) * United Kingdom: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, doctor, the abbreviation DPhil is used by the [[University of Oxford]]) * United States: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) * Ukraine: [[:uk:Доктор філософії|Доктор філософії]] (PhD) * Uruguay: Doctorado * Uzbekistan: Fan nomzodi ([[Candidate of Sciences|CSc.]]) * Vatican City State: Doctor of Sacred Theology (STD) or Doctor of Canon Law (JCD) * Venezuela: [[Doctorado]] * Vietnam: [[:vi:Tiến sỹ|Tiến sỹ]] * Yemen: [[:ar:دكتوراه|دكتوراه]] (doktorah) :}} ==See also== * [[History of higher education in the United States#Graduate schools|History of higher education in the United States]] * [[List of fields of doctoral studies in the United States]] * [[Doctor of Professional Studies]] * ''[[Piled Higher and Deeper]], Life (or the lack thereof) in Academia'' * [[Terminal degree]] * [[Doctor of Philosophy by publication]] ==References== {{Reflist}} == Further reading == {{Portal bar|Education}} {{refbegin}} * {{Cite book |last=Geiger |first=Roger L. |title=To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900–1940 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1986}} * {{Cite book |last=Geiger |first=Roger L. |title=Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II |year=2001}} * {{Cite book |last=Simpson |first=Renate |title=How the PhD came to Britain: A century of struggle for postgraduate education |work=Society for Research into Higher Education |publisher=Guildford |year=1983}} {{refend}} {{Academic degrees}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Doctoral degrees|Philosophy, Doctor of]] [[Category:Titles]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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