Crucifixion of Jesus

{{Short description|Jesus's death as described in the gospels}}
{{Redirect|The Crucifixion||Crucifixion (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Death of Jesus}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox event
| title = Crucifixion of Jesus
| image = Cristo crucificado.jpg
| caption = The 17th-century painting ''[[Christ Crucified (Velázquez)|Christ Crucified]]'' by [[Diego Velázquez]], held by the [[Museo del Prado]] in [[Madrid]]
| type = [[Execution]] by [[crucifixion]]
| cause = Condemnation before [[Pilate's court]]
| date = AD 30/33
| location = [[Jerusalem]], [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]], [[Roman Empire]]
| participants = [[Roman army]] (executioners)
| outcome = {{ubl|Ministry of the apostles|Earliest [[persecution of Christians]]}}
| deaths = [[Jesus]]
}}
{{Death of Jesus}}
{{Gospel Jesus}}
{{Christianity|state=collapsed}}

The '''crucifixion of Jesus''' was the [[Capital_punishment|execution]] by [[crucifixion]] of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]] in 1st-century [[Roman Judaea|Judaea]], most likely in AD 30 or AD 33. It is described in the four [[canonical gospels]], referred to in the [[New Testament epistles]], attested to by [[#Other accounts and references|other ancient sources]], and is broadly accepted as one of the events most likely to have occurred during his life.<ref>{{cite book|author=Eddy, Paul Rhodes and [[Gregory A. Boyd]] |year=2007 |title=The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition |isbn=978-0801031144 |publisher=Baker Academic |page=172 |quote=...if there is any fact of Jesus' life that has been established by a broad consensus, it is the fact of Jesus' crucifixion.}}</ref> There is no consensus among historians on the details.<ref name=CambridgeJesus >[[Christopher M. Tuckett]] in ''The Cambridge companion to Jesus'' edited by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press {{ISBN|978-0-521-79678-1}} pp.&nbsp;123–124</ref><ref name = "ActJ">{{cite book |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2=Jesus Seminar |author-link=Robert W. Funk |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0060629786 |url=https://archive.org/details/actsofjesuswhatd00robe |author2-link=Jesus Seminar }}</ref>{{sfnp|Blomberg|2009|p=211–214}}

According to the canonical gospels, [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] was [[Arrest of Jesus|arrested]] and [[Sanhedrin trial of Jesus|tried by the Sanhedrin]], and then [[Pilate's court|sentenced by Pontius Pilate]] to be [[Flagellation of Christ|scourged]], and finally crucified by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]].<ref name=Kostenberger104 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by [[Andreas J. Köstenberger]], L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} pp.&nbsp;104–108</ref><ref name="Evans, Craig A. 2001 page 316">Evans, Craig A. (2001). ''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' {{ISBN|0-391-04118-5}} p. 316</ref><ref name="Wansbrough, Henry 2004 page 185">Wansbrough, Henry (2004). ''Jesus and the Oral Gospel Tradition'' {{ISBN|0-567-04090-9}} p. 185</ref> The Gospel of John portrays his death as a [[sacrifice]] for [[sin]].

Jesus was stripped of his clothing and offered vinegar mixed with [[myrrh]] or gall (likely [[posca]]<ref name="davis">{{cite web |title=A Physician's View of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ |url=https://www1.cbn.com/medical-view-of-the-crucifixion-of-jesus-christ |first=C. Truman |last=Davis |date=November 4, 2015 |publisher=[[The Christian Broadcasting Network]] |access-date=September 1, 2020}}</ref>), to drink after saying "I am thirsty". At [[Golgotha]], he was then hung between two convicted thieves and, according to the [[Gospel of Mark]], died by the 9th hour of the day (at around 3:00&nbsp;p.m.). During this time, the soldiers affixed a sign to the top of the cross stating "[[Jesus, King of the Jews|Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews]]" which, according to the [[Gospel of John]] (John 19:20), was written in three languages (Hebrew, Latin, and Greek). They then divided his garments among themselves and cast lots for his seamless robe, according to the Gospel of John. The Gospel of John also states that, after Jesus' death, one soldier (named in extra-Biblical tradition as [[Longinus]]) pierced his side with a [[Holy Lance|spear]] to be certain that he had died, then [[Five Holy Wounds|blood and water]] gushed from the wound. The Bible describes [[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|seven statements]] that Jesus made while he was on the cross, as well as several [[supernatural]] events that occurred.

Collectively referred to as the [[Passion of Jesus|Passion]],  Jesus's suffering and [[Redeemer (Christianity)|redemptive]] death by crucifixion are the central aspects of [[Christian theology]] concerning the doctrines of [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation and atonement]].

==New Testament narratives==
{{See also|Gospel harmony}}
The earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four [[Biblical canon|canonical]] [[gospel]]s.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|26:46–27:60}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|14:43–15:45}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|22:47–23:53}}; {{Bibleref2|John|18:3–19:42}}</ref> There are other, more implicit references in the New Testament epistles. In the [[Synoptic Gospel|synoptic]] gospels, [[Jesus predicts his death]] in three separate places.<ref>''St Mark's Gospel and the Christian faith'' by Michael Keene (2002) {{ISBN|0-7487-6775-4}} pp.&nbsp;24–25</ref> All four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of  [[Arrest of Jesus|Jesus's arrest]], [[Sanhedrin trial of Jesus|initial trial at the Sanhedrin]] and final trial at [[Pilate's court]], where Jesus is flogged, condemned to death, is led to the place of crucifixion initially [[Christ Carrying the Cross|carrying his cross]] before Roman soldiers induce [[Simon of Cyrene]] to carry it, and then Jesus is crucified, [[Entombment of Christ|entombed]], and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrected]] from the dead. In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more intense detail than any other portion of that Gospel's narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening.<ref name=Powell>Powell, Mark A. ''Introducing the New Testament''. Baker Academic, (2009). {{ISBN|978-0-8010-2868-7}}</ref>{{rp|p.91}}

[[File:Ca' Rezzonico - Innalzamento della Croce (Inv.065) - Sebastiano Mazzoni.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|A depiction of the ''Raising of the Cross'', by [[Sebastiano Mazzoni]], 17th century, [[Ca' Rezzonico]]]]
After arriving at [[Calvary|Golgotha]], Jesus was offered wine mixed with [[myrrh]] or [[Citrullus colocynthis|gall]] to drink. Both the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Matthew record that he refused this. He was then crucified and hanged between two convicts. According to some translations of the original Greek, the convicts may have been bandits or Jewish rebels.<ref>[[Reza Aslan]] (2014). ''Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth''. Random House. {{ISBN|0812981480}}.</ref> According to the Gospel of Mark, he endured the torment of crucifixion from the third hour (between approximately 9 a.m. and noon),<ref>{{Bibleref2|Mark|15:25}}</ref> until his death at the ninth hour, corresponding to about 3 p.m.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Mark|15:34–37}}</ref> The soldiers affixed a sign above his head stating "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" which, according to the [[Gospel of John]], was in [[INRI|three languages]] (Hebrew, Latin, and Greek), and then divided his garments and cast lots for his seamless robe. According to the Gospel of John, the Roman soldiers did not break  Jesus's legs, as they did to the two crucified convicts (breaking the legs hastened the onset of death), as Jesus was dead already. Each gospel has its own account of  Jesus's last words, [[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|seven statements]] altogether.<ref name = "JInt">[[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]] (2009). ''[[Jesus, Interrupted]]''. HarperCollins. {{ISBN|0-06-117393-2}}</ref> In the [[Synoptic Gospels]], various [[#Reported extraordinary occurrences|supernatural events]] accompany the crucifixion, including [[Crucifixion darkness and eclipse|darkness]], an earthquake, the tearing of the sanctuary's veil and the resurrection of saints (in the Gospel of Matthew).<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|26:51–53}}</ref> Following  Jesus's death, his body was removed from the [[cross]] by [[Joseph of Arimathea]] and buried in a [[Sepulchre|rock-hewn tomb]], with [[Nicodemus]] assisting.

[[File:Bronzino-Christ-Nice.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|[[Bronzino]]'s depiction of the crucifixion with three nails, no ropes, and a {{lang|la|hypopodium}} standing support, {{c.|1545}}]]
The three [[Synoptic gospels]] also describe [[Simon of Cyrene]] bearing the cross,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:31–32}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|15:20–21}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|23:26}}</ref> a crowd of people mocking Jesus<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:39–43}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|15:29–32}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|23:35–37}}</ref> along with the other two crucified men,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:44}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|15:32}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|23:39}}</ref> darkness from the 6th to the 9th hour,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:45}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|15:33}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|23:44–45}}</ref> and the [[Holy of Holies|temple veil]] being torn from top to bottom.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:51}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|15:38}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|23:45}}</ref> The Synoptic Gospels also mention several witnesses, including a [[centurion]],<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:54}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|15:39}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|23:47}}</ref> and several women who watched from a distance,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:55–56}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|15:40–41}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|23:49}}</ref> two of whom were present during [[Entombment of Christ|the burial]].<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:61}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|15:47}}; {{Bibleref2|Luke|23:54–55}}</ref>

The Gospel of Luke is the only gospel to omit the detail of the sour wine mix that was offered to Jesus on a reed,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:34}}; {{Bibleref2-nb|Matthew|27:47–49}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|15:23}}; {{Bibleref2-nb|Mark|15:35–36}}; {{Bibleref2|John|19:29–30}}</ref> while only Mark and John describe Joseph actually taking the body down off the cross.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Mark|15:45}}; {{Bibleref2|John|19:38}}</ref>

There are several details that are only mentioned in a single gospel account. For instance, only the Gospel of Matthew mentions an earthquake, resurrected saints who went to the city and that Roman soldiers were assigned to guard the tomb,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:51}}; {{Bibleref2-nb|Matthew|27:62–66}}</ref> while Mark is the only one to state the time of the crucifixion (the third hour, or 9&nbsp;a.m. – although it was probably as late as noon)<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ray |first1=Steve |title=When Was Jesus Crucified? How Long on the Cross? Do the Gospels Contradict Each Other? |url=https://catholicconvert.com/blog/2017/04/14/how-long-was-jesus-on-the-cross/ |publisher=Defenders of the Catholic Faith |access-date=10 August 2019 |archive-date=August 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828112718/https://catholicconvert.com/blog/2017/04/14/how-long-was-jesus-on-the-cross/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the centurion's report of  Jesus's death.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Mark|15:25}}; {{Bibleref2-nb|Mark|15:44–45}}</ref> The Gospel of Luke's unique contributions to the narrative include  Jesus's words to the women who were mourning, one criminal's rebuke of the other, the reaction of the multitudes who left "beating their breasts", and the women preparing spices and ointments before resting on the Sabbath.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Luke|23:27–32}}; {{Bibleref2-nb|Luke|23:40–41}}; {{Bibleref2-nb|Luke|23:48}}; {{Bibleref2-nb|Luke|23:56}}</ref> John is also the only one to refer to the request that the legs be broken and the soldier's subsequent piercing of  Jesus's side (as fulfillment of [[Old Testament]] prophecy), as well as that [[Nicodemus]] assisted Joseph with burial.<ref>{{Bibleref2|John|19:31–37}}; {{Bibleref2-nb|John|19:39–40}}</ref>

According to the [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] (1 Corinthians 15:4), Jesus was raised from the dead ("on the third day" counting the day of crucifixion as the first) and according to the canonical gospels, [[Resurrection of Jesus#Biblical accounts|appeared to his disciples]] on different occasions before [[Ascension of Jesus|ascending]] to heaven.<ref>{{Bibleref2|John|19:30–31}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|16:1}}; {{Bibleref2|Mark|16:6}}</ref> The account given in [[Acts of the Apostles]] says that Jesus remained with the apostles for 40 days, whereas the account in the Gospel of Luke makes no clear distinction between the events of Easter Sunday and the Ascension.<ref>Geza Vermes, ''The Resurrection'' (Penguin, 2008), p. 148.</ref><ref>E. P. Sanders, ''The Historical Figure of Jesus'' (Penguin, 1993), p. 276.</ref> Most biblical scholars agree that the author of Luke [[Authorship of Luke–Acts|also wrote the Acts of the Apostles]] as a follow-up volume to the Gospel of Luke account, and the two works must be considered as a whole.<ref>Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction (Intervarsity, 1990), pp. 125, 366.</ref>

In Mark, Jesus is crucified along with two rebels, and the sun goes dark or is obscured for three hours.<ref name = "ActJMark">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]] (1998). ''The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus''. HarperSanFrancisco. "Mark", pp.&nbsp;51–161. {{ISBN|978-0060629786}}.</ref> Jesus calls out to [[God in Christianity|God]], then gives a shout and dies.<ref name = "ActJMark"/> The curtain of the Temple is torn in two.<ref name = "ActJMark"/> Matthew follows Mark, but mentions an earthquake and the resurrection of saints.<ref name = "ActJMatthew">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]] (1998). ''The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus''. HarperSanFrancisco. "Matthew," pp.&nbsp;129–270. {{ISBN|978-0060629786}}.</ref> Luke also follows Mark, although he describes the rebels as common criminals, one of whom defends Jesus, who in turn promises that he (Jesus) and the criminal will be together in paradise.<ref name = "ActJLuke">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]] (1998). ''The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus''. HarperSanFrancisco. "Luke", pp.&nbsp;267–364. {{ISBN|978-0060629786}}.</ref> Luke portrays Jesus as impassive in the face of his crucifixion.<ref name="MisJ">[[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]] (2005). ''[[Misquoting Jesus]]: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why''. HarperCollins. {{ISBN|978-0-06-073817-4}}.</ref> John includes several of the same elements as those found in Mark, though they are treated differently.<ref name = "ActJJohnG">[[Robert W. Funk|Funk, Robert W.]] and the [[Jesus Seminar]] (1998). ''The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus''. HarperSanFrancisco. "John", pp.&nbsp;365–440. {{ISBN|978-0060629786}}.</ref>
{{clear}}

=== Textual comparison ===
The comparison below is based on the ''[[New International Version]]''.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! style="width:24%" | Matthew !! style="width:24%" | Mark !! style="width:24%" | Luke !! style="width:24%" | John
|- valign="top" style="background-color:OldLace;"
| ''[[Stations of the Cross|Way of the Cross]]'' || Matthew 27:32–33
* Soldiers had [[Simon of Cyrene]] carry  Jesus's cross.
|| Mark 15:21–22
* Soldiers had Simon of Cyrene carry  Jesus's cross.
|| Luke 23:26–32
* Soldiers had Simon of Cyrene carry  Jesus's cross.
* Jesus said to wailing women: "Don't weep for me, but for yourselves and your children."
|| John 19:17
* "They"<ref name="John's crucifiers">In verse 19:17 and 19:18, only a third person plural verb is used ("they"), it is not clear whether this refers to the high priests (οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς) to whom Pilate delivered Jesus in 19:15–16, or to the soldiers (οὖν στρατιῶται) who crucified Jesus according to 19:23.</ref> had Jesus carry the cross.
|- valign="top" style="background-color:Ivory;"
| ''Crucifixion'' || Matthew 27:34–36
* Jesus tasted wine mixed with [[bile|gall]], refused to drink more.
* Soldiers crucified Jesus, cast lots for his clothes and kept watch.
* [No time indicated]
|| Mark 15:23–25
* Jesus refused to drink wine mixed with [[myrrh]].
* Soldiers crucified Jesus and cast lots for his clothes.
* This happened at nine in the morning on the day of Passover (14:12, 15:25).
|| Luke 23:33–34
* [No drink mentioned]
* Soldiers crucified Jesus and cast lots for his clothes.
* Jesus: "[[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|Father, forgive them, for they don't know what they're doing]]."<ref>In some manuscripts of Luke, these words are omitted. Annotation ''Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling'' (2004).</ref>
* [No time indicated]
|| John 19:18, 23–24
* [No drink mentioned]
* "They"<ref name="John's crucifiers"/> crucified Jesus and four soldiers each took a garment, casting lots over the undergarment (this fulfilled a prophecy).
* This happened after noon on the Day of Preparation before Passover (19:14, 31)
|- valign="top" style="background-color:MintCream;"
| ''Mocking'' || Matthew 27:37–44
* Sign: "This is Jesus, the king of the Jews".
* Passersby, high priests, teachers of the law, elders and both rebels mocked Jesus.
|| Mark 15:26–32
* Sign: "The king of the Jews".
* Passersby, high priests, teachers of the law and both rebels mocked Jesus.
|| Luke 23:35–43
* Sign: "This is the king of the Jews".
* The people's rulers, soldiers (offered wine vinegar) and one criminal mocked Jesus.
* The other criminal defended him, and asked Jesus to remember him.
* Jesus: "[[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|Truly I tell you, today you will be with me in paradise]]."
|| John 19:19–22, 25–27
* Sign: "Jesus of Nazareth, the king of the Jews".
* High priests complained to Pilate: "Don't write "King of the Jews", but that this man claimed to be king of the Jews." Pilate: "[[Quod scripsi, scripsi]]."
* [No mockery mentioned]
* [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Jesus's mother Mary]], [[Mary of Clopas]] and [[Mary Magdalene]] stood near the cross.
* Jesus told [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]]: "[[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|That is your son]]", and told the [[Disciple whom Jesus loved|beloved disciple]]: "[[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|That is your mother]]."
|- valign="top" style="background-color:Azure;"
| ''Death'' || Matthew 27:45–56
* At noon, a three-hour-long darkness came across the land.
* About three, Jesus cried out loud: "[[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|Eli, Eli, lema sabachtani?]]"
* Bystander offered Jesus wine vinegar, others said: "Now let's see if Elijah saves him."
* Jesus cried out again and died.
* Temple curtain ripped, earthquake.
* Tombs broke open, many dead came back to life and appeared to many people in Jerusalem.
* Centurion and soldiers terrified: "Surely he was the Son of God."
* Many women from Galilee looked on from a distance, including [[Mary Magdalene]], [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary, mother of James and Joseph]]<ref name="Marys"/> and the mother of [[Zebedee]]'s sons.
|| Mark 15:33–41
* At noon, a three-hour-long darkness came across the land.
* At three, Jesus cried out loud: "[[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|Eloï, Eloï, lema sabachtani?]]"
* Bystander offered Jesus wine vinegar and said: "Now let's see if Elijah comes to take him down."
* Jesus cried out loud and died.
* Temple curtain ripped.
* Centurion: "Surely this man was the Son of God."
* From a distance, the women from Galilee looked on, including [[Mary Magdalene]], [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary, mother of James and Joses]] and [[Salome (disciple)|Salome]].<ref name="Marys">Based on other Biblical verses, it is often concluded that this Mary was [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Jesus' own mother]], and that James and Joses/Joseph were his brothers, see [[brothers of Jesus]].</ref>
|| Luke 23:44–49
* About noon, a three-hour-long darkness came across the land.
* Temple curtain ripped.
* Jesus called out loud: "[[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|Father, into your hands I commit my spirit]]," and died.
* Centurion: "Surely this was a righteous man."
* Bystanders beat their chest and went away.
* Those who know him, including the Galilean women, stood at a distance.
|| John 19:28–37
* [No darkness mentioned, no time indicated]
* To fulfill Scripture, Jesus said: "[[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|I am thirsty]]."
* "They" let Jesus drink wine vinegar.
* Jesus said: "[[Sayings of Jesus on the cross|It is finished]]," and died.
* [No mention of reaction from bystanders or effect on temple curtain]
* Soldiers broke the legs of the other two crucified men, but not  Jesus's legs (this fulfilled a prophecy), but did pierce his side with a spear (this fulfilled another prophecy).
|}

==Other accounts and references==
{{See also|Josephus on Jesus|Tacitus on Christ}}
[[File:The Crucifixion Christ on the Cross between two thieves (f. 80) Cropped.jpg|thumb|Christ on the Cross between two thieves. Illumination from the ''Vaux Passional'', 16th century]]
[[File:Buhl StJeanBaptiste27.JPG|thumb|''Crucifixion'', from the [[Buhl Altarpiece]], a particularly large [[Gothic painting|Gothic]] [[oil on panel]] painting from the 1490s]]

===Mara Bar-Serapion===
An early non-Christian reference to the crucifixion of Jesus is likely to be [[Mara Bar-Serapion on Jesus|Mara Bar-Serapion's letter]] to his son, written some time after AD 73 but before the 3rd century AD.<ref name=Ute>''Evidence of Greek Philosophical Concepts in the Writings of Ephrem the Syrian'' by Ute Possekel 1999 {{ISBN|90-429-0759-2}} pp.&nbsp;29–30</ref><ref name="Chilton455"/><ref name=Cradle110 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} p. 110</ref> The letter includes no Christian themes and the author is presumed to be neither [[Jewish]] nor Christian.<ref name=Ute/><ref name="Chilton455"/><ref name=VVoorst5355>''Jesus outside the New Testament: an introduction to the ancient evidence'' by Robert E. Van Voorst 2000 {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}} pp.&nbsp;53–55</ref> The letter refers to the retributions that followed the unjust treatment of three wise men: [[Socrates]], [[Pythagoras]], and "the wise king" of the Jews.<ref name=Ute /><ref name=Cradle110 /> Some scholars see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the "[[Jesus, King of the Jews|king of the Jews]]" is about the crucifixion of Jesus, while others place less value in the letter, given the ambiguity in the reference.<ref name=VVoorst5355/><ref name=Evans41 >''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' by Craig A. Evans 2001 {{ISBN|978-0-391-04118-9}} p. 41</ref>

===Josephus===
In the ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' (written about 93 AD) Jewish historian [[Josephus]] stated ([[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XVIII#Chapter 3|Ant 18.3]]) that Jesus was crucified by Pilate, writing that:<ref name=Theissen81 />
<blockquote>Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man,&nbsp;... He drew over to him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles&nbsp;... And when Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross&nbsp;...</blockquote>

Most modern scholars agree that while this Josephus passage (called the ''[[Testimonium Flavianum]]'') includes some later [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolations]], it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate.<ref name="Kostenberger104"/><ref name="Evans, Craig A. 2001 page 316"/> [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] states that there is "broad consensus" among scholars regarding the nature of an authentic reference to the crucifixion of Jesus in the ''Testimonium''.<ref>Dunn, James (2003). ''Jesus remembered''. {{ISBN|0-8028-3931-2}}. p. 141.</ref>

===Tacitus===
Early in the second century another reference to the crucifixion of Jesus was made by [[Tacitus]], generally considered one of the greatest Roman historians.<ref name=Voorst39 >Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence''. Eerdmans Publishing. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}}. pp.&nbsp;39–42.</ref><ref>Ferguson, Everett (2003). ''Backgrounds of Early Christianity''. {{ISBN|0-8028-2221-5}}. p. 116.</ref> Writing in ''[[The Annals]]'' (c. 116 AD), Tacitus [[Tacitus on Christ|described the persecution]] of Christians by Nero and stated ([[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|Annals 15.44]]) that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus:<ref name=Theissen81 >Theissen 1998, pp.&nbsp;81–83</ref><ref name="Green1997">{{Cite book|last=Green|first=Joel B.|year=1997|title=The Gospel of Luke: new international commentary on the New Testament|page=168|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=koYlW6IoOjMC&q=Joel+B.+Green,+The+Gospel+of+Luke,+(Eerdmans,+1997),+page+168&pg=PR85|isbn=0-8028-2315-7|publisher=W. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.|location=Grand Rapids, Mich.|access-date=November 10, 2020|archive-date=April 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407154444/https://books.google.com/books?id=koYlW6IoOjMC&q=Joel+B.+Green,+The+Gospel+of+Luke,+%28Eerdmans,+1997%29,+page+168&pg=PR85|url-status=live}}</ref>
<blockquote>Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus.</blockquote>

Scholars generally consider the [[Tacitus on Christ|Tacitus reference]] to the execution of Jesus by Pilate to be genuine, and of historical value as an independent Roman source.<ref name=Voorst39 /><ref name= MAPowell33 >''Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee'' by Mark Allan Powell, 1998, {{ISBN|0-664-25703-8}}. p. 33.</ref><ref name=CEvans42 >''Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies'' by Craig A. Evans. 2001. {{ISBN|0-391-04118-5}}. p. 42.</ref><ref>''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 {{ISBN|0-7425-6833-4}} p. 293</ref><ref>Tacitus' characterization of "Christian abominations" may have been based on the rumors in Rome that during the [[Eucharist]] rituals Christians ate the body and drank the blood of their God, interpreting the symbolic ritual as cannibalism by Christians. References: ''Ancient Rome'' by William E. Dunstan 2010 {{ISBN|0-7425-6833-4}} p. 293 and ''An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of Christianity'' by Delbert Royce Burkett 2002 {{ISBN|0-521-00720-8}} p. 485</ref><ref>''Pontius Pilate in History and Interpretation'' by Helen K. Bond 2004 {{ISBN|0-521-61620-4}} p. xi</ref> Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that Tacitus provides a non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.{{sfnp|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=127}}

===Talmud===
Another possible reference to the crucifixion ("hanging", cf. {{Bibleverse|Luke|23:39|KJV}}; [[Galatians 3:13]]) is found in the Babylonian [[Talmud]]:
{{Blockquote|On the eve of the Passover [[Yeshu]] was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, "He is going forth to be stoned because he has practised sorcery and enticed Israel to [[apostasy]]. Anyone who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf." But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover.|[[Sanhedrin (tractate)|Sanhedrin 43a]]| ''Babylonian Talmud'' (Soncino Edition)}}

Although the question of the equivalence of the identities of Yeshu and Jesus has at times been debated, many historians agree that the above 2nd-century passage is likely to be about Jesus, [[Peter Schäfer]] stating that there can be no doubt that this narrative of the execution in the Talmud refers to Jesus of Nazareth.<ref>''Jesus in the Talmud'' by Peter Schäfer (2009) {{ISBN|0-691-14318-8}} pp. 141 and 9</ref> [[Robert Van Voorst]] states that the Sanhedrin 43a reference to Jesus can be confirmed not only from the reference itself, but from the context that surrounds it.<ref>Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. {{ISBN|0-8028-4368-9}}. pp.&nbsp;177–118.</ref> Sanhedrin 43a relates that Yeshu had been condemned to death by [[Hasmonean dynasty|the royal government of Judaea]] – this lineage was stripped of all legal authority upon [[Herod the Great]]'s ascension to the throne in 37 BC, meaning the execution had to have taken place close to 40 years before Jesus was even born.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.angelfire.com/mt/talmud/jesusnarr.html |title=The Jesus Narrative In The Talmud |author=Gil Student |publisher=Talmud: The Real Truth About the Talmud |date=2000 |access-date=2018-04-18 |archive-date=January 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130224616/http://www.angelfire.com/mt/talmud/jesusnarr.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>L. Patterson, "Origin of the Name Panthera", ''JTS'' 19 (1917–18), pp. 79–80, cited in Meier, p. 107 n. 48</ref> According to another account, he was executed on request of the [[Pharisees]] leaders.<ref name=Chilton455 >''Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research'' edited by Bruce Chilton, Craig A. Evans 1998 {{ISBN|90-04-11142-5}} pp.&nbsp;455–457</ref>

===Islam===
[[Islamic view of Jesus' death|Muslims maintain]] that Jesus was not crucified and that those who thought they had killed him had mistakenly killed [[Judas Iscariot]], [[Simon of Cyrene]], or someone else in his place.<ref name=Bra127>George W. Braswell Jr., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRenjUoud3kC&pg=PA127 What You Need to Know about Islam and Muslims] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123113213/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZRenjUoud3kC&pg=PA127 |date=November 23, 2022 }}'', p. 127 (B & H Publishing Group, 2000). {{ISBN|978-0-8054-1829-3}}.</ref> They hold this belief based on various interpretations of {{Cite quran|4|157|e=158|style=ref}}, which states: "they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them [or it appeared so unto them],&nbsp;... Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself".<ref name=Bra127/>

===Gnosticism===
Some early Christian [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] sects, believing Jesus did not have a physical substance, denied that he was crucified.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dunderberg, Ismo |author2=Christopher Mark Tuckett; Kari Syreeni |title=Fair play: diversity and conflicts in early Christianity: essays in honour of Heikki Räisänen |year=2002 |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-12359-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSVNH95ckNUC |page=488 |access-date=November 28, 2015 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407154440/https://books.google.com/books?id=cSVNH95ckNUC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Pagels |first=Elaine H. |title= The Gnostic gospels |year=2006 |publisher= Phoenix |isbn=0-7538-2114-1 |page=192 |author-link= Elaine Pagels}}</ref> In response, [[Ignatius of Antioch]] insisted that Jesus was truly born and was truly crucified and wrote that those who held that Jesus only seemed to suffer only seemed to be Christians.<ref>[http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=Barclay+%22truly+crucified%22+%22tenets+of+Gnosticism%22&btnG= William Barclay, ''Great Themes of the New Testament''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128032535/http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=Barclay+%22truly+crucified%22+%22tenets+of+Gnosticism%22&btnG= |date=January 28, 2016 }}. Westminster John Knox Press. 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-664-22385-4}}. p. 41.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-smyrnaeans-roberts.html|title=St. Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans (Roberts-Donaldson translation)|website=www.earlychristianwritings.com|access-date=March 10, 2012|archive-date=March 23, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323002406/http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-smyrnaeans-roberts.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Historicity==
[[File:Hortus Deliciarum, Die Kreuzigung Jesu Christi.JPG|thumb|right|''Crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth'', medieval illustration from the [[Hortus deliciarum]] of [[Herrad of Landsberg]], 12th century]]
{{See also|Historicity of Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus}}

In scholarship on the historical Jesus, the [[baptism of Jesus]] and his crucifixion are considered to be the two most certain historical facts about Jesus.{{sfnp|Dunn|2003|p=339}}{{sfnp|Ehrman|2008|p=136}}{{sfnp|Blomberg|2009|p=211–214}}{{sfnp|Meier|2006|p=126–128}}{{sfnp|Verhoeven|2010|p=39}}{{refn|group=note|Historicity:
* {{harvtxt|Dunn|2003|p=339}} states that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.}} [[Quest for the historical Jesus#Methods|Various criteria]] are used to determine the historicity of the elements of the New Testamentical narratives, and help to establish the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical event.{{sfnp|Meier|2006|p=126–128}} The [[criterion of embarrassment]] argues that Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.{{sfnp|Meier|2006|p=126–128}} The criterion of [[multiple attestation]] is the confirmation by more than one source,{{sfnp|Meier|2006|p=132–136}} including multiple non-Christian sources,{{refn|group=note|Non-Christian sources:
* {{harvtxt|Crossan|1995|p=145}}: "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus&nbsp;... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact.
* {{harvtxt|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=127}} state that it is now "firmly established" that there is non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.}} and the criterion of coherence argues that it fits with other historical elements.{{sfnp|Meier|2006|p=132–136}}

While scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason and context for it.{{sfnp|Tuckett|2001|p=136}} For example, both [[E. P. Sanders]] and [[Paula Fredriksen]] support the historicity of the crucifixion, but contend that Jesus did not foretell his own crucifixion and that [[Jesus predicts his death|his prediction of the crucifixion]] is a "church creation".<ref name=Ernest125/>{{rp|126}} [[Geza Vermes]] also views the crucifixion as a historical event, but provides his own explanation and background for it.<ref name=Ernest125>''A Century of Theological and Religious Studies in Britain, 1902–2007'' by [[Ernest Nicholson]] 2004 {{ISBN|0-19-726305-4}} pp.&nbsp;125–126 [https://books.google.com/books?id=E-UkAAAAYAAJ Link 126] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123113214/https://books.google.com/books?id=E-UkAAAAYAAJ |date=November 23, 2022 }}</ref>

Although almost all ancient sources relating to crucifixion are literary, in 1968, an archeological discovery just northeast of Jerusalem uncovered the body of a crucified man dated to the 1st century, which provided good confirmatory evidence that crucifixions occurred during the Roman period roughly according to the manner in which the crucifixion of Jesus is described in the gospels.<ref>David Freedman (2000), ''Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible'', {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2400-4}}, p. 299.</ref> The crucified man was identified as [[Yehohanan ben Hagkol]] and probably died about AD 70, around the time of the [[First Jewish–Roman War|Jewish revolt]] against Rome. The analyses at the [[Hadassah Medical School]] estimated that he died in his late 20s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/arch-nt.html|title=Archaeology and the New Testament|website=www.leaderu.com|access-date=February 18, 2009|archive-date=November 9, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109021512/http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/arch-nt.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.allaboutjesuschrist.org/crucifixion.htm|title=Crucifixion|website=AllAboutJesusChrist.org|access-date=April 2, 2022|archive-date=April 5, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405051505/https://www.allaboutjesuschrist.org/crucifixion.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Another relevant archaeological find, which also dates to the 1st century AD, is an unidentified heel bone with a spike discovered in a Jerusalem gravesite, now held by the [[Israel Antiquities Authority]] and displayed in the [[Israel Museum]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Are These Nails From Jesus' Crucifixion? New Evidence Emerges, but Experts Are Unconvinced |url=https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/2020-10-12/ty-article/jerusalem-nails-jesus-christ-crucifixion-romans-caiaphas-tomb/0000017f-e579-da9b-a1ff-ed7f1cd90000 |access-date=2024-02-20 |work=Haaretz |language=en}}</ref>

==Details==
{{Main|Passion (Christianity)}}

===Chronology===
{{Main|Chronology of Jesus}}
There is no consensus regarding the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus, although it is generally agreed by biblical scholars that it was on a [[Good Friday|Friday]] on or near [[Passover]] ([[Nisan]] 14), during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (who ruled AD 26–36).<ref name="Lémonon 1981 29–32">{{cite book |last=Lémonon |first=J.P. |title=Pilate et le gouvernement de la Judée: textes et monuments, Études bibliques |publisher=Gabalda |location=Paris |year=1981 |pages=29–32}}</ref> Various approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion, including the canonical Gospels, the chronology of the life of Paul, as well as different [[astronomy|astronomical]] models. Scholars have provided estimates in the range 30–33 AD,<ref name=ChronosPaul >[[Paul L. Maier]] "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies'' by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 {{ISBN|0-931464-50-1}} pp. 113–129</ref><ref name=Kostenberger140 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by [[Andreas J. Köstenberger]], L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} p. 114</ref><ref name=Barnett19 >''Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times'' by Paul Barnett 2002 {{ISBN|0-8308-2699-8}} pp. 19–21</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=W. D. |last2=Sanders |first2=E.P. |editor1-last=Horbury |editor1-first=William |editor2-last=Davies |editor2-first=W.D. |editor3-last=Sturdy |editor3-first=John |title=The Cambridge History of Judaism. Volume 3: The Early Roman period |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge Univiversity Press |isbn=9780521243773 |page=621 |chapter=20. Jesus: From the Jewish Point of View |quote=The approximate period of his death (c. CE 30, plus or minus one or two years) is confirmed by the requirements of the chronology of Paul.}}</ref> with [[Rainer Riesner]] stating that "the fourteenth of Nisan (7 April) of the year 30 AD is, apparently in the opinion of the majority of contemporary scholars as well, far and away the most likely date of the crucifixion of Jesus."<ref name="Rainer Riesner 1998 page 58">Rainer Riesner, ''Paul's Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology'' (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1998), p. 58.</ref>  Another preferred date among scholars is Friday, 3 April 33 AD.<ref name="Maier, P.L. 1968 3–13">{{cite journal |author=Maier, P.L. |year=1968 |title=Sejanus, Pilate, and the Date of the Crucifixion |journal= Church History |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.2307/3163182 |jstor=3163182|s2cid=162410612 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Fotheringham, J.K. |year=1934 |title=The evidence of astronomy and technical chronology for the date of the crucifixion |journal= Journal of Theological Studies |volume=35 |issue=138 |pages=146–162|doi=10.1093/jts/os-XXXV.138.146 }}</ref> 

The consensus of scholarship is that the New Testament accounts represent a crucifixion occurring on a Friday, but a Thursday or Wednesday crucifixion have also been proposed.<ref name=Nis167 /><ref name=Kellum142 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} pp. 142–143</ref> Some scholars explain a Thursday crucifixion based on a "double sabbath" caused by an extra Passover sabbath falling on Thursday dusk to Friday afternoon, ahead of the normal weekly Sabbath.<ref name=Nis167 >{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/search?q=Niswonger+%22which+meant+Friday%22|title=Niswonger "which meant Friday" – Google Search|website=www.google.com|access-date=April 7, 2023|archive-date=April 7, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407220305/https://www.google.com/search?q=Niswonger+%22which+meant+Friday%22|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Cyclopaedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Volume 7 John McClintock, James Strong – 1894 "...&nbsp;he lay in the grave on the 15th (which was a 'high day' or double Sabbath, because the weekly Sabbath coincided&nbsp;..."</ref> Some have argued that Jesus was crucified on Wednesday, not Friday, on the grounds of the mention of "three days and three nights" in {{bibleref2||Matthew|12:40}} before his resurrection, celebrated on Sunday. Others have countered by saying that this ignores the Jewish idiom by which a "day and night" may refer to any part of a 24-hour period, that the expression in Matthew is idiomatic, not a statement that Jesus was 72 hours in the tomb, and that the many references to a resurrection on the third day do not require three literal nights.<ref name=Nis167 /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.google.ie/search?tbm=bks&q=Blomberg+%22Wednesday+crucifixion%22&btnG=|title=Blomberg "Wednesday crucifixion" – Google Search|website=www.google.ie|access-date=April 7, 2023|archive-date=April 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406140311/http://www.google.ie/search?tbm=bks&q=Blomberg%20%22Wednesday%20crucifixion%22&btnG=|url-status=live}}</ref>

In [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#15:25|Mark 15:25]] crucifixion takes place at the third hour (9 [[ante meridiem|a.m.]]) and  Jesus's death at the ninth hour (3 p.m.).<ref name=Harrington442>''The Gospel of Mark, Volume 2'' by John R. Donahue, Daniel J. Harrington 2002 {{ISBN|0-8146-5965-9}} p. 442</ref> In [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#19:14|John 19:14]] Jesus is still before Pilate at the sixth hour.<ref name= KEasley323 /> Scholars have presented a number of arguments to deal with the issue, some suggesting a reconciliation, e.g., based on the use of [[Roman timekeeping]] in John, since Roman timekeeping began at midnight and this would mean being before Pilate at the 6th hour was 6 a.m., yet others have rejected the arguments.<ref name= KEasley323 /><ref name=RBrown959 >''Death of the Messiah, Volume 2'' by Raymond E. Brown 1999 {{ISBN|0-385-49449-1}} pp. 959–960</ref><ref name=Colin188 >[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-521-73200-0}}, pp. 188–190</ref> Several scholars have argued that the modern precision of marking the time of day should not be read back into the gospel accounts, written at a time when no standardization of timepieces, or exact recording of hours and minutes was available, and time was often approximated to the closest three-hour period.<ref name= KEasley323 >Steven L. Cox, Kendell H Easley, 2007 Harmony of the Gospels {{ISBN|0-8054-9444-8}} pp. 323–323</ref><ref>''New Testament History'' by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 {{ISBN|0-310-31201-9}} pp. 173–174</ref><ref name="Kellum538">''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} p. 538</ref>

===Path===
{{Main|Christ carrying the Cross|Via Dolorosa}}
[[File:5 Andrea di Bartolo. Way to Calvary. c. 1400, Thissen-Bornhemisza coll. Madrid.jpg|thumb|[[Andrea di Bartolo]], ''Way to Calvary'', c. 1400. The cluster of halos at the left are the [[Virgin Mary]] in front, with the [[Three Marys]].]]
The three [[Synoptic Gospels]] refer to a man called [[Simon of Cyrene]] whom the Roman soldiers order to carry the cross after Jesus initially carries it but then collapses,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Matthew|27:32}}, {{Bibleref2|Mark|15:21}}, {{Bibleref2|Luke|23:26}}</ref> while the Gospel of John just says that Jesus "bears" his own cross.<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|19:17}}</ref> <!---John uses "bastazō" with a figurative meaning of ''enduring'' or ''sustaining''.<ref>{{StrongGreek|941}}</ref> By contrast, the first two accounts use "airō" which literally means to ''raise'', ''take up'', or ''lift'',<ref>{{StrongGreek|142}}</ref> and Luke uses "pherō̄" which literally means to ''bear'', ''carry'', or ''bring forth''.<ref>{{StrongGreek|5342}}</ref> -->

Luke's gospel also describes an interaction between Jesus and the women among the crowd of mourners following him, quoting Jesus as saying "Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. For behold, the days are coming when they will say, 'Blessed are the barren and the wombs that never bore and the breasts that never nursed!' Then they will begin to say to the mountains, 'Fall on us,' and to the hills, 'Cover us.' For if they do these things when the wood is green, what will happen when it is dry?"<ref>{{bibleverse|Lk.|23:28–31}}</ref>

The [[Gospel of Luke]] has Jesus address these women as "daughters of Jerusalem", thus distinguishing them from the women whom the same gospel describes as "the women who had followed him from Galilee" and who were present at his crucifixion.<ref>{{bibleverse||Luke|23:46|ESV}} and {{bibleverse-nb||Luke|23:55}}</ref>

Traditionally, the path that Jesus took is called [[Via Dolorosa]] ([[Latin language|Latin]] for "Way of Grief" or "Way of Suffering") and is a street in the [[Old City of Jerusalem]]. It is marked by nine of the fourteen [[Stations of the Cross]]. It passes the [[Ecce Homo (church)|Ecce Homo Church]] and the last five stations are inside the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]].

There is no reference to a woman named [[Saint Veronica|Veronica]]<ref>Lavinia Cohn-Sherbok, ''Who's who in Christianity'', (Routledge 1998), p. 303.</ref> in the Gospels, but sources such as ''[[Acta Sanctorum]]'' describe her as a pious woman of [[Jerusalem]] who, moved with pity as [[Jesus]] carried his cross to [[Golgotha]], gave him her veil that he might wipe his forehead.<ref>''[[Notes and Queries]]'', Volume July 6 – December 1852, London, page 252</ref><ref>The Archaeological journal (UK), Volume 7, 1850 p. 413</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15362a.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Veronica|website=www.newadvent.org|access-date=April 2, 2022|archive-date=April 3, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403180405/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15362a.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Alban Butler, 2000 ''Lives of the Saints'' {{ISBN|0-86012-256-5}} p. 84</ref>

===Location===
[[File:Golgotha cross-section.svg|thumb|300px|A diagram of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] and the historical site]]
The precise location of the crucifixion remains a matter of conjecture, but the biblical accounts indicate that it was outside the city walls of Jerusalem,<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|19:20}}, {{bibleverse|Heb.|13:12}}</ref> accessible to passers-by<ref>{{bibleverse|Mt.|27:39}}, {{bibleverse|Mk.|15:21,29–30}}</ref> and observable from some distance away.<ref>{{bibleverse|Mk.|15:40}}</ref> [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] identified its location only as being north of [[Mount Zion]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Onomasticon (Concerning the Place Names in Sacred Scripture) |author=Eusebius of Caesarea |author-link=Eusebius of Caesarea |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_onomasticon_02_trans.htm#G_THE_GOSPELS |access-date=April 10, 2008 |archive-date=July 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717203828/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_onomasticon_02_trans.htm#G_THE_GOSPELS |url-status=live }}</ref> which is consistent with the two most popularly suggested sites of modern times.

[[Calvary]] as an English name for the place is derived from the Latin word for skull ({{lang|la|calvaria}}), which is used in the [[Vulgate]] translation of "place of a skull", the explanation given in all four Gospels of the Aramaic word ''Gûlgaltâ'' (transliterated into the [[Greek language|Greek]] as {{lang|el|Γολγοθᾶ}} (Golgotha)), which was the name of the place where Jesus was crucified.<ref>{{bibleverse||Matthew|27:33}}; {{bibleverse||Mark|15:22}}; {{bibleverse||Luke|23:33}}; {{bibleverse||John|19:17}}</ref> The text does not indicate why it was so designated, but several theories have been put forward. One is that as a place of public execution, Calvary may have been strewn with the skulls of abandoned victims (which would be contrary to Jewish burial traditions, but not Roman). Another is that Calvary is named after a nearby cemetery (which is consistent with both of the proposed modern sites). A third is that the name was derived from the physical contour, which would be more consistent with the singular use of the word, i.e., the place of "a skull". While often referred to as "Mount Calvary", it was more likely a small hill or rocky knoll.<ref>{{cite web |title=Letter to the Presbyter Faustus |author=Eucherius of Lyon |author-link=Eucherius of Lyon |url=http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/jerusalem/sources/eucherius.htm |quote=The three more frequented exit gates are one on the west, another on the east, and a third on the north. As you enter the city from the northern side, the first of the holy places due to the condition of the directions of the streets is to the church which is called the Martyrium, which was by Constantine with great reverence not long ago built up. Next, to the west one visits the connecting places Golgotha and the Anastasis; indeed the Anastasis is in the place of the resurrection, and Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord's passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was. These are separated places outside of Mount Sion, where the failing rise of the place extended itself to the north. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613200112/http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/jerusalem/sources/eucherius.htm |archive-date=June 13, 2008 }}</ref>

The traditional site, inside what is now occupied by the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre|Church of the Holy Sepulcher]] in the [[Christian Quarter]] of the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City]], has been attested since the 4th century. A second site (commonly referred to as Gordon's Calvary<ref>{{cite web|title=General Charles Gordon's Letters Discussing His Discovery of "Cavalry" in Jerusalem|url=https://www.shapell.org/manuscript/calvary-crucifixion-sites-identified/|work=SMF Primary Source Documents|publisher=Shapell Manuscript Foundation}}</ref>), located further north of the Old City near a place popularly called the [[Garden Tomb]], has been promoted since the 19th century.

===People present===
{{See also|Women at the crucifixion}}

[[File:Agnolo Gaddi, crocifissione, uffizi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|''Crucifixion'' by [[Agnolo Gaddi]], between 1390 and 1396, depicting several [[women at the crucifixion]]]]

The Gospels describe various [[women at the crucifixion]], some of whom are named. According to Mark, many women are present, among them [[Mary Magdalene]], [[Mary, mother of James]] and [[Mary of Clopas]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|15:40|ESV}}</ref> commonly known as "[[the Three Marys|the Three Mary's]]". The Gospel of Matthew also mentions several women being present, among them Mary Magdalene, Mary, mother of James and the mother of Zebedee's children.<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|27:55–56|ESV}}</ref> Although a group of women is mentioned in Luke, neither is named.<ref name="bibleverse|Luke|23:49|ESV">{{bibleverse|Luke|23:49|ESV}}</ref> The Gospel of John speaks of women present, among them the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|mother of Jesus]], Mary Magdalene and Mary of Clopas.<ref>{{bibleverse|John|19:25|ESV}}</ref>

Aside from these women, the three Synoptic Gospels speak of the presence of others: "the chief priests, with the scribes and elders",<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|27:41|ESV}}, {{bibleverse|Mark|15:31|ESV}}, {{bibleverse|Luke|23:35|ESV}}</ref> two crucified criminals, to Jesus's right left,<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|15:27|ESV}}, {{bibleverse|Matthew|27:38|ESV}}</ref> "the soldiers",<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|23:36|ESV}}</ref> "the centurion and those who were with him, keeping watch over Jesus",<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|27:54|ESV}}, {{bibleverse|Mark|15:39|ESV}}</ref> passers-by,<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|15:29|ESV}}, {{bibleverse|Matthew|27:39|ESV}}</ref> "bystanders",<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|15:35|ESV}}, {{bibleverse|Matthew|27:45|ESV}}, {{bibleverse|Luke|23:35|ESV}}</ref> "the crowds that had assembled for this spectacle",<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|23:48|ESV}}</ref> and "his acquaintances".<ref name="bibleverse|Luke|23:49|ESV"/> The two criminals are described as ''λῃσταί'' (variously translated as robbers, rebels or thieves) and further discussed in the Gospel of Luke as the [[penitent thief]] and the [[impenitent thief]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|23:39–43|ESV}}</ref>

The Gospel of John mentions the soldiers<ref>{{bibleverse|John|19:23–24|ESV}}, {{bibleverse-nb|John|19:32–34|ESV}}</ref> and "the [[disciple whom Jesus loved]]", who is with the women.<ref>{{bibleverse|John|19:26–27|ESV}}</ref>

The Gospels also tell of the arrival, after the death of Jesus, of [[Joseph of Arimathea]] (in the four Gospels)<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|16:43–46|ESV}}, {{bibleverse|Matthew|27:57–50|ESV}}, {{bibleverse|Luke|23:50–53|ESV}}, {{bibleverse|John|19:38}}</ref> and of [[Nicodemus]] (only in John).<ref>{{bibleverse|John|19:39|ESV}}</ref>

===Method and manner===
{{Main|Instrument of Jesus' crucifixion}}
[[File:Gustave Doré - Crucifixion of Jesus.jpg|thumb|180px|Crucifixion of Jesus on a two-beamed cross, from the ''Sainte Bible'' (1866)]]
[[File:JUSTUS LIPSIUS 1594 De Cruce p 10 Torture stake.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Torture stake'', a simple wooden torture stake. Image by [[Justus Lipsius]].]]
Whereas most Christians believe the [[gibbet]] on which Jesus was executed was the traditional two-beamed cross, the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] hold the view that a single upright stake was used. The Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings are ambiguous. The [[Koine Greek]] terms used in the New Testament are {{lang|grc-Latn|[[stauros]]}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|σταυρός}}) and {{lang|grc-Latn|xylon}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|ξύλον}}). The latter means wood (a live tree, timber or an object constructed of wood); in earlier forms of Greek, the former term meant an upright stake or pole, but in Koine Greek it was used also to mean a cross.<ref name=LSJ>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2396298 |author1=Henry George Liddell |author2=Robert Scott |work=A Greek–English Lexicon |title=σταυρός |via=[[Tufts University]] |access-date=February 20, 2021 |archive-date=March 7, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307141335/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry= |url-status=live }}</ref> The Latin word {{wikt-lang|la|crux}} was also applied to objects other than a cross.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=crux&highlight=crux |author1=Charlton T. Lewis |author2=Charles Short |title=A Latin Dictionary |via=[[Tufts University]] |access-date=January 15, 2019 |archive-date=December 31, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161231205403/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=crux&highlight=crux |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Early Christianity|Early Christian]] writers who speak of the shape of the particular gibbet on which Jesus died invariably describe it as having a cross-beam. For instance, the [[Epistle of Barnabas]], which was certainly earlier than 135,<ref>For a discussion of the date of the work, see [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/barnabas.html Information on Epistle of Barnabas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316205715/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/barnabas.html |date=March 16, 2010 }} and Andrew C. Clark, "Apostleship: Evidence from the New Testament and Early Christian Literature," ''Evangelical Review of Theology,'' 1989, Vol. 13, p. 380</ref> and may have been of the 1st century AD,<ref>[[John Dominic Crossan]], The Cross that Spoke ({{ISBN|978-0-06-254843-6}}), p. 121</ref> the time when the gospel accounts of the death of Jesus were written, likened it to the letter T (the Greek letter [[tau]], which had the [[Greek numerals|numeric]] value of 300),<ref>[[s:Epistle of Barnabas#Chapter 9|Epistle of Barnabas, 9:7–8]]</ref> and to the position assumed by [[Moses]] in {{bibleverse||Exodus|17:11–12|KJV}}.<ref>"The Spirit saith to the heart of Moses, that he should ''make a type of the cross and of Him that was to suffer'', that unless, saith He, they shall set their hope on Him, war shall be waged against them for ever. Moses therefore pileth arms one upon another in the midst of the encounter, and standing on higher ground than any ''he stretched out his hands'', and so Israel was again victorious" (Epistle of Barnabas, 12:2–3).</ref> [[Justin Martyr]] (100–165) explicitly says the cross of Christ was of two-beam shape: "That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.iv.xl.html|title=Philip Schaff: ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus – Christian Classics Ethereal Library|website=www.ccel.org|access-date=April 2, 2022|archive-date=April 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406140314/https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.iv.xl.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Irenaeus]], who died around the end of the 2nd century, speaks of the cross as having "five extremities, two in length, two in breadth, and one in the middle, on which [last] the person rests who is fixed by the nails."<ref>Irenaeus, ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Adversus Haereses]]'', [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103224.htm II, xxiv, 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420085108/http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103224.htm |date=April 20, 2021 }}</ref>

The assumption of the use of a two-beamed cross does not determine the number of nails used in the crucifixion and some theories suggest three nails while others suggest four nails.<ref>''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 {{ISBN|0-8028-3785-9}} p. 826</ref> Throughout history, larger numbers of nails have been hypothesized, at times as high as 14 nails.<ref name=Kitto >''Encyclopedia of Biblical Literature, Part 2'' by John Kitto 2003 {{ISBN|0-7661-5980-9}} p. 591</ref> These variations are also present in the artistic depictions of the crucifixion.<ref name=IreneE >''Renaissance art: a topical dictionary'' by Irene Earls 1987 {{ISBN|0-313-24658-0}} p. 64</ref> In [[Western Christianity]], before the [[Renaissance]] usually four nails would be depicted, with the feet side by side. After the Renaissance most depictions use three nails, with one foot placed on the other.<ref name=IreneE /> Nails are almost always depicted in art, although [[Roman Empire|Romans]] sometimes just tied the victims to the cross.<ref name=IreneE /> The tradition also carries to Christian [[emblem]]s, e.g. the [[Jesuits]] use three nails under the [[Holy Name of Jesus|IHS monogram]] and a cross to symbolize the crucifixion.<ref>''The visual arts: a history'' by Hugh Honour, John Fleming 1995 {{ISBN|0-8109-3928-2}} p. 526</ref>

The placing of the nails in the hands, or the wrists is also uncertain. Some theories suggest that the Greek word {{lang|grc-Latn|cheir}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|χείρ}}) for hand includes the wrist and that the Romans were generally trained to place nails through [[Destot's space]] (between the [[capitate]] and [[lunate bone]]s) without fracturing any bones.<ref name=Ball82 >''The Crucifixion and Death of a Man Called Jesus'' by David A Ball 2010 {{ISBN|1-61507-128-8}} pp. 82–84</ref> Another theory suggests that the Greek word for hand also includes the forearm and that the nails were placed near the [[Radius (bone)|radius]] and [[ulna]] of the [[forearm]].<ref name=Moore639 >''The Chronological Life of Christ'' by Mark E. Moore 2007 {{ISBN|0-89900-955-7}} pp.&nbsp;639–643</ref> Ropes may have also been used to fasten the hands in addition to the use of nails.<ref>''Holman Concise Bible Dictionary'' Holman, 2011 {{ISBN|0-8054-9548-7}} p. 148</ref>

Another issue of debate has been the use of a hypopodium as a standing platform to support the feet, given that the hands may not have been able to support the weight. In the 17th century [[Rasmus Bartholin]] considered a number of analytical scenarios of that topic.<ref name=Kitto /> In the 20th century, forensic pathologist [[Frederick Zugibe]] performed a number of crucifixion experiments by using ropes to hang human subjects at various angles and hand positions.<ref name=Moore639 /> His experiments support an angled suspension, and a two-beamed cross, and perhaps some form of foot support, given that in an {{lang|de|Aufbinden}} form of suspension from a straight stake (as used by the [[Nazi]]s in the [[Dachau concentration camp]] during [[World War II]]), death comes rather quickly.<ref>''Crucifixion and the Death Cry of Jesus Christ'' by Geoffrey L Phelan MD, 2009 {{ISBN?}} pp.&nbsp;106–111</ref>

===Words of Jesus spoken from the cross===
<!--There was a "Too many images" tag on this article once and the number of images
was reduced and they were moved to the gallery. Please try not too add images all over
the place in this article, not to attract another "Too many images" tag. -->
{{Main|Sayings of Jesus on the cross}}
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - What Our Lord Saw from the Cross (Ce que voyait Notre-Seigneur sur la Croix) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Crucifixion, seen from the Cross]]'', by [[James Tissot]], c. 1890, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
The Gospels describe various [[last words]] that Jesus said while on the cross,<ref>Thomas W. Walker, ''Luke'', (Westminster John Knox Press, 2013) p. 84.</ref> as follows:

====Mark / Matthew====
* {{lang|arc-Latn|E′li, E′li, la′ma sa‧bach‧tha′ni?}} <ref>{{bibleverse|Mt.|27:46}}, {{bibleverse|Mk.|15:34}}</ref> ([[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] for "My God, My God, why have you forsaken me?"). Aramaic linguist Steve Caruso said Jesus most likely spoke Galilean Aramaic,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aramaicnt.org/what-is-galilean-aramaic/ |title=What is Galilean Aramaic? &#124; The Aramaic New Testament |publisher=Aramaicnt.org |date=March 31, 2015 |access-date=January 15, 2019 |archive-date=January 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122013147/http://aramaicnt.org/what-is-galilean-aramaic/ |url-status=live }}</ref> which would render the pronunciation of these words: {{lang|arc|[http://aramaicnt.org/2015/03/31/my-god-my-god-why-have-you-forsaken-me/ əlahí əlahí ləmáh šəvaqtáni]}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://aramaicnt.org/2015/03/31/my-god-my-god-why-have-you-forsaken-me/|title = My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?|date = March 31, 2015|access-date = April 7, 2023|archive-date = April 7, 2023|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230407104433/http://aramaicnt.org/2015/03/31/my-god-my-god-why-have-you-forsaken-me/|url-status = live}}</ref>

The only words of Jesus on the cross mentioned in the Mark and Matthew accounts, this is a quotation of [[Psalm 22]]. Since other verses of the same Psalm are cited in the crucifixion accounts, some commentators consider it a literary and theological creation. [[Geza Vermes]] noted the verse is cited in Aramaic rather than the usual Hebrew, and that by the time of Jesus, this phrase had become a proverbial saying in common usage.<ref>Geza Vermes, ''The Passion'' (Penguin, 2005) p. 75.</ref> Compared to the accounts in the other Gospels, which he describes as "theologically correct and reassuring", he considers this phrase "unexpected, disquieting and in consequence more probable".<ref>Geza Vermes, ''The Passion'' (Penguin, 2005) p. 114.</ref> He describes it as bearing "all the appearances of a genuine cry".<ref>Geza Vermes, ''The Passion'' (Penguin, 2005) p. 122.</ref> [[Raymond E. Brown|Raymond Brown]] likewise comments that he finds "no persuasive argument against attributing to the Jesus of Mark/Matt the literal sentiment of feeling forsaken expressed in the Psalm quote".<ref>Raymond Brown, ''The Death of the Messiah'' Volume II (Doubleday, 1994) p. 1051</ref>

====Luke====
* "Father, forgive them; for they do not know what they are doing."<ref>{{bibleverse|Lk.|23:34}}</ref> [Some early manuscripts do not have this]
* "Truly I tell you, today you will be with me in Paradise."<ref>{{bibleverse|Lk.|23:43}}</ref>
* "Father, into your hands I commend my spirit."<ref>{{bibleverse|Lk.|23:46}}</ref>

The Gospel of Luke does not include the aforementioned exclamation of Jesus mentioned in Matthew and Mark.<ref>John Haralson Hayes, ''Biblical Exegesis: A Beginner's Handbook'' (Westminster John Knox Press, 1987) pp. 104–105. The author suggests this possibly was designed to play down the suffering of Jesus and replace a cry of desperation with one of hope and confidence, in keeping with the message of the Gospel in which Jesus dies confident that he would be vindicated as God's righteous prophet.</ref>

====John====
* "Woman, here is your son."<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|19:25–27}}</ref>
* "I am thirsty."<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|19:28}}</ref>
* "It is finished."<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|19:30}}</ref>

The words of Jesus on the cross, especially his [[last words]], have been the subject of a wide range of Christian teachings and sermons, and a number of authors have written books specifically devoted to the last sayings of Christ.<ref>David Anderson-Berry, 1871 ''The Seven Sayings of Christ on the Cross'', Glasgow: Pickering & Inglis Publishers</ref><ref>Rev. John Edmunds, 1855 ''The seven sayings of Christ on the cross'' Thomas Hatchford Publishers, London, p. 26</ref><ref>Arthur Pink, 2005 ''The Seven Sayings of the Saviour on the Cross'' Baker Books {{ISBN|0-8010-6573-9}}</ref><ref>Simon Peter Long, 1966 ''The wounded Word: A brief meditation on the seven sayings of Christ on the cross'' Baker Books</ref><ref>John Ross Macduff, 1857 ''The Words of Jesus'' New York: Thomas Stanford Publishers, p. 76</ref><ref>Alexander Watson, 1847 ''The seven sayings on the Cross'' John Masters Publishers, London, p. 5. The difference between the accounts is cited by [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] as a reason to doubt their historicity. James G. D. Dunn, ''Jesus Remembered'', (Eerdmans, 2003) pp.&nbsp;779–781.</ref>

===Reported extraordinary occurrences===
The synoptics report various [[miracle|miraculous]] events during the crucifixion.<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bF0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA86 Scott's Monthly Magazine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123113218/https://books.google.com/books?id=bF0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA86 |date=November 23, 2022 }}''. J.J. Toon; 1868. The Miracles Coincident With The Crucifixion, by H.P.B. pp. 86–89.</ref><ref name="Watson2012">Richard Watson. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=FVFHmW1ySWUC&pg=PA81 An Apology for the Bible: In a Series of Letters Addressed to Thomas Paine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123113213/https://books.google.com/books?id=FVFHmW1ySWUC&pg=PA81 |date=November 23, 2022 }}''. Cambridge University Press; 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-107-60004-1}}. pp. 81–.</ref> Mark mentions a period of darkness in the daytime during  Jesus's crucifixion, and the Temple veil being torn in two when Jesus dies.<ref name = "ActJMark"/> Luke follows Mark;<ref name = "ActJLuke"/> as does Matthew, additionally mentioning an earthquake and the [[Matthew 27:53|resurrection of dead saints]].<ref name="ActJMatthew"/> No mention of any of these appears in John.<ref name="Harris John">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "John" pp.&nbsp;302–310</ref>

====Darkness====
{{Main|Crucifixion darkness}}
[[File:Christ at the Cross - Cristo en la Cruz.jpg|thumb|''Christ on the Cross'', by [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]], showing the skies darkened]]
In the synoptic narrative, while Jesus is hanging on the cross, the sky over [[Judaea]] (or the whole world) is "darkened for three hours," from the sixth to the ninth hour (noon to mid-afternoon). There is no reference to darkness in the Gospel of John account, in which the crucifixion does not take place until after noon.<ref>Edwin Keith Broadhead ''Prophet, Son, Messiah: Narrative Form and Function in Mark'' (Continuum, 1994) p. 196.</ref>

Some ancient Christian writers considered the possibility that pagan commentators may have mentioned this event and mistook it for a solar eclipse, pointing out that an eclipse could not occur during the Passover, which takes place during the full moon when the moon is opposite the sun rather than in front of it. Christian traveler and historian [[Sextus Julius Africanus]] and Christian theologian [[Origen]] refer to Greek historian [[Phlegon of Tralles|Phlegon]], who lived in the 2nd century AD, as having written "with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place".<ref>{{cite web |author=Origen |author-link=Origen |title=''Contra Celsum (Against Celsus)'', Book 2, XXXIII |url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/origen162.html |access-date=May 5, 2008 |archive-date=January 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109124702/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/origen162.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sextus Julius Africanus further refers to the writings of historian [[Thallus (historian)|Thallus]]: "This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the Passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day before the Passover; but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun."<ref>{{cite book |title=The ante-Nicene fathers |last=Donaldson |first=Coxe |publisher=The Christian Literature Publishing Co. |volume=6 |year=1888 |location=New York |page=136 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P5gsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA136 |access-date=November 28, 2015 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407154456/https://books.google.com/books?id=P5gsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA136 |url-status=live }}</ref> Christian apologist [[Tertullian]] believed the event was documented in the Roman archives.<ref>"In the same hour, too, the light of day was withdrawn, when the sun at the very time was in his meridian blaze. Those who were not aware that this had been predicted about Christ, no doubt thought it an eclipse. You yourselves have the account of the world-portent still in your archives."{{cite web |author=Tertullian |author-link=Tertullian |title=''Apologeticum'' |url=http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian01.html |access-date=May 5, 2008 |archive-date=April 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406140313/http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian01.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Colin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington of [[Oxford University]] considered the possibility that a lunar, rather than solar, eclipse might have taken place.<ref name="HumWadJASA">Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, ''The Date of the Crucifixion '' Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985)[http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/1985/JASA3-85Humphreys.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408114419/http://www.asa3.org/aSA/PSCF/1985/JASA3-85Humphreys.html|date=April 8, 2010}}</ref><ref>[[Colin Humphreys]], ''The Mystery of the Last Supper'' Cambridge University Press 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-521-73200-0}}, p. 193</ref> They concluded that such an eclipse would have been visible for 30 minutes in Jerusalem and suggested the gospel reference to a solar eclipse was the result of a scribe wrongly amending a text. Historian David Henige dismisses this explanation as "indefensible",<ref name="henige">{{cite book | last=Henige | first=David P. | author-link=David Henige | title=Historical evidence and argument | publisher=University of Wisconsin Press | isbn=978-0-299-21410-4 | year=2005}}</ref> and astronomer Bradley Schaefer points out that the lunar eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours.<ref>Schaefer, B. E. (March 1990). Lunar visibility and the crucifixion. Royal Astronomical Society Quarterly Journal, 31(1), 53–67</ref><ref>Schaefer, B. E. (July 1991). Glare and celestial visibility. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 103, 645–660.</ref>

In an edition of the BBC Radio 4 programmed In Our Time entitled Eclipses, [[Frank Close]], Emeritus Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford, stated that certain historical sources say that on the night of the Crucifixion "the moon had risen blood red," which indicates a lunar eclipse. He went on to confirm that as Passover takes place on the full moon calculating back shows that a lunar eclipse did in fact take place on the night of Passover on Friday, 3 April 33 AD which would have been visible in the area of modern Israel, ancient Judaea, just after sunset.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m000qmnj|title=BBC Radio 4 – in Our Time, Eclipses|access-date=December 31, 2020|archive-date=April 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406140313/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m000qmnj|url-status=live}}</ref>

Modern biblical scholarship treats the account in the synoptic gospels as a literary creation by the author of the Mark Gospel, amended in the Luke and Matthew accounts, intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event, and not intended to be taken literally.<ref>Burton L. Mack, ''A Myth of Innocence: Mark and Christian Origins'' (Fortress Press, 1988) p. 296; George Bradford Caird, ''The language and imagery of the Bible'' (Westminster Press, 1980), p. 186; Joseph Fitzmyer, ''The Gospel According to Luke, X–XXIV'' (Doubleday, 1985) p. 1513; William David Davies, Dale Allison, ''Matthew: Volume 3'' (Continuum, 1997) p. 623.</ref> This image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers, a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such as [[Philo]], [[Dio Cassius]], [[Virgil]], [[Plutarch]] and [[Josephus]].<ref>David E. Garland, ''Reading Matthew: A Literary and Theological Commentary on the First Gospel'' (Smyth & Helwys Publishing, 1999) p. 264.</ref> [[Géza Vermes]] describes the darkness account as typical of "Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord", and says that those interpreting it as a datable eclipse are "barking up the wrong tree".<ref>Géza Vermes, ''The Passion'' (Penguin, 2005) pp. 108–109.</ref>

====Temple veil, earthquake and resurrection of dead saints====
<!--There was a "Too many images" tag on this article once and the number of images was reduced and they were moved to the gallery. Please try not too add images all over the place in this article, not to attract another "Too many images" tag. -->
The synoptic gospels state that the [[Veil#Biblical references|veil]] of [[temple in Jerusalem|the temple]] was torn from top to bottom.

The Gospel of Matthew mentions an account of earthquakes, rocks splitting, and the opening of the graves of dead [[saint]]s, and describes how these resurrected saints went into the holy city and appeared to many people.<ref>{{bibleverse|Mt.|27:51–53}}</ref>

In the Mark and Matthew accounts, the [[Longinus|centurion in charge]] comments on the events: "Truly this man was the Son of God!"<ref>{{bibleverse|Mk.|15:39}}</ref> or "Truly this was the [[Son of God]]!".<ref>{{bibleverse|Mt.|27:54}}</ref> The Gospel of Luke quotes him as saying, "Certainly this man was innocent!"<ref>{{bibleverse|Lk.|23:47}}</ref><ref>New Revised Standard Version; New International Version renders "...this was a righteous man".</ref>

The historian [[Sextus Julius Africanus]] in the early [[third century]] wrote, describing the day of the crucifixion, "A most terrible darkness fell over all the world, the rocks were torn apart by an earthquake, and many places both in Judaea and the rest of the world were thrown down. In the third book of his Histories, [[Thallus (historian)|Thallos]] dismisses this darkness as a solar eclipse. ..."<ref name=Africanus>[[George Syncellus]], ''Chronography'', [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/syncellus/#E1 chapter 391] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411014004/http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/syncellus/#E1 |date=April 11, 2021 }}.</ref>

A widespread 5.5 magnitude earthquake has been hypothesized to have taken place between 26 and 36 AD. This earthquake was dated by counting [[varve]]s (annual layers of sediment) between the disruptions in a core of sediment from [[En Gedi]] caused by it and by an earlier known quake in 31&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jefferson Williams, Markus Schwab and Achim Brauer |title=An early first-century earthquake in the Dead Sea' |journal=International Geology Review |date=Jul 2012 |volume=54 |issue=10 |pages=1219–1228 |doi=10.1080/00206814.2011.639996 |bibcode=2012IGRv...54.1219W |s2cid=129604597 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229810999}}</ref> Although other earthquakes may have been responsible, the authors concluded that either this was the earthquake in Matthew and it occurred more or less as reported, or else Matthew "borrowed" this earthquake which actually occurred at another time or simply inserted an "allegorical fiction".

==Medical aspects==
{{See also|Crucifixion#Cause of death}}
<!--There was a "Too many images" tag on this article once and the number of images
was reduced and they were moved to the gallery. Please try not too add images all over
the place in this article, to not attract another "Too many images" tag. -->
A number of theories to explain the circumstances of the death of Jesus on the cross have been proposed by [[physicians]] and Biblical scholars. In 2006, Matthew W. Maslen and Piers D. Mitchell reviewed over 40 publications on the subject with theories ranging from [[cardiac rupture]] to [[pulmonary embolism]].<ref>''Medical theories on the cause of death in Crucifixion '' J R Soc Med April 2006 vol. 99 no. 4 185–188. [http://jrs.sagepub.com/content/99/4/185.short] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912162251/http://jrs.sagepub.com/content/99/4/185.short|date=September 12, 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Deposition of Christ C2RMF.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Bronzino]]'s ''Deposition of Christ'']]
In 1847, based on the reference in the Gospel of John ({{Bibleref2|John|19:34}}) to blood and water coming out when  Jesus's side was pierced with a spear, physician William Stroud proposed the ruptured heart theory of the cause of Christ's death which influenced a number of other people.<ref>William Stroud, 1847, ''Treatise on the Physical Death of Jesus Christ'' London: Hamilton and Adams.</ref><ref>William Seymour, 2003, ''The Cross in Tradition, History and Art'' {{ISBN|0-7661-4527-1}}</ref>

The cardiovascular collapse theory is a prevalent modern explanation and suggests that Jesus died of profound shock. According to this theory, the scourging, the beatings, and the fixing to the cross left Jesus dehydrated, weak, and critically ill and this led to cardiovascular collapse.<ref>[http://www.frugalsites.net/jesus/death.htm The Physical Death Of Jesus Christ, Study by The Mayo Clinic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131191153/http://www.frugalsites.net/jesus/death.htm |date=January 31, 2009 }} citing studies by Bucklin R (The legal and medical aspects of the trial and death of Christ. ''Sci Law'' 1970; 10:14–26), Mikulicz-Radeeki FV (The chest wound in the crucified Christ. ''Med News'' 1966; 14:30–40), Davis CT (The Crucifixion of Jesus: The passion of Christ from a medical point of view. ''Ariz Med'' 1965; 22:183–187), and Barbet P (''A Doctor at Calvary: The Passion of Out Lord Jesus Christ as Described by a Surgeon'', Earl of Wicklow (trans) Garden City, NY, Doubleday Image Books 1953, pp. 12–18, 37–147, 159–175, 187–208).</ref>

Writing in the ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]'', physician William Edwards and his colleagues supported the combined cardiovascular collapse (via [[hypovolemic]] shock) and exhaustion [[asphyxia]] theories, assuming that the flow of water from the side of Jesus described in the [[The Gospel of John|Gospel of John]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|19:34||19:34}}</ref> was [[pericardial fluid]].<ref>Edwards, William D.; Gabel, Wesley J.; Hosmer, Floyd E; ''On the Physical Death of Jesus'', JAMA March 21, 1986, Vol 255, No. 11, pp. 1455–1463 [http://www.godandscience.org/apologetics/deathjesus.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126124914/http://www.godandscience.org/apologetics/deathjesus.pdf|date=January 26, 2022}}</ref>

In his book ''The Crucifixion of Jesus'', physician and [[forensic pathologist]] [[Frederick Zugibe]] studied the likely circumstances of the death of Jesus in great detail.<ref>Frederick Zugibe, 2005, ''The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry'' Evans Publishing, {{ISBN|1-59077-070-6}}</ref><ref>JW Hewitt, ''The Use of Nails in the Crucifixion '' Harvard Theological Review, 1932</ref> Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over several years to test his theories while he was a medical examiner.<ref name=experiments/> These studies included experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging at specific angles and the amount of pull on each hand was measured, in cases where the feet were also secured or not. In these cases the amount of pull and the corresponding pain was found to be significant.<ref name="experiments">{{Cite web|url=http://www.crucifixion-shroud.com/experimental_studies_in_crucifix.htm|title=EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES in CRUCIFIXION|website=www.crucifixion-shroud.com|access-date=January 20, 2009|archive-date=March 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309183921/http://www.crucifixion-shroud.com/experimental_studies_in_crucifix.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Pierre Barbet (physician)|Pierre Barbet]], a French physician, and the chief surgeon at Saint Joseph's Hospital in Paris,<ref>[[New Scientist]] October 12, 1978, p. 96</ref> hypothesized that Jesus relaxed his muscles to obtain enough air to utter his last words, in the face of exhaustion asphyxia.<ref>Barbet, Pierre. ''Doctor at Calvary'', New York: Image Books, 1963.</ref> Some of Barbet's theories, such as the location of nails, are disputed by Zugibe.

[[Orthopedic surgeon]] Keith Maxwell not only analyzed the medical aspects of the crucifixion, but also looked back at how Jesus could have carried the cross all the way along [[Via Dolorosa]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pmbcth.com/pmbc_037.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117095319/http://www.pmbcth.com/pmbc_037.htm|url-status=dead|title=Keith Maxwell MD on the Crucifixion of Christ|archive-date=January 17, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.southasianconnection.com/articles/184/1/Jesus-Suffering-and-Crucifixion |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608100234/http://www.southasianconnection.com/articles/184/1/Jesus-Suffering-and-Crucifixion |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 8, 2019 |title=Jesus' Suffering and Crucifixion from a Medical Point of View |publisher=Southasianconnection.com |date=April 7, 2007 |access-date=January 15, 2019 }}</ref>

In 2003, historians F. P. Retief and L. Cilliers reviewed the history and pathology of crucifixion as performed by the Romans and suggested that the cause of death was often a combination of factors. They also state that Roman guards were prohibited from leaving the scene until death had occurred.<ref name="retief">{{cite journal |last1=Retief |first1=FP |last2=Cilliers |first2=L. |title=The history and pathology of crucifixion. |journal=South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde |date=December 2003 |volume=93 |issue=12 |pages=938–841 |pmid=14750495 |url=http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/viewFile/2462/1710 |access-date=November 3, 2018 |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414121754/http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/viewFile/2462/1710 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Theological significance==
[[File:Retable de l'Agneau mystique (10).jpg|thumb|''Adoration of the Mystic Lamb'' (detail of the [[Ghent Altarpiece]], [[Jan van Eyck]], c. 1432). Christ is represented as the sacrificial [[Lamb of God]].]]
Christians believe that  Jesus's death was instrumental in restoring humankind to [[Salvation in Christianity|relationship with God]].<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVJXcOVY2UgC |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church |date=1994 |publisher=Urbi et Orbi Communications |isbn=978-1-884660-01-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Hans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l3rDtUQRdKAC |title=True Faith in the True God: An Introduction to Luther's Life and Thought |date=1996 |publisher=Augsburg |isbn=978-1-4514-0930-7 |language=en}}</ref> Christians believe that through  Jesus's death and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]<ref>{{cite book | last1= Benedict XVI |first1=Pope |title= Principles of Catholic Theology: Building Stones for a Fundamental Theology |location=San Francisco |publisher= Ignatius Press |year=1987 | pages=17–18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Calvin |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UU9Ygc_c5woC |title=Institutes of the Christian Religion |date=1921 |publisher=Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work |language=en}}</ref> people are reunited with God and receive new joy and power in this life as well as eternal life. Thus the crucifixion of Jesus along with his resurrection restores access to a vibrant experience of God's presence, [[Love of God in Christianity|love]] and [[Grace in Christianity|grace]] as well as the confidence of [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kempis |first=Thomas a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=13QRjJjhEqkC |title=The Inner Life |date=2005-09-06 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1-101-65142-1 |language=en}}</ref>

===Christology===
{{See also|Lamb of God}}
{{Christology}}
The accounts of the crucifixion and subsequent resurrection of Jesus provide a rich background for [[Christology|Christological]] analysis, from the canonical Gospels to the [[Pauline epistles]].<ref>''Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology'' by Mark Allan Powell and David R. Bauer 1999 {{ISBN|0-664-25752-6}} p. 106</ref> Christians believe  Jesus's suffering was foretold in the Old Testament, such as in [[Psalm 22]], and [[Isaiah 53]] prophecy of the [[suffering servant]].<ref>{{cite book |chapter=The Passion |last1=Cross |first1=Frank L. |last2=Livingstone |first2=Elizabeth A. |title=The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005}}</ref>

In [[Johannine]] "agent Christology" the submission of Jesus to crucifixion is a sacrifice made as an agent of God or servant of God, for the sake of eventual victory.<ref name=Cullmann >''The Christology of the New Testamen''t by Oscar Cullmann 1959 {{ISBN|0-664-24351-7}} p. 79</ref><ref>''The Johannine exegesis of God'' by Daniel Rathnakara Sadananda 2005 {{ISBN|3-11-018248-3}} p. 281</ref> This builds on the [[salvation in Christianity|salvific]] theme of the [[Gospel of John]] which begins in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#1:29|John 1:29]] with [[John the Baptist]]'s proclamation: "The Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world".<ref name=Pollard >''Johannine Christology'' and the Early Church by T. E. Pollard 2005 {{ISBN|0-521-01868-4}} p. 21</ref><ref name=Hengel371 >''Studies in Early Christology'' by Martin Hengel 2004 {{ISBN|0-567-04280-4}} p. 371</ref>

A central element in the Christology presented in the [[Acts of the Apostles]] is the affirmation of the belief that the death of Jesus by crucifixion happened "with the foreknowledge of God, according to a definite plan".<ref name=Matera67 >''New Testament christology'' by Frank J. Matera 1999 {{ISBN|0-664-25694-5}} p. 67</ref> In this view, as in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#2:23|Acts 2:23]], the cross is not viewed as a scandal, for the crucifixion of Jesus "at the hands of the lawless" is viewed as the fulfillment of the plan of God.<ref name=Matera67 /><ref>''The speeches in Acts: their content, context, and concerns'' by Marion L. Soards 1994 {{ISBN|0-664-25221-4}} p. 34</ref>

Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Galatians#6:12|Galatians 6:12]] may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels.<ref name=Schwarz132 >''Christology'' by Hans Schwarz 1998 {{ISBN|0-8028-4463-4}} pp.&nbsp;132–134</ref> For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant [[eschatological]] consequences, as in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#2:8|1 Corinthians 2:8]].<ref name=Schwarz132 /> In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Philippians#2:8|Philippians 2:8]]) died "at the right time" ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Romans#4:25|Romans 4:25]]) based on the plan of God.<ref name=Schwarz132 /> For Paul the "power of the cross" is not separable from the resurrection of Jesus.<ref name=Schwarz132 /> Furthermore, Paul highlighted the idea that Jesus on the cross defeated the spiritual forces of evil "''Kosmokrator''", literally 'the rulers of this world' (used in plural in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Ephesians#6:12|Ephesians 6:12]]), thus highlighting the idea of victory of light over darkness, or good over evil, through Christ.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://lightfromthecross.com/ |title=War Between Good and Evil – Light from the Cross |access-date=October 28, 2022 |archive-date=October 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028160340/https://lightfromthecross.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Belief in the redemptive nature of  Jesus's death predates the Pauline letters, to the earliest days of [[Christianity]] and the [[First Christian church|Jerusalem church]].<ref>''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'' by Larry W. Hurtado (2005) {{ISBN|0-8028-3167-2}} pp.&nbsp;130–133</ref> The [[Nicene Creed]]'s statement that "for our sake he was crucified" is a reflection of this core belief's formalization in the fourth century.<ref name=Harris12>''Christian Theology'' by J. Glyndwr Harris (2002) {{ISBN|1-902210-22-0}} pp.&nbsp;12–15</ref>

[[John Calvin]] supported the "agent of God" Christology and argued that in his trial in [[Pilate's Court]] Jesus could have successfully argued for his innocence, but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father.<ref name=CalvinC >''Calvin's Christology'' by Stephen Edmondson 2004 {{ISBN|0-521-54154-9}} p. 91</ref><ref>''The Reading and Preaching of the Scriptures'' by [[Hughes Oliphant Old]] 2002 {{ISBN|0-8028-4775-7}} p. 125</ref> This Christological theme continued into the 20th century, both in the [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] and Western Christianity. In Eastern Christianity, [[Sergei Bulgakov]] argued, the crucifixion of Jesus was "[[Pre-existence of Christ|pre-eternally]]" determined by the Father before the creation of the world, to redeem humanity from the disgrace caused by [[Fall of man|the fall of Adam]].<ref name=SBulgakov >''The Lamb of God'' by Sergei Bulgakov 2008 {{ISBN|0-8028-2779-9}} p. 129</ref> In Western Christianity, [[Karl Rahner]] elaborated on the analogy that the blood of the [[Lamb of God]] (and the water from the side of Jesus) shed at the crucifixion had a cleansing nature, similar to [[Baptism in Christianity|baptismal water]].<ref>''Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi'' by Karl Rahner 2004 {{ISBN|0-86012-006-6}} p. 74</ref>

=== Atonement ===
[[File:Niccolò Frangipane Penitent.jpg|thumb|200px|''Penitent'' by [[Niccolò Frangipane]], 1574]]
Jesus's death and resurrection underpin a variety of theological [[soteriology#Christianity|interpretations]] as to how salvation is granted to humanity. These interpretations vary widely in how much emphasis they place on the death and resurrection as compared to  Jesus's words.<ref>For example, see {{Bibleref2|Matthew|6:14–15}}. See also [[Sermon on the Mount]]</ref> According to the [[substitutionary atonement]] view,  Jesus's death is of central importance, and Jesus willingly sacrificed himself after his resurrection as an act of perfect obedience as a sacrifice of love which pleased God.<ref name="Atonement">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Doctrine of the Atonement |encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02055a.htm |access-date=May 8, 2008 |archive-date=April 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415083228/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02055a.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> By contrast the [[moral influence theory of atonement]] focuses much more on the moral content of  Jesus's teaching, and sees  Jesus's death as a [[martyr]]dom.<ref>A. J. Wallace, R. D. Rusk ''Moral Transformation: The Original Christian Paradigm of Salvation'', (New Zealand: Bridgehead, 2011) {{ISBN|978-1-4563-8980-2}}</ref> Since the [[Middle Ages]] there has been conflict between these two views within Western Christianity. [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Protestants]] typically hold a substitutionary view and in particular hold to the theory of [[penal substitution]]. [[Liberal Protestant]]s typically reject substitutionary atonement and hold to the [[moral influence theory of atonement]]. Both views are popular within the [[Roman Catholic Church]], with the [[Satisfaction theory of atonement|satisfaction]] doctrine incorporated into the idea of [[penance]].<ref name="Atonement"/>

In the Roman Catholic tradition this view of atonement is balanced by the duty of Roman Catholics to perform [[Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ]]<ref name="Encyclopedia">{{cite book |author=Ball, Ann |year=2003 |title=Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices |isbn=0-87973-910-X |publisher=Our Sunday Visitor |location=Huntington, Ind.}}</ref> which in the encyclical ''[[Miserentissimus Redemptor]]'' of [[Pope Pius XI]] were defined as "some sort of compensation to be rendered for the injury" with respect to the sufferings of Jesus.<ref>{{cite web|title=''Miserentissimus Redemptor'' |publisher=Encyclical of Pope Pius XI |url= https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_08051928_miserentissimus-redemptor_en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140812031528/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_08051928_miserentissimus-redemptor_en.html |archive-date=August 12, 2014 }}</ref> [[Pope John Paul II]] referred to these [[acts of reparation]] as the "unceasing effort to stand beside the endless crosses on which the Son of God continues to be crucified."<ref>{{cite web |title=Vatican archives |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/2000/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_20001021_riparatrici_en.html |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080502234831/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/2000/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_20001021_riparatrici_en.html |archive-date=May 2, 2008 }}</ref>

Among [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians, another common view is [[Christus Victor]].<ref>See [[Christus Victor#Development of the Christus Victor view after Aulén|Development of the Christus Victor view after Aulén]]</ref> This holds that Jesus was sent by God to defeat death and [[Satan]]. Because of his [[Perfection of Christ|perfection]], voluntary death, and resurrection, Jesus defeated Satan and death, and arose victorious. Therefore, humanity was no longer bound in sin, but was free to rejoin God through the repentance of sin and faith in Jesus.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Johnson, Alan F. |author2=Robert E. Webber |title=What Christians Believe: A Biblical and Historical Summary |publisher=Zondervan |year=1993 |pages=261–263}}</ref>

[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] teaches that the crucifixion of Jesus was part of the atonement and a "redeeming ransom" both for the effect of the fall of Adam upon all humankind and "for the personal sins of all who repent, from Adam to the end of the world."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Atonement_of_Jesus_Christ|title=Atonement of Jesus Christ – The Encyclopedia of Mormonism|website=eom.byu.edu|access-date=April 7, 2023|archive-date=March 7, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307052907/https://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Atonement_of_Jesus_Christ|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Deicide ===
The Catholic Church denounces the idea of [[Jewish deicide]], believing that all sinners are the authors and ministers of  Jesus's crucifixion, and admonishes Christians that their own guilt is greater when they sin with knowledge of Jesus, than when others sin without it.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p122a4p2.htm#598 |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church 598 |access-date=March 9, 2023 |archive-date=March 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230312122424/http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p122a4p2.htm#598 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2020-06/nostrae-aetate-opening-the-path-to-interreligious-dialogue.html |title=Vatican News: Nostra aetate: Opening the path to interreligious dialogue |date=June 18, 2020 |access-date=March 9, 2023 |archive-date=March 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309030344/https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2020-06/nostrae-aetate-opening-the-path-to-interreligious-dialogue.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Denial==

===Docetism===
In Christianity, [[docetism]] is the doctrine that the phenomenon of Jesus, his historical and bodily existence, and above all the human form of Jesus, was mere semblance without any true reality.<ref>{{harvnb|Brox|1984|p=306}}.</ref> Docetists denied that Jesus could have truly suffered and died, as his physical body was illusory, and instead saw the crucifixion as something that only appeared to happen.<ref>{{harvnb|Schneemelcher|Maurer|1994|p=220}}.</ref>

===Nag Hammadi manuscripts===
According to the [[First Apocalypse of James|First Revelation of James]] in the [[Nag Hammadi library]], Jesus appeared to James after apparently being crucified and stated that another person had been inflicted in his place:
{{Blockquote|"The master appeared to him. He stopped praying, embraced him, and kissed him, saying, “Rabbi, I’ve found you. I heard of the sufferings you endured, and I was greatly troubled. You know my compassion. Because of this I wished, as I reflected upon it, that I would never see these people again. They must be judged for what they have done, for what they have done is not right.”
The master said, “James, do not be concerned for me or these people. I am the one who was within me. Never did I suffer at all, and I was not distressed. These people did not harm me. Rather, all this was inflicted upon a figure of the rulers, and it was fitting that this figure should be [destroyed] by them."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Meyer |first1=Marvin |last2=Robinson |first2=James |title=The Nag Hammadi Scriptures: The Revised and Updated Translation of Sacred Gnostic Texts Complete in One Volume |date=2009 |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=978-0061626005 |edition=2009 |chapter=The First revelation of James}}</ref>}}

===Islam===
{{Main|Islamic views on Jesus' death}}
{{See also|Jesus in Islam}}
Most Islamic traditions categorically deny that Jesus physically died, either on a cross or another manner. This denial is asserted in the Quran, which states:

{{Blockquote|And [for] their saying, "Indeed, we have killed the Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, the messenger of Allah." And they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him; but rather, it was made to appear to them so. And indeed, those who differ over it are in doubt about it. They have no knowledge of it except the following of assumption. And they did not kill him, for certain. (157) Rather, Allah raised him to Himself. And ever is Allah Exalted in Might and Wise. (158)|[[Quran 4:157–158]]<ref name="Cite quran|4|157|e=158|s=ns">{{Cite quran|4|157|e=158|s=ns}}</ref>}}

Islamic traditions teach that Jesus [[entering heaven alive|ascended to Heaven]] without being put on the cross, but that God transformed another person to appear exactly like him and to be then crucified instead of him. This view is attested in an account by [[Irenaeus]] of the doctrine of the 2nd-century [[Alexandria]]n [[Gnostic]] [[Basilides]] in which Irenaeus refutes what he believes to be a heresy denying the death.<ref>"Wherefore he did not himself suffer death, but Simon, a certain man of Cyrene, being compelled, bore the cross in his stead; so that this latter being transfigured by him, that he might be thought to be Jesus, was crucified, through ignorance and error, while Jesus himself received the form of Simon, and, standing by, laughed at them. For since he was an incorporeal power, and the Nous (mind) of the unborn father, he transfigured himself as he pleased, and thus ascended to him who had sent him, deriding them, inasmuch as he could not be laid hold of, and was invisible to all" ([http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103124.htm Irenaeus, ''Against Heresies'', book I, ch. 24, 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419061155/http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103124.htm |date=April 19, 2021 }}).</ref>

=== Gnosticism ===
Some scriptures identified as Gnostic reject the atonement of  Jesus's death by distinguishing the earthly body of Jesus and his divine and immaterial essence. According to the [[Second Treatise of the Great Seth]], [[Yaldabaoth]] (the Creator of the material universe) and his [[Archon (Gnosticism)|Archons]] tried to kill Jesus by crucifixion, but only killed ''their own man'' (that is the body). While Jesus ascended from his body, Yaldabaoth and his followers thought Jesus to be dead.<ref>John Douglas Turner, Anne Marie McGuire ''The Nag Hammadi Library After Fifty Years: Proceedings of the 1995 Society of Biblical Literature Commemoration [in Philadelphia]'' Brill 1997 {{ISBN|978-9004108240}} p. 54</ref><ref>Tuomas Rasimus''Paradise Reconsidered in Gnostic Mythmaking: Rethinking Sethianism in Light of the Ophite Evidence'' Brill, 2009 {{ISBN|978-9047426707}} p. 13</ref> In [[Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter|Apocalypse of Peter]], Peter talks with the savior whom the "priests and people" believed to have killed.<ref>John Douglas Turner, Anne Marie McGuire ''The Nag Hammadi Library After Fifty Years: Proceedings of the 1995 Society of Biblical Literature Commemoration [in Philadelphia]'' Brill 1997 {{ISBN|978-9004108240}} p. 55</ref>

[[Manichaeism]], which was influenced by Gnostic ideas, adhered to the idea that not Jesus, but somebody else was crucified instead.<ref name="gil1992">{{Cite book| volume = 12| pages = 9–58|editor= Joel L. Kraemer | last = Gil| first = Moshe| title = Israel Oriental Studies| chapter = The Creed of Abū ‘Āmir| date = 1992}}</ref>{{rp|41}} Jesus suffering on the cross is depicted as the state of ''light particles'' (spirit) within matter instead.<ref>Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer ''The Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition'' Shambhala Publications 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-834-82414-0}} p. 596</ref>

According to [[Bogomilism]], the crucifixion was an attempt by [[Lucifer]] to destroy Jesus, while the earthly Jesus was regarded as a prophet, Jesus himself was an immaterial being that can not be killed. Accordingly, Lucifer failed and  Jesus's sufferings on the cross were only an illusion.<ref>Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer ''The Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition'' Shambhala Publications 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-834-82414-0}} p. 751</ref>

=== Others ===
According to some [[Christianity in Japan|Christian sects in Japan]], Jesus Christ did not die on the cross at Golgotha. Instead his younger brother, Isukiri,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://metropolis.co.jp/tokyotravel/tokyojapantravel/3523/tokyojapantravelinc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060825022848/http://metropolis.co.jp/tokyotravel/tokyojapantravel/3523/tokyojapantravelinc.htm |archive-date=August 25, 2006 |title=Metropolis – Japan Travel: Jesus in Japan |access-date=January 15, 2019}}</ref> took his place on the cross, while Jesus fled across Siberia to Mutsu Province, in northern Japan. Once in Japan, he became a rice farmer, married, and raised a family with three daughters near what is now [[Shingō, Aomori#Local attractions|Shingō]]. While in Japan, it is asserted that he traveled, learned, and eventually died at the age of 106. His body was exposed on a hilltop for four years. According to the customs of the time,  Jesus's bones were collected, bundled, and buried in a mound.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bartlett |first=Duncan |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/5326614.stm |title=Programmes &#124; From Our Own Correspondent &#124; The Japanese Jesus trail |work=BBC News |date=September 9, 2006 |access-date=January 15, 2019 |archive-date=January 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105031730/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/5326614.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forteantimes.com/articles/110_japson.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310200846/http://www.forteantimes.com/articles/110_japson.shtml |archive-date=March 10, 2007 |title=Jesus In Japan – FT110 |access-date=January 15, 2019}}</ref> There is also a museum in Japan which claims to have evidence of these claims.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-little-known-legend-of-jesus-in-japan-165354242/ |title=The Little-Known Legend of Jesus in Japan &#124; History &#124; Smithsonian |publisher=Smithsonianmag.com |date=January 1, 1970 |access-date=January 15, 2019 |archive-date=December 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229010937/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-little-known-legend-of-jesus-in-japan-165354242/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In [[Yazidism]], Jesus is thought of as a "figure of light" who could not be crucified. This interpretation could be taken from the [[Quran]] or [[Gnostics]].<ref>''Zeitschrift für Religionswissenschaft''. Jahrgang 1997 diagonal-Verlag Ursula Spuler-Stegemann Der Engel Pfau zum Selbstvertändnis der Yezidi p. 14 (German)</ref>

==In art, symbolism and devotions==
{{Main|Crucifixion in the arts}}
[[File:Detalle crucificado Luján Pérez, 1793.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Detail of the countenance of Christ just dead, by José Luján Pérez, 1793, [[Las Palmas Cathedral]]]]
<!--There was a "Too many images" tag on this article once and the number of images was reduced and they were moved to the gallery. Please try not too add images all over the place in this article, not to attract another "Too many images" tag. -->
Since the crucifixion of Jesus, the cross has become a key element of [[Christian symbolism]], and the crucifixion scene has been a key element of [[Christian art]], giving rise to specific artistic themes such as [[Christ Carrying the Cross]], [[raising of the Cross]], [[Stabat Mater (art)|Stabat Mater]], [[Descent from the Cross]] and [[Lamentation of Christ]].

The [[Christian symbolism#Cross and crucifix|symbolism of the cross]] which is today one of the most widely recognized Christian symbols was used from the earliest Christian times. [[Justin Martyr]], who died in 165, describes it in a way that already implies its use as a symbol, although the [[crucifix]] appeared later.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14373b.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Symbolism|website=www.newadvent.org|access-date=April 2, 2022|archive-date=October 6, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006073037/http://newadvent.org/cathen/14373b.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07664a.htm|title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Veneration of Images|website=www.newadvent.org|access-date=April 2, 2022|archive-date=April 19, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419151209/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07664a.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Devotions based on the process of crucifixion, and the sufferings of Jesus are followed by various Christians. The [[Stations of the Cross]] follows a number of stages based on the stages involved in the crucifixion of Jesus, while the [[Rosary of the Holy Wounds]] is used to meditate on the wounds of Jesus as part of the crucifixion.

Masters such as [[Giotto]], [[Fra Angelico]], [[Masaccio]], [[Raphael]], [[Botticelli]], [[van Dyck]], [[Titian]], [[Caravaggio]], [[El Greco]], [[Zurbarán]], [[Velázquez]], [[Rubens]] and [[Rembrandt]] have all depicted the [[Commons:Category:Paintings of crucifixion|crucifixion scene]] in their works. The ''[[Crucifixion, seen from the Cross (James Tissot)|Crucifixion, seen from the Cross]]'' by [[James Tissot|Tissot]] presented a novel approach at the end of the 19th century, in which the crucifixion scene was portrayed from the perspective of Jesus.<ref>''James Tissot: the Life of Christ'' by Judith F. Dolkart 2009 {{ISBN|1-85894-496-1}} p. 201</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Modern Art and the Death of a Culture|first=H. R.|last=Rookmaaker|page=[https://archive.org/details/modernartdeathof00rook/page/73 73]|publisher=Crossway Books|year=1970|isbn=0-89107-799-5|url=https://archive.org/details/modernartdeathof00rook/page/73}}</ref>

The presence of the Virgin Mary under the cross, mentioned in the Gospel of John,<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|19:26–27}}</ref> has in itself been the subject of [[Roman Catholic Marian art|Marian art]], and well known Catholic symbolism such as the [[Miraculous Medal]] and [[Pope John Paul II]]'s Coat of Arms bearing a [[Marian Cross]]. And a number of Marian devotions also involve the presence of the Virgin Mary in Calvary, e.g., Pope John Paul II stated that "Mary was united to Jesus on the Cross".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/papaldoc/jp2bvm3.htm |title=Mary was United to Jesus on the Cross |publisher=EWTN |date=November 1, 1995 |access-date=January 15, 2019 |archive-date=July 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705225740/http://www.ewtn.com/library/papaldoc/jp2bvm3.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19881123en.html |title=Vatican website on 'Behold Your Mother!' |access-date=February 19, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517005051/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/alpha/data/aud19881123en.html |archive-date=May 17, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Well known works of Christian art by masters such as [[Raphael]] (the ''[[Mond Crucifixion]]''), and [[Caravaggio]] (''[[The Entombment of Christ (Caravaggio)|The Entombment of Christ]]'') depict the Virgin Mary as part of the crucifixion scene.

<gallery>
File:14th-century fresco of Jesus Christ bearing the cross, Visoki Dečani, Kosovo.jpg|''Carrying the Cross'' [[fresco]], [[Decani monastery]], [[Kosovo]], 14th century
File:MCB icon3.jpg|[[Byzantine art|Orthodox]] Crucifixion icon, [[Athens, Greece]]
File:Miguel Angel Crucifixion La Redonda Logrono Spain.jpg| ''Crucifixion of Christ'', [[Michelangelo]], 1540
File:De kruisiging.jpg|alt=Print of the Crucifixion, made at the end of the 16th century|Print of [[Albrecht Dürer]]'s ''Die Kreuzigung'' (1508), printed at the end of the 16th century<ref>{{Cite web|title=De Kruisiging|url=https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:B4D16A3C-15CD-11E9-954B-23312282636C#?c=&m=&s=&cv=&xywh=-2876,-181,8131,3613|access-date=2020-09-28|website=lib.ugent.be|archive-date=October 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017140700/https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:B4D16A3C-15CD-11E9-954B-23312282636C#?c=&m=&s=&cv=&xywh=-2876,-181,8131,3613|url-status=live}}</ref>
File:Paolo Veronese 010.jpg|''Calvary'' by [[Paolo Veronese]], 16th century
File:History of the Kings (f.38) the Crucifixion of Christ.jpg|From a 14th–15th century [[Welsh language|Welsh]] Manuscript
File:Jesus Tkors Ytterselo01.gif|Crucified Jesus at the {{ill|Ytterselö church|sv|Ytterselö kyrka}}, Sweden. Ca. 1500
File:Santíssimo Cristo 02.jpg|''[[Cristo de La Laguna]]'', [[Flanders|Flemish]]-Brabanzon origin, 1510–14. [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]], [[Spain]]
File:Peter Paul Rubens - Descent from the cross (1617).jpg|''Descent from the Cross'', [[Rubens]] (1616–17)
File:Raffaello, pala baglioni, deposizione.jpg|''Descent from the Cross'', [[Raphael]], 1507
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Christianity}}
* The [[penitent thief]] and [[impenitent thief]], crucified alongside Jesus
* [[Descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross]]
* [[True Cross]]
* [[Shroud of Turin]]
* [[Sudarium of Oviedo]]
* [[Feast of the Cross]]
* [[Golgotha]]
* [[Life of Jesus in the New Testament]]
* [[Our Lady of Sorrows|Seven Sorrows of Mary]]
* [[Swoon hypothesis]]
* [[Depictions of Jesus]]
* [[Calvary (monument)|Calvary]]
* [[Stations of the Cross]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|2}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
<!-- B -->
* {{cite book | last =Blomberg | first =Craig L. | year =2009 | title =Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey | publisher =B&H Publishing | isbn =978-0-8054-4482-7}}
<!-- C -->
{{cite book | last =Crossan | first =John Dominic | year =1995 | title =Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography | publisher=HarperOne | isbn =0-06-061662-8}} 
<!-- D -->
* {{cite book | last =Dunn | first =James D. G. | year =2003 | title =Jesus Remembered | publisher =Wm. B. Eerdmans | isbn =0-8028-3931-2}}
<!-- E -->
* {{cite book | last1 =Eddy | first1 = Paul  |last2=Boyd | first2 =Gregory | year =2007 | title =The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition | publisher =Baker Academic | isbn =978-0-8010-3114-4}}
* {{cite book | last =Ehrman | first =Bart D. | year =2008 | title =A Brief Introduction to the New Testament | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-536934-2}}
<!-- M -->
* {{cite book | last = Meier | first =John P. | year =2006 | chapter =How do we decide what comes from Jesus | editor-last1 =Dunn | editor-first1 =James D. G. | editor-last2 =McKnight | editor-first2 =Scot | title =The Historical Jesus in Recent Research | publisher =Eisenbrauns | isbn =1-57506-100-7}}
<!-- T -->
* {{cite book | last =Tuckett | first =Christopher M. | chapter = | editor-last =Bockmuehl | editor-first =Markus N. A. | year =2001 | title =The Cambridge Companion to Jesus | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =0-521-79678-4}}
<!-- V -->
* {{cite book | last =Verhoeven | first =Paul | year =2010 | title =Jesus of Nazareth | publisher =Seven Stories Press | isbn =978-1-58322-905-7}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite journal| title = 'Doketismus' – eine Problemanzeige |periodical = Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte |last = Brox |first = Norbert |publisher =[[Kohlhammer Verlag]]|year = 1984 |volume = 95 |pages = 301–314 |issn = 0044-2925 
}}
* {{cite book |title=A Theology of the Cross: The Death of Jesus in the Pauline Letters |last=Cousar |first=Charles B. |year=1990 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=0-8006-1558-1 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Dennis |first=John |year=2006 |title=Jesus' Death in John's Gospel: A Survey of Research from Bultmann to the Present with Special Reference to the Johannine Hyper-Texts |journal=[[Currents in Biblical Research]] |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=331–363 |doi=10.1177/1476993X06064628 |s2cid=170326371 }}
* {{cite book|title=The Symbols of the Church|last=Dilasser|first=Maurice|year=1999|publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-2538-5|url=https://archive.org/details/symbolsofchurch00dila}}
* {{cite book |title=The Death of Jesus: Tradition and Interpretation in the Passion Narrative |last=Green |first=Joel B. |year=1988 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=3-16-145349-2 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Humphreys |first=Colin J. |date=December 1983 |title=Dating the Crucifixion |journal=Nature |volume=306 |issue=5945 |pages=743–746 |doi=10.1038/306743a0 |author2=W. G. Waddington |bibcode=1983Natur.306..743H|s2cid=4360560 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Rosenblatt |first=Samuel |date=December 1956 |title=The Crucifixion of Jesus from the Standpoint of Pharisaic Law |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=315–321 |doi=10.2307/3261265 |publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature |jstor=3261265 }}
* {{cite book |title=Archaeology and the New Testament |last=McRay |first=John |year=1991 |publisher=Baker Books |isbn=0-8010-6267-5 }}
* {{cite book |title=Crucifixion in Antiquity |last=Samuelsson |first=Gunnar. |year=2011 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=978-3-16-150694-9 }}
* {{Cite book|chapter = The Gospel of Peter |title = New Testament Apocrypha: Gospels and related writings |last1 = Schneemelcher |first1 = Wilhelm |author-link = Wilhelm Schneemelcher |last2 = Maurer |first2 = Christian |editor1-last = Schneemelcher |editor1-first = Wilhelm |editor1-link = Wilhelm Schneemelcher |editor2-last = Wilson |editor2-first = McLachlan |publisher = Westminster John Knox Press |year = 1994 |orig-year = 1991 |volume = 1 |pages = 216–227 |isbn = 978-0-664-22721-0 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TDW0PeFSvGEC&pg=PA220 |access-date = April 25, 2012}}
* {{cite book |title=The Crucifixion of Jesus |last=Sloyan |first=Gerard S. |year=1995 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=0-8006-2886-1 }}

==External links==
{{commons category multi|Crucifixion of Christ|Icons of the crucifixion of Christ|Paintings of the Crucifixion of Christ}}

{{Jesus footer}}
{{Gospel of Matthew}}
{{Gospel of Mark}}
{{Gospel of Luke}}
{{Gospel of John}}
{{Easter}}
{{History of the Catholic Church}}
{{Catholic Church footer}}
{{History of Christianity}}
{{Christianity footer}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Crucifixion of Jesus}}
[[Category:Crucifixion of Jesus| ]]
[[Category:1st century in Jerusalem]]
[[Category:30s in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Christology]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]
[[Category:Passion of Jesus]]
[[Category:Public executions]]
[[Category:Sorrowful Mysteries]]
[[Category:Stations of the Cross]]
[[Category:Seven Sorrows of Mary]]