Communication studies

{{Short description|Academic discipline}}
{{Redirect|Communication research|the journal|Communication Research (journal){{!}}''Communication Research'' (journal)}}
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{{Communication}}

'''Communication studies''' or '''communication science''' is an [[academic discipline]] that deals with processes of [[human communication]] and [[Human behavior|behavior]], patterns of communication in [[interpersonal relationship]]s, [[social interaction]]s and communication in different [[culture]]s.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Calhoun |first=Craig |chapter=Communication as Social Science (and More) |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Steve |title=Communicating @ the Center |date=2012 |publisher=Hampton Press |isbn=978-1-61289-082-1 |oclc=949793640 }}</ref> Communication is commonly defined as giving, receiving or exchanging ideas, information, signals or messages through appropriate [[Media (communication)|media]], enabling individuals or groups to persuade, to seek information, to give information or to express emotions effectively.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Communication in Everyday Life: Personal and Professional Contexts |last1=Ferguson |first1=Sherry Devereaux|last2=Lennox Terrion |first2=Jenepher |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-544928-0|location=Don Mills, Ontario, Canada|oclc=861207333|date = March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Organizational Behavior|last=Bauer|first=Talya|publisher=FlatWorld|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4533-7118-3|location=Boston, MA|pages=227–242}}</ref> Communication studies is a [[social science]] that uses various methods of [[Empirical method|empirical investigation]] and [[critical analysis]] to develop a body of knowledge that encompasses a range of topics, from face-to-face conversation at a level of individual [[Agency (sociology)|agency]] and interaction to [[social]] and [[Cultural studies|cultural]] communication systems at a macro level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Craig |first1=Robert T. |title=Communication Theory as a Field |journal=Communication Theory |date=May 1999 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=119–161 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x }}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=The presentation of self in everyday life|last=Goffman, Erving|isbn=978-0-385-09402-3|edition=Anchor books|location=Garden City, New York|oclc=256298|year=1959|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/presentationofse00goff_0}}</ref>

Scholarly communication theorists focus primarily on refining the [[theoretical]] understanding of communication, examining [[statistics]] in order to help substantiate claims. The range of social scientific methods to study communication has been expanding. Communication [[research]]ers draw upon a variety of [[Qualitative research|qualitative]] and [[Quantitative research|quantitative]] techniques. The [[Linguistic turn|linguistic]] and [[cultural turn]]s of the mid-20th century led to increasingly [[Verstehen|interpretative]], [[hermeneutic]], and [[philosophic]] approaches towards the analysis of communication.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Statistical methods for communication science|last=Hayes, Andrew F.|date=2005|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates|isbn=978-1-4106-1370-7|location=Mahwah, N.J.|oclc=320950289}}</ref> Conversely, the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s have seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically, and computationally focused techniques.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Shannon|first=C. E.|date=2001-01-01|title=A mathematical theory of communication|journal=ACM SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communications Review|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=3–55|doi=10.1145/584091.584093|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002C-4317-B|s2cid=195349262|hdl-access=free}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=June 2021|reason=Reference is from 1948}}

As a field of study, communication is applied to [[journalism]], [[business]], [[mass media]], [[public relations]], [[marketing]], [[News broadcasting|news]] and [[television broadcasting]], [[Interpersonal communication|interpersonal]] and [[Cross-cultural communication|intercultural]] communication, [[education]], [[public administration]]—and beyond.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last=Mifsud|first=Mari Lee|date=2019-04-03|title=To the humanities: what does communication studies give?|journal=Review of Communication|volume=19|issue=2|pages=77–93|doi=10.1080/15358593.2019.1599411|s2cid=182203816}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Communication theories : origins, methods, and uses in the mass media|last=Severin, Werner J. (Werner Joseph)|date=2001|publisher=Addison Wesley Longman|others=Tankard, James W.|isbn=0-8013-3335-0|edition=5th|location=New York|oclc=43397110}}</ref> As all spheres of human activity and conveyance are affected by the interplay between social communication structure and individual agency,<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Interpersonal communication|last=Trenholm, Sarah, 1944-|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Jensen, Arthur, 1954-|isbn=978-0-19-982750-3|edition=7th|location=Oxford|oclc=739914833}}</ref> communication studies has gradually expanded its focus to other domains, such as [[health]], [[medicine]], [[economy]], [[Military communications|military]] and [[Prison|penal institutions]], [[Internet|the Internet]], [[social capital]], and the role of communicative activity in the development of [[scientific knowledge]].

== History ==
{{Main|History of communication studies}}

=== Origins ===
Communication, a natural human behavior, became a topic of study in the 20th century.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=A first look at communication theory|last=Griffin, Emory A.|others=Ledbetter, Andrew,, Sparks, Glenn Grayson|isbn=978-1-260-13243-4|edition=Tenth|location=New York, NY|oclc=1010662990|date = 2018-03-05}}</ref> As communication technologies developed, so did the serious study of communication. During this time, a renewed interest in the studies of rhetoric, such as persuasion and public address, was created, which ultimately laid the foundation for several of the forms of communication studies that we know of today.<ref name=":04">{{Cite web |title=Study of Communication {{!}} Department of Communication |url=https://communication.humboldt.edu/study-communication#:~:text=The%20Communication%20discipline%20is%20both,part%20of%20the%20citizenry%27s%20education. |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=communication.humboldt.edu}}</ref> The focus of communication studies developed further in the 20th century, eventually including means of communication such as mass communication, interpersonal communication, and oral interpretation.<ref name=":04"/> When [[World War I]] ended, the interest in studying communication intensified. The methods of communication that had been used during the war had challenged the beliefs many people had on the limits of it that existed prior to these events. Innovations were invented during this period of time that no one had ever seen before, like the aircraft telephones and throat microphones.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Archives |first=The National |title=The National Archives - Fighting talk: First World War telecommunications - The National Archives |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/first-world-war/telecommunications-in-war/ |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=www.nationalarchives.gov.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> However, new ways of communicating that had been discovered, especially the use of morse code through portable morse code machines, helped troops to communicate in a much more rapid pace than ever before.<ref name=":2" /> This then sparked ideas for even more advanced ways of communication to later be created and discovered.<ref name=":2" />

The social science study was fully recognized as a legitimate discipline after [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Getting the message : a history of communications|last=Solymar, L. (Laszlo)|date=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-850333-4|location=Oxford|oclc=40602884}}</ref> Prior to being established as its own discipline, communication studies, was formed from three other major studies no: psychology, sociology, and political science.<ref name=":122" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Bannerman|first1=Sara|last2=Haggart|first2=Blayne|date=2014-10-27|title=Historical Institutionalism in Communication Studies: Historical Institutionalism in Communication Studies|journal=Communication Theory|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–22|doi=10.1111/comt.12051}}</ref> Communication studies focus on communication as central to the human experience, which involves understanding how people behave in creating, exchanging, and interpreting messages.<ref>Jefferson D. Pooley, "The New History of Mass Communication Research", in History of Media and Communication Research: Contested Memories, edited with David Park (New York: Peter Lang, 2008)</ref> Today, this accepted discipline now also encompasses more modern forms of communication studies as well, such as gender and communication, intercultural communication, political communication, health communication, and organizational communication.<ref name=":04"/>

=== Foundations of the academic discipline ===
The institutionalization of communication studies in U.S. higher education and research has often been traced to [[Columbia University]], the [[University of Chicago]], and the [[University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign]], where early pioneers of the field worked after the [[Second World War]].<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">William F. Eadie, "Communication as an Academic Field: USA and Canada", in International Encyclopedia of Communication, ed. Wolfgang Donsbach, Boston, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.</ref><ref name="obit2" />

[[Wilbur Schramm]] is considered the founder of the field of communication studies in the United States.<ref name="obit2">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/01/obituaries/wilbur-schramm-wrote-many-works-on-communications.html|title=Wilbur Schramm; Wrote Many Works On Communications|date=1 January 1988|work=[[The New York Times]] |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928045025/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/01/obituaries/wilbur-schramm-wrote-many-works-on-communications.html |archive-date= Sep 28, 2022 }}</ref> Schramm was hugely influential in establishing communication as a field of study and in forming departments of communication studies across universities in the United States.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Handbook of Communication History|last=Simonson|first=Peter|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-0415892599|location=New York}}</ref> He was the first individual to identify himself as a communication scholar; he created the first academic degree-granting programs with communication in their name; and he trained the first generation of communication scholars.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anany |first1=Emile G. Mc |title=Wilbur Schramm, 1907-1987: Roots of the past, Seeds of the Present |journal=Journal of Communication |date=1 December 1988 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=109–122 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-2466.1988.tb02073.x }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=Everett M. |title=The department of communication at Michigan state university as a seed institution for communication study |journal=Communication Studies |date=1 September 2001 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=234–248 |doi=10.1080/10510970109388556 |s2cid=142732423 }}</ref> Schramm had a background in English literature and developed communication studies partly by merging existing programs in speech communication, rhetoric, and journalism. He also edited a textbook ''The Process and Effects of Mass Communication'' (1954) that helped define the field, partly by claiming [[Paul Lazarsfeld]], [[Harold Lasswell]], [[Carl Hovland]], and [[Kurt Lewin]] as its founding forefathers.<ref name="obit2" />

Schramm established three important communication institutes: the [[UIUC College of Media|Institute of Communications Research]] (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), the Institute for Communication Research ([[Stanford University]]), and the [[East–West Center|East-West]] Communication Institute ([[Honolulu]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Danielson|first=Wayne|date=1997|title=The Beginnings of Communication Study in America: A Personal Memoir|journal=Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly|volume=73|issue=4|pages=890–910}}</ref> The patterns of scholarly work in communication studies that were set in motion at these institutes continue to this day.<ref name="The Free Press2">{{cite book|title=A History of Communication Study: A Biological Approach|last1=Rogers|first1=Everett|date=1994|publisher=The Free Press|location=NY|page=29}}</ref> Many of Schramm's students, such as [[Everett Rogers]] and [[David Berlo]] went on to make important contributions of their own.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Diffusion of innovations|last=Rogers, Everett M.|date=2003|publisher=Free Press|isbn=0-7432-2209-1|edition=5th|location=New York|oclc=52030797|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/diffusionofinnov00roge}}</ref>

The first college of communication was founded at [[Michigan State University]] in 1958, led by scholars from Schramm's original [[UIUC College of Media|ICR]] and dedicated to studying communication scientifically using a quantitative approach.<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1996-03-16-9603160107-story.html|title=David Kenneth Berlo |website=Chicago Tribune |date=16 March 1996 |language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-02 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181004171122/https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1996-03-16-9603160107-story.html |archive-date= Oct 4, 2018 }}</ref> MSU was soon followed by important departments of communication at [[Purdue University]], [[University of Texas-Austin]], [[Stanford University]], [[University of Iowa]], [[University of Illinois]], [[University of Pennsylvania]], [[The University of Southern California]], and [[Northwestern University]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ely|first=Donald|date=1960|title=The Communications School: Neophyte in Higher Education|journal=Audio Visual Communication Review|volume=8|issue=5|pages=20–27|doi=10.1007/BF02719714 |s2cid=59735392 |via=JSTOR}}</ref><ref name=":6">Simonson, Peter; Peters, John Durham (2008-06-05), "Communication and Media Studies, History to 1968", ''The International Encyclopedia of Communication'', John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, {{ISBN|978-1-4051-8640-7}}, retrieved 2019-12-02</ref>

Associations related to Communication Studies were founded or expanded during the 1950s. The National Society for the Study of Communication (NSSC) was founded in 1950 to encourage scholars to pursue communication research as a social science.<ref name=":4" /> This Association launched the [[Journal of Communication]] in the same year as its founding. Like many communication associations founded around this decade, the name of the association changed with the field. In 1968 the name changed to the [[International Communication Association]] (ICA).<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=The history of speech communication : the emergence of a discipline, 1914-1945|last=Cohen|first=Herman|date=1995|publisher=Speech Communication Association|isbn=0-944811-14-0|location=Annandale, Va|oclc=667177896}}</ref>

===In the United States===
Undergraduate curricula aim to prepare students to interrogate the nature of communication in society, and the development of communication as a specific field.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morreale |first1=Sherwyn |last2=Osborn |first2=Michael |last3=Pearson |first3=Judy |date=2000 |title=Why Communication is Important: A Rationale for the Centrality of the Study of Communication |url=https://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/More_Scholarly_Resources/Chairs_Corner/Making_the_Case_for_and_Advancing_the_Discipline/PDF-ATD-JACA-Why_Communication_is_Important_%20Rationale_for_Centrality_of_the_Study_of_Communication.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of the Association for Communication Administration |publisher=National Communication Association |volume=29 |pages=1–25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105235213/https://www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/More_Scholarly_Resources/Chairs_Corner/Making_the_Case_for_and_Advancing_the_Discipline/PDF-ATD-JACA-Why_Communication_is_Important_%20Rationale_for_Centrality_of_the_Study_of_Communication.pdf |archive-date=2017-01-05 |access-date=2016-09-07}}</ref>

The [[National Communication Association]] (NCA) recognizes several distinct but often overlapping specializations within the broader communication discipline including:<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-04-26 |title=What is Communication? |url=https://www.natcom.org/about-nca/what-communication |access-date=2022-06-23 |website=National Communication Association |language=en}}</ref> [[technical communication|technology]], critical-cultural, [[health communication|health]], [[intercultural communication|intercultural]], [[interpersonal communication|interpersonal]]-small group, mass communication, [[organizational communication|organizational]], [[political communication|political]], rhetorical, and [[environmental communication]]. Students take courses in these subject areas. Other programs and courses often integrated in communication programs include{{citation needed|date=May 2019}} [[journalism]], [[rhetoric]], [[film criticism]], [[theatre]], [[public relations]], [[political science]] (e.g., political campaign strategies, public speaking, effects of media on elections), as well as [[radio]], [[television]], [[computer-mediated communication]], [[film production]], and [[new media]].

Many colleges in the United States offer a variety of different majors within the realm of communication studies, consisting of programs of study in the areas mentioned above. Communication studies is often perceived by many in society as being primarily centered around the media arts, however, those that become communication studies graduates could move on to have careers in areas ranging from media arts to public advocacy to marketing to non-profit organizations and even more.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BA in Communication Studies |url=https://cla.umn.edu/comm-studies/undergraduate/majors-minors/ba-communication-studies |access-date=2022-11-07 |website=College of Liberal Arts |language=en}}</ref>

=== In Canada ===
With the early influence of federal institutional inquiries, notably the 1951 ''Massey Commission'',<ref name="emc"/> which "investigated the overall state of culture in Canada",<ref name="emc">{{Cite web |title=Massey Commission  |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/massey-commission-emc |first1= J.D.M. |last1=Stewart |first2=Helmut |last2=Kallmann |first3= Andrew |last3=McIntosh  |orig-date= February 7, 2006 |date= November 12, 2019 |access-date=2018-10-25 |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> the study of communication in Canada has frequently focused on the development of a cohesive national culture, and on infrastructural empires of social and material circulation. Although influenced by the American Communication tradition and [[British Cultural Studies]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=British Cultural Studies |url=https://people.ucalgary.ca/~rseiler/british.htm |access-date=2021-12-01 |website=people.ucalgary.ca}}</ref> Communication studies in Canada has been more directly oriented toward the state and the policy apparatus, for example the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) |date=2014-03-21 |title=Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission |url=https://crtc.gc.ca/eng/home-accueil.htm |access-date=2021-12-01 |website=crtc.gc.ca}}</ref> Influential thinkers from the Canadian communication tradition include [[Harold Innis]], [[Marshall McLuhan]], Florian Sauvageau, Gertrude Robinson, Marc Raboy, [[Dallas Smythe]], [[James R. Taylor]], [[François Cooren]], [[Gail Guthrie Valaskakis]] and [[George Grant (philosopher)|George Grant]].

Communication studies within Canada are a relatively new discipline, however, there are programs and departments to support and teach this topic in about 13 Canadian universities and many colleges as well.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=Communication Studies  |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/communication-studies |first1= Liora |last1=Salter |orig-date= December 3, 2012 |date= March 4, 2015 |access-date=2022-11-08 |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia}}</ref> The Communication et information from Laval, and the Canadian Journal of Communication from McGill University in Montréal, are two journals that exist in Canada.<ref name=":7" /> There are also organizations and associations, both national and in Québec, that appeal to the specific interests that are targeted towards these academics.<ref name=":7" /> These specific journals consist of representatives from the industry of communication, the government, and members of the public as a whole.<ref name=":7" />

== Scope and topics ==
{{Rhetoric}}
{{Main|Outline of communication}}
Communication studies integrates aspects of both social sciences and the humanities. As a [[social science]], the discipline overlaps with [[sociology]], [[psychology]], [[anthropology]], [[biology]], [[political science]], [[economics]], and [[public policy]].<ref name=":0" /> From a [[humanities]] perspective, communication is concerned with [[rhetoric]] and [[persuasion]] (traditional graduate programs in communication studies trace their history to the rhetoricians of [[Ancient Greece]]).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Routledge Handbook of Strategic Communication.|date=2019|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-367-36773-2|location=[S.l.]|oclc=1107565954}}</ref> Humanities approaches to communication often overlap with [[history]], [[philosophy]], [[English literature|English]], and [[cultural studies]].

Communication research informs [[politician]]s and [[Public policy|policy makers]], [[Education|educators]], [[strategist]]s, [[legislator]]s, [[business magnate]]s, [[Management|managers]], [[social worker]]s, [[non-governmental organization]]s, [[non-profit organization]]s, and people interested in resolving communication issues in general.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes |publisher=Cengage Learning |last=Miller|first=Katherine|isbn=978-1-285-16420-5|edition=Seventh|location=Stamford, Connecticut|oclc=864086905|date = January 2014}}</ref> There is often a great deal of crossover between [[Social research and methods|social research]], cultural research, [[market research]], and other statistical fields.

Recent critiques have been made about the homogeneity of communication scholarship. For example, Chakravartty, et al. (2018)<ref name="#CommunicationSoWhite">{{cite journal |last1=Chakravartty |first1=Paula |last2=Kuo |first2=Rachel |last3=Grubbs |first3=Victoria |last4=McIlwain |first4=Charlton |title=#CommunicationSoWhite |journal=Journal of Communication |date=2018 |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=254–266 |doi=10.1093/joc/jqy003 |ref=48|doi-access=free }}</ref> find that white scholars comprise the vast majority of publications, citations, and editorial positions. From a [[Postcolonialism|post-colonial]] point of view, this state is problematic because communication studies engages with a wide range of social justice concerns. 
{{Further|Mediated quasi-interaction}}

=== Business ===
{{Main|Business communication}}
Business communication emerged as a field of study in the late 20th century, due to the centrality of communication within business relationships. The scope of the field is difficult to define because of the various ways in which communication is used between employers, employees, consumers, and brands.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Locker |first1=Kitty O. |last2=Miller |first2=Scott L. |last3=Richardson |first3=Malcolm |last4=Tebeaux |first4=Elizabeth |last5=Yates |first5=JoAnne |date=1996-06-01 |title=Studying the History of Business Communication |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/108056999605900210 |journal=Business Communication Quarterly |language=en |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=109–127 |doi=10.1177/108056999605900210 |s2cid=167570689 |issn=1080-5699}}</ref> Because of this, the focus of the field is usually placed on the demands of employers, which is more universally understood by the revision of the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of business standards to emphasize written and oral communication as an important characteristic in the curriculum.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Plutsky |first=Susan |date=1996-12-01 |title=Faculty Perceptions of Students' Business Communication Needs |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/108056999605900407 |journal=Business Communication Quarterly |language=en |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=69–76 |doi=10.1177/108056999605900407 |s2cid=167893503 |issn=1080-5699}}</ref> Business communication studies, therefore, revolve around the, ever changing, written and oral communication aspects directly related to the field of business.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Jensen J. |date=1996-12-01 |title=Using Case Studies for International Business Communication Training |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/108056999605900402 |journal=Business Communication Quarterly |language=en |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=11–24 |doi=10.1177/108056999605900402 |s2cid=167843015 |issn=1080-5699}}</ref> Implementation of modern business communication curriculums are enhancing the study of business communication as a whole, while further preparing those to be able to effectively communicate in the business community.<ref name=":1" />

=== Healthcare ===
{{Main|Health communication}}
[[Health communication]] is a multidisciplinary field that practices the application of "communication evidence, strategy, theory, and creativity" in order to advance the well-being of people and populations. The term was first coined in 1975 by the International Communication Association and, in 1997, Health communication was officially recognized in the broader fields of Public Health Education and Health Promotion by the American Public Health Association.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Health Communication |url=https://www.societyforhealthcommunication.org/health-communication |access-date=1 May 2023 |website=Society for Health Communication}}</ref> The discipline integrates components of various theories and models, with a focus on social marketing. It uses marketing to develop "activities and interventions designed to positively change behaviors."<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 April 2018 |title=Health Communication |url=https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/toolkits/health-promotion/2/strategies/health-communication |access-date=2 May 2023 |website=Rural Health Information Hub |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504060747/https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/toolkits/health-promotion/2/strategies/health-communication  |archive-date= May 4, 2023 }}</ref> This emergence affected several dynamics of the healthcare system. It brought elevated awareness to different avenues including promotional activities and communication between heath professionals and their employees, patients, and constituents. "Efforts to create marketing-oriented organizations called for the widespread dissemination of information", putting a spotlight on theories of "communication, the communication process, and the techniques that were being utilized to communicate in other settings."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Richard K |title=Health Communication |publisher=Springer |year=2006 |isbn=9780387261164 |location=Boston, MA |pages=39–46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpOstdnh3e0C&pg=PA39 }}</ref> Now, health care organizations of all types are using things like social media. "Uses include communicating with the community and patients; enhancing organizational visibility; marketing products and services; establishing a venue for acquiring news about activities, promotions, and fund-raising; providing a channel for patient resources and education; and providing customer service and support."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ventola |first=C. Lee |date=July 2014 |title=Social Media and Health Care Professionals: Benefits, Risks, and Best Practices |journal= P & T: A Peer-Reviewed Journal for Formulary Management|volume=39 |issue=7 |pages=491–520 |pmid=25083128 |pmc=4103576 }}</ref>
{{Further|Medical writing}}

== Professional associations ==
*[[American Journalism Historians Association]] (AJHA)
*[[Association for Business Communication]] (ABC)
*[[Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication]] (AEJMC)
*Association for Teachers of Technical Writing (ATTW)<ref>[http://www.attw.org/ ATTW]</ref>
*Black College Communication Association (BCCA)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bccanews.org/ |title=BCCA |access-date=2018-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109083712/http://bccanews.org/ |archive-date=2016-01-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[Broadcast Education Association]] (BEA)
*[[Central States Communication Association]] (CSCA)
*[[Council of Communication Associations]] (CCA)
*[[European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing]] (EATAW)<ref>[http://www.eataw.eu/ EATAW]</ref>
*[[European Communication Research and Education Association]]
*[[IEEE Professional Communication Society]]<ref>[http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/pcs/ PCS]</ref>
*International Association for Media and Communications Research<ref>[http://iamcr.org/ IAMCR]</ref>
*[[International Association of Business Communicators]] (IABC)
*[[International Communication Association]] (ICA), an international, academic association for communication studies concerned with all aspects of human and mediated communication
*National Association of Black Journalists: NABJ
*National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE)<ref>[https://namle.net/ NAMLE]</ref>
*[[National Communication Association]] (NCA), [[professional organization]] concerned with various aspects of communication studies in the United States
*[[Public Relations Society of America]] (PRSA)
*[https://rhetoricsociety.org/aws/RSA/pt/sp/home_page Rhetoric Society of America] (RSA)
*[[Society for Cinema and Media Studies]], organization for communication research pertaining to film studies 
*[[Society for Technical Communication]] (STC)
*[[University Film and Video Association]], organization for the study of motion-picture production

==See also==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Communication]]
* [[Communibiology]]
* [[:Category:Communication journals|Communication journals]]
* [[Communication theory]]
* [[Critical theory]]
* [[Cultural studies]]
* [[Digital rhetoric]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[Outline of communication]]
* [[Philosophy of language]]
* [[Popular culture studies]]
* [[Rhetoric]]
* [[Semiotics]]
* [[Semiotics of culture]]
* [[Text and conversation theory]]
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* Carey, James. 1988 ''Communication as Culture.''
* Cohen, Herman. 1994. ''The History of Speech Communication: The Emergence of a Discipline, 1914-1945.'' Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.
* Gehrke, Pat J. 2009. ''The Ethics and Politics of Speech: Communication and Rhetoric in the Twentieth Century''. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
* Gehrke, Pat J. and William M. Keith, eds. 2014. ''A Century of Communication Studies: The Unfinished Conversation.'' New York: Routledge.
* Packer, J. & Robertson, C, eds. 2006. ''Thinking with James Carey: Essays on Communications, Transportation, History.''
* Peters, John Durham and Peter Simonson, eds. 2004. ''Mass Communication and American Social Thought: Key Texts 1919-1968.''
* Wahl-Jorgensen, Karin 2004, 'How Not to Found a Field: New Evidence on the Origins of Mass Communication Research', ''Journal of Communication'', September 2004.

{{Communication studies |expanded}}
{{Social sciences |collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Communication studies| ]]