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Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Geopolitical tension, 1945 to 1991}} {{About|the state of political tension in the 20th century|the general term|Cold war (term)|other uses|Cold War (disambiguation)}} {{Redirect|Cold Warrior}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move}} {{long|words=21,000|nosplit=yes|date=January 2024}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}} {{Infobox | subheader = [[Truman Doctrine|12 March 1947]] – [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|26 December 1991]]{{efn-ua|Historians do not fully agree on its starting and ending points, but the period is generally considered to span from the announcement of the [[Truman Doctrine]] on 12 March 1947 to the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] on 26 December 1991.<ref>{{cite book | last=Service | first=Robert| title=The End of the Cold War: 1985–1991| date=2015 | publisher=Macmillan| isbn=978-1-4472-8728-5}}</ref>}} <br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=3|day1=12|year1=1947|month2=12|day2=12|year2=1991}})<br/>Part of the [[Aftermath of World War II|post-World War II era]] | above = Cold War | abovestyle = background-color:#C3D6EF;font-size:110% | subheaderstyle = background-color:#DCDCDC | image1 = [[File:NATO_vs._Warsaw_Pact_(1949-1990).svg|250px]] | caption1 = {{legend inline|#3465A4|[[NATO]]}} and {{legend inline|#D40000|[[Warsaw Pact]]}} states during the Cold War era | image2 = [[File:Cold War alliances mid-1975.svg|250px]] | caption2 = The "[[Three-world model|Three Worlds]]" of the Cold War era, between 30 April and 24 June 1975: {{leftlegend|#3465A4|[[First World]]: [[Western Bloc]] led by the [[United States]] and its allies}} {{leftlegend|#D40000|[[Second World]]: [[Eastern Bloc]] led by the [[Soviet Union]], [[China]] ([[Sino-Soviet split|Independent]]), and their allies}} {{leftlegend|#C0C0C0|[[Third World]]: [[Non-Aligned Movement|Non-Aligned]] and [[Neutral country|neutral countries]]}} }} {{History of the Cold War}} The '''Cold War''' was a period of [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] tension between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] and their respective allies, the [[Western Bloc]] and the [[Eastern Bloc]], that started in 1947 and lasted to 1991. The term ''[[Cold war (term)|cold war]]'' is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two [[superpower]]s, but they each supported opposing sides in major regional conflicts known as [[proxy war]]s. The conflict was based on the ideological and geopolitical struggle for global influence by these two superpowers, following their roles as the [[Allies of World War II]] that led to victory against [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] in 1945.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sempa|first=Francis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Px4uDwAAQBAJ|title=Geopolitics: From the Cold War to the 21st Century|date=12 July 2017|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-351-51768-3}}</ref> Aside from the [[nuclear arms race]] and conventional [[military deployment]], the struggle for dominance was expressed indirectly, such as [[psychological warfare]], [[propaganda campaign]]s, [[espionage]], far-reaching [[embargoes]], [[sports diplomacy]], and technological competitions like the [[Space Race]]. The Cold War began with the announcement of the [[Truman Doctrine]] in 1947, started a gradual winding down with the [[Sino-Soviet split]] between the Soviets and the [[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] in 1961, and ended with the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapse of the Soviet Union]] in 1991. The Western Bloc was led by the United States, as well as a number of [[First World]] nations that were generally [[Capitalism|Capitalist]] and [[Liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] but tied to a network of often [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] [[Third World]] states, most of which were the [[European powers' former colonies]].{{sfn|G. Jones|2014|pp=176–179}}{{efn-ua|[https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2013/11/economist-explains-16 "Where did banana republics get their name?" ''The Economist'', 21 November 2013]}} The Eastern Bloc was led by the Soviet Union and its [[Communist party]], which had an influence across the [[Second World]] and was also tied to a network of authoritarian states. The Soviet Union had a [[command economy]] and installed similarly [[Communist state|Communist regimes]] in its [[satellite state]]s. [[United States involvement in regime change during the Cold War]] included support for [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] and [[right-wing dictatorship]]s, governments, and uprisings across the world, while [[Soviet involvement in regime change]] included the funding of [[left-wing parties]], [[wars of national liberation|wars of independence]], revolutions and dictatorships around the world. As nearly all the colonial states underwent [[decolonization]] and achieved independence in the period from 1945 to 1960, many became Third World battlefields in the Cold War. ==Origins of the term== {{Main|Cold war (term)}} At the end of [[World War II]], English writer [[George Orwell]] used ''[[Cold war (term)|cold war]]'', as a general term, in his essay "You and the Atomic Bomb", published 19 October 1945 in the British newspaper ''[[Tribune (magazine)|Tribune]]''. Contemplating a world living in the shadow of the threat of [[nuclear warfare]], Orwell looked at [[James Burnham]]'s predictions of a polarized world, writing: {{blockquote|Looking at the world as a whole, the drift for many decades has been not towards anarchy but towards the reimposition of slavery... James Burnham's theory has been much discussed, but few people have yet considered its ideological implications—that is, the kind of world-view, the kind of beliefs, and the social structure that would probably prevail in a state which was at once unconquerable and in a permanent state of "cold war" with its neighbours.{{sfn|Orwell|1945}}}} In ''[[The Observer]]'' of 10 March 1946, Orwell wrote, "after the Moscow conference last December, Russia began to make a 'cold war' on Britain and the British Empire."{{sfn|Orwell|1946}} The first use of the term to describe the specific [[post-war]] geopolitical confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States came in a speech by [[Bernard Baruch]], an influential advisor to Democratic presidents,{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=54}} on 16 April 1947. The speech, written by journalist [[Herbert Bayard Swope]],<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/opinion/01iht-edsafire.2988871.html | title=Opinion | Language: Islamofascism, anyone? – Editorials & Commentary – International Herald Tribune | work=The New York Times | date=October 2006 | last1=Safire | first1=William }}</ref> proclaimed, "Let us not be deceived: we are today in the midst of a cold war."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Glass |first=Andrew |date=16 April 2016 |title=Bernard Baruch coins term 'Cold War,' April 16, 1947 |url=https://www.politico.com/story/2016/04/bernard-baruch-coins-term-cold-war-april-16-1947-221853 |access-date=2022-11-13 |website=[[Politico]] |language=en}}</ref> Newspaper columnist [[Walter Lippmann]] gave the term wide currency with his book ''The Cold War''. When asked in 1947 about the source of the term, Lippmann traced it to a French term from the 1930s, {{lang|fr|la guerre froide}}.{{efn-ua|[[Strobe Talbott]], ''The Great Experiment: The Story of Ancient Empires, Modern States, and the Quest for a Global Nation'' (2009) p. 441 n. 3; Lippmann's own book is {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydc3AAAAIAAJ |last=Lippmann |first=Walter |title=The Cold War |publisher=Harper |date=1947 |isbn=9780598864048 }} }} ==Phases== The [[first phase of the Cold War]] began shortly after the end of [[World War II]] in 1945. The United States and its [[Western Europe]]an allies sought to strengthen their bonds and used the policy of [[containment]] against Soviet influence; they accomplished this most notably through the formation of [[NATO]], which was essentially a defensive agreement in 1949. The Soviet Union countered with the [[Warsaw Pact]] in 1955, which had similar results with the Eastern Bloc. As by that time the Soviet Union already had an armed presence and political domination all over its eastern satellite states, the pact has been long considered superfluous.<ref>The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969 Laurien Crump Routledge, pp. 17, 11 February 2015</ref><ref>The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969 Laurien Crump Routledge, p. 1, 11 February 2015</ref> Although nominally a defensive alliance, the Warsaw Pact's primary function was to safeguard [[Soviet hegemony]] over its [[Eastern Europe]]an satellites, with the pact's only direct military actions having been the invasions of its own member states to keep them from breaking away;<ref>Laurien Crump (2015). ''The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969''. Routledge. p. 1.</ref> in the 1960s, the pact evolved into a multilateral alliance, in which the non-Soviet Warsaw Pact members gained significant scope to pursue their own interests.<!--https://www.routledge.com/The-Warsaw-Pact-Reconsidered-International-Relations-in-Eastern-Europe/Crump/p/book/9781138102132--> In 1961, Soviet-allied [[East Germany]] constructed the [[Berlin Wall]] to prevent the citizens of [[East Berlin]] from fleeing to [[West Berlin]], at the time part of United States-allied [[West Germany]].<ref name="Reinalda2009">{{cite book |author=Bob Reinalda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ln19AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA369 |title=Routledge History of International Organizations: From 1815 to the Present Day |date=11 September 2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-02405-6 |page=369 |access-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101212444/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ln19AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA369 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> Major crises of this phase included the [[Berlin Blockade]] of 1948–1949, the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]] of 1945–1949, the [[Korean War]] of 1950–1953, the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]] and the [[Suez Crisis]] of that same year, the [[Berlin Crisis of 1961]], the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] of 1962, and the [[Vietnam War]] of 1964–1975. Both superpowers competed for influence in [[Latin America]] and the [[Middle East]], and the decolonising states of [[Decolonisation of Africa|Africa]], [[Decolonisation of Asia|Asia]], and [[Decolonisation of Oceania|Oceania]]. Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, the [[fourth phase of the Cold War]] saw the [[Sino-Soviet split]] between [[China]] and the Soviet Union's complicated relations within the Communist sphere, leading to the [[Sino-Soviet border conflict]], while France, a Western Bloc state, began to demand greater autonomy of action. The [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia]] to suppress the [[Prague Spring]] of 1968, while the United States experienced internal turmoil from the [[civil rights movement]] and [[opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War]]. In the 1960s–1970s, an international [[peace movement]] took root among citizens around the world. Movements against [[nuclear weapons testing]] and for [[nuclear disarmament]] took place, with large [[anti-war]] protests. By the 1970s, both sides had started making allowances for peace and security, ushering in a period of [[détente]] that saw the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]] and the [[1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China]] that opened relations with China as a strategic counterweight to the Soviet Union. A number of self-proclaimed [[Marxist–Leninist]] governments were formed in the second half of the 1970s in [[developing countries]], including [[People's Republic of Angola|Angola]], [[People's Republic of Mozambique|Mozambique]], [[People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], [[Democratic Kampuchea|Cambodia]], [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]], and [[Junta of National Reconstruction|Nicaragua]]. Détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] in 1979. Beginning in the 1980s, the [[fifth phase of the Cold War]] was another period of elevated tension. The [[Reagan Doctrine]] led to increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, which at the time was undergoing the [[Era of Stagnation]]. The [[sixth phase of the Cold War]] saw the new Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] introducing the liberalizing reforms of ''[[glasnost]]'' ("openness", c. 1985) and ''[[perestroika]]'' ("reorganization", c. 1987) and ending Soviet involvement in Afghanistan in 1989. Pressures for national sovereignty grew stronger in Eastern Europe, and Gorbachev refused to further support the Communist governments militarily. The fall of the [[Iron Curtain]] after the [[Pan-European Picnic]] and the [[Revolutions of 1989]], which represented a peaceful revolutionary wave with the exception of the [[Romanian Revolution]] and the [[Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)]], overthrew almost all of the Marxist–Leninist regimes of the Eastern Bloc. The [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] itself lost control in the country and was banned following the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt]] that August. This in turn led to the formal [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in December 1991 and the collapse of Communist governments across much of Africa and Asia. The [[Russian Federation]] became the Soviet Union's successor state, while many of the other republics emerged from the Soviet Union's collapse as fully independent [[post-Soviet states]].<ref name="web.archive.org">{{Cite web |date=23 November 2003 |title=INFCIRC/397 – Note to the Director General from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation |url=http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/inf397.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031123143520/http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/inf397.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=2003-11-23 }}</ref> The United States was left as the world's sole superpower. The Cold War has left a significant legacy. [[Effects of the Cold War|Its effects]] include references of the [[culture during the Cold War|culture during the war]], particularly with themes of [[Cold War espionage|espionage]] and the threat of [[nuclear warfare]]. The Cold War is generally followed by the categorization of ''[[international relations since 1989]]'' and ''[[post–Cold War era]]'' to underline its impact. ==Background== {{Main|Origins of the Cold War}} {{For timeline|Timeline of events in the Cold War}} ===Russian Revolution=== {{Main|Russian Revolution|Pro-independence movements in the Russian Civil War|Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|Red Terror|Russian famine of 1921–1922}} [[File:Wladiwostok Parade 1918.jpg|thumb|[[Allies of World War I|Allied]] troops in [[Vladivostok]], August 1918, during the [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War]]]] While most historians trace the origins of the Cold War to the period immediately following World War II, some argue that it began with the 1917 [[October Revolution]] in the [[Russian Republic]] when the [[Bolsheviks]] overthrew the [[Russian Provisional Government]]. In [[Diplomatic history of World War I|World War I]], the British, French and [[Russian Empire]]s had composed the major [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] from the start, and the US joined them as a self-styled Associated Power in April 1917. After the Bolsheviks' seizure of power, the bloody [[Red Terror]] was initiated to shut down all opposition, both perceived and real.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222175025/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union | url-status=dead | archive-date=22 February 2021 | title=How Lenin's Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union | website=[[National Geographic Society]] | date=2 September 2020 }}</ref> In December, the Bolsheviks signed an [[armistice]] with the [[Central Powers]], though by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets ended involvement in the war and signed the [[separate peace]] [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. As a result, German armies advanced rapidly across the borderlands. The Allies responded with an economic blockade against the new Russian regime.{{sfn|Tucker|2016|p=608}} In the eyes of some Allies, Russia now was helping Germany to win the war by freeing up a million German soldiers for the Western Front{{sfn|Combs|2015|pp=97–101}} and by relinquishing much of Russia's food supply, industrial base, fuel supplies, and communications with Western Europe.{{sfn|Chretien|2017|p=129}}{{sfn|Senior|2016|p=176}} According to historian [[Spencer C. Tucker|Spencer Tucker]], the Allies felt, "The treaty was the ultimate betrayal of the Allied cause and sowed the seeds for the Cold War. With Brest-Litovsk the spectre of German domination in Eastern Europe threatened to become reality, and the Allies now began to think seriously about military intervention," and proceeded to step up their "[[economic warfare]]" against the Bolsheviks.{{sfn|Tucker|2016|p=608}} [[Left communism|Some Bolsheviks]] saw Russia as only the first step, planning to incite revolutions against capitalism in every western country, but the need for peace with Germany led Soviet leader [[Vladimir Lenin]] away from this position.{{efn-ua|{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Left-Communist |title= Left Communist {{!}} Russian political faction |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=30 September 2018}}}} In 1918, Britain provided money and troops to support the [[White movement]], a loose confederation of anti-Bolshevik forces. This policy was spearheaded by Minister of War [[Winston Churchill]], a committed [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]].{{sfn|Kinvig|2007|p=91–95}} A long and bloody [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]] ensued between the [[Red Army|Reds]] and the [[White Army|Whites]], starting in 1917 and ending in 1923 with the Reds' victory. It included [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|foreign intervention]], the [[Execution of the Romanov family|execution of the former Emperor and his family]], and the [[Russian famine of 1921|famine of 1921]], which killed about five million people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mawdsley |first=Evan |url=https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan |title=The Russian Civil War |date=1 March 2007 |publisher=Pegasus Books |isbn=978-1-933648-15-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiancivilwar00evan/page/287 287] |author-link=Evan Mawdsley |url-access=registration}}</ref> Soviet Russia sought to re-conquer all newly independent nations of the former Empire, although their success was limited. [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonia]], [[Finnish Civil War|Finland]], [[Latvian War of Independence|Latvia]], and [[Lithuanian–Soviet War|Lithuania]] all repelled Soviet invasions, while [[Ukrainian–Soviet War|Ukraine]], Belarus (as a result of the [[Polish–Soviet War]]), [[Red Army invasion of Armenia|Armenia]], [[Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] and [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|Georgia]] were occupied by the Red Army. [[File:American Relief Administration in Russia in 1922.jpg|thumb|right|American Relief Administration operations in Russia, 1922]] Large scale food relief was distributed to Europe after the war through the [[American Relief Administration]] run by [[Herbert Hoover]]. In 1921, to ease the devastating famine in the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] that was triggered by the Soviet government's [[war communism]] policies,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/War-Communism|title=War Communism|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]] |date=8 June 2023 }}</ref> the ARA's director in Europe, [[Walter Lyman Brown]], began negotiating with the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)|Russian People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs]], [[Maxim Litvinov]], in [[Riga]], [[Latvia]] (at that time not yet annexed by the USSR). An agreement was reached on 21 August 1921, and an additional implementation agreement was signed by Brown and People's Commissar for Foreign Trade [[Leonid Krasin]] on 30 December 1921. The U.S. Congress appropriated $20,000,000 for relief under the [[Russian Famine Relief Act]] of late 1921. Hoover strongly detested Bolshevism and felt the American aid would demonstrate the superiority of Western capitalism and thus help contain the spread of communism.<ref>Benjamin M. Weissman, "Herbert Hoover and the famine in Soviet Russia, 1921–23" in Mark Hatfield, ed. ''Herbert Hoover Reassessed'' (1981) pp 390–396.</ref><ref>Bertrand M. Patenaude, "A Race against Anarchy: Even after the Great War ended, famine and chaos threatened Europe. Herbert Hoover rescued the continent, reviving trade, rebuilding infrastructure, and restoring economic order, holding a budding Bolshevism in check." ''Hoover Digest'' 2 (2020): 183–200 [https://www.hoover.org/research/race-against-anarchy online]</ref> At its peak, the ARA employed 300 Americans, more than 120,000 Russians and fed 10.5 million people daily. Its Russian operations were headed by Col. [[William N. Haskell]]. The Medical Division of the ARA functioned from November 1921 to June 1923 and helped overcome the [[typhus]] epidemic then ravaging Russia. The ARA's famine relief operations ran in parallel with much smaller [[Mennonite]], Jewish and [[Quaker]] famine relief operations in Russia.<ref>See Lance Yoder's "Historical Sketch" in the online [http://www.mcusa-archives.org/MCC/ix-13201(russia%20photos).html Mennonite Central Committee Photograph Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204033520/http://www.mcusa-archives.org/MCC/ix-13201(russia%20photos).html |date=February 4, 2012 }}</ref><ref>See David McFadden et al., ''Constructive Spirit: Quakers in Revolutionary Russia'' (2004).</ref> [[File:19191107-lenin second anniversary october revolution moscow.jpg|thumb|[[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]], [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]] and [[Lev Kamenev|Kamenev]] celebrating the second anniversary of the [[October Revolution]]]] The ARA's operations in Russia were shut down on 15 June 1923, after it was discovered that Russia under Lenin renewed the export of grain.<ref>Charles M. Edmondson, "An Inquiry into the Termination of Soviet Famine Relief Programmes and the Renewal of Grain Export, 1922–23", ''Soviet Studies,'' Vol. 33, No. 3 (1981), pp. 370–385</ref> Western powers proceeded to diplomatically isolate the Soviet government. Lenin stated that [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]] was surrounded by a "hostile capitalist encirclement" and he viewed diplomacy as a weapon to keep Soviet enemies divided.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert English|title=Russia and the Idea of the West: Gorbachev, Intellectuals, and the End of the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qA_uT6GrcxEC&pg=PA26|date=2000|page=26|publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-50474-4|access-date=30 November 2019|archive-date=29 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729150207/https://books.google.com/books?id=qA_uT6GrcxEC&pg=PA26|url-status=live}}</ref> He set up an organization to promote sister revolutions worldwide, the [[Communist International|Comintern]]. It failed everywhere; it failed badly when it tried to start revolutions in [[German Revolution of 1918–1919|Germany]], its province of [[Bavarian Soviet Republic|Bavaria]], and [[Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–1920)|Hungary]].<ref>Kevin McDermott and Jeremy Agnew, ''The Comintern: A History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin'' (1996)</ref> The failures led to an inward turn by Moscow. Leaders of American foreign policy remained convinced that the Soviet Union, which was founded by Soviet Russia in 1922, was a hostile threat to American values. Republican Secretary of State [[Charles Evans Hughes]] rejected recognition, telling labor union leaders that, "those in control of Moscow have not given up their original purpose of destroying existing governments wherever they can do so throughout the world."<ref>Douglas Little, "Anti-Bolshevism and American Foreign Policy, 1919–1939" ''American Quarterly'' (1983) 35#4 pp 376–390 at p 378.</ref> Under President [[Calvin Coolidge]], Secretary of State [[Frank B. Kellogg]] warned that the Kremlin's international agency, the [[Communist International]] (Comintern) was aggressively planning subversion against other nations, including the United States, to "overthrow the existing order."<ref>Little, p 178</ref> Herbert Hoover in 1919 warned [[Woodrow Wilson]] that, "We cannot even remotely recognize this murderous tyranny without stimulating action is to radicalism in every country in Europe and without transgressing on every National ideal of our own."<ref>Little, p 378–79.</ref> Inside the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]], the Division of Eastern European Affairs by 1924 was dominated by [[Robert F. Kelley]], a dedicated opponent of communism who trained a generation of specialists including [[George Kennan]] and [[Charles Bohlen]].<ref>Little, p 379.</ref> Britain and other Western powers—unlike the United States—did business and sometimes recognized the new Soviet Union. Outside Washington, there was some American support for renewed relationships, especially in terms of technology.<ref>Kendall E. Bailes, "The American Connection: Ideology and the Transfer of American Technology to the Soviet Union, 1917–1941." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 23#3 (1981): 421–448.</ref> [[Henry Ford]], committed to the belief that international trade was the best way to avoid warfare, used his [[Ford Motor Company]] to build a truck industry and introduce tractors into Russia. Architect [[Albert Kahn (architect)|Albert Kahn]] became a consultant for all industrial construction in the Soviet Union in 1930.<ref>Dana G. Dalrymple, "The American tractor comes to Soviet agriculture: The transfer of a technology." ''Technology and Culture'' 5.2 (1964): 191–214.</ref> By 1933, the American business community, as well as newspaper editors, were calling for diplomatic recognition. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] used presidential authority to normalize relations in November 1933.{{sfn|Smith|2007|pp=341–343}} However, there was no progress on the Tsarist debts Washington wanted Moscow to repay. Expectations of expanded trade proved unrealistic. Historians Justus D. Doenecke and Mark A. Stoler note that, "Both nations were soon disillusioned by the accord."{{sfn|Doenecke|Stoler|2005|pp=18, 121}} Roosevelt named [[William Christian Bullitt Jr.|William Bullitt]] as ambassador from 1933 to 1936. Bullitt arrived in Moscow with high hopes for Soviet–American relations, but his view of the Soviet leadership soured on closer inspection. By the end of his tenure, Bullitt was openly hostile to the Soviet government, and he remained an outspoken anti-communist for the rest of his life.{{sfn|Brownell|Billings|1987}} ===World War II=== In the late 1930s, [[Joseph Stalin]] had worked with Foreign Minister [[Maxim Litvinov]] to promote [[popular front]]s with capitalist parties and governments to oppose [[fascism]], although their primary enemy was the so-called "[[social fascism]]" of rival socialist parties, which in part paved the way for the rise of the [[Nazis]] in Germany.<ref name="Haro 2011">{{cite journal |last=Haro |first=Lea |year=2011 |title=Entering a Theoretical Void: The Theory of Social Fascism and Stalinism in the German Communist Party |journal=[[Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory]] |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=563–582 |doi=10.1080/03017605.2011.621248 |s2cid=146848013}}</ref><ref name="Hoppe 2011">{{cite book|last=Hoppe|first=Bert|year=2011|title=In Stalins Gefolgschaft: Moskau und die KPD 1928–1933|publisher=Oldenbourg Verlag|language=de|isbn=9783486711738}}</ref> In 1939, after attempts to form a military alliance with Britain and France against Germany failed, the Soviet Union made a dramatic shift towards Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why didn't the USSR join Allies in 1939? |last=Yegorov |first=Oleg |url=https://www.rbth.com/history/331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=5 February 2022 |website=Russia Beyond |archive-date=6 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206011636/https://www.rbth.com/history/331039-ussr-britain-france-talks-wwii |url-status=live }}</ref> Almost a year after Britain and France had concluded the [[Munich Agreement]] with Germany, the Soviet Union made agreements with Germany as well, both militarily and economically during [[German–Soviet Axis talks|extensive talks]]. Unlike the case of Britain and France, the Soviet Union's agreement with Germany, the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] (signed on 23 August 1939), included a secret protocol that paved the way for the Soviet invasion of Eastern European states and [[Military occupations by the Soviet Union|occupation of their territories]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/23/moscow-campaign-to-justify-molotov-ribbentrop-pact-sparks-outcry|title=Molotov-Ribbentrop: why is Moscow trying to justify Nazi pact?|work=[[The Guardian]]|author=Andrew Roth|date=23 August 2019}}</ref>{{sfn|Leffler|2008|pp=18–19}} The pact made possible the Soviet occupation of [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia]], [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina|Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region]], and [[Soviet invasion of Poland|eastern Poland]].{{sfn|Kalnins|2015|pp=126–127}} In late November 1939, unable to coerce the [[Finland|Republic of Finland]] by diplomatic means into moving its border {{Convert|25|km}} back from [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], Stalin ordered the [[Winter War|invasion of Finland]]. On 14 December 1939, the Soviet Union was expelled from the [[League of Nations]] for invading Finland.<ref>[https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations?form=MY01SV&OCID=MY01SV USSR expelled from the League of Nations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914013927/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/ussr-expelled-from-the-league-of-nations?form=MY01SV&OCID=MY01SV |date=14 September 2021 }}. www.history.com. 5 November 2009</ref>{{sfn|Tucker|2016|pp=612–613}}{{sfn|De Gruyter|2010|pp=171–172}} In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania]].{{sfn|Otfinoski|2014|p=14}} [[File:RIAN archive 44732 Soviet soldiers attack house.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], considered by many historians as a decisive turning point of World War II]] Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]] on 22 June 1941 starting what is known in Russia and some other post-Soviet states as the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Great Patriotic War]]. The [[Red Army]] stopped the seemingly invincible German Army at the [[Battle of Moscow]]. The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, dealt a severe blow to Germany from which they never fully recovered and became a turning point in the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through Eastern Europe to Berlin before [[End of World War II in Europe|Germany surrendered in 1945]]. The German Army suffered 80% of its military deaths in the Eastern Front.<ref>{{Cite book |first=William J. |last=Duiker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC |title=Contemporary World History |date=31 August 2009 |publisher=Wadsworth Pub Co |isbn=978-0-495-57271-8 |page=128 |access-date=25 May 2020 |archive-date=22 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622200541/https://books.google.com/books?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC |url-status=live }}</ref> Though operational cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union was notably less than that between other allied powers, the United States nevertheless provided the Soviet Union with huge quantities of weapons, ships, aircraft, rolling stock, [[strategic material]]s, and food through the [[Lend-Lease]] program.{{sfn|Herring|1973}}{{sfn|Gaddis|1990|pp=151–153}} In total, the U.S. deliveries through Lend-Lease amounted to $11 [[1,000,000,000 (number)|billion]] in materials: over 400,000 [[jeep]]s and trucks; 12,000 [[armored vehicle]]s (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386<ref>Zaloga (Armored Thunderbolt) p. 28, 30, 31</ref> of which were [[M3 Lee]]s and 4,102 [[Lend-Lease Sherman tanks|M4 Shermans]]);<ref>''Lend-Lease Shipments: World War II'', Section IIIB, Published by Office, Chief of Finance, War Department, 31 December 1946, p. 8.</ref> 11,400 aircraft (4,719 of which were [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]]s)<ref>{{harvnb|Hardesty|1991|p=253}}</ref> and 1.75 million tons of food.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf ''World War II The War Against Germany And Italy''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170506174749/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V2/PDF/Chapter05.pdf |date=6 May 2017 }}, US Army Center Of Military History, page 158.</ref> [[File:Map US Lend Lease shipments to USSR-WW2.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.6|270px|U.S. [[Lend Lease]] shipments to the USSR]] Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94% coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.<ref>{{cite web|title=The five Lend-Lease routes to Russia |url=http://www.o5m6.de/Routes.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031212063805/http://www.o5m6.de/routes.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 12, 2003 |website=Engines of the Red Army |access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Motter |first1=T.H. Vail |title=The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia |date=1952 |publisher=Center of Military History |pages=4–6 |url=https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/persian/index.htm |access-date=July 12, 2014}}</ref> [[File:Teheran conference-1943.jpg|thumb|From left to right, the Soviet General Secretary [[Joseph Stalin]], US President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] [[Tehran Conference|confer]] in Tehran, 1943]] The USSR, in fulfillment of its agreement with the Allies at the [[Yalta Conference]], broke the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1945 which Japan had been honoring despite their alliance with Germany,<ref name="denunciation">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp Denunciation of the neutrality pact] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520092519/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s3.asp |date=20 May 2011 }} 5 April 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> and [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria|invaded Manchukuo and other Japan-controlled territories]] on 9 August 1945.<ref name="declarationofwar">[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp Soviet Declaration of War on Japan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520092513/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/s4.asp |date=20 May 2011 }}, 8 August 1945. ([[Avalon Project]] at [[Yale University]])</ref> [[Soviet–Japanese War|This conflict]] ended with a decisive Soviet victory, together with the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] by the U.S. contributing to the unconditional [[surrender of Japan]] and the end of World War II. ===Wartime conferences regarding post-war Europe=== {{Further|Tehran Conference|Yalta Conference|List of Allied World War II conferences}} The Allies disagreed about how the European map should look, and how borders would be drawn, following the war.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=13–23}} Each side held dissimilar ideas regarding the establishment and maintenance of post-war security.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=13–23}} Some scholars contend that all the Western Allies desired a security system in which democratic governments were established as widely as possible, permitting countries to peacefully resolve differences through [[international organization]]s.{{sfn|Gaddis|1990|p=156}} Others note that the Atlantic powers were divided in their vision of the new post-war world. Roosevelt's goals—military victory in both Europe and Asia, the achievement of global American economic supremacy over the [[British Empire]], and the creation of a world peace organization—were more global than Churchill's, which were mainly centered on securing control over the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], ensuring the survival of the British Empire, and the independence of Central and Eastern European countries as a [[Buffer state|buffer]] between the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Plokhy|2010}} [[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg|thumb|left|The "[[Allies of World War II|Big Three]]" at the [[Yalta Conference]]: [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[Joseph Stalin]], 1945]] The Soviet Union sought to dominate the internal affairs of countries in its border regions.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=13–23}}{{sfn|Gaddis|1990|p=176}} During the war, Stalin had created special training centers for communists from different countries so that they could set up secret police forces loyal to Moscow as soon as the Red Army took control. Soviet agents took control of the media, especially radio; they quickly harassed and then banned all independent civic institutions, from youth groups to schools, churches and rival political parties.{{efn-ua|[[Max Frankel]], "Stalin's Shadow", [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/25/books/review/iron-curtain-by-anne-applebaum.html ''New York Times'' 21 Nov 2012] reviewing Anne Applebaum, ''Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956'' (2012), See Introduction, text after note 26, and ch. 3, 7–9}} Stalin also sought continued peace with Britain and the United States, hoping to focus on internal reconstruction and economic growth.{{sfn|Heller|2006|p=27|ps=: "From the Soviet perspective, a postwar period of peace and reconstruction was indispensable. Therefore, the continuation of cooperation and peaceful relations with its wartime allies, the United States and Great Britain, was greatly to be desired."}} In the American view, Stalin seemed a potential ally in accomplishing their goals, whereas in the British approach Stalin appeared as the greatest threat to the fulfillment of their agenda. With the Soviets already occupying most of Central and Eastern Europe, Stalin was at an advantage, and the two Western leaders vied for his favors. The differences between Roosevelt and Churchill led to several separate deals with the Soviets. In October 1944, Churchill traveled to Moscow and proposed the "[[percentages agreement]]" to divide Europe into respective [[Sphere of influence|spheres of influence]], including giving Stalin predominance [[Romania in World War II|over Romania]], Hungary, and Bulgaria, and Churchill carte blanche [[White Terror (Greece)|over Greece.]] This proposal was accepted by Stalin. At the [[Yalta Conference]] of February 1945, Roosevelt signed a separate deal with Stalin regarding Asia and refused to support Churchill on the issues of Poland and reparations.{{sfn|Plokhy|2010}} Roosevelt ultimately approved the percentage agreement,{{sfn|Carlton|2000}}{{sfn|Todd|2016|pp=105–111}} but there was still apparently no firm consensus on the framework for a post-war settlement in Europe.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=21}} [[File:Map-Germany-1945.svg|thumb|Post-war [[Allied-occupied Germany|Allied occupation zones in Germany]]]] At the [[Second Quebec Conference]], a high-level military conference held in Quebec City, 12–16 September 1944, Churchill and Roosevelt reached agreement on a number of matters, including a plan for Germany based on [[Henry Morgenthau Jr.]]'s original proposal. The memorandum drafted by Churchill provided for "eliminating the warmaking industries in the Ruhr and the Saar ... looking forward to [[Morgenthau Plan|converting Germany into a country primarily agricultural]] and pastoral in its character." However, it no longer included a plan to partition the country into several independent states.{{efn-ua|[[United States Government Printing Office]], Report on the Morgenthau Diaries prepared by the Subcommittee of the [[United States]] Committee of the Judiciary appointed to investigate the Administration of the [[McCarran Internal Security Act]] and other Internal Security Laws, (Washington, 1967) volume 1, pp. 620–621}} On 10 May 1945, President Truman signed the US occupation directive JCS 1067, which was in effect for over two years and was enthusiastically supported by Stalin. It directed the US forces of occupation to "...take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany".{{sfn|Jonas|1985|p=270}} In April 1945, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Vice President [[Harry S. Truman]], who distrusted Stalin and turned for advice to an [[The Wise Men (book)#The "Wise Men"|elite group]] of foreign policy intellectuals. Both Churchill and Truman opposed, among other things, the Soviets' decision to prop up the [[Polish Committee of National Liberation|Lublin government]], the Soviet-controlled rival to the [[Polish government-in-exile]] of the original [[Second Polish Republic]] in London, whose relations with the Soviets had been severed.{{sfn|Zubok|Pleshakov|1996|p=94}} Following the [[End of World War II in Europe|Allies' May 1945 victory]], the Soviets effectively occupied Central and Eastern Europe,{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=21}} while strong US and Western allied forces remained in Western Europe. In [[Allied-occupied Germany|Germany]] and [[Allied-occupied Austria|Austria]], France, Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States established zones of occupation and a loose framework for parceled four-power control.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=22}} The [[United Nations Conference on International Organization|1945 Allied conference in San Francisco]] established the multi-national [[United Nations]] (UN) for the maintenance of [[world peace]], but the enforcement capacity of its [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] was effectively paralyzed by the ability of individual members to exercise [[United Nations Security Council veto power|veto power]].{{sfn|Glennon|2003}} Accordingly, the UN was essentially converted into an inactive forum for exchanging polemical rhetoric, and the Soviets regarded it almost exclusively as a [[Propaganda in the Soviet Union|propaganda]] tribune.{{sfn|Garthoff|1994|p=401}} ===Potsdam Conference and surrender of Japan=== {{Main|Potsdam Conference|Surrender of Japan}} [[File:The new "Big Three" meet for the first time at the Potsdam Conference in Potsdam, Germany. L to R, new British Prime... - NARA - 198950.jpg|thumb|[[Clement Attlee]], [[Harry S. Truman]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] at the [[Potsdam Conference]], 1945]] At the [[Potsdam Conference]], which started in late July 1945 after Germany's surrender, serious differences emerged over the future development of Germany and the rest of Central and Eastern Europe.{{sfn|Byrd|2003}} The Soviets pressed their demand made at Yalta, for $20 billion of reparations to be taken from Germany occupation zones. The Americans and British refused to fix a dollar amount for reparations, but they permitted the Soviets to remove some industry from their zones.{{sfn|Moss|1993|p=256}} Moreover, the participants' mounting antipathy and bellicose language served to confirm their suspicions about each other's hostile intentions and to entrench their positions.{{sfn|Wood|2005|p=62}} At this conference Truman informed Stalin that the United States possessed a powerful new weapon.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=24–26}} ===Postwar prelude and emergence of the two blocs (1945–1947)=== {{Main|Eastern Bloc}} {{Further|Post–World War II economic expansion}} [[File:EasternBloc BorderChange38-48.svg|thumb|Post-war territorial changes in Europe and the formation of the Eastern Bloc, the so-called "[[Iron Curtain]]"]] The US had invited Britain into its atomic bomb project but kept it secret from the Soviet Union. Stalin was aware that the Americans were working on the atomic bomb via his [[atomic spies]] in the West, and he reacted to the news calmly.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=24–26}} One week after the end of the Potsdam Conference, the US [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|bombed Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]. Shortly after the attacks, Stalin protested to US officials when Truman offered the Soviets little real influence in [[occupation of Japan|occupied Japan]].{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|p=28}} Stalin was reportedly also "outraged" by the dropping of the bombs, calling them a "superbarbarity" and claiming that "the balance has been destroyed...That cannot be." The Truman administration intended to use its ongoing nuclear weapons program to pressure the Soviet Union in international relations.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=24–26}} Following the war, the United States and the United Kingdom used military forces in Greece and Korea to remove combat governing regimes and forces seen as communist. Under the leadership of [[Lyuh Woon-hyung]], working secretly during the Japanese occupation, a network of [[People's Committee (postwar Korea)|people's committees]] throughout [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese Korea]] were formed to coordinate the transition to Korean independence. Following the [[Surrender of Japan|Japanese surrender]], on 28 August 1945, these committees formed the [[Provisional government|provisional national government]] of Korea, naming it the [[People's Republic of Korea]] (PRK) a couple of weeks later.<ref>Hart-Landsberg, Martin, Korea: Division, Reunification, & U.S. Foreign Policy, Monthly Review Press (1998), p. 65</ref><ref>Cumings, Bruce, The Origins of the Korean War, Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947, Princeton University Press (1981), p. 88</ref> It was proclaimed on 6 September 1945, as Korea was being [[Division of Korea|divided]] into two occupation zones, with the Soviet Union occupying the north and the United States occupying the south. In the south, the US military government outlawed the PRK on 12 December 1945. In the north, the Soviet authorities took over the PRK by installing pro-Soviet Korean communists such as [[Kim Il Sung]] into positions of power and incorporated it into the political structure of the emerging [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] (North Korea).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cumings |first=Bruce |title=The Origins of the Korean War, Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947 |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1981 |pages=196–197, 392–393, 408 |author-link=Bruce Cumings}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Armstrong |first1=Charles |title=The North Korean Revolution, 1945–1950 |date=2004 |publisher=Cornell University Press |page=54 |edition=1st}}</ref> During the opening stages of World War II, the Soviet Union laid the foundation for the [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern or Soviet Bloc]] by [[Military occupations by the Soviet Union|invading and then annexing]] several countries into the USSR as [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Socialist Republics]], following the agreement with Germany in the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]]. These included eastern [[Poland]] ([[Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union|incorporated]] into the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]] and the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]]),{{sfn|Roberts|2006|p=43}} [[Latvia]] (which became the [[Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic|Latvian SSR]]),{{sfn|Wettig|2008|p=21}}{{sfn|Senn|2007}} [[Estonia]] (which became the [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]]),{{sfn|Wettig|2008|p=21}}{{sfn|Senn|2007}} [[Lithuania]] (which became the [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic|Lithuanian SSR]]),{{sfn|Wettig|2008|p=21}}{{sfn|Senn|2007}} part of eastern [[Finland]] (which became the [[Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic|Karelo-Finnish SSR]], later incorporated in the Russian SFSR) and eastern [[Romania]] (which became the [[Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic|Moldavian SSR]]).{{sfn|Roberts|2006|p=55}} Central and Eastern European territories that the Soviet army occupied were added to the Eastern Bloc, pursuant to the percentages agreement between Churchill and Stalin, which, however, contain provisions regarding neither Poland nor Czechoslovakia or Germany. The Soviet Union converted the territories it occupied into [[satellite state]]s,{{sfn|Schmitz|1999}} such as: * [[People's Republic of Bulgaria]] (15 September 1946) * [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romanian People's Republic]] (13 April 1948) * [[Hungarian People's Republic]] (20 August 1949){{sfn|van Dijk|2008|p=200}} Moreover, two further socialist republics with a higher degree of independence from the Soviet Union were also established: * [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|People's Republic of Albania]] (11 January 1946){{sfn|Cook|2001|p=17}} * [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] The Soviet-style regimes that arose in the Bloc not only reproduced Soviet [[Planned economy|command economy]], but also adopted the brutal methods employed by Joseph Stalin and the Soviet secret police in order to suppress both real and perceived opposition.{{sfn|Roht-Arriaza|1995|p=83}} In Asia, the Red Army had overrun [[Manchuria]] in the last month of the war, and it went on to occupy the large swathe of Korean territory located north of the 38th parallel.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=40}} As part of consolidating Stalin's control over the Eastern Bloc, the [[NKVD|People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs]] (NKVD), led by [[Lavrentiy Beria]], supervised the establishment of Soviet-style secret police systems in the Bloc that were supposed to crush anti-communist resistance.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=34}} When the slightest stirrings of independence emerged in the Bloc, Stalin's strategy matched that of dealing with domestic pre-war rivals: they were removed from power, put on trial, imprisoned, and in some instances, executed.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=100}} Economically, the USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted [[World War II reparations|war reparations]] from [[East Germany]], [[People's Republic of Hungary|Hungary]], [[People's Republic of Romania|Romania]], and [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It also instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: "The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the [[Marshall Plan]]."<ref>Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe", in {{Cite book |editor-first=Klaus | editor-last=Larresm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174 |title=A Companion to Europe Since 1945 |publisher=Wiley |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-89024-0 |page=79}}</ref> British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was concerned that, given the enormous size of Soviet forces deployed in Europe at the end of the war, and the perception that Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was unreliable, there existed a Soviet threat to Western Europe.{{sfn|Fenton|1998}} After World War II, US officials guided Western European leaders in establishing their own secret security force to prevent subversion in the Western bloc, which evolved into [[Operation Gladio]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ganser |first1=Daniele |title=NATO's secret armies : operation Gladio and terrorism in Western Europe |date=2005 |publisher=Frank Cass |location=London |isbn=9780714656076}}</ref> ==Beginning of the Cold War, containment and the Truman Doctrine (1947–1953)== {{Main|Cold War (1947–1948)|Cold War (1948–1953)|Soviet empire|Containment|Truman Doctrine}} ===Iron Curtain, Iran, Turkey, Greece, and Poland=== {{Further|X Article|Iron Curtain|Iran crisis of 1946|Restatement of Policy on Germany}} [[File:Čížov (Zaisa) - preserved part of Iron curtain.JPG|thumb|left|Remains of the "Iron Curtain" in the [[Czech Republic]], 2014]] In late February 1946, [[George F. Kennan]]'s "[[X Article|Long Telegram]]" from Moscow to Washington helped to articulate the US government's increasingly hard line against the Soviets, which would become the basis for US strategy toward the Soviet Union for the duration of the Cold War. The telegram galvanized a policy debate that would eventually shape the [[Presidency of Harry S. Truman|Truman administration]]'s Soviet policy.<ref>{{Cite web|date=22 February 2021|title=This Day in History: George Kennan Sends "Long Telegram"|url=https://www.trumanlibraryinstitute.org/this-day-in-history-2/|access-date=27 October 2021|website=Truman Library Institute}}</ref> Washington's opposition to the Soviets accumulated after broken promises by Stalin and [[Vyacheslav Molotov|Molotov]] concerning Europe and Iran.{{sfn|Hasanli|2014|pp=221–222}} Following the World War II [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran]], the country was occupied by the Red Army in the far north and the British in the south.{{sfn|Sebestyen|2014}} Iran was used by the United States and British to supply the Soviet Union, and the Allies agreed to withdraw from Iran within six months after the cessation of hostilities.{{sfn|Sebestyen|2014}} However, when this deadline came, the Soviets remained in Iran under the guise of the [[Azerbaijan People's Government]] and [[Kurdish separatism in Iran|Kurdish]] [[Republic of Mahabad]].{{sfn|Kinzer|2003|pp=65–66}} Shortly thereafter, on 5 March, former British prime minister Winston Churchill delivered his famous "[[Iron Curtain]]" speech in [[Fulton, Missouri]].{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=94}} The speech called for an Anglo-American alliance against the Soviets, whom he accused of establishing an "iron curtain" dividing Europe from "[[Szczecin|Stettin]] in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] to [[Trieste]] in the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]]".{{sfn|Schmitz|1999}}{{sfn|Harriman|1987–1988}} A week later, on 13 March, Stalin responded vigorously to the speech, saying that Churchill could be compared to [[Adolf Hitler]] insofar as he advocated the racial superiority of [[List of countries and territories where English is an official language|English-speaking nations]] so that they could satisfy their hunger for world domination, and that such a declaration was "a call for war on the USSR." The Soviet leader also dismissed the accusation that the USSR was exerting increasing control over the countries lying in its sphere. He argued that there was nothing surprising in "the fact that the Soviet Union, anxious for its future safety, [was] trying to see to it that governments loyal in their attitude to the Soviet Union should exist in these countries."{{sfn|Marxists Internet Archive}}{{sfn|McCauley|2008|p=143}} {{multiple image | border = infobox | image_gap = 20 | caption_align = center |align=right |direction=horizontal |image1=Cold war europe military alliances map en.png |width1=200 |caption1=European military alliances |image2=Cold war europe economic alliances map en.png |width2=200 |caption2=European economic blocs }} Soviet territorial demands to Turkey regarding the Dardanelles in the [[Turkish Straits crisis]] and Black Sea [[Soviet territorial claims against Turkey|border disputes]] were also a major factor in increasing tensions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=Geoffrey|date=2011|title=Moscow's Cold War on the Periphery: Soviet Policy in Greece, Iran, and Turkey, 1943–8|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25764609|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=46|issue=1|pages=58–81|doi=10.1177/0022009410383292|jstor=25764609|hdl=20.500.12323/1406|s2cid=161542583|issn=0022-0094|hdl-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Hasanli|2014|pp=221-222}} In September, the Soviet side produced the [[Nikolai Vasilevich Novikov|Novikov]] telegram, sent by the Soviet ambassador to the US but commissioned and "co-authored" by [[Vyacheslav Molotov]]; it portrayed the US as being in the grip of monopoly capitalists who were building up military capability "to prepare the conditions for winning world supremacy in a new war".{{sfn|Kydd|2018|p=107}} On 6 September 1946, [[James F. Byrnes]] delivered a [[Restatement of Policy on Germany|speech]] in Germany repudiating the [[Morgenthau Plan]] (a proposal to partition and de-industrialize post-war Germany) and warning the Soviets that the US intended to maintain a military presence in Europe indefinitely.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=30}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Secretary of State James Byrnes. Restatement of Policy on Germany. September 6, 1946 |url=https://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/ga4-460906.htm |website=usa.usembassy.de |access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref> As Byrnes stated a month later, "The nub of our program was to win the German people ... it was a battle between us and Russia over minds ..." In December, the Soviets agreed to withdraw from Iran after persistent US pressure, an early success of containment policy. By 1947, US president [[Harry S. Truman]] was outraged by the perceived resistance of the Soviet Union to American demands in Iran, Turkey, and Greece, as well as Soviet rejection of the [[Baruch Plan]] on nuclear weapons.{{sfn|Milestones: 1945–1952}} In February 1947, the British government announced that it could no longer afford to finance the [[Kingdom of Greece]] in [[Greek Civil War|its civil war]] against Communist-led insurgents.{{sfn|Iatrides|1996|pp=373–376}} In the same month, Stalin conducted the rigged [[1947 Polish legislative election]] which constituted an open breach of the [[Yalta Agreement]]. The [[Federal government of the United States|US government]] responded to this announcement by adopting a policy of [[containment]],{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=28–29}} with the goal of stopping the spread of [[communism]]. Truman delivered a speech calling for the allocation of $400 million to intervene in the war and unveiled the [[Truman Doctrine]], which framed the conflict as a contest between free peoples and [[totalitarian]] regimes.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=28–29}} American policymakers accused the Soviet Union of conspiring against the Greek royalists in an effort to [[Domino theory|expand Soviet influence]] even though Stalin had told the Communist Party to cooperate with the British-backed government.{{sfn|Gerolymatos|2017|pp=195–204}} (The insurgents were helped by [[Josip Broz Tito]]'s [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] against Stalin's wishes.){{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}}{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=38}} Enunciation of the Truman Doctrine marked the beginning of a US bipartisan defense and foreign policy consensus between [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] focused on containment and [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]] that weakened during and after the [[Vietnam War]], but ultimately persisted thereafter.{{sfn|Paterson|1989|pp=35, 142, 212}} Moderate and conservative parties in Europe, as well as social democrats, gave virtually unconditional support to the Western alliance,{{sfn|Moschonas|2002|p=21}} while [[Eurocommunism|European]] and [[Communist Party USA|American Communists]], financed by the [[KGB]] and involved in its intelligence operations,{{sfn|Andrew|Mitrokhin|2000|p=276}} adhered to Moscow's line, although dissent began to appear after 1956. Other critiques of the consensus policy came from [[Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War|anti-Vietnam War activists]], the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]], and the [[anti-nuclear movement]].{{sfn|Crocker|Hampson|Aall|2007|p=55}} ===Marshall Plan, Czechoslovak coup d'état, and formation of two German states=== {{Main|Marshall Plan|Western Bloc|1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état}} {{multiple image | border = infobox | image_gap = 20 | caption_align = center |align=right |direction=vertical |width=200 |image1=US-MarshallPlanAid-Logo.svg |caption1=The labeling used on the [[Marshall Plan]] economic [[aid]] to Western Europe |image2=Marshall Plan.png |caption2=Map of Cold War-era Europe and the [[Near East]] showing countries that received Marshall Plan aid. The red columns show the relative amount of total aid received per nation. |image3=Marshallplanhilfe.gif |caption3=Construction in [[West Berlin]] under Marshall Plan aid }} In early 1947, France, Britain and the United States unsuccessfully attempted to reach an agreement with the Soviet Union for a plan envisioning an economically self-sufficient Germany, including a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already taken by the Soviets.{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=16}} In June 1947, in accordance with the [[Truman Doctrine]], the United States enacted the [[Marshall Plan]], a pledge of economic assistance for all European countries willing to participate, including the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=16}} Under the plan, which President Harry S. Truman signed on 3 April 1948, the US government gave to Western European countries over $13 billion (equivalent to $189.39 billion in 2016) to rebuild the [[economy of Europe]]. Later, the program led to the creation of the [[OECD]]. The plan's aim was to rebuild the democratic and economic systems of Europe and to counter perceived threats to the [[European balance of power]], such as communist parties seizing control through revolutions or elections.{{sfn|Gaddis|1990|p=186}} The plan also stated that European prosperity was contingent upon German economic recovery.{{sfn|Dinan|2017|p=40}} One month later, Truman signed the [[National Security Act of 1947]], creating a unified [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA), and the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] (NSC). These would become the main bureaucracies for US defense policy in the Cold War.{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} Stalin believed that economic integration with the West would allow [[Eastern Bloc]] countries to escape Soviet control, and that the US was trying to buy a pro-US re-alignment of Europe.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=32}} Stalin therefore prevented Eastern Bloc nations from receiving Marshall Plan aid.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=32}} The Soviet Union's alternative to the Marshall Plan, which was purported to involve Soviet subsidies and trade with central and eastern Europe, became known as the [[Molotov Plan]] (later institutionalized in January 1949 as the [[Comecon|Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]]).{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} Stalin was also fearful of a reconstituted Germany; his vision of a post-war Germany did not include the ability to rearm or pose any kind of threat to the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=105–106}} In early 1948, following reports of strengthening "reactionary elements", Czech Communists executed a [[1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état|coup d'état]] in [[Czechoslovakia]] (resulting in the formation of the [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic]] (9 May 1948)), the only Eastern Bloc state that the Soviets had permitted to retain democratic structures.{{sfn|Wettig|2008|p=86}} The public brutality of the coup shocked Western powers more than any event up to that point, set in motion a brief scare that war would occur, and swept away the last vestiges of opposition to the Marshall Plan in the United States Congress.{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=19}}{{sfn|Grenville|2005|pp=370–371}} In an immediate aftermath of the crisis, the [[London Six-Power Conference]] was held, resulting in the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] boycott of the Allied Control Council and its incapacitation, an event marking the beginning of the full-blown Cold War and the end of its prelude, as well as ending any hopes at the time for a single German government and leading to formation in 1949 of the [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] and [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]].{{sfn|Wettig|2008|pp=96–100}} ==Open hostility and escalation (1948–1962)== {{Main|Cold War (1953–1962)}} The twin policies of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan led to billions in economic and military aid for Western Europe, Greece, and Turkey. With the US assistance, the Greek military [[Greek Civil War|won its civil war]].{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} Under the leadership of [[Alcide De Gasperi]] the Italian [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democrats]] defeated the powerful [[Italian Communist Party|Communist]]–[[Italian Socialist Party|Socialist]] alliance in the [[1948 Italian general election|elections of 1948]].{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=162}} ===Espionage=== {{Main|Cold War espionage|American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation|Soviet espionage in the United States}} All major powers engaged in espionage, using a great variety of spies, [[double agent]]s, [[Mole (espionage)|moles]], and new technologies such as the tapping of telephone cables.{{sfn|Garthoff|2004}} The Soviet [[KGB]] ("Committee for State Security"), the bureau responsible for foreign espionage and internal surveillance, was famous for its effectiveness. The most famous Soviet operation involved its [[atomic spies]] that delivered crucial information from the United States' [[Manhattan Project]], leading the USSR to detonate its first nuclear weapon in 1949, four years after the American detonation and much sooner than expected.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/news/atomic-bomb-soviet-spies|title=8 Spies Who Leaked Atomic Bomb Intelligence to the Soviets|date=21 July 2023|website=HISTORY}}</ref><ref>Christopher Andrew, ''The Sword And The Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB'' (1999).</ref> A massive network of informants throughout the Soviet Union was used to monitor dissent from official Soviet politics and morals.<ref>Raymond L. Garthoff, "Foreign intelligence and the historiography of the Cold War." ''Journal of Cold War Studies'' 6.2 (2004): 21–56.</ref><ref>Michael F. Hopkins, "Continuing debate and new approaches in Cold War history." ''Historical Journal'' 50.4 (2007): 913–934.</ref> Although to an extent [[disinformation]] had always existed, the term itself was invented, and the strategy formalized by a [[black propaganda]] department of the Soviet KGB.<ref name="jowett">{{citation|author1=Garth Jowett|title=Propaganda and Persuasion|pages=21–23|date=2005|chapter=What Is Propaganda, and How Does It Differ From Persuasion?|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-1-4129-0898-6|quote=In fact, the word disinformation is a cognate for the Russian dezinformatsia, taken from the name of a division of the KGB devoted to black propaganda.|author2=Victoria O'Donnell}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Before 'fake news,' there was Soviet 'disinformation'|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/11/26/before-fake-news-there-was-soviet-disinformation/|access-date=13 November 2021|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Based on the amount of top-secret Cold War archival information that has been released, historian [[Raymond L. Garthoff]] concludes there probably was parity in the quantity and quality of secret information obtained by each side. However, the Soviets probably had an advantage in terms of [[Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)|HUMINT]] (human intelligence or interpersonal espionage) and "sometimes in its reach into high policy circles." In terms of decisive impact, however, he concludes:{{sfn|Garthoff|2004|pp=29–30}} :We also can now have high confidence in the judgment that there were no successful "moles" at the political decision-making level on either side. Similarly, there is no evidence, on either side, of any major political or military decision that was prematurely discovered through espionage and thwarted by the other side. There also is no evidence of any major political or military decision that was crucially influenced (much less generated) by an agent of the other side. According to historian Robert Louis Benson, "Washington's forte was [[Signals intelligence|'signals' intelligence]]--the procurement and analysis of coded foreign messages." leading to the [[Venona project]] or Venona intercepts, which monitored the communications of Soviet intelligence agents.<ref name="benson">{{Cite book|last1=Benson|first1=Robert Louis|last2=Warner|first2=Michael|title=Venona Soviet Espionage and the American Response 1939–1957|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8NIAQAAIAAJ|access-date=17 September 2021|date=1996|pages=vii, xix|publisher=National Security Agency}}</ref> [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan|Moynihan]] wrote that the Venona project contained "overwhelming proof of the activities of Soviet spy networks in America, complete with names, dates, places, and deeds."<ref name=":4">{{cite book|last=Moynihan|first=Daniel Patrick|url=https://archive.org/details/secrecyamericane00moyn|title=Secrecy: The American Experience|publisher=Yale University Press|date=1998|isbn=978-0-300-08079-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/secrecyamericane00moyn/page/15 15]–16|url-access=registration}}</ref> The Venona project was kept highly secret even from policymakers until the [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy|Moynihan Commission]] in 1995.<ref name=":4" /> Despite this, the decryption project had already been betrayed and dispatched to the USSR by [[Kim Philby]] and [[Bill Weisband]] in 1946,<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":0" /> as was discovered by the US by 1950.<ref name="benson2">{{Cite book|last1=Benson|first1=Robert Louis|last2=Warner|first2=Michael|title=Venona Soviet Espionage and the American Response 1939–1957|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8NIAQAAIAAJ|access-date=17 September 2021|date=1996|pages=xxvii, xxviii|publisher=National Security Agency}}</ref> Nonetheless, the Soviets had to keep their discovery of the program secret, too, and continued leaking their own information, some of which was still useful to the American program.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=West|first=Nigel|date=1 March 2002|title='Venona': the British dimension|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02684520412331306440|journal=Intelligence and National Security|volume=17|issue=1|pages=117–134|doi=10.1080/02684520412331306440|s2cid=145696471|issn=0268-4527}}</ref> According to Moynihan, even President Truman may not have been fully informed of Venona, which may have left him unaware of the extent of Soviet espionage.<ref name="trumanfas">{{Cite web|title=Did Truman Know about Venona?|url=https://fas.org/irp/eprint/truman-venona.html|access-date=12 June 2021|website=fas.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Moynihan|first=Daniel Patrick|url=https://archive.org/details/secrecyamericane00moyn|title=Secrecy: The American Experience|publisher=Yale University Press|date=1998|isbn=978-0-300-08079-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/secrecyamericane00moyn/page/70 70]|url-access=registration}}</ref> Clandestine [[atomic spies]] from the Soviet Union, who infiltrated the [[Manhattan Project]] at various points during WWII, played a major role in increasing tensions that led to the Cold War.<ref name="benson" /> In addition to usual espionage, the Western agencies paid special attention to debriefing [[Emigration from the Eastern Bloc|Eastern Bloc defectors]].<ref>Cowley 1996 p. 157</ref>{{citation not found}} [[Edward Jay Epstein]] describes that the CIA understood that the KGB used "provocations", or fake defections, as a trick to embarrass Western intelligence and establish Soviet double agents. As a result, from 1959 to 1973, the CIA required that East Bloc defectors went through a counterintelligence investigation before being recruited as a source of intelligence.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Epstein|first=Edward Jay|title=Secrets of the Teheren Archive|url=https://www.edwardjayepstein.com/archived/teheren.htm|url-status=live|access-date=13 November 2021|website=www.edwardjayepstein.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010217081540/http://www.edwardjayepstein.com:80/archived/teheren.htm |archive-date=17 February 2001 }}</ref> During the late 1970s and 1980s, the KGB perfected its use of espionage to sway and distort diplomacy.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Epstein|first=Edward Jay|title=Secrets of the Teheren Archive (page 2)|url=https://www.edwardjayepstein.com/archived/teheren2.htm|url-status=live|access-date=13 November 2021|website=www.edwardjayepstein.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010223043813/http://www.edwardjayepstein.com:80/archived/teheren2.htm |archive-date=23 February 2001 }}</ref> [[Active measures]] were "clandestine operations designed to further Soviet foreign policy goals," consisting of disinformation, forgeries, leaks to foreign media, and the channeling of aid to militant groups.<ref>{{Cite web|title=KGB Active Measures – Russia / Soviet Intelligence Agencies|url=https://irp.fas.org/world/russia/kgb/su0523.htm|access-date=13 November 2021|website=irp.fas.org}}</ref> Retired KGB Major General [[Oleg Kalugin]], former head of Foreign Counter Intelligence for the KGB (1973–1979), described active measures as "the heart and soul of [[List of historical secret police organizations#Soviet Union|Soviet intelligence]]."<ref name="Kalugin">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070627183623/http://www3.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/21/interviews/kalugin/ Interview of Oleg Kalugin on CNN] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070627183623/http://www3.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/21/interviews/kalugin/|date=27 June 2007}}</ref> During the [[Sino-Soviet split]], "spy wars" also occurred between the USSR and PRC.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Soviet-Chinese Spy Wars in the 1970s: What KGB Counterintelligence Knew, Part II {{!}} Wilson Center|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/soviet-chinese-spy-wars-1970s-what-kgb-counterintelligence-knew-part-ii|access-date=13 November 2021|website=www.wilsoncenter.org|language=en}}</ref> ===Cominform and the Tito–Stalin Split=== {{Main|Cominform|Tito–Stalin Split}} In September 1947, the Soviets created [[Cominform]] to impose orthodoxy within the international communist movement and tighten political control over Soviet [[Satellite state#Soviet Union|satellites]] through coordination of communist parties in the [[Eastern Bloc]].{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=32}} Cominform faced an embarrassing setback the following June, when the [[Tito–Stalin split]] obliged its members to expel Yugoslavia, which remained communist but adopted a [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned]] position and began accepting financial aid from the United States.{{sfn|Papathanasiou|2017|p=66}} Besides Berlin, the status of the city of [[Trieste]] was at issue. Until the break between Tito and Stalin, the Western powers and the Eastern bloc faced each other uncompromisingly. In addition to capitalism and communism, Italians and Slovenes, monarchists and republicans as well as war winners and losers often faced each other irreconcilably. The neutral buffer state [[Free Territory of Trieste]], founded in 1947 with the United Nations, was split up and dissolved in 1954 and 1975, also because of the détente between the West and Tito.<ref>Christian Jennings "Flashpoint Trieste: The First Battle of the Cold War", (2017), pp. 244.</ref><ref>Karlo Ruzicic-Kessler "Togliatti, Tito and the Shadow of Moscow 1944/45–1948: Post-War Territorial Disputes and the Communist World", in ''Journal of European Integration History,'' (2014) vol 2.</ref> ===Berlin Blockade and Airlift=== {{Main|Berlin Blockade}} [[File:C-47s at Tempelhof Airport Berlin 1948.jpg|thumb|American C-47s unloading at [[Berlin Tempelhof Airport|Tempelhof Airport]] in Berlin during the Berlin Blockade]] The United States and Britain merged their western German occupation zones into [[Bizone|"Bizonia"]] (1 January 1947, later "Trizonia" with the addition of France's zone, April 1949).{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=13}} As part of the economic rebuilding of Germany, in early 1948, representatives of a number of Western European governments and the United States announced an agreement for a merger of western German areas into a federal governmental system.{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=18}} In addition, in accordance with the [[Marshall Plan]], they began to re-industrialize and rebuild the West German economy, including the introduction of a new [[Deutsche Mark]] currency to replace the old [[Reichsmark]] currency that the Soviets had debased.{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=31}} The US had secretly decided that a unified and neutral Germany was undesirable, with [[Walter Bedell Smith]] telling General Eisenhower "in spite of our announced position, we really do not want nor intend to accept German unification on any terms that the Russians might agree to, even though they seem to meet most of our requirements."{{sfn|Layne|2007|p=67}} Shortly thereafter, Stalin instituted the [[Berlin Blockade]] (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949), one of the first major crises of the Cold War, preventing Western food, materials and supplies from arriving in the West Germany's exclave of [[West Berlin]].{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=33}} The United States (primarily), Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and several other countries began the massive "Berlin airlift", supplying West Berlin with food and other provisions despite Soviet threats.{{sfn|Miller|2000|pp=65–70}} The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the policy change. Once again, the East Berlin communists attempted to disrupt the [[Berlin Blockade#December elections|Berlin municipal elections]] (as they had done in the 1946 elections),{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=13}} which were held on 5 December 1948 and produced a turnout of 86.3% and an overwhelming victory for the non-communist parties.{{sfn|Turner|1987|p=29}} The results effectively divided the city into East and West, the latter comprising US, British and French sectors. 300,000 Berliners demonstrated and urged the international airlift to continue,{{sfn|Fritsch-Bournazel|1990|p=143}} and US Air Force pilot [[Gail Halvorsen]] created "[[Berlin Blockade#"Operation Little Vittles"|Operation Vittles]]", which supplied candy to German children.{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=26}} The Airlift was as much a logistical as a political and psychological success for the West; it firmly linked West Berlin to the United States.{{sfn|Daum|2008|pp=11–13, 41}} In May 1949, Stalin backed down and lifted the blockade.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=34}}{{sfn|Miller|2000|pp=180–181}} In 1952, Stalin repeatedly [[Stalin Note|proposed a plan]] to unify East and West Germany under a single government chosen in elections supervised by the United Nations, if the new Germany were to stay out of Western military alliances, but this proposal was turned down by the Western powers. Some sources dispute the sincerity of the proposal.{{sfn|van Dijk|1996}} ===Beginnings of NATO and Radio Free Europe=== {{Main|NATO|Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|Eastern Bloc media and propaganda|Propaganda in the Soviet Union}} [[File:Truman signing North Atlantic Treaty.jpg|thumb|President Truman signs the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] with guests in the Oval Office.]] Britain, France, the United States, Canada and eight other western European countries signed the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] of April 1949, establishing the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO).{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=34}} That August, the [[RDS-1|first Soviet atomic device]] was detonated in [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]], [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakh SSR]].{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} Following Soviet refusals to participate in a German rebuilding effort set forth by western European countries in 1948,{{sfn|Miller|2000|p=18}}{{sfn|Turner|1987|p=23}} the US, Britain and France spearheaded the establishment of the [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] from the [[Bizone|three Western zones of occupation]] in April 1949.{{sfn|Bungert|1994}} The Soviet Union proclaimed [[Soviet occupation zone of Germany|its zone of occupation]] in Germany the [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] that October.{{sfn|Byrd|2003}} Media in the [[Eastern Bloc]] was an [[Eastern Bloc media and propaganda|organ of the state]], completely reliant on and subservient to the communist party. Radio and television organizations were state-owned, while print media was usually owned by political organizations, mostly by the local communist party.{{sfn|O'Neil|1997|pp=15–25}} Soviet radio broadcasts used Marxist rhetoric to attack capitalism, emphasizing themes of labor exploitation, imperialism and war-mongering.{{sfn|Wood|1992|p=105}} Along with the broadcasts of the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]] (BBC) and the [[Voice of America]] to Central and Eastern Europe,{{sfn|Puddington|2003|p=131}} a major propaganda effort begun in 1949 was [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]], dedicated to bringing about the peaceful demise of the communist system in the Eastern Bloc.{{sfn|Puddington|2003|p=9}} Radio Free Europe attempted to achieve these goals by serving as a surrogate home radio station, an alternative to the controlled and party-dominated domestic press in the Soviet Bloc.{{sfn|Puddington|2003|p=9}} Radio Free Europe was a product of some of the most prominent architects of America's early Cold War strategy, especially those who believed that the Cold War would eventually be fought by political rather than military means, such as George F. Kennan.{{sfn|Puddington|2003|p=7}} Soviet and Eastern Bloc authorities used various methods to suppress Western broadcasts, including [[radio jamming]].<ref name="Hearings">[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000013679477;view=1up;seq=414 Voice of America and Liberty: Strange Policies.{{in lang|en}}] // Hearings on Federal Government's Handling of Soviet and Communist Bloc Defectors before the United States Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Washington, D.C., October 8, 1987. — P. 6 {406}.</ref><ref>''Bamford, James''. [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/04/books/books-of-the-times-the-labyrinthine-morass-of-spying-in-the-cold-war.html]{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109023149/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/04/books/books-of-the-times-the-labyrinthine-morass-of-spying-in-the-cold-war.html}}<span> Books of The Times; The Labyrinthine Morass of Spying in the Cold War.</span>{{in lang|en}} // ''[[New York Times]]''. — July 4, 2003.</ref> American policymakers, including Kennan and [[John Foster Dulles]], acknowledged that the Cold War was in its essence a war of ideas.{{sfn|Puddington|2003|p=7}} The United States, acting through the CIA, funded a long list of projects to counter the communist appeal among intellectuals in Europe and the developing world.{{sfn|Puddington|2003|p=10}} The CIA also [[Secrecy|covertly]] sponsored a domestic propaganda campaign called [[Crusade for Freedom]].{{sfn|Cummings|2010}} ===German rearmament=== {{Main|West German rearmament}} The rearmament of West Germany was achieved in the early 1950s. Its main promoter was [[Konrad Adenauer]], the chancellor of West Germany, with France the main opponent. Washington had the decisive voice. It was strongly supported by the Pentagon (the US military leadership), and weakly opposed by President Truman; the State Department was ambivalent. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 changed the calculations and Washington now gave full support. That also involved naming [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in charge of NATO forces and sending more American troops to West Germany. There was a strong promise that West Germany would not develop nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beisner |first1=Robert L. |title=Dean Acheson : a life in the Cold War |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780195045789 |url=https://archive.org/details/deanachesonlifei00beis|pages=356–374}}</ref> Widespread fears of another rise of [[Militarism#Germany|German militarism]] necessitated the new military to operate within an alliance framework, under [[NATO]] command.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Snyder |first1=David R. |title=Arming the "Bundesmarine": The United States and the Build-Up of the German Federal Navy, 1950–1960 |journal=The Journal of Military History |date=April 2002 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=477–500 |doi=10.2307/3093068|jstor=3093068 }}</ref> In 1955, Washington secured full German membership of NATO.{{sfn|Byrd|2003}} In May 1953, [[Lavrentiy Beria]], by then in a government post, had made an unsuccessful proposal to allow the reunification of a neutral Germany to prevent West Germany's incorporation into NATO, but his attempts were cut short after he was [[Lavrentiy Beria#Arrest, trial and execution|executed several months later]] during a Soviet power struggle.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=105}} The events led to the establishment of the ''[[Bundeswehr]]'', the West German military, in 1955.<ref>David K. Large, ''Germans to the Front: West German Rearmament in the Adenauer Era'' (U of North Carolina Press, 1996).</ref><ref>James G. Hershberg, "'Explosion in the Offing: German Rearmament and American Diplomacy, 1953–1955." ''Diplomatic History'' 16.4 (1992): 511–550.</ref> ===Chinese Civil War, SEATO, and NSC 68=== {{Main|Cold War in Asia}} [[File:Mao, Bulganin, Stalin, Ulbricht Tsedenbal.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Mao Zedong]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] in Moscow, December 1949]] In 1949, [[Mao Zedong]]'s [[People's Liberation Army]] defeated [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s United States-backed [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) Nationalist Government in China. The KMT-controlled territory was now [[Kuomintang's retreat to Taiwan|restricted]] to the island of [[Taiwan]], the nationalist government of which exists to this day. The Kremlin promptly created an alliance with the newly formed People's Republic of China.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=39}} According to Norwegian historian [[Odd Arne Westad]], the communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang Kai-Shek made, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Moreover, his party was weakened during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|war against Japan]]. Meanwhile, the communists told different groups, such as the peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and they cloaked themselves under the cover of [[Chinese nationalism]].{{sfn|Westad|2012|p=291}} Confronted with the [[Chinese Communist Revolution|communist revolution in China]] and [[Soviet atomic bomb project|the end of the American atomic monopoly in 1949]], the Truman administration quickly moved to escalate and expand its [[containment]] doctrine.{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} In [[NSC 68]], a secret 1950 document, the National Security Council proposed reinforcing pro-Western alliance systems and quadrupling spending on defense.{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} Truman, under the influence of advisor [[Paul Nitze]], saw containment as implying complete [[rollback]] of Soviet influence in all its forms.{{sfn|Layne|2007|pp=63–66}} United States officials moved to expand this version of containment into [[Asia]], [[Africa]], and [[Latin America]], in order to counter revolutionary nationalist movements, often led by communist parties financed by the USSR.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=212}} In this way, this US would exercise "[[power projection|preponderant power]]," oppose neutrality, and [[Grand strategy|establish global]] [[hegemony]].{{sfn|Layne|2007|pp=63–66}} In the early 1950s (a period sometimes known as the "[[Pactomania]]"), the US formalized a series of alliances with [[Japan]] (a former WWII enemy), [[South Korea]], [[Taiwan]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Thailand]] and the [[Philippines]] (notably [[ANZUS]] in 1951 and [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization|SEATO]] in 1954), thereby guaranteeing the United States a number of long-term military bases.{{sfn|Byrd|2003}} ===Korean War=== {{Main|Division of Korea|Korean War|Rollback}} [[File:IncheonLandingMcArthur.jpg|thumb|left|General [[Douglas MacArthur]], UN Command CiC (seated), observes the naval shelling of [[Incheon]], Korea from [[USS Mount McKinley|USS ''Mt. McKinley'']], 15 September 1950.]] One of the more significant examples of the implementation of containment was the United Nations US-led intervention in the [[Korean War]]. In June 1950, after years of mutual hostilities,{{efn-ua|"South Korea's President Rhee was obsessed with accomplishing early reunification through military means. The Truman administration's fear that Rhee would launch an invasion prompted it to limit South Korea's military capabilities, refusing to provide tanks, heavy artillery, and combat planes. This did not stop the South Koreans from initiating most of the border clashes with North Korean forces at the thirty-eighth parallel beginning in the summer of 1948 and reaching a high level of intensity and violence a year later. Historians now acknowledge that the two Koreas already were waging a civil conflict when North Korea's attack opened the conventional phase of the war."{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2002/summer/korean-myths-1.html| title=Revisiting Korea|date=15 August 2016|website=National Archives|access-date=21 June 2019}}}}{{sfn|Haruki|2018|pp=7–12}}{{sfn|Stueck|2013|pp=252–256}} [[Kim Il Sung]]'s [[Korean People's Army|North Korean People's Army]] [[Operation Pokpoong|invaded]] [[South Korea]] at the [[38th parallel north#Korea|38th parallel]]. Stalin had been reluctant to support the invasion{{efn-ua|"Contradicting traditional assumptions, however, available declassified Soviet documents demonstrate that throughout 1949 Stalin consistently refused to approve Kim Il Sung's persistent requests to approve an invasion of South Korea. The Soviet leader believed that North Korea had not achieved either military superiority north of the parallel or political strength south of that line. His main concern was the threat South Korea posed to North Korea's survival, for example fearing an invasion northward following U.S. military withdrawal in June 1949."{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2002/summer/korean-myths-1.html|title=Revisiting Korea|date=15 August 2016|website=National Archives|access-date=21 June 2019}}}} but ultimately sent advisers.{{sfn|Weathersby|1993|pp=28, 30}} To Stalin's surprise,{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 82]] and [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 83|83]] backed the defense of South Korea, although the Soviets were then boycotting meetings in protest of the fact that [[Taiwan]] (Republic of China), not the [[China|People's Republic of China]], held a permanent seat on the council.{{sfn|Malkasian|2001|p=16}} A [[United Nations Command|UN force]] of sixteen countries faced North Korea,{{sfn|Fehrenbach|2001|p=305}} although 40 percent of troops were South Korean, and about 50 percent were from the United States.{{sfn|Craig|Logevall|2012|p=118}} [[File:KoreanWar recover Seoul.jpg|thumb|[[United States Marine Corps|US Marines]] engaged in street fighting during the liberation of [[Seoul]], September 1950]] The US initially seemed to follow containment when it first entered the war. This directed the US's action to only push back North Korea across the 38th Parallel and restore South Korea's sovereignty while allowing North Korea's survival as a state. However, the success of the [[Battle of Inchon|Inchon landing]] inspired the US/UN forces to pursue a [[rollback]] strategy instead and to overthrow communist North Korea, thereby allowing nationwide elections under U.N. auspices.{{sfn|Matray|1979}} General [[Douglas MacArthur]] then advanced across the [[Division of Korea|38th Parallel]] into North Korea. The Chinese, fearful of a possible US invasion, sent in a large army and defeated the U.N. forces, pushing them back below the 38th parallel. Truman publicly hinted that he might use his "ace in the hole" of the atomic bomb, but Mao was unmoved.{{sfn|Paterson|Clifford|Brigham|Donoghue|2014|pp=286–289}} The episode was used to support the wisdom of the containment doctrine as opposed to rollback. The Communists were later pushed to roughly around the original border, with minimal changes. Among other effects, the Korean War galvanised [[NATO]] to develop a military structure.{{sfn|Isby|Kamps|1985|pp=13–14}} Public opinion in countries involved, such as Great Britain, was divided for and against the war.{{sfn|Cotton|1989|p=100}} After the [[Korean Armistice Agreement]] was approved in July 1953, North Korean leader [[Kim Il Sung]] created a highly centralized, totalitarian dictatorship that accorded his family unlimited power while generating a pervasive [[cult of personality]].{{sfn|Oberdorfer|2001|pp=10–11}}{{sfn|No|Osterholm|1996}} In the South, the American-backed dictator [[Syngman Rhee]] ran an authoritarian regime that engaged in [[anti-communist mass killings]].{{sfn|Hwang|2016|pp=61–70}} While Rhee was [[April Revolution|overthrown in 1960]], South Korea continued to be ruled by a military government of former Japanese collaborators until the re-establishment of a multi-party system in the late 1980s. Subsequently, South Korea experienced an economic boom and became one of the most [[List of countries by Human Development Index#Nations|advanced countries on the planet]].{{sfn|Suh|2013|pp=25–35}} ===Khrushchev, Eisenhower, and de-Stalinization=== [[File:1959 NATO and WP troop strengths in Europe.svg|thumb|NATO and Warsaw Pact troop strengths in Europe in 1959]] In 1953, changes in political leadership on both sides shifted the dynamic of the Cold War.{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] was inaugurated president that January. During the last 18 months of the Truman administration, the American defense budget had quadrupled, and Eisenhower moved to reduce military spending by a third while continuing to fight the Cold War effectively.{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} Joseph Stalin [[Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin|died in 1953]]. Without a mutually agreeable successor, the highest Communist Party officials initially opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly through a troika headed by [[Georgy Malenkov]]. This did not last, however, and [[Nikita Khrushchev]] eventually won the ensuing power struggle by the mid-1950s. In 1956, he [[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences|denounced Joseph Stalin]] and proceeded to ease controls over the party and society. This was known as [[de-Stalinization]].{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} [[File:Voroshilov, Khrushchev, Kekkonen.jpeg|thumb|left|From left to right: Soviet [[head of state]] [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Soviet premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]] and [[President of Finland|Finnish president]] [[Urho Kekkonen]] at Moscow in 1960]] On 18 November 1956, while addressing Western dignitaries at a reception in Moscow's Polish embassy, Khrushchev infamously declared, "Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. [[We will bury you]]", shocking everyone present.{{efn-ua|"[https://web.archive.org/web/20070124152821/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,867329,00.html We Will Bury You!]", ''[[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]]'', 26 November 1956. Retrieved 26 June 2008.}} He would later claim he had not been referring to nuclear war, but the "historically fated victory of communism over capitalism."{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=84}} In 1961, Khrushchev boasted that, even if the Soviet Union was currently behind the West, its housing shortage would disappear within ten years, consumer goods would be made abundant, and the "construction of a communist society" would be completed "in the main" within no more than two decades.{{sfn|Tompson|1997|pp=237–239}} Eisenhower's secretary of state, John Foster Dulles, initiated a "[[New Look (policy)|New Look]]" for the [[containment]] strategy, calling for a greater reliance on nuclear weapons against US enemies in wartime.{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} Dulles also enunciated the doctrine of "[[massive retaliation]]", threatening a severe US response to any Soviet aggression. Possessing nuclear superiority, for example, allowed Eisenhower to face down Soviet threats to intervene in the Middle East during the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]].{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} The declassified US plans for retaliatory nuclear strikes in the late 1950s included the "systematic destruction" of 1,200 major urban centers in the Soviet Bloc and China, including Moscow, East Berlin and Beijing.{{sfn|Bradner|2015}}{{efn-ua|See also: [http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb538-Cold-War-Nuclear-Target-List-Declassified-First-Ever/ U.S. Cold War Nuclear Target Lists Declassified for First Time]. [[National Security Archive]]. 22 December 2015.}} In spite of these events, there were substantial hopes for détente when [[Nikita Khrushchev#Early relations and U.S. visit (1957–1960)|an upswing in diplomacy took place in 1959]], including a two-week visit by Khrushchev to the US, and plans for a two-power summit for May 1960. The latter was disturbed by the [[1960 U-2 incident|U-2 spy plane scandal]], however, in which Eisenhower was caught lying about the intrusion of American surveillance aircraft into Soviet territory.{{sfn|Paterson|Clifford|Brigham|Donoghue|2014|pp=306–308}}{{sfn|Schudson|2015}} ===Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution=== {{Main|Warsaw Pact|Hungarian Revolution of 1956}} {{multiple image | border = infobox | image_gap = 20 | caption_align = center |align=right |direction=vertical |width=220 |header=The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 |image1=Kossuth Lajos utca a Ferenciek tere felől nézve. 1956. október 25-e délután, - Fortepan 24652.jpg |caption1=March of protesters in Budapest, on 25 October; |image2=Sz%C3%A9tl%C5%91tt_harckocsi_a_M%C3%B3ricz_Zsigmond_k%C3%B6rt%C3%A9ren.jpg |caption2=A destroyed Soviet T-34-85 tank in Budapest }} [[File:Soviet empire 1960.png|thumb|left|The maximum territorial extent of Soviet [[Sphere of influence|influence]], after the [[Cuban Revolution]] of 1959 and before the official [[Sino-Soviet split]] of 1961]] While [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]'s death in 1953 slightly relaxed tensions, the situation in Europe remained an uneasy armed truce.{{sfn|Khanna|2013|p=372}} The Soviets, who had already created a network of mutual assistance treaties in the [[Eastern Bloc]] by 1949, established a formal alliance therein, the [[Warsaw Pact]], in 1955. It stood opposed to NATO.{{sfn|Byrd|2003}} [[File:Hole in flag - Budapest 1956.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Flag of Hungary|Hungarian flag]] (1949–1956) with the communist coat of arms cut out was an anti-Soviet revolutionary symbol]] The [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]] occurred shortly after Khrushchev arranged the removal of Hungary's Stalinist leader [[Mátyás Rákosi]].{{sfn|BBC|1956}} In response to a popular anti-communist uprising,{{efn-ua|{{cite web| url=http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/selection/rip/4/av/1956-44.html |title=Revolt in Hungary |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071117094223/http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/selection/rip/4/av/1956-44.html |archive-date= 17 November 2007 }} Narrator: [[Walter Cronkite]], producer: CBS (1956) – Fonds 306, Audiovisual Materials Relating to the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, OSA Archivum, Budapest, Hungary ID number: HU OSA 306-0-1:40}} the new regime formally disbanded the [[State Protection Authority|secret police]], declared its intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and pledged to re-establish free elections. The [[Soviet Army]] invaded.{{sfn|UN General Assembly|1957}} Thousands of Hungarians were killed and arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union,{{sfn|Holodkov|1956}} and approximately 200,000 Hungarians fled Hungary in the chaos.{{sfn|Cseresnyés|1999|pp=86–101}} Hungarian leader [[Imre Nagy]] and others were executed following secret trials.{{efn-ua|[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/16/ "On This Day June 16, 1989: Hungary reburies fallen hero Imre Nagy"] British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reports on Nagy reburial with full honors. Retrieved 13 October 2006.}} From 1957 through 1961, Khrushchev openly and repeatedly threatened the West with nuclear annihilation. He claimed that Soviet missile capabilities were far superior to those of the United States, capable of wiping out any American or European city. According to [[John Lewis Gaddis]], Khrushchev rejected Stalin's "belief in the inevitability of war," however. The new leader declared his ultimate goal was "[[peaceful coexistence]]".{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=70}} In Khrushchev's formulation, peace would allow capitalism to collapse on its own,{{sfn|Perlmutter|1997|p=145}} as well as giving the Soviets time to boost their military capabilities,{{sfn|Njølstad|2004|p=136}} which remained for decades until Gorbachev's later "new thinking" envisioning peaceful coexistence as an end in itself rather than a form of class struggle.{{sfn|Breslauer|2002|p=72}} The events in Hungary produced ideological fractures within the communist parties of the world, particularly in Western Europe, with great decline in membership, as many in both western and socialist countries felt disillusioned by the brutal Soviet response.{{sfn|Lendvai|2008|p=196}} The communist parties in the West would never recover from the effect the Hungarian Revolution had on their membership, a fact that was immediately recognized by some, such as the Yugoslavian politician [[Milovan Djilas|Milovan Đilas]] who shortly after the revolution was crushed said that "The wound which the Hungarian Revolution inflicted on communism can never be completely healed".{{sfn|Lendvai|2008|p=196}} ===Rapacki Plan and Berlin Crisis of 1958–1959=== {{Further|Rapacki Plan|Berlin Crisis of 1958–1959}} In 1957, Polish foreign minister [[Adam Rapacki]] proposed the [[Rapacki Plan]] for a nuclear free zone in central Europe. Public opinion tended to be favourable in the West, but it was rejected by leaders of West Germany, Britain, France and the United States. They feared it would leave the powerful conventional armies of the Warsaw Pact dominant over the weaker NATO armies.<ref>David Stefancic, "The Rapacki Plan: A Case Study of European Diplomacy." ''East European Quarterly'' 21.4 (1987): 401–412.</ref> During November 1958, Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an independent, demilitarized "free city". He gave the United States, Great Britain and France a six-month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from the sectors of West Berlin, or he would transfer control of Western access rights to the East Germans. Khrushchev earlier explained to [[Mao Zedong]] that "Berlin is the testicles of the West. Every time I want to make the West scream, I squeeze on Berlin."{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=71}} NATO formally rejected the ultimatum in mid-December and Khrushchev withdrew it in return for a Geneva conference on the German question.{{sfn|Taubman|2004|pp=488–502}} ===American military buildup=== {{Main|Flexible response}} [[John F. Kennedy]]'s foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy contests. Like Truman and Eisenhower, Kennedy supported containment to stop the spread of Communism. President Eisenhower's [[New Look (policy)|New Look]] policy had emphasized the use of less expensive nuclear weapons to [[Deterrence theory|deter]] Soviet aggression by threatening massive nuclear attacks on all of the Soviet Union. Nuclear weapons were much cheaper than maintaining a large standing army, so Eisenhower cut conventional forces to save money. Kennedy implemented a new strategy known as [[flexible response]]. This strategy relied on conventional arms to achieve limited goals. As part of this policy, Kennedy expanded the [[United States special operations forces]], elite military units that could fight unconventionally in various conflicts. Kennedy hoped that the flexible response strategy would allow the US to counter Soviet influence without resorting to nuclear war.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=704–705}} To support his new strategy, Kennedy ordered a massive increase in defense spending. He sought, and Congress provided, a rapid build-up of the nuclear arsenal to restore the lost superiority over the Soviet Union—he claimed in 1960 that Eisenhower had lost it because of excessive concern with budget deficits. In his inaugural address, Kennedy promised "to bear any burden" in the defense of liberty, and he repeatedly asked for increases in military spending and authorization of new weapons systems. From 1961 to 1964, the number of nuclear weapons increased by 50 percent, as did the number of B-52 bombers to deliver them. The new ICBM force grew from 63 intercontinental ballistic missiles to 424. He authorized 23 new Polaris submarines, each of which carried 16 nuclear missiles. Kennedy also called on cities to construct fallout shelters.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nash |first1=Philip |title=Nuclear Weapons in Kennedy's Foreign Policy |journal=[[The Historian (journal)|The Historian]] |date=1 December 1993 |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=285–300 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1994.tb01309.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=Aiden |last2=Siracusa |first2=Joseph M. |title=US Presidents and Cold War Nuclear Diplomacy |chapter=Kennedy's Nuclear Dilemma|pages=95–124|date=2021 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] / [[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=Cham, Switzerland |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61954-1 |isbn=978-3-030-61954-1 |s2cid=234294333 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-61954-1}}</ref> ===Competition in the Third World=== {{Main|Decolonization#After 1945|Wars of national liberation|1953 Iranian coup d'état|1954 Guatemalan coup d'état|Congo Crisis|1954 Geneva Conference|Bandung Conference}} [[File:Colonization 1945.png|thumb|upright=2.0|European [[colonial empire]]s in Asia and Africa all collapsed in the years after 1945.]] Nationalist movements in some countries and regions, notably [[Guatemala]], Indonesia and [[Mainland Southeast Asia|Indochina]], were often allied with communist groups or otherwise perceived to be unfriendly to Western interests.{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} In this context, the United States and the Soviet Union increasingly competed for influence by proxy in the Third World as [[decolonization]] gained momentum in the 1950s and early 1960s.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=121–124}} Both sides were selling armaments to gain influence.{{sfn|Towle|2000|p=160}} The Kremlin saw continuing territorial losses by imperial powers as presaging the eventual victory of their ideology.{{sfn|Tucker|2010|p=1566}} The United States used the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) to undermine neutral or hostile Third World governments and to support allied ones.{{sfn|Karabell|1999|pp=64, 916}} In 1953, President Eisenhower implemented [[1953 Iranian coup d'état#Execution of Operation Ajax|Operation Ajax]], a covert coup operation to overthrow the Iranian prime minister, [[Mohammad Mosaddegh]]. The popularly elected Mosaddegh had been a Middle Eastern nemesis of Britain since nationalizing the British-owned [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company|Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]] in 1951. [[Winston Churchill]] told the United States that Mosaddegh was "increasingly turning towards Communist influence."{{sfn|Gasiorowski|Byrne|2004|p=125}}{{sfn|Smith|1953}}{{sfn|George Washington University|1953}} The pro-Western [[shah]], [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], assumed control as an [[Autocracy|autocratic]] monarch.{{sfn|Watson|2002|p=118}} The shah's policies included banning the communist [[Tudeh Party of Iran]], and general suppression of political dissent by [[SAVAK]], the shah's domestic security and intelligence agency. In Guatemala, a [[banana republic]], the [[1954 Guatemalan coup d'état]] ousted the left-wing President [[Jacobo Árbenz]] with material CIA support.{{sfn|Stone|2010|pp=199, 256}} The post-Arbenz government—a [[Military dictatorship|military junta]] headed by [[Carlos Castillo Armas]]—repealed a [[Decree 900|progressive land reform law]], returned nationalized property belonging to the [[United Fruit Company]], set up a [[National Committee of Defense Against Communism]], and decreed a [[Preventive Penal Law Against Communism]] at the request of the United States.{{sfn|Bulmer-Thomas|1987|p=142}} The non-aligned Indonesian government of [[Sukarno]] was faced with a major threat to its legitimacy beginning in 1956 when several regional commanders began to demand autonomy from [[Jakarta]]. After mediation failed, Sukarno took action to remove the dissident commanders. In February 1958, dissident military commanders in Central Sumatra (Colonel [[Ahmad Husein]]) and North Sulawesi (Colonel Ventje Sumual) declared the [[Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia]]-[[Permesta]] Movement aimed at overthrowing the Sukarno regime. They were joined by many civilian politicians from the [[Masyumi Party]], such as [[Sjafruddin Prawiranegara]], who were opposed to the growing influence of the communist [[Communist Party of Indonesia|Partai Komunis Indonesia]]. Due to their anti-communist rhetoric, the rebels received arms, funding, and other covert aid from the CIA until [[Allen Lawrence Pope]], an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid on government-held [[Ambon, Maluku|Ambon]] in April 1958. The central government responded by launching airborne and seaborne military invasions of rebel strongholds at [[Padang]] and [[Manado]]. By the end of 1958, the rebels were militarily defeated, and the last remaining rebel guerilla bands surrendered by August 1961.{{sfn|Roadnight|2002}} [[File:The Soviet Union 1961 CPA 2576 stamp (The Struggle for the Liberation of Africa. Lumumba ( 1925-1961 ), premier of Congo).jpg|thumb|upright|1961 Russian stamp commemorating [[Patrice Lumumba]], assassinated prime minister of the [[Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo]]]] In the [[Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)|Republic of the Congo]], also known as Congo-Léopoldville, newly independent from [[Belgium]] since June 1960, the [[Congo Crisis]] erupted on 5 July leading to the secession of the regions [[State of Katanga|Katanga]] and [[South Kasai]]. CIA-backed President [[Joseph Kasa-Vubu]] ordered the dismissal of the democratically elected Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]] and the Lumumba cabinet in September over massacres by the armed forces during the [[invasion of South Kasai]] and for involving Soviets in the country.{{sfn|Nzongola-Ntalaja|2011|p=108}}{{sfn|Schraeder|1994|p=57}} Later the CIA-backed Colonel [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] quickly mobilized his forces to seize power through a military coup d'état, {{sfn|Schraeder|1994|p=57}} and worked with Western intelligence agencies to imprison Lumumba and hand him over to Katangan authorities who executed him by firing squad.{{sfn|Nzongola-Ntalaja|2011}}{{sfn|Gerard|2015|pp=216–218}} In [[British Guiana]], the leftist [[People's Progressive Party/Civic|People's Progressive Party]] (PPP) candidate [[Cheddi Jagan]] won the position of chief minister in a colonially administered election in 1953 but was quickly forced to resign from power after Britain's suspension of the still-dependent nation's constitution.{{sfn|Rose|2002|p=57}} Embarrassed by the landslide electoral victory of Jagan's allegedly Marxist party, the British imprisoned the PPP's leadership and maneuvered the organization into a divisive rupture in 1955, engineering a split between Jagan and his PPP colleagues.{{sfn|Mars|Young|2004|p=xviii}} Jagan again won the colonial elections in 1957 and 1961, despite Britain's shift to a reconsideration of its view of the left-wing Jagan as a Soviet-style communist at this time. The United States pressured the British to withhold [[Guyana]]'s independence until an alternative to Jagan could be identified, supported, and brought into office.{{sfn|Palmer|2010|pp=247–248}} Worn down by the [[First Indochina War|communist guerrilla war for Vietnamese independence]] and handed a watershed defeat by communist [[Viet Minh]] rebels at the 1954 [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu]], the French accepted a negotiated abandonment of their colonial stake in [[Vietnam]]. In the [[1954 Geneva Conference|Geneva Conference]], peace accords were signed, leaving Vietnam divided between a pro-Soviet administration in [[North Vietnam]] and a pro-Western administration in [[South Vietnam]] at the [[17th parallel north]]. Between 1954 and 1961, Eisenhower's United States sent economic aid and military advisers to strengthen South Vietnam's pro-Western government against communist efforts to destabilize it.{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} Many emerging nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America rejected the pressure to choose sides in the East–West competition. In 1955, at the [[Bandung Conference]] in Indonesia, dozens of Third World governments resolved to stay out of the Cold War.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=126}} The consensus reached at Bandung culminated with the creation of the [[Belgrade]]-headquartered [[Non-Aligned Movement]] in 1961.{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} Meanwhile, Khrushchev broadened Moscow's policy to establish ties with [[India]] and other key neutral states. Independence movements in the Third World transformed the post-war order into a more pluralistic world of decolonized African and Middle Eastern nations and of rising nationalism in Asia and Latin America.{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} ===Sino-Soviet split=== {{Main|Sino-Soviet split}} [[File:Soviet empire 1960.png|thumb|Map showing greatest territorial extent of the Soviet Union and the states that it dominated politically, economically and militarily in 1960, after the [[Cuban Revolution]] of 1959 but before the official [[Sino-Soviet split]] of 1961 (total area: c. 35,000,000 km<sup>2</sup>){{Efn-ua|{{convert|34374483|km2}}.}}]] [[File:Sino-Soviet split 1980.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|A map showing the relations of [[Communist state|Marxist–Leninist state]]s after the Sino-Soviet split of 1980: {{legend|#dd0000|The USSR and pro-Soviet socialist states}} {{legend|#FCC200|China and pro-Chinese socialist states}} {{legend|#000000|Neutral socialist states ([[North Korea]] and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]])}} {{legend|#e0e0e0|Non-socialist states}}]] After 1956, the Sino-Soviet alliance began to break down. Mao had defended Stalin when Khrushchev criticized him in 1956 and treated the new Soviet leader as a superficial upstart, accusing him of having lost his revolutionary edge.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=142}} For his part, Khrushchev, disturbed by Mao's glib attitude toward nuclear war, referred to the Chinese leader as a "lunatic on a throne".{{sfn|Kempe|2011|p=42}} After this, Khrushchev made many desperate attempts to reconstitute the Sino-Soviet alliance, but Mao considered it useless and denied any proposal.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=142}} The Chinese-Soviet animosity spilled out in an intra-communist propaganda war.{{sfn|Lüthi|2010|pp=273–276}} Further on, the Soviets focused on a bitter rivalry with Mao's China for leadership of the global communist movement.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=140–142}} Historian Lorenz M. Lüthi argues: :The Sino-Soviet split was one of the key events of the Cold War, equal in importance to the construction of the Berlin Wall, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Second Vietnam War, and [[China–United States relations#Rapprochement|Sino-American rapprochement]]. The split helped to determine the framework of the [[Second Cold War]] in general, and influenced the course of the Second Vietnam War in particular.{{sfn|Lüthi|2010|p=1}} ===Space Race=== {{Main|Space Race}} [[File:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|thumb|upright|The United States [[Apollo 11|reached the Moon]] in 1969.]] On the [[nuclear weapon]]s front, the United States and the Soviet Union pursued nuclear rearmament and developed long-range weapons with which they could strike the territory of the other.{{sfn|Byrd|2003}} In August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched the world's first [[intercontinental ballistic missile]] (ICBM),{{sfn|McMahon|2003|pp=75–76}} and in October they launched the first Earth satellite, [[Sputnik 1]].{{sfn|BBC|1957}} The launch of Sputnik inaugurated the [[Space Race]]. This led to the [[Apollo program|Apollo]] [[Moon landing]]s by the United States, which astronaut [[Frank Borman]] later described as "just a battle in the Cold War."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Klesius |first2=Mike |title=To Boldly Go |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/to-boldly-go-133005480/ |website=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=5 November 2022 |language=en}}</ref> The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/apollo-moon-khrushchev/|title=The Moon Landing through Soviet Eyes: A Q&A with Sergei Khrushchev, son of former premier Nikita Khrushchev|magazine=Scientific American|date=July 16, 2009|access-date=January 7, 2019|last1=Das|first1=Saswato R.|archive-date=February 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225085952/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/apollo-moon-khrushchev/|url-status=live}}</ref> A major Cold War element of the Space Race was [[Reconnaissance satellite|satellite reconnaissance]], as well as signals intelligence to gauge which aspects of the space programs had military capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=U.S. INTELLIGENCE AND THE SOVIET SPACE PROGRAM|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB501/|access-date=27 October 2021|website=nsarchive2.gwu.edu}}</ref> Later, however, the US and USSR pursued some cooperation in space as part of [[détente]], such as [[Apollo–Soyuz]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=U.S.-Soviet Cooperation in Outer Space, Part 1: From Yuri Gagarin to Apollo-Soyuz {{!}} National Security Archive|url=https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/russia-programs/2021-04-12/us-soviet-cooperation-in-outer-space-part-1-1961-1975|access-date=27 October 2021|website=nsarchive.gwu.edu}}</ref> ===Aftermath of the Cuban Revolution=== {{Main|Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution|Bay of Pigs Invasion}} [[File:CheyFidel.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Che Guevara]] (left) and [[Fidel Castro]] (right) in 1961]] In [[Cuba]], the [[26th of July Movement]], led by young revolutionaries [[Fidel Castro]] and [[Che Guevara]], seized power in the [[Cuban Revolution]] on 1 January 1959, toppling President [[Fulgencio Batista]], whose unpopular regime had been denied arms by the Eisenhower administration.{{sfn|Blumberg|1995|pp=23–24}} Although Fidel Castro's first refused to categorize his new government as socialist and repeatedly denying being a communist, Castro appointed Marxists to senior government and military positions. Most significantly, Che Guevara became Governor of the Central Bank and then Minister of Industries.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=181–183}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=248–252}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=162}}.</ref> [[Cuba–United States relations|Diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States]] continued for some time after Batista's fall, but President Eisenhower deliberately left the capital to avoid meeting Castro during the latter's trip to [[Washington, D.C.]] in April, leaving Vice President [[Richard Nixon]] to conduct the meeting in his place.{{sfn|Lechuga Hevia|2001|p=142}} Cuba began negotiating for arms purchases from the Eastern Bloc in March 1960.{{sfn|Dominguez|1989|p=22}} The same month, Eisenhower gave approval to [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] plans and funding to overthrow Castro.<ref>{{Cite web|title=It's Time to Stop Saying that JFK Inherited the Bay of Pigs Operation from Ike {{!}} History News Network|url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/161188|access-date=3 September 2020|website=historynewsnetwork.org|date=5 December 2015 |archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726153536/https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/161188|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 1961, just prior to leaving office, Eisenhower formally severed relations with the Cuban government. That April, the administration of newly elected American President [[John F. Kennedy]] mounted the unsuccessful CIA-organized [[Bay of Pigs Invasion|ship-borne invasion]] of the island by [[Cuban exodus|Cuban exiles]] at Playa Girón and Playa Larga in [[Santa Clara Province]]—a failure that publicly humiliated the United States.{{sfn|Smith|1998|p=95}} Castro responded by publicly embracing [[Marxism–Leninism]], and the Soviet Union pledged to [[Cuba–Soviet Union relations|provide further support]].{{sfn|Smith|1998|p=95}} In December, the US government [[Operation Mongoose|began a campaign]] of [[Terrorism|terrorist]] attacks against Cuba and [[covert operations]] and sabotage against the administration, in an attempt to overthrow the Castro regime.{{refn|<ref name=Bacevich10>{{cite book |last1=Bacevich |first1=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Bacevich |title=Washington rules: America's path to permanent war |date=2010 |publisher=[[Henry Holt and Company]] |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4299-4326-0 |pages=77–80 |edition=First}}</ref><ref name=Franklin16>{{cite book |last1=Franklin |first1=Jane |title=Cuba and the U.S. empire : a chronological history |date=2016 |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-1-58367-605-9 |pages=45–63, 388–392, ''[[List of Latin phrases (E)#et passim|et passim]]''}}</ref><ref name=NSArchive19>{{cite report |editor1-last=Prados |editor1-first=John |editor2-last=Jimenez-Bacardi |editor2-first=Arturo |date=3 October 2019 |title=Kennedy and Cuba: Operation Mongoose |work=[[National Security Archive]] |url=https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/cuba/2019-10-03/kennedy-cuba-operation-mongoose |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |publisher=[[The George Washington University]] |access-date=3 April 2020 |quote=The memorandum showed no concern for international law or the unspoken nature of these operations as terrorist attacks. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102010542/https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/cuba/2019-10-03/kennedy-cuba-operation-mongoose |archive-date=2 November 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=CIP77>{{cite report |date=1977 |title=International Policy Report |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |publisher=[[Center for International Policy]] |pages=10–12 |quote=To coordinate and carry out its war of terror and destruction during the early 1960s, the CIA established a base of operations, known as [[JMWAVE]]}}</ref><ref name=Miller02>{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Nicola |editor-last1=Carter |editor-first1=Dale |editor-last2=Clifton |editor-first2=Robin |chapter=The Real Gap in the Cuban Missile Crisis: The Post-Cold-War Historiography and Continued Omission of Cuba |title=War and Cold War in American foreign policy, 1942–62 |date=2002 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |location=Basingstoke |isbn=978-1-4039-1385-2 |pages=211–237}}</ref><ref name=Schou11>{{cite book |last1=Schoultz |first1=Lars |title=That infernal little Cuban republic : the United States and the Cuban Revolution |date=2009 |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |location=Chapel Hill |isbn=978-0-8078-8860-5 |chapter=State Sponsored Terrorism |pages=170–211}}</ref>}} ===Berlin Crisis of 1961=== {{Main|Berlin Crisis of 1961}} {{Further|Berlin Wall|Emigration from the Eastern Bloc}} [[File:US Army tanks face off against Soviet tanks, Berlin 1961.jpg|thumb|[[Tanks of the Soviet Union|Soviet]] and [[Tanks of the United States|American tanks]] face each other at [[Checkpoint Charlie]] during the Berlin Crisis of 1961]] The [[Berlin Crisis of 1961]] was the last major incident in the Cold War regarding the status of Berlin and [[History of Germany (1945–1990)|post–World War II Germany]]. By the early 1950s, the [[Emigration from the Eastern Bloc|Soviet approach to restricting emigration movement]] was emulated by most of the rest of the [[Eastern Bloc]].{{sfn|Dowty|1989|p=114}} However, hundreds of thousands of [[East Germany|East Germans]] annually emigrated to free and prosperous [[West Germany]] through a "loophole" in the system that existed between [[East Berlin]] and [[West Berlin]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Berlin-Wall|title=Berlin Wall|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]|date=9 August 2023 }}</ref>{{sfn|Harrison|2003|p=99}} The emigration resulted in a massive "[[Human capital flight|brain drain]]" from East Germany to West Germany of younger educated professionals, such that nearly 20% of East Germany's population had migrated to West Germany by 1961.{{sfn|Dowty|1989|p=122}} That June, the [[Soviet Union]] issued a new [[ultimatum]] demanding the withdrawal of [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] from West Berlin.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=114}} The request was rebuffed, but the United States now limited its security guarantees to West Berlin.{{sfn|Daum|2008|p=27}} On 13 August, East Germany erected a barbed-wire barrier that would eventually be expanded through construction into the [[Berlin Wall]], effectively closing the loophole and preventing its citizens from fleeing to the West.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=75}} ===Cuban Missile Crisis and Khrushchev's ousting=== {{Main|Operation Mongoose|Cuban Missile Crisis}} [[File:Cuban missiles.jpg|thumb|left|Aerial photograph of a Soviet missile site in [[Cuba]], taken by a US [[Surveillance aircraft|spy aircraft]], 1 November 1962]] The Kennedy administration continued seeking ways to oust Castro following the Bay of Pigs invasion, experimenting with various ways of covertly facilitating the overthrow of the Cuban government. Significant hopes were pinned on the program of terrorist attacks and other destabilization operations known as [[Operation Mongoose]], that was devised under the Kennedy administration in 1961. Khrushchev learned of the project in February 1962,{{sfn|Zubok|1994}} and preparations to install Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba were undertaken in response.{{sfn|Zubok|1994}} Alarmed, Kennedy considered various reactions. He ultimately responded to the installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba with a [[naval blockade]], and he presented an ultimatum to the Soviets. Khrushchev backed down from a confrontation, and the Soviet Union removed the missiles in return for a public American pledge not to invade Cuba again as well as a covert deal to remove US missiles from Turkey.{{sfn|H. Jones|2009|p=122}} Castro later admitted that "I would have agreed to the use of nuclear weapons. ... we took it for granted that it would become a nuclear war anyway, and that we were going to disappear."{{sfn|Blight|Allyn|Welch|2002|p=252}} The [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] (October–November 1962) brought the world closer to [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]] than ever before.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=82}} The aftermath led to efforts in the [[nuclear arms race]] at nuclear disarmament and improving relations, although the Cold War's first arms control agreement, the [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]], had come into force in 1961.{{efn-ua|National Research Council Committee on Antarctic Policy and Science, p. 33}} The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev, and the Soviets were seen as retreating from circumstances that they had started. In 1964, Khrushchev's Kremlin colleagues managed to [[Nikita Khrushchev#Removal|oust]] him, but allowed him a peaceful retirement.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=119–120}} He was accused of rudeness and incompetence, and John Lewis Gaddis argues that he was also blamed with ruining Soviet agriculture, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war, and becoming an "international embarrassment" when he authorized construction of the Berlin Wall.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=119}} According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation".<ref>William Taubman, [[Khrushchev: The Man and His Era]] (2004) p. 579.</ref><ref name="The Malin Notes">{{cite web|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/media/documents/publication/CWHIP_Bulletin_17-18_Cuban_Missile_Crisis_v2_s3_Soviet_Union.pdf|title=The Malin Notes: Glimpses Inside the Kremlin during the Cuban Missile Crisis|work=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars|author=Jeffery D. Shields|date=March 7, 2016}}</ref> ==From confrontation to détente (1962–1979)== {{Main|Cold War (1962–1979)|Era of Stagnation}} [[Image:Glassboro-meeting1967.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Soviet Premier [[Alexei Kosygin]] with U.S. President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] at the 1967 [[Glassboro Summit Conference]].]] [[File:1973 NATO and WP troop strengths in Europe.svg|thumb|NATO and Warsaw Pact troop strengths in Europe in 1973]] In the course of the 1960s and 1970s, Cold War participants struggled to adjust to a new, more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer divided into two clearly opposed blocs.{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} From the beginning of the post-war period, with American help Western Europe and Japan rapidly recovered from the destruction of World War II and sustained strong economic growth through the 1950s and 1960s, with per capita GDPs approaching those of the United States, while [[Eastern Bloc#Economies|Eastern Bloc economies stagnated]].{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}}{{sfn|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=16}} The [[Vietnam War]] descended into a quagmire for the United States, leading to a decline in international prestige and economic stability, derailing arms agreements, and provoking domestic unrest. America's withdrawal from the war led it to embrace a policy of [[détente]] with both China and the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Milestones: 1969–1976}} In the [[1973 oil crisis]], Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries ([[OPEC]]) cut their petroleum output. This raised oil prices and hurt Western economies, but helped the Soviet Union by generating a huge flow of money from its oil sales.{{sfn|Painter|2014}} As a result of the oil crisis, combined with the growing influence of Third World alignments such as OPEC and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence and often showed themselves resistant to pressure from either superpower.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=212}} Meanwhile, Moscow was forced to turn its attention inward to deal with the Soviet Union's deep-seated domestic economic problems.{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} During this period, Soviet leaders such as [[Leonid Brezhnev]] and [[Alexei Kosygin]] embraced the notion of détente.{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} ===Vietnam War=== {{Main|Vietnam War|Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War}} [[File:Bruce Crandall's UH-1D.jpg|thumb|US combat operations during the [[Battle of Ia Drang]], [[South Vietnam]], November 1965]] Under President [[John F. Kennedy]], US troop levels in Vietnam grew under the [[Military Assistance Advisory Group]] program from just under a thousand in 1959 to 16,000 in 1963.{{efn-ua|{{cite web|url=https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/education/teachers/curricular-resources/high-school-curricular-resources/military-advisors-in-vietnam-1963|title=Military Advisors in Vietnam: 1963 {{!}} JFK Library|website=www.jfklibrary.org|access-date=21 June 2019}}}}{{efn-ua|[http://25thaviation.org/facts/id430.htm Vietnam War Statistics and Facts 1], 25th Aviation Battalion website.}} South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem's heavy-handed [[Huế Phật Đản shootings|crackdown on Buddhist monks]] in 1963 led the US to endorse a deadly [[1963 South Vietnamese coup|military coup against Diem]].{{sfn|Miller|Wainstock|2013|pp=315–325}} The war escalated further in 1964 following the controversial [[Gulf of Tonkin incident]], in which a US destroyer was alleged to have clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft. The [[Gulf of Tonkin Resolution]] gave President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] broad authorization to increase US military presence, deploying ground [[Military organization|combat units]] for the first time and increasing troop levels to 184,000.{{sfn|Koven|2015|p=93}} Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev responded by reversing Khrushchev's policy of disengagement and increasing aid to the North Vietnamese, hoping to entice the North from its pro-Chinese position. The USSR discouraged further escalation of the war, however, providing just enough military assistance to tie up American forces.{{sfn|Tucker|2011|p=131}} From this point, the [[People's Army of Vietnam]] (PAVN), also known as the North Vietnamese Army (NVA), engaged in more [[conventional warfare]] with US and South Vietnamese forces.{{sfn|Glass|2017}} The [[Tet Offensive]] of 1968 proved to be the turning point of the war. Despite years of American tutelage and aid, the South Vietnamese forces were unable to withstand the communist offensive and the task fell to US forces instead. Tet showed that the end of US involvement was not in sight, increasing domestic skepticism of the war and giving rise to what was referred to as the [[Vietnam Syndrome]], a public aversion to American overseas military involvements. Nonetheless, operations continued to cross international boundaries: bordering areas of Laos and Cambodia were used by North Vietnam as [[Ho Chi Minh trail|supply routes]], and were heavily [[Operation Barrel Roll|bombed by US forces]].{{sfn|Kalb|2013}} At the same time, in 1963–1965, American domestic politics saw the triumph of [[Modern liberalism in the United States|liberalism]]. According to historian Joseph Crespino: :It has become a staple of twentieth-century historiography that Cold War concerns were at the root of a number of progressive political accomplishments in the postwar period: a high progressive marginal tax rate that helped fund the arms race and contributed to broad income equality; bipartisan support for far-reaching civil rights legislation that transformed politics and society in the American South, which had long given the lie to America's egalitarian ethos; bipartisan support for overturning an explicitly racist immigration system that had been in place since the 1920s; and free health care for the elderly and the poor, a partial fulfillment of one of the unaccomplished goals of the New Deal era. The list could go on.<ref>Joseph Crespino, "A Nation Ruled by Its Fears" ''Reviews in American History,'' 48#1 (March 2020), pp. 119–123, quoting p. 123. https://doi.org/10.1353/rah.2020.0016</ref> ===French withdrawal from NATO military structures=== {{Main|Foreign policy of Charles de Gaulle#Partial withdrawal from NATO in 1966}} The unity of NATO was breached early in its history, with a crisis occurring during [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s presidency of France. De Gaulle protested at the strong role of the United States in the organization and what he perceived as a [[Special Relationship|special relationship]] between the United States and the United Kingdom. In a memorandum sent to President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]] on 17 September 1958, he argued for the creation of a tripartite directorate that would put France on an equal footing with the United States and the United Kingdom, and also for the expansion of NATO's coverage to include geographical areas of interest to France, most notably [[French Algeria]], where France was waging a counter-insurgency and sought NATO assistance.{{sfn|Menon|2000|p=11}} De Gaulle considered the response he received to be unsatisfactory and began the development of an [[Force de dissuasion|independent French nuclear deterrent]]. In 1966, he withdrew France from NATO's military structures and expelled NATO troops from French soil.{{sfn|Nuenlist|Locher|Martin|2010|pp=99–102}} ===Finlandization=== {{Main|Sovietization|Finlandization}} [[File:1970 - Lenin.jpg|thumb|A manifestation of the Finlandization period: in April 1970, a Finnish stamp was issued in honor of the 100th anniversary of [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s birth and the Lenin Symposium held in [[Tampere]]. The stamp was the first Finnish stamp issued about a foreign person.]] Officially claiming to be [[Neutral country|neutral]], Finland lay in the [[Grey-zone (international relations)|grey zone]] between the Western countries and the Soviet Union. The [[Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948|YYA Treaty]] (Finno-Soviet Pact of ''Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance'')<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/finland/24.htm The Cold War and the Treaty of 1948] from the [[Library of Congress]] (the Country Studies)</ref> gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics, which was later used as the term "Finlandization" by the West German press, meaning "to become like Finland". This meant, among other things, the Soviet adaptation spread to the editors of [[mass media]], sparking strong forms of self-control, [[self-censorship]] (which included the banning of anti-Soviet books<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ekholm |first=Kai |date=2001 |title=Political Censorship in Finnish Libraries in 1944–1946 |journal=Libraries & Culture |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=51–57 |doi=10.1353/lac.2001.0008|s2cid=152952804 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.uta.fi/laitokset/kirjasto/oppimiskeskus/verkkoaineisto/inf/makinen.pdf Mäkinen, Ilkka. 2001. The golden age of Finnish public libraries : institutional, structural and ideological background since the 1960s]. p. 131</ref>) and pro-Soviet attitudes. Most of the elite of media and politics shifted their attitudes to match the values that the Soviets were thought to favor and approve. Only after the ascent of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to Soviet leadership in 1985 did mass media in Finland gradually begin to criticise the Soviet Union more. When the Soviet Union allowed non-communist governments to take power in Eastern Europe, Gorbachev suggested they could look to Finland as an example to follow.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Keller|first1=Bill|last2=Times|first2=Special To the New York|date=26 October 1989|title=Gorbachev, in Finland, Disavows Any Right of Regional Intervention (Published 1989)|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/26/world/gorbachev-in-finland-disavows-any-right-of-regional-intervention.html|access-date=16 March 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> For West German conservative politicians, especially the [[Bavaria]]n Prime Minister [[Franz Josef Strauss]], the case of Finlandization served as a warning, for example, about how a great power dictates its much smaller neighbor in its internal affairs and the neighbor's independence becomes formal. During the Cold War, Finlandization was seen not only in Bavaria but also in Western [[intelligence service]]s as a threat that completely free states had to be warned about in advance. To combat Finlandization, propaganda books and newspaper articles were published through CIA-funded research institutes and media companies, which denigrated Finnish neutrality policy and its pro-Soviet President [[Urho Kekkonen]];<ref name="rislakki">{{cite book|author=Jukka Rislakki|title=Erittäin salainen. Vakoilu Suomessa|date=1982|pages=440–454|publisher=LOVE KIRJAT|isbn=951-835-057-4|language=fi}}</ref> this was one factor in making room for the [[Cold War espionage|East-West espionage]] on Finnish soil between the two great powers.<ref name="rislakki"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/eastern-approaches/2011/12/01/secret-history|title=Finland and American intelligence – Secret history|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=1 December 2011|access-date=16 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-9692396|title=Naisia, autoja ja piilopirttejä – Norjalainen vakoili CIA:n laskuun kylmän sodan Suomessa|first=Satu|last=Helin|publisher=[[YLE]]|date=2 July 2017|access-date=16 August 2020|language=fi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.is.fi/kotimaa/art-2000005833479.html|title=Näin Neuvostoliitto vakoili Suomessa – Supo seurasi "Jakkea", joka johdatti uusille jäljille|first=Mika|last=Lehto|work=[[Ilta-Sanomat]]|date=19 September 2018|access-date=16 August 2020|language=fi}}</ref> However, Finland maintained [[capitalism]] unlike most other countries bordering the Soviet Union. Even though being a neighbor to the Soviet Union sometimes resulted in overcautious concern in foreign policy, Finland developed closer co-operation with the other [[Nordic countries]] and declared itself even more neutral in superpower politics, although in the later years, support for capitalism was even more widespread.<ref name="equity">[http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTRANETSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/finland.pdf Growth and Equity in Finland], World Bank</ref> ===Invasion of Czechoslovakia=== {{Main|Prague Spring|Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia}} [[File:10 Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia - Flickr - The Central Intelligence Agency.jpg|thumb|The [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia|invasion of Czechoslovakia]] by the Soviet Union in 1968 was one of the biggest military operations on European soil since [[World War II]].]] In 1968, a period of political liberalization took place in [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Czechoslovakia]] called the [[Prague Spring]]. An "[[Socialism with a human face|Action Program]]" of reforms included increasing [[freedom of the press]], [[freedom of speech]] and [[freedom of movement]], along with an economic emphasis on [[Final good|consumer goods]], the possibility of a multiparty government, limitations on the power of the secret police,{{efn-ua|Ello (ed.), Paul (April 1968). Control Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, "Action Plan of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (Prague, April 1968)" in ''Dubcek's Blueprint for Freedom: His original documents leading to the invasion of Czechoslovakia.'' William Kimber & Co. 1968, pp. 32, 54}}{{sfn|Von Geldern|Siegelbaum}} and potential withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=150}} In answer to the Prague Spring, on 20 August 1968, the [[Soviet Army]], together with most of their Warsaw Pact allies, [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia|invaded Czechoslovakia]].{{sfn|BBC|2008}} The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, including an estimated 70,000 Czechs and Slovaks initially fleeing, with the total eventually reaching 300,000.{{sfn|Čulík|1998}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia |url=http://www.enrs.eu/en/news/1255-invasion-of-czechoslovakia |access-date=5 November 2022 |date=31 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731024148/http://www.enrs.eu/en/news/1255-invasion-of-czechoslovakia |archive-date=31 July 2017 }}</ref> The invasion sparked intense protests from Yugoslavia, Romania, China, and from Western European countries.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=154}} ===Brezhnev Doctrine=== {{Main|Brezhnev Doctrine}} In September 1968, during a speech at the Fifth Congress of the [[Polish United Workers' Party]] one month after the [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia|invasion of Czechoslovakia]], Brezhnev outlined the [[Brezhnev Doctrine]], in which he claimed the right to violate the sovereignty of any country attempting to replace Marxism–Leninism with capitalism. During the speech, Brezhnev stated:{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=150}} {{blockquote|When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.}} The doctrine found its origins in the failures of Marxism–Leninism in states like Poland, Hungary and East Germany, which were facing a declining standard of living contrasting with the prosperity of West Germany and the rest of Western Europe.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=153}} ===Third World escalations=== {{See also|1964 Brazilian coup d'état|Dominican Civil War|Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966|Vietnam War|1973 Chilean coup d'état|1973 Uruguayan coup d'état|1976 Argentine coup d'état|Operation Condor|Six-Day War|War of Attrition|Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Yom Kippur War|Ogaden War|Angolan Civil War|South African Border War|Indonesian invasion of East Timor|Stability–instability paradox}} Under the [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] [[Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson|administration]], which gained power after the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]], the US took a more hardline stance on Latin America—sometimes called the "[[Thomas C. Mann#Mann Doctrine|Mann Doctrine]]".{{sfn|LaFeber|1993a|pp=186–190}} In 1964, the Brazilian military [[1964 Brazilian coup d'état|overthrew the government]] of president [[João Goulart]] with US backing.{{sfn|LaFeber|1993a|p=191}} In late April 1965, the US sent some 22,000 troops to the [[Dominican Republic]] in an intervention, codenamed Operation Power Pack, into the [[Dominican Civil War]] between supporters of deposed president [[Juan Bosch (politician)|Juan Bosch]] and supporters of General [[Elías Wessin y Wessin]], citing the threat of the emergence of a Cuban-style revolution in Latin America. The [[Organization of American States|OAS]] also deployed soldiers to the conflict through the mostly Brazilian [[Inter-American Peace Force]].{{sfn|LaFeber|1993a|pp=194–97}} [[Héctor García-Godoy]] acted as provisional president, until conservative former president [[Joaquín Balaguer]] won the 1966 presidential election against non-campaigning Juan Bosch.{{sfn|Itzigsohn|2000|pp=41–42}} Activists for Bosch's [[Dominican Revolutionary Party]] were violently harassed by the Dominican police and armed forces.{{sfn|Itzigsohn|2000|pp=41–42}} [[File:Suharto at funeral.jpg|thumb|[[Suharto]] of Indonesia attending funeral of five generals slain in [[30 September Movement]], 2 October 1965]] In Indonesia, the hardline anti-communist [[Suharto|General Suharto]] wrested control of the state from his predecessor [[Sukarno]] in an attempt to [[Transition to the New Order|establish a "New Order"]]. From 1965 to 1966, with the [[CIA activities in Indonesia#Anti-communist purge|aid of the United States]] and other Western governments,{{sfn|Robinson|2018|p=203}}{{sfn|Simpson|2010|p=193}}{{sfn|Thaler|2015}}{{sfn|Perry|2016}}{{sfn|Bevins|2017}} the military [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|led the mass killing]] of more than 500,000 members and sympathizers of the [[Communist Party of Indonesia|Indonesian Communist Party]] and other leftist organizations, and detained hundreds of thousands more in prison camps around the country under extremely inhumane conditions.{{sfn|Farid|2005|pp=3–16}}{{sfn|Aarons|2007}} A top-secret CIA report stated that the massacres "rank as one of the worst [[mass murder]]s of the 20th century, along with the Soviet purges of the 1930s, the Nazi mass murders during the Second World War, and the Maoist bloodbath of the early 1950s."{{sfn|Aarons|2007}} These killings served US strategic interests and constitute a major turning point in the Cold War as the balance of power shifted in Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Bevins|2020|p=2}}{{sfn|Scott|2017}} [[Joint warfare in South Vietnam, 1963–1969|Escalating the scale of American intervention]] in the ongoing conflict between [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Đình Diệm]]'s [[South Vietnam]]ese government and the communist [[Viet Cong|National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam]] (NLF) insurgents opposing it, Johnson deployed some 575,000 troops in Southeast Asia to defeat the NLF and their North Vietnamese allies in the [[Vietnam War]], but his costly policy weakened the US economy and sparked domestic anti-war protests, which lead to the US withdrawal by 1972. Without American support, South Vietnam was [[Fall of Saigon|conquered by North Vietnam in 1975]]; the US reputation suffered as a result, as most of the world saw the events in Vietnam as the defeat of the world's most powerful superpower at the hands of one of the world's poorest nations.{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} [[File:Henry Kissinger with Anwar Sadat cph.3b13868.jpg|thumb|230px|Egyptian leader [[Anwar Sadat]] with Henry Kissinger in 1975]] The Middle East remained a source of contention. [[Egypt]], which received the bulk of its arms and economic assistance from the USSR, was a troublesome client, with a reluctant Soviet Union feeling obliged to assist in both the 1967 [[Six-Day War]] (with advisers and technicians) and the [[War of Attrition]] (with pilots and aircraft) against pro-Western [[Israel]].{{sfn|Stone|2010|p=230}} Despite the beginning of an Egyptian shift from a pro-Soviet to a pro-American orientation in 1972 (under Egypt's new leader [[Anwar Sadat]]), the Soviets supported Egypt and [[Syria]] during the [[Yom Kippur War]] the following year, as the United States supported Israel.{{sfn|Grenville|Wasserstein|1987}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Quandt |first1=William |title=Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict Since 1967 |date=2005 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=California |isbn=978-0520246317 |pages=104–105 |edition=third |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MVXxUGe9qEkC}}</ref> Although pre-Sadat Egypt had been the largest recipient of Soviet aid in the Middle East, the Soviets were also successful in establishing close relations with communist [[South Yemen]], as well as the nationalist governments of [[Algeria]] and [[Iraq]].{{sfn|Grenville|Wasserstein|1987}} Iraq signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union in 1972. According to historian [[Charles R. H. Tripp]], the treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the [[Arab Cold War]]. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States."{{sfn|Tripp|2002}} In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by [[Mustafa Barzani]] during the [[Second Iraqi–Kurdish War]]; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians.{{sfn|Tripp|2002}} Indirect Soviet assistance to the Palestinian side of the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] included support for [[Yasser Arafat]]'s [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO).{{sfn|Friedman|2007|p=330}} In East Africa, a territorial dispute between [[Somalia]] and [[Ethiopia]] over the [[Ogaden]] region resulted in the [[Ogaden War]]. Around June 1977, Somali troops occupied the Ogaden and began advancing inland towards Ethiopian positions in the [[Ahmar Mountains]]. Both countries were client states of the [[Soviet Union]]; Somalia was led by self-proclaimed Marxist military leader [[Siad Barre]], and Ethiopia was controlled by the [[Derg]], a cabal of military generals loyal to the pro-Soviet [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]], who had declared the Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia in 1975.{{sfn|Erlich|2008|pp=84–86}} The Soviets initially attempted to exert a moderating influence on both states, but in November 1977 Barre broke off relations with Moscow and expelled his Soviet military advisers.{{sfn|Perrett|2016|pp=216–217}} He then turned to the China and [[Safari Club]]—a group of pro-American intelligence agencies including those of Iran, Egypt, Saudi Arabia—for support and weapons.<ref>"Chinese to Increase Aid to Somalia". The Washington Post. 21 April 1987.</ref>{{sfn|Bronson|2006|p=134|ps=: "Encouraged by Saudi Arabia, Safari Club members approached Somali president Siad Barre and offered to provide the arms he needed if he stopped taking Soviet aid. Barre agreed. Egypt then sold Somalia $75 million worth of its unwanted Soviet arms, with Saudi Arabia footing the bill."}}{{efn-ua|Miglietta, ''American Alliance Policy'' (2002), p. 78. "American military goods were provided by Egypt and Iran, which transferred excess arms from their inventories. It was said that American M-48 tanks sold to Iran were shipped to Somalia via Oman."}} While declining to take a direct part in hostilities, the Soviet Union did provide the impetus for a successful Ethiopian counteroffensive to expel Somalia from the Ogaden. The counteroffensive was planned at the command level by Soviet advisers attached to the Ethiopian general staff, and bolstered by the delivery of millions of dollars' of sophisticated Soviet arms.{{sfn|Perrett|2016|pp=216–217}} About 11,000 Cuban troops spearheaded the primary effort, after receiving a hasty training on some of the newly delivered Soviet weapons systems by East German instructors.{{sfn|Perrett|2016|pp=216–217}} [[File:Reunión Pinochet - Kissinger.jpg|thumb|Chilean leader [[Augusto Pinochet]] shaking hands with Henry Kissinger in 1976]] In [[Chile]], the [[Socialist Party of Chile|Socialist Party]] candidate [[Salvador Allende]] won the [[1970 Chilean presidential election|presidential election of 1970]], thereby becoming the first democratically elected [[Marxism|Marxist]] to become president of a country in the Americas.{{sfn|BBC|2003}} The CIA targeted Allende for removal and operated to undermine his support domestically, which contributed to a period of unrest culminating in General [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|coup d'état]] on 11 September 1973. Pinochet consolidated power as a military dictator, Allende's reforms of the economy were rolled back, and leftist opponents were killed or detained in internment camps under the [[Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional]] (DINA). The socialist states—with the exception of China and [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]]—broke off relations with Chile.<ref>J. Samuel Valenzuela and Arturo Valenzuela (eds.), ''Military Rule in Chile: Dictatorship and Oppositions'', p. 317</ref> The Pinochet regime would go on to be one of the leading participants in [[Operation Condor]], an international campaign of political assassination and [[state terrorism]] organized by right-wing military dictatorships in the [[Southern Cone]] of South America that was covertly supported by the US government.{{sfn|McSherry|2011|p=107}}{{sfn|Hixson|2009|p=223}}{{sfn|Grandin|2011|p=75}} [[File:Cuban PT-76 Angola.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Cuban tank in the streets of [[Luanda]], [[Angola]], 1976]] On 24 April 1974, the [[Carnation Revolution]] succeeded in ousting [[Marcello Caetano]] and Portugal's right-wing ''[[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]]'' government, sounding the death knell for the Portuguese Empire.{{sfn|Hamann|2007|pp=15–32, 44}} Independence was hastily granted to a number of Portuguese colonies, including [[Angola]], where the disintegration of colonial rule was followed by a violent civil war.{{sfn|Stockwell|1979|pp=161–165, 185–194}} There were three rival militant factions competing for power in Angola: the [[MPLA|People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA), the [[UNITA|National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA), and the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]] (FNLA).{{sfn|Rothschild|1997|pp=115–121}} While all three had socialist leanings, the MPLA was the only party with close ties to the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Rothschild|1997|pp=115–121}} Its adherence to the concept of a Soviet one-party state alienated it from the FNLA and UNITA, which began portraying themselves as anti-communist and pro-Western in orientation.{{sfn|Rothschild|1997|pp=115–121}} When the Soviets began supplying the MPLA with arms, the CIA and China offered substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA.{{sfn|Vanneman|1990|pp=48–49}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB67/gleijeses4.pdf|title=Document obtained by National Security Archive, from National Archives Record Group 59. Records of the Department of State, Policy Planning Staff, Director's Files (Winston Lord), 1969–1977, Box 373|website=Gwu.edu|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-date=17 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140617093833/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB67/gleijeses4.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Hughes, Geraint (2014). My Enemy's Enemy: Proxy Warfare in International Politics. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. pp. 65–79. {{ISBN|978-1-84519-627-1}}.</ref> The MPLA eventually requested direct military support from Moscow in the form of ground troops, but the Soviets declined, offering to send advisers but no combat personnel.{{sfn|Vanneman|1990|pp=48–49}} Cuba was more forthcoming and began amassing troops in Angola to assist the MPLA.{{sfn|Vanneman|1990|pp=48–49}} By November 1975, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country.{{sfn|Vanneman|1990|pp=48–49}} The persistent buildup of Cuban troops and Soviet weapons allowed the MPLA to secure victory and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and [[South Africa]]n troops, which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA.{{sfn|Weigert|2011|pp=56–65}} [[File:Skulls from the killing fields.jpg|thumb|right|During the [[Khmer Rouge]] [[Democratic Kampuchea|regime]] led by [[Pol Pot]], 1.5 to 2 million people died due to the policies of his four-year premiership.]] During the Vietnam War, North Vietnam [[Sihanouk Trail|used border areas of Cambodia as military bases]], which Cambodian head of state [[Norodom Sihanouk]] tolerated in an attempt to preserve Cambodia's neutrality. Following [[1970 Cambodian coup d'état|Sihanouk's March 1970 deposition]] by pro-American general [[Lon Nol]], who ordered the North Vietnamese to leave Cambodia, North Vietnam attempted to overrun all of Cambodia following negotiations with [[Nuon Chea]], the second-in-command of the Cambodian communists (dubbed the [[Khmer Rouge]]) fighting to overthrow the Cambodian government.{{sfn|Mosyakov|2004|p=54}} Sihanouk fled to China with the establishment of the [[GRUNK]] in Beijing.<ref>Norodom Sihanouk, My War with the CIA, Random House, 1973, p. 62</ref> American and South Vietnamese forces responded to these actions with a [[Operation Menu|bombing campaign]] and a brief [[Cambodian campaign|ground incursion]], which contributed to the violence of the [[Cambodian Civil War|civil war]] that soon enveloped all of Cambodia.{{sfn|BBC|2018}} US carpet bombing [[Operation Freedom Deal|lasted until 1973]], and while it prevented the Khmer Rouge from seizing the capital, it also accelerated the collapse of rural society, increased social polarization,{{sfn|Chandler|2000|pp=96–98}} and killed tens of thousands of civilians.{{sfn|Power|2013}} After taking power and distancing himself from the Vietnamese,{{sfn|Mosyakov|2004|p=66}} pro-China Khmer Rouge leader [[Pol Pot]] killed 1.5 to 2 million Cambodians in the [[Killing Fields|killing fields]], roughly a quarter of the Cambodian population (an event commonly labelled the [[Cambodian genocide]]).{{sfn|Locard|2005}}{{sfn|Kiernan|2003}}{{sfn|Heuveline|2001|pp=102–105}}{{sfn|World Peace Foundation|2015}} [[Martin Shaw (sociologist)|Martin Shaw]] described these atrocities as "the purest genocide of the Cold War era."{{sfn|Shaw|2000|p=141}} Backed by the [[Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation]], an organization of Khmer pro-Soviet Communists and Khmer Rouge defectors led by [[Heng Samrin]], Vietnam invaded Cambodia on 22 December 1978. The [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War|invasion]] succeeded in deposing Pol Pot, but the new state would struggle to gain international recognition beyond the Soviet Bloc sphere. Despite the previous international outcry at the Pol Pot regime's gross human rights violations, representatives of the Khmer Rouge were allowed to be seated in the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN General Assembly]], with strong support from China, Western powers, and the member countries of [[ASEAN]]. Cambodia would become bogged down in a guerrilla war led from refugee camps located on the border with [[Thailand]]. Following the destruction of the Khmer Rouge, the national reconstruction of Cambodia would be severely hampered, and Vietnam would suffer a punitive [[Sino-Vietnamese War|Chinese attack]].{{sfn|Slocomb|2001}} Although unable to deter Vietnam from ousting [[Pol Pot]] from Cambodia, China demonstrated that its Cold War communist adversary, the [[Soviet Union]], was unable to protect its Vietnamese ally.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=Elleman|first=Bruce A.|title=Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989|url=https://archive.org/details/modernchinesewar00elle|url-access=limited|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0415214742|page=[https://archive.org/details/modernchinesewar00elle/page/n309 297]}}</ref> Former U.S. Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]] wrote that "China succeeded in exposing the limits of...[Soviet] strategic reach" and speculated that the desire to "compensate for their ineffectuality" contributed to the Soviets' decision to [[Soviet–Afghan War|intervene in Afghanistan]] a year later.<ref>{{Citation| title=On China| author1=Kissinger, H.| year=2011| publisher=New York:Penguin Press| isbn=9781101445358| language=English| pages=304–305}}</ref> ===Sino-Soviet split and Nixon-China visit=== [[File:President Richard Nixon and Premier Chou En-Lai Shake Hands at the Nixons' Arrival in Peking, China.jpg|thumb|U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]] shakes hands with Chinese Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] at [[Beijing Capital International Airport]]]] As a result of the [[Sino-Soviet split]], tensions along the Chinese–Soviet border [[Sino-Soviet border conflict|reached their peak]] in 1969. United States President [[Richard Nixon]] decided to use the conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War through a policy of rapproachment with China, which began with his [[1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China|1972 visit to China]] and culminated in 1979 with the signing of the [[Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations]] by [[Visit by Deng Xiaoping to the United States|President Carter and Chinese President Deng Xiaoping]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 1979|title=People's Republic of China-United States: Establishment of Diplomatic Relations|journal=International Legal Materials|volume=18|issue=1|pages=272–275|doi=10.1017/s0020782900043886|s2cid=249005911 |issn=0020-7829}}</ref>{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=149–152}} ===Nixon, Brezhnev, and détente=== {{Main|Presidency of Richard Nixon|Détente|Brezhnev Doctrine|Strategic Arms Limitation Talks|Helsinki Accords|Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control|Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe}} [[File:Nikolai-Podgornyi-1969-in-Tampere.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nikolai Podgorny]] visiting [[Tampere]], [[Finland]] on 16 October 1969]] [[File:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg|thumb|left|Soviet general secretary [[Leonid Brezhnev]] and US President [[Jimmy Carter]] sign the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II|SALT II arms limitation treaty]] in Vienna on 18 June 1979.]] Although indirect conflict between Cold War powers continued through the late 1960s and early 1970s, tensions were beginning to ease.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Détente and Arms Control, 1969–1979 |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/detente |access-date=November 9, 2023 |website=U.S. State Department}}</ref> Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of [[collective leadership]] ensued, consisting of Leonid Brezhnev as general secretary, [[Alexei Kosygin]] as Premier and [[Nikolai Podgorny]] as Chairman of the Presidium, lasting until Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent Soviet leader. Following his visit to China, Nixon met with Soviet leaders, including Brezhnev in Moscow.{{sfn|BBC|1972}} These [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]] resulted in two landmark arms control treaties: [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks#SALT I Treaty|SALT I]], the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]], which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. These aimed to limit the development of costly anti-ballistic missiles and nuclear missiles.{{sfn|Karabell|1999|p=916}} Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence" and established the groundbreaking new policy of [[détente]] (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. Meanwhile, Brezhnev attempted to revive the Soviet economy, which was declining in part because of heavy military expenditures. The Soviet Union's [[military budget]] in the 1970s was gigantic, forming 40–60% of the entire federal budget and accounting to 15% of the USSR's GDP (13% in the 1980s).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://su90.ru/defence.html|title=Расходы на оборону и численность вооруженных сил СССР|translator-last=Defense spending and size of the Armed Forces of the USSR}}</ref> Between 1972 and 1974, the two sides also agreed to strengthen their economic ties,{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} including agreements for increased trade. As a result of their meetings, ''détente'' would replace the hostility of the Cold War and the two countries would live mutually.{{sfn|Litwak|1986}} These developments coincided with [[Bonn]]'s "[[Ostpolitik]]" policy formulated by the West German Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]],{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=154}} an effort to normalize relations between West Germany and Eastern Europe. Other agreements were concluded to stabilize the situation in Europe, culminating in the [[Helsinki Accords]] signed at the [[Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe]] in 1975.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=188}} The Helsinki Accords, in which the Soviets promised to grant free elections in Europe, has been called a major concession to ensure peace by the Soviets. In practice, the Soviet government significantly curbed the [[rule of law]], [[civil liberties]], [[Criminal justice|protection of law]] and [[Property rights|guarantees of property]],<ref name="Pipes2001">[[Richard Pipes]] (2001) ''Communism'' Weidenfeld & Nicolson. {{ISBN|0-297-64688-5}}</ref><ref name="Pipes1994">[[Richard Pipes]] (1994) ''Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime''. Vintage. {{ISBN|0-679-76184-5}}., pages 401–403.</ref> which were considered examples of "bourgeois morality" by Soviet legal theorists such as [[Andrey Vyshinsky]].<ref name="Vyshinsky1949">{{Cite book|title = Teoria dowodów sądowych w prawie radzieckim|last = Wyszyński|first = Andrzej|publisher = Biblioteka Zrzeszenia Prawników Demokratów|year = 1949|pages = 153, 162|url = http://echelon.pl/files/echelon/Wyszy%C5%84ski%20-%20Teoria%20dowod%C3%B3w%20s%C4%85dowych%20(OCR).pdf|access-date = 29 March 2023|archive-date = 29 July 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180729141510/https://echelon.pl/files/echelon/Wyszy%C5%84ski%20-%20Teoria%20dowod%C3%B3w%20s%C4%85dowych%20%28OCR%29.pdf|url-status = dead}}</ref> The Soviet Union signed legally-binding human rights documents, such as the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] in 1973 and the Helsinki Accords in 1975, but they were neither widely known or accessible to people living under Communist rule, nor were they taken seriously by the Communist authorities.<ref name=thomas-hrideas>{{Cite journal| volume = 7| issue = 2| pages = 110–141| last = Thomas| first = Daniel C.| title = Human Rights Ideas, the Demise of Communism, and the End of the Cold War| journal = Journal of Cold War Studies| year = 2005| url = http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/cws/summary/v007/7.2thomas.html| doi=10.1162/1520397053630600| s2cid = 57570614}}</ref>{{rp|117}} Human rights activists in the Soviet Union were regularly subjected to harassment, repressions and arrests. The pro-Soviet American business magnate [[Armand Hammer]] of [[Occidental Petroleum]] often mediated trade relations. Author [[Daniel Yergin]], in his book ''The Prize'', writes that Hammer "ended up as a go-between for five Soviet General Secretaries and seven U.S. Presidents."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Yergin|first=Daniel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WiUTwBTux2oC|title=The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power|date=2011-04-05|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4391-3483-2|pages=557|language=en}}</ref> Hammer had extensive business relationship in the Soviet Union stretching back to the 1920s with Lenin's approval.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news|date=1980-07-03|title=Deal-maker Armand Hammer Moscow's capitalist comrade|work=Christian Science Monitor|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1980/0703/070362.html|access-date=2021-11-07|issn=0882-7729}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite news|date=1981-11-29|title=The Riddle of Armand Hammer|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/29/magazine/the-riddle-of-armand-hammer.html|access-date=2021-11-07|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> According to ''Christian Science Monitor'' in 1980, "although his business dealings with the Soviet Union were cut short when Stalin came to power, he had more or less single-handedly laid the groundwork for the [1980] state of Western trade with the Soviet Union."<ref name=":7" /> In 1974, Brezhnev "publicly recognized Hammer's role in facilitating East-West trade." By 1981, according to the ''New York Times'' in that year, Hammer was on a "first-name basis with Leonid Brezhnev."<ref name=":8" /> [[File:1979 Iranian Revolution.jpg|thumb|upright|Iranian people protesting against the [[Pahlavi dynasty]], during the [[Iranian Revolution]]]] Kissinger and Nixon were "realists" who deemphasized idealistic goals like anti-communism or promotion of democracy worldwide because those goals were too expensive in terms of America's economic capabilities.<ref>Caldwell 2009</ref>{{pages?|date=November 2023}} Instead of a Cold War they wanted peace, trade and cultural exchanges. They realized that Americans were no longer willing to tax themselves for idealistic foreign policy goals, especially for containment policies that never seemed to produce positive results. Instead, Nixon and Kissinger sought to downsize America's global commitments in proportion to its reduced economic, moral and political power. They rejected "idealism" as impractical and too expensive, and neither man showed much sensitivity to the plight of people living under Communism. Kissinger's realism fell out of fashion as idealism returned to American foreign policy with Carter's moralism emphasizing human rights, and Reagan's rollback strategy aimed at destroying Communism.<ref>Schwartz 2011</ref>{{pages?|date=November 2023}} ===Late 1970s deterioration of relations=== {{See also|East German uprising of 1953|Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia|Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981|Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|Antisemitism in the Soviet Union|Refuseniks}} In the 1970s, the KGB, led by [[Yuri Andropov]], continued to persecute distinguished [[Soviet dissidents]], such as [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] and [[Andrei Sakharov]], who were criticising the Soviet leadership in harsh terms.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=186}} Indirect conflict between the superpowers continued through this period of détente in the Third World, particularly during political crises in the Middle East, Chile, Ethiopia, and Angola.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=178}} In 1973, Nixon announced his administration was committed to seeking [[Most favoured nation|most favored nation]] trade status with the USSR,<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 October 1973 |title=NIXON IN APPEAL ON SOVIET TRADE |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/10/05/archives/nixon-in-appeal-on-soviet-trade-urges-congress-to-include.html |access-date=December 7, 2021 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> which was challenged by Congress in the [[Jackson–Vanik amendment|Jackson-Vanik Amendment]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Herring |first1=George C. |url=https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr |title=From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507822-0 |pages=804}}</ref> The United States had long linked trade with the Soviet Union to its foreign policy toward the Soviet Union and, especially since the early 1980s, to [[Human rights in the Soviet Union|Soviet human rights policies]]. The [[Jackson-Vanik Amendment]], which was attached to the [[Trade Act of 1974|1974 Trade Act]], linked the granting of [[most-favored-nation]] to the USSR to the right of persecuted [[Soviet Jews]] to emigrate. Because the Soviet Union refused the right of emigration to Jewish [[refusenik]]s, the ability of the President to apply most-favored nation trade status to the Soviet Union was restricted.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pomeranz |first=William E. |title=The Legacy and Consequences of Jackson-Vanik: Reassessing Human Rights in 21st Century Russia |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-legacy-and-consequences-jackson-vanik-reassessing-human-rights-21st-century-russia-0 |access-date=2021-10-21 |website=wilsoncenter.org |language=en}}</ref> Although President [[Jimmy Carter]] tried to place another limit on the arms race with a [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks#SALT II Treaty|SALT II]] agreement in 1979,{{sfn|BBC|1979}} his efforts were undermined by the other events that year, including the [[Iranian Revolution]] and the [[Nicaraguan Revolution]], which both ousted pro-US governments, and his retaliation against the [[Operation Storm-333|Soviet coup in Afghanistan]] in December.{{sfn|LaFeber|1993|pp=194–197}} ==New Cold War (1979–1985)== {{Main|Cold War (1979–1985)}} [[File:Overzicht op Museumplein met spandoek The Dutch disease is better for peace o, Bestanddeelnr 253-8627.jpg|thumb|Protest in Amsterdam against the deployment of [[Pershing II]] missiles in Europe, 1981]] The term ''new Cold War'' refers to the period of intensive reawakening of Cold War tensions and conflicts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Tensions greatly increased between the major powers with both sides becoming more militant.{{sfn|Halliday|2001|p=2e}} [[John Patrick Diggins|Diggins]] says, "Reagan went all out to fight the second cold war, by supporting counterinsurgencies in the third world."{{sfn|Diggins|2007|p=267}} [[Michael Cox (academic)|Cox]] says, "The intensity of this 'second' Cold War was as great as its duration was short."{{sfn|Cox|1990|p=18}} ===Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and end of détente=== {{Main|Soviet–Afghan War|Carter Doctrine|Foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration|Operation Cyclone|Saur Revolution|Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)}} [[File:SovietInvasionAfghanistanMap.png|thumb|The Soviet invasion during [[Operation Storm-333]] on 26 December 1979]] [[File:Reagan sitting with people from the Afghanistan-Pakistan region in February 1983.jpg|thumb|left|President Reagan publicizes his support by meeting with [[Afghan mujahideen]] leaders in the White House, 1983.]] In April 1978, the communist [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA) seized power in [[Afghanistan]] in the [[Saur Revolution]]. Within months, opponents of the communist regime launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a [[Afghan conflict|civil war]] waged by guerrilla [[mujahideen]] against government forces countrywide.{{sfn|Hussain|2005|pp=108–109}} The [[Afghan mujahideen|Islamic Unity of Afghanistan Mujahideen]] insurgents received military training and weapons in neighboring [[Pakistan]] and [[China]],{{sfn|Starr|2004|pp=157–158}}{{sfn|Kinsella|1992}} while the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA government.{{sfn|Hussain|2005|pp=108–109}} Meanwhile, increasing friction between the competing factions of the PDPA—the dominant [[Khalq]] and the more moderate [[Parcham]]—resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami military officers under the pretext of a Parchami coup. By mid-1979, the United States had started a covert program to assist the mujahideen.{{sfn|Meher|2004|pp=68–69, 94}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tobin|first=Conor|title=The Myth of the "Afghan Trap": Zbigniew Brzezinski and Afghanistan, 1978–1979|journal=[[Diplomatic History (journal)|Diplomatic History]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|volume=44|issue=2|date=April 2020|pages=237–264|doi=10.1093/dh/dhz065|doi-access=free}}</ref> In September 1979, Khalqist President [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]] was assassinated in a coup within the PDPA orchestrated by fellow Khalq member [[Hafizullah Amin]], who assumed the presidency. Distrusted by the Soviets, Amin was assassinated by Soviet special forces during [[Operation Storm-333]] in December 1979. Afghan forces suffered losses during the Soviet operation; 30 Afghan palace guards and over 300 army guards were killed while another 150 were captured.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin McCauley |title=Russia, America and the Cold War: 1949–1991|year=2008|edition=Revised 2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r0V-Oxmy9FQC&q=Hafizullah+Amin+personal+guard&pg=PA142 |location=Harlow, UK|publisher=[[Pearson Education]]|isbn=9781405874304}}</ref> Two of Amin's sons, an 11-year-old and a 9-year-old, died from shrapnel wounds sustained during the clashes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8428701.stm|title=How Soviet troops stormed Kabul palace|date=27 December 2009|publisher=[[BBC]]|access-date=1 July 2013}}</ref> In the aftermath of the operation, a total of 1,700 Afghan soldiers who surrendered to Soviet forces were taken as prisoners,<ref name="Lessons from last war">{{Cite web |url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB57/essay.html |title=Afghanistan: Lessons from the Last War |access-date=23 March 2023 |website=nsarchive2.gwu.edu}}</ref> and the Soviets installed [[Babrak Karmal]], the leader of the PDPA's Parcham faction, as Amin's successor. Veterans of the Soviet Union's [[Alpha Group]] have stated that Operation Storm-333 was one of the most successful in the unit's history. Documents released following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in the 1990s revealed that the Soviet leadership believed Amin had secret contacts within the [[Embassy of the United States, Kabul|American embassy in Kabul]] and "was capable of reaching an agreement with the United States";<ref>[[John K. Cooley]] (2002) ''[[Unholy Wars]]''. [[Pluto Press]]. p. 8. {{ISBN|978-0745319179}}</ref> however, allegations of Amin colluding with the Americans have been widely discredited.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Steve Coll|last=Coll|first=Steve|title=[[Ghost Wars|Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001]]|publisher=[[Penguin Group]]|year=2004|isbn=9781594200076|pages=47–49|quote=Frustrated and hoping to discredit him, the KGB initially planted false stories that Amin was a CIA agent. In the autumn these rumors rebounded on the KGB in a strange case of "[[Blowback (intelligence)|blowback]]," the term used by spies to describe planted propaganda that filters back to confuse the country that first set the story loose.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=James G. Blight|title=Becoming Enemies: U.S.-Iran Relations and the Iran-Iraq War, 1979–1988|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] Publishers|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4422-0830-8|page=70}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Seth G. Jones|author-link=Seth Jones (political scientist)|title=In the Graveyard of Empires: America's War in Afghanistan|url=https://archive.org/details/ingraveyardofemp00jone_0|url-access=registration|publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]]|year=2010|isbn=9780393071429|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ingraveyardofemp00jone_0/page/16 16]–17|quote='It was total nonsense,' said the CIA's [[Graham E. Fuller|Graham Fuller]]. 'I would have been thrilled to have those kinds of contacts with Amin, but they didn't exist.'}}</ref> The PDBA was tasked to fill the vacuum and carried out a purge of Amin supporters. Soviet troops were deployed to put Afghanistan under Soviet control with Karmal in more substantial numbers, although the Soviet government did not expect to do most of the fighting in Afghanistan. As a result, however, the Soviets were now directly involved in what had been a domestic war in Afghanistan.{{sfn|Kalinovsky|2011|pp=25–28}} Carter responded to the Soviet invasion by withdrawing the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks#SALT II Treaty|SALT II]] treaty from ratification, imposing embargoes on grain and technology shipments to the USSR, and demanding a significant increase in military spending, and further announced the [[1980 Summer Olympics boycott|boycott]] of the [[1980 Summer Olympics]] in Moscow, which was joined by 65 other nations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Toohey |first=Kristine |title=The Olympic Games: A Social Science Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ywy9aslk3M8C&pg=PA100 |date=November 8, 2007 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-84593-355-5 |page=100 |access-date=March 21, 2022 |archive-date=December 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229042751/https://books.google.com/books?id=ywy9aslk3M8C&pg=PA100 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eaton|first1=Joseph|date=November 2016|title=Reconsidering the 1980 Moscow Olympic Boycott: American Sports Diplomacy in East Asian Perspective|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26376807|journal=Diplomatic History|volume=40|issue=5|pages=845–864|doi=10.1093/dh/dhw026|jstor=26376807|access-date=20 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Treadaway |first=Dan |date=5 August 1996 |title=Carter stresses role of Olympics in promoting global harmony |url=https://www.emory.edu/EMORY_REPORT/erarchive/1996/August/ERaug.5/8_5_96carter.html |journal=Emory Report |volume=48| issue = 37}}</ref> He described the Soviet incursion as "the most serious threat to the peace since the Second World War".{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=211}} ===Reagan and Thatcher=== {{Further|Reagan Doctrine|Thatcherism}} [[File:President Ronald Reagan with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher During a Working Luncheon at Camp David (retouched).jpg|thumb|President Reagan with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher during a working luncheon at [[Camp David]], December 1984]] [[File:Cold War Map 1980.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The world map of military alliances in 1980]] In January 1977, four years prior to becoming president, [[Ronald Reagan]] bluntly stated, in a conversation with [[Richard V. Allen]], his basic expectation in relation to the Cold War. "My idea of American policy toward the Soviet Union is simple, and some would say simplistic," he said. "It is this: We win and they lose. What do you think of that?"{{sfn|Allen|2000}} In 1980, Ronald Reagan defeated Jimmy Carter in the [[1980 United States presidential election|1980 presidential election]], vowing to increase military spending and confront the Soviets everywhere.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=189}} Both Reagan and new British Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] denounced the Soviet Union and its ideology. Reagan labeled the Soviet Union an "[[Evil Empire speech|evil empire]]" and predicted that Communism would be left on the "[[ash heap of history]]," while Thatcher inculpated the Soviets as "bent on world dominance."{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=197}} In 1982, Reagan tried to cut off Moscow's access to hard currency by impeding its proposed gas line to Western Europe. It hurt the Soviet economy, but it also caused ill will among American allies in Europe who counted on that revenue. Reagan retreated on this issue.{{sfn|Esno|2018|pp=281–304}}{{sfn|Graebner|Burns|Siracusa|2008|pp=29–31}} By early 1985, Reagan's anti-communist position had developed into a stance known as the new [[Reagan Doctrine]]—which, in addition to containment, formulated an additional right to subvert existing communist governments.{{sfn|Graebner|Burns|Siracusa|2008|p=76}} Besides continuing Carter's policy of supporting the Islamic opponents of the Soviet Union and the Soviet-backed [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|PDPA]] government in Afghanistan, the CIA also sought to weaken the Soviet Union itself by promoting [[Islamism]] in the majority-Muslim [[Soviet Central Asia|Central Asian Soviet Union]].<ref name="Singh">Singh 1995 p. 130</ref>{{citation not found}} Additionally, the CIA encouraged anti-communist Pakistan's ISI to train Muslims from around the world to participate in the [[jihad]] against the Soviet Union.<ref name="Singh" />{{citation not found}} ===Polish Solidarity movement and martial law=== {{Main|Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Martial law in Poland}} {{Further|Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981}} <!--[[File:Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)_(logo).png|thumb|Logo of the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement]]--> [[Pope John Paul II]] provided a moral focus for [[anti-communism]]; a visit to his native Poland in 1979 stimulated a religious and nationalist resurgence centered on the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity movement]] trade union that galvanized opposition and may have led to his [[Attempted assassination of Pope John Paul II|attempted assassination]] two years later.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}<!-- Henze, p. 171 citation not found --> In December 1981, Poland's [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] reacted to the crisis by imposing [[Martial law in Poland|a period of martial law]]. Reagan imposed economic sanctions on Poland in response.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=219–222}} [[Mikhail Suslov]], the Kremlin's top ideologist, advised Soviet leaders not to intervene if Poland fell under the control of Solidarity, for fear it might lead to heavy economic sanctions, resulting in a catastrophe for the Soviet economy.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=219–222}} ===US and USSR military and economic issues=== {{Further|Era of Stagnation|Strategic Defense Initiative|RSD-10 Pioneer|MGM-31 Pershing}} [[File:US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg|thumb|US and USSR/Russian nuclear weapons stockpiles, 1945–2006]] The Soviet Union had built up a military that consumed as much as 25 percent of its gross national product at the expense of [[Consumer goods in the Soviet Union|consumer goods]] and investment in civilian sectors.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|p=332}} Soviet spending on the [[arms race]] and other Cold War commitments both caused and exacerbated deep-seated structural problems in the Soviet system,{{sfn|Towle|p=159}} which experienced at least [[Era of Stagnation|a decade of economic stagnation]] during the late Brezhnev years. Soviet investment in the defense sector was not driven by military necessity but in large part by the interests of the [[nomenklatura]], which was dependent on the sector for their own power and privileges.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|p=335}} The [[Soviet Armed Forces]] became the largest in the world in terms of the numbers and types of weapons they possessed, in the number of troops in their ranks, and in the sheer size of their [[Military–industrial complex|military–industrial base]].{{sfn|Odom|2000|p=1}} However, the quantitative advantages held by the Soviet military often concealed areas where the Eastern Bloc dramatically lagged behind the West.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|p=340}} For example, the [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]] demonstrated how the [[Vehicle armour|armor]], [[Fire-control system|fire control systems]], and firing range of the Soviet Union's most common main battle tank, the [[T-72]], were drastically inferior to the American [[M1 Abrams]], yet the USSR fielded almost three times as many T-72s as the US deployed M1s.{{sfn|Evans|1992}} [[File:SDIO Delta Star.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Delta 183 launch vehicle lifts off, carrying the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] sensor experiment "Delta Star".]] By the early 1980s, the USSR had built up a military arsenal and army surpassing that of the United States. Soon after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, President Carter began massively building up the United States military. This buildup was accelerated by the Reagan administration, which increased the military spending from 5.3 percent of GNP in 1981 to 6.5 percent in 1986,{{sfn|Carliner|Alesina|1991|p=6}} the largest peacetime defense buildup in United States history.{{sfn|Feeney|2006}} The American-Soviet tensions present during 1983 was defined by some as the start of "Cold War II". Whilst in retrospective this phase of the Cold War was generally defined as a "war of words",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB426/docs/3.The%201983%20War%20Scare%20in%20U.S.%20Soviet%20Relations-circa%201996.pdf|title=The 1983 War Scare in US-Soviet Relations|first=Ben B.|last=Fischer|publisher=National Security Archive|access-date=21 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328151950/http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB426/docs/3.The%201983%20War%20Scare%20in%20U.S.%20Soviet%20Relations-circa%201996.pdf|archive-date=28 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> the Soviet's "peace offensive" was largely rejected by the West.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/22/spotlight/ |title= War Games: Soviets, Fearing Western Attack, Prepared for Worst in '83 |publisher= [[CNN]] |first= Bruce |last= Kennedy |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20081219114101/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/22/spotlight/ |archive-date= 19 December 2008 }}</ref> Tensions continued to intensify as Reagan revived the [[Rockwell B-1 Lancer|B-1 Lancer]] program, which had been canceled by the Carter administration, produced [[LGM-118 Peacekeeper]] missiles,{{sfn|Federation of American Scientists|2000}} installed US cruise missiles in Europe, and announced the experimental [[Strategic Defense Initiative]], dubbed "Star Wars" by the media, a defense program to shoot down missiles in mid-flight.{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}<!-- Lakoff, p. 263 citation not found --> The Soviets deployed [[RSD-10 Pioneer]] [[ballistic missile]]s targeting Western Europe, and NATO decided, under the impetus of the Carter presidency, to deploy [[MGM-31 Pershing]] and cruise missiles in Europe, primarily West Germany.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=202}} This deployment placed missiles just 10 minutes' striking distance from Moscow.{{sfn|Garthoff|1994|pp=881–882}} After Reagan's military buildup, the Soviet Union did not respond by further building its military,{{sfn|Lebow|Stein|1994}} because the enormous military expenses, along with inefficient [[Planned economy|planned manufacturing]] and [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|collectivized agriculture]], were already a heavy burden for the [[Economy of the Soviet Union|Soviet economy]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=Robert C.|date=November 2001|title=The rise and decline of the Soviet economy|journal=Canadian Journal of Economics|volume=34|issue=4|pages=859–881|doi=10.1111/0008-4085.00103|issn=0008-4085}}</ref><!-- Gaidar 2007 pp. 190–205 citation not found}} --> At the same time, [[Saudi Arabia]] increased oil production,<ref name="Gaidar">{{cite book |last1=Gaĭdar |first1=E. T. |title=Collapse of an empire : lessons for modern Russia |date=2007 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=9780815731146 |pages=190–205 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDSfnxYjVwAC&pg=PA102}}</ref> even as other non-OPEC nations were increasing production.{{efn-ua|"[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html Official Energy Statistics of the US Government]", EIA – International Energy Data and Analysis. Retrieved on 4 July 2008.}} These developments contributed to the [[1980s oil glut]], which affected the Soviet Union as oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|p=332}} Issues with [[Planned economy#Command economy|command economics]],{{sfn|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=1}} oil price decreases and large military expenditures gradually brought the Soviet economy to stagnation.<ref name="Gaidar"/> [[File:USSR stamp S.Smith 1985 5k.jpg|thumb|upright|After ten-year-old American [[Samantha Smith]] wrote a letter to [[Yuri Andropov]] expressing her fear of nuclear war, Andropov invited Smith to the Soviet Union.]] On 1 September 1983, the Soviet Union shot down [[Korean Air Lines Flight 007]], a [[Boeing 747]] with 269 people aboard, including sitting Congressman [[Larry McDonald]], an action which Reagan characterized as a massacre. The airliner was en route from Anchorage to Seoul but owing to a navigational mistake made by the crew, it drifted from its original planned route and flew through Russian [[prohibited airspace]] past the west coast of [[Sakhalin|Sakhalin Island]] near [[Moneron Island]]. The [[Soviet Air Force]] treated the unidentified aircraft as an intruding U.S. [[Surveillance aircraft|spy plane]] and destroyed it with [[air-to-air missiles]]. The Soviet Union found the wreckage under the sea two weeks later on September 15 and found the [[flight recorder]]s in October, but this information was kept secret by the Soviet authorities until after the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|country's collapse]].<ref name="tapes">{{cite press release |url=http://legacy.icao.int/icao/en/nr/1993/pio199301_e.pdf |title=KAL Tapes To Be Handed Over To ICAO |date=January 1993 |publisher=[[International Civil Aviation Organization]] |access-date=January 31, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121209114516/http://legacy.icao.int/icao/en/nr/1993/pio199301_e.pdf |archive-date=December 9, 2012 }}</ref> The incident increased support for military deployment, overseen by Reagan, which stood in place until the later accords between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev.{{sfn|Talbott|Hannifin|Magnuson|Doerner|1983}} During the early hours of 26 September 1983, the [[1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident]] occurred; systems in [[Serpukhov-15]] underwent a glitch that claimed several [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s were heading towards Russia, but officer [[Stanislav Petrov]] correctly suspected it was a [[false alarm]], ensuring the Soviets did not respond to the non-existent attack.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/coldwar/shatter021099b.htm |title= I Had A Funny Feeling in My Gut |first= David |last= Hoffman |newspaper= The Washington Post|date= 10 February 1999 |access-date= 18 April 2006 }}</ref> As such, he has been credited as "the man who saved the world".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://metro.co.uk/2017/09/18/stanislav-petrov-the-man-who-quietly-saved-the-world-has-died-aged-77-6937015/|title=Stanislav Petrov – the man who quietly saved the world – has died aged 77|date=18 September 2017|work=Metro|access-date=11 May 2022|language=en-GB}}</ref> The [[Able Archer 83]] exercise in November 1983, a realistic simulation of a coordinated NATO nuclear release, was perhaps the most dangerous moment since the Cuban Missile Crisis, as the Soviet leadership feared that a nuclear attack might be imminent.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=228}} American domestic public concerns about intervening in foreign conflicts persisted from the end of the Vietnam War.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|p=323}} The Reagan administration emphasized the use of quick, low-cost [[counterinsurgency]] tactics to intervene in foreign conflicts.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|p=323}} In 1983, the Reagan administration intervened in the multisided [[Lebanese Civil War]], [[United States invasion of Grenada|invaded Grenada]], [[1986 United States bombing of Libya|bombed Libya]] and backed the Central American [[Contras]], anti-communist paramilitaries seeking to overthrow the Soviet-aligned [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista]] government in Nicaragua.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=212}} While Reagan's interventions against Grenada and Libya were popular in the United States, his backing of the Contra rebels was [[Iran–Contra affair|mired in controversy]].{{sfn|Reagan|1991}} The Reagan administration's backing of the military government of [[Guatemala]] during the [[Guatemalan Civil War]], in particular the regime of [[Efraín Ríos Montt]], was also controversial.{{sfn|New York Times|2013}} Meanwhile, the Soviets incurred high costs for their own foreign interventions. Although Brezhnev was convinced in 1979 that the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet war in Afghanistan]] would be brief, Muslim guerrillas, aided by the US, China, Britain, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan,{{sfn|Kinsella|1992}} waged a fierce resistance against the invasion.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|p=314}} The Kremlin sent nearly 100,000 troops to support its puppet regime in Afghanistan, leading many outside observers to dub the war "the Soviets' Vietnam".{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|p=314}} However, Moscow's quagmire in Afghanistan was far more disastrous for the Soviets than Vietnam had been for the Americans because the conflict coincided with a period of internal decay and domestic crisis in the Soviet system. A senior [[United States Department of State|US State Department]] official predicted such an outcome as early as 1980, positing that the invasion resulted in part from a: {{blockquote|...domestic crisis within the Soviet {{nowrap|system. ... It}} may be that the thermodynamic law of [[entropy]] {{nowrap|has ... caught}} up with the Soviet system, which now seems to expend more energy on simply maintaining its equilibrium than on improving itself. We could be seeing a period of foreign movement at a time of internal decay.{{sfn|Dobrynin|2001|pp=438–439}}}} ==Final years (1985–1991)== {{Main|Cold War (1985–1991)}} ===Gorbachev's reforms=== {{Further|Mikhail Gorbachev|Perestroika|Glasnost}} [[File:President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev at the first Summit in Geneva, Switzerland.jpg|thumb|[[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in one-to-one discussions with US President [[Ronald Reagan]]]] [[File:Reagan and Gorbachev signing.jpg|thumb|Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan sign the [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty|INF Treaty]] at the White House, 1987.]] By the time the comparatively youthful [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] in 1985,{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=197}} the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|pp=331–333}} These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|pp=331–333}} An ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary, and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of economic reform called ''[[perestroika]]'', or restructuring.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=231–233}} Perestroika relaxed the [[production quota]] system, allowed cooperative ownership of small businesses and paved the way for foreign investment. These measures were intended to redirect the country's resources from costly Cold War military commitments to more productive areas in the civilian sector.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=231–233}} Despite initial skepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union's deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|pp=300–340}} Partly as a way to fight off internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced ''[[glasnost]]'', or openness, which increased freedom of the press and the transparency of state institutions.{{sfn|Gibbs|1999|p=7}} ''Glasnost'' was intended to reduce the corruption at the top of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] and moderate the [[abuse of power]] in the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Central Committee]].{{sfn|Gibbs|1999|p=33}} Glasnost also enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the Western world, particularly with the United States, contributing to the accelerating [[détente]] between the two nations.{{sfn|Gibbs|1999|p=61}} ===Thaw in relations=== {{Further|Reykjavík Summit|Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty|START I|Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany}} [[File:Bush Gorba P15623-25A.jpg|thumb|left|The beginning of the 1990s brought a thaw in relations between the superpowers.]] In response to the Kremlin's military and [[concession (politics)|political concessions]], Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling-back of the arms race.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=229–230}} The first [[Geneva Summit (1985)|summit]] was held in November 1985 in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]].{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=229–230}} At one stage the two men, accompanied only by an interpreter, agreed in principle to reduce each country's nuclear arsenal by 50 percent.<ref>BBC News 1985</ref>{{citation not found}} A [[Reykjavík Summit|second summit]] was held in October 1986 in [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]]. Talks went well until the focus shifted to Reagan's proposed [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] (SDI), which Gorbachev wanted to be eliminated. Reagan refused.{{sfn|New York Times|1988}} The negotiations failed, but the third summit ([[Washington Summit (1987)]], 8–10 December 1987) led to a breakthrough with the signing of the [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]] (INF). The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear-armed, ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between {{convert|500|and|5,500|km|mi|sp=us}} and their infrastructure.{{sfn|Federation of American Scientists}} [[File:President Ronald Reagan making his Berlin Wall speech.jpg|thumb|"[[Tear down this wall!]]" speech: Reagan speaking in front of the [[Brandenburg Gate]], 12 June 1987]] During 1988, it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain.{{sfn|Shearman|1995|p=76}} In addition, the security advantage of [[Central Europe|a buffer zone]] was recognised as irrelevant and the Soviets [[Sinatra Doctrine|officially declared]] that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of [[Warsaw Pact|satellite states]] in Central and Eastern Europe.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=248}} [[George H. W. Bush]] and Gorbachev met at the [[Moscow Summit (1988)|Moscow Summit]] in May 1988 and the [[Governors Island Summit]] in December 1988. In 1989, [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan]] without achieving their objectives.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=235–236}} Later that year, the [[Fall of the Berlin Wall|Berlin Wall]], the [[Inner German border#Fall of the inner German border|Inner German border]] and the [[Iron Curtain#Fall of the Iron Curtain|Iron Curtain]] fell. On 3 December 1989, Gorbachev and Bush declared the Cold War over at the [[Malta Summit]]. In February 1990, Gorbachev agreed with the US-proposed [[Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany]] and signed it on 12 September 1990, paving the way for the [[German reunification]].{{sfn|Shearman|1995|p=76}} When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev's "[[Common European Home]]" concept began to take shape.{{sfn|European Navigator|1989}}{{sfn|BBC|1989}} The two former adversaries were partners in the [[Gulf War]] against [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq]] (August 1990 – February 1991).{{sfn|Newman|1993|p=41}} During the final summit in Moscow in July 1991, Gorbachev and Bush signed the [[START I]] arms control treaty.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=255}} ===Eastern Europe breaks away=== {{Main|Revolutions of 1989}} [[File:Oliver Mark - Otto Habsburg-Lothringen, Pöcking 2006.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Otto von Habsburg]], who played a leading role in opening the Iron Curtain]] [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R0518-182, Erich Honecker.jpg|thumb|150px|upright|East German leader [[Erich Honecker]] lost control in August 1989.]] Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in ''[[Beyond Oil]]'' that the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]] encouraged [[Saudi Arabia]] to [[1980s oil glut|lower the price of oil]] to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit selling their oil, and resulted in the depletion of the country's [[hard currency]] reserves.<ref>Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Beyond Oil: The View from Hubbert's Peak.</ref> [[File:00 Páneurópai Piknik emlékhely.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The [[Pan-European Picnic]] took place in August 1989 on the Hungarian-Austrian border.]] Brezhnev's next two successors, transitional figures with deep roots in his tradition, did not last long. [[Yuri Andropov]] was 68 years old and [[Konstantin Chernenko]] 72 when they assumed power; both died in less than two years. In an attempt to avoid a third short-lived leader, in 1985, the Soviets turned to the next generation and selected [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. He made significant changes in the economy and party leadership, called ''[[perestroika]]''. His policy of ''[[glasnost]]'' freed public [[Freedom of information|access to information]] after decades of heavy government censorship. Gorbachev also moved to end the Cold War. In 1988, the USSR abandoned its [[Soviet–Afghan War|war in Afghanistan]] and began to [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|withdraw its forces]]. In the following year, [[Sinatra Doctrine|Gorbachev refused to interfere in the internal affairs of the Soviet satellite states]], which paved the way for the [[Revolutions of 1989]]. In particular, the standstill of the Soviet Union at the [[Pan-European Picnic]] in August 1989 then set a peaceful chain reaction in motion, at the end of which the Eastern Bloc collapsed. With the tearing down of the [[Fall of the Berlin Wall|Berlin Wall]] and with East and West Germany pursuing re-unification, the [[Iron Curtain]] between [[Western world|the West]] and Soviet-occupied regions came down.<ref name="Andreas Rödder 2009">Andreas Rödder, Deutschland einig Vaterland – Die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung (2009).</ref><ref name="Thomas Roser 2018">Thomas Roser: DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln (German – Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world) in: Die Presse 16 August 2018.</ref><ref name="Otmar Lahodynsky 2014">Otmar Lahodynsky: Paneuropäisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe für den Mauerfall (Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall – German), in: Profil 9 August 2014.</ref> By 1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states were losing power.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|pp=235–236}} Grassroots organizations, such as Poland's [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement, rapidly gained ground with strong popular bases. The Pan-European Picnic in August 1989 in Hungary finally started a peaceful movement that the rulers in the Eastern Bloc could not stop. It was the largest movement of refugees from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961 and ultimately brought about the fall of the Iron Curtain. The patrons of the picnic, [[Otto von Habsburg]] and the Hungarian Minister of State [[Imre Pozsgay]], saw the planned event as an opportunity to test Mikhail Gorbachev's reaction. The Austrian branch of the [[Paneuropean Union]], which was then headed by [[Karl von Habsburg]], distributed thousands of brochures inviting the GDR holidaymakers in Hungary to a picnic near the border at Sopron. But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic the subsequent hesitant behavior of the ruling Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-interference of the Soviet Union broke the dams. Now tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans made their way to Hungary, which was no longer willing to keep its borders completely closed or to oblige its border troops to use armed force. On the one hand, this caused disagreement among the Eastern European states and, on the other hand, it was clear to the Eastern European population that the governments no longer had absolute power.<ref name="Andreas Rödder 2009"/><ref name="Thomas Roser 2018"/><ref name="Otmar Lahodynsky 2014"/><ref>Hilde Szabo: Die Berliner Mauer begann im Burgenland zu bröckeln (The Berlin Wall began to crumble in Burgenland – German), in Wiener Zeitung 16 August 1999.</ref> In 1989, the communist governments in Poland and Hungary became the first to negotiate the organization of competitive elections. In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, mass protests unseated entrenched communist leaders. The communist regimes in Bulgaria and Romania also crumbled, in the latter case as the result of a [[Romanian Revolution|violent uprising]]. Attitudes had changed enough that US Secretary of State [[James Baker]] suggested that the American government would not be opposed to Soviet intervention in Romania, on behalf of the opposition, to prevent bloodshed.{{sfn|Garthoff|1994}} The tidal wave of change culminated with the [[fall of the Berlin Wall]] in November 1989, which symbolized the collapse of European communist governments and graphically ended the Iron Curtain divide of Europe. The [[Revolutions of 1989|1989 revolutionary wave]] swept across Central and Eastern Europe and peacefully overthrew all of the Soviet-style [[Communist state|Marxist–Leninist states]]: East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria;{{sfn|Lefeber|Fitzmaurice|Vierdag|1991|p=221}} Romania was the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=247}} ===Soviet dissolution=== {{Main|Dissolution of the Soviet Union}} {{Further|History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)|The Barricades|1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|Commonwealth of Independent States|Economy of the Soviet Union|Baltic Way}} [[File:August 1991 coup - awaiting the counterattack outside the White House Moscow - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|[[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|August Coup]] in [[Moscow]], 1991]] At the same time, the Soviet republics started legal moves towards potentially declaring [[sovereignty]] over their territories, citing the freedom to secede in Article 72 of the USSR constitution.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2005-03-24 |title=National Review: The red blues - Soviet politics |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n12_v42/ai_9119705 |access-date=2024-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050324050607/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n12_v42/ai_9119705 |archive-date=24 March 2005 }}</ref> On 7 April 1990, a law was passed allowing a republic to secede if more than two-thirds of its residents voted for it in a referendum.<ref>{{Cite web |title=РСПП: Статьи |url=http://www.rspp.su/sobor/conf_2006/istoki_duh_nrav_crisis.html |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=www.rspp.su}}</ref> Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as the '[[War of Laws]]'. In 1989, the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. [[Boris Yeltsin]] was elected its chairman. On 12 June 1990, the Congress [[Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory]] and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the Soviet laws. After a landslide victory of [[Sąjūdis]] in Lithuania, that country declared its independence restored on 11 March 1990, citing the illegality of the [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet occupation of the Baltic states]]. Soviet forces attempted to halt the secession by crushing popular demonstrations in Lithuania ([[January Events|Bloody Sunday]]) and Latvia ([[The Barricades]]), as a result, numerous civilians were killed or wounded. However, these actions only bolstered international support for the secessionists.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004464896/BP000014.xml|publisher=BRILL|author=Lauri Mälksoo|title=Illegal Annexation and State Continuity |chapter=The Baltic States Between 1940 and 1991: Illegality and/Or Prescription |date=28 June 2022|pages=70–139 |doi=10.1163/9789004464896_005 |isbn=9789004464896 }}</ref> [[File:Image0 ST.jpg|thumb|left|[[T-80]] tank on [[Red Square]] during the [[1991 Soviet coup attempt|August Coup]]]] A [[1991 Soviet Union referendum|referendum for the preservation of the USSR]] was held on 17 March 1991 in nine republics (the remainder having boycotted the vote), with the majority of the population in those republics voting for preservation of the Union in the form of a new federation. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost. In the summer of 1991, the [[New Union Treaty]], which would have turned the country into a much looser Union, was agreed upon by eight republics. The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the [[1991 Soviet coup attempt|August Coup]]—an attempted coup d'état by hardline members of the government and the KGB who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Russian president Yeltsin was seen as a hero for his decisive actions, while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared the restoration of their full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example). Gorbachev resigned as general secretary in late August, and soon afterwards, the party's activities were indefinitely suspended—effectively ending its rule. By the fall, Gorbachev could no longer influence events outside Moscow, and he was being challenged even there by Yeltsin, who had been elected [[President of Russia]] in July 1991. [[File:BaltskýŘetěz.jpg|thumb|The human chain in [[Lithuania]] during the [[Baltic Way]], 23 August 1989]] Later in August, Gorbachev resigned as [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|general secretary of the Communist party]], and [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian]] President Boris Yeltsin ordered the seizure of Soviet property. Gorbachev clung to power as the President of the Soviet Union until 25 December 1991, when the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|USSR dissolved]].<ref>Greene, pp. 205–206</ref> [[Post-Soviet states|Fifteen states]] emerged from the Soviet Union, with by far the largest and most populous one (which also was the founder of the Soviet state with the [[October Revolution]] in Petrograd), the [[Russia|Russian Federation]], taking full responsibility for all the rights and obligations of the USSR under the Charter of the United Nations, including the financial obligations. As such, Russia assumed the Soviet Union's [[Russia and the United Nations|UN membership and permanent membership on the Security Council]], nuclear stockpile and the control over the armed forces; Soviet embassies abroad became Russian embassies.<ref name="web.archive.org"/> In his [[1992 State of the Union Address]], US President George H. W. Bush expressed his emotions: "The biggest thing that has happened in the world in my life, in our lives, is this: By the grace of God, America won the Cold War."{{sfn|Ambrose|Brinkley|2011|p=xvi}} Bush and Yeltsin met in February 1992, declaring a new era of "friendship and partnership".<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jussi Hanhimäki|author2=Georges-Henri Soutou|author3=Basil Germond|title=The Routledge Handbook of Transatlantic Security|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=swfHBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT501|year=2010|publisher=Routledge|page=501|isbn=9781136936074}}</ref> In January 1993, Bush and Yeltsin agreed to [[START II]], which provided for further nuclear arms reductions on top of the original START treaty.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ruud van Dijk |display-authors=etal |title=Encyclopedia of the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgX0bQ3Enj4C&pg=PA861|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|pages=860–51|isbn=978-1135923112 }}</ref> [[File:CCCP 1991 (4377719733).jpg|thumb|The first [[McDonald's in Russia|Russian McDonald's]] on [[Moscow|Moscow's]] [[Pushkinskaya Square|Pushkin Square]], pictured in 1991]] ==Aftermath== {{Main|Effects of the Cold War|International relations since 1989|Post-Soviet states|Post-Soviet conflicts|Yugoslav Wars|Second Cold War|East–West dichotomy}} [[File:Cold War border changes.png|thumb|left|upright=1.182|Changes in national boundaries after the end of the Cold War]] In summing up the international ramifications of these events, [[Vladislav Zubok]] stated: 'The collapse of the [[Soviet empire]] was an event of epochal geopolitical, military, ideological, and economic significance.'<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zubok |first=Vladislav M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3j2VJj1hs1EC&pg=PR9 |title=A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev |date=1 February 2009 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-9905-2 |page=ix |access-date=1 December 2017 |via=Google Books |archive-date=9 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170309161344/https://books.google.com/books?id=3j2VJj1hs1EC&pg=PR9 |url-status=live }}</ref> After the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], Russia drastically cut [[List of countries by military expenditures|military spending]], and restructuring the economy left millions unemployed.{{sfn|PBS|2014}} According to Western analysis, the neoliberal reforms in Russia culminated in a [[recession]] in the early 1990s more severe than the [[Great Depression]] as experienced by the United States and Germany.{{sfn|Nolan|1995|pp=17–18}} Western analysts suggest that in the 25 years following the end of the Cold War, only five or six of the post-communist states are on a path to joining the rich and capitalist world while most are falling behind, some to such an extent that it will take several decades to catch up to where they were before the collapse of communism.{{sfn|Ghodsee|2017|p=63}}{{sfn|Milanović|2015|pp=135–138}} Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania consider themselves as [[State continuity of the Baltic states|revivals of the three independent countries]] that existed prior to their [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|occupation and annexation by the Soviet Union]] in 1940. They maintain that the process by which they were incorporated into the Soviet Union violated both international law and their own law, and that in 1990–1991 they were reasserting an independence that still legally existed. Communist parties outside the Baltic states were not outlawed and their members were not prosecuted. Just a few places attempted to exclude members of communist secret services from decision-making. In some countries, the communist party changed its name and continued to function.<ref>[http://www.icer.it/docs/wp2000/Pejovich162000.pdf After socialism: where hope for individual liberty lies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115092356/http://www.icer.it/docs/wp2000/Pejovich162000.pdf |date=15 January 2016 }}. Svetozar Pejovich.</ref> ===Decommunization=== [[Stephen Holmes (political scientist)|Stephen Holmes]] of the [[University of Chicago]] argued in 1996 that decommunization, after a brief active period, quickly ended in near-universal failure. After the introduction of [[lustration]], demand for scapegoats has become relatively low, and former communists have been elected for high governmental and other administrative positions. Holmes notes that the only real exception was former [[East Germany]], where thousands of former [[Stasi]] informers have been fired from public positions.<ref name=mandelbaum>Michael Mandelbaum (Ed., 1996) "Post-Communism: Four Perspectives", ''Council on Foreign Relations'' {{ISBN|0-87609-186-9}}</ref> Holmes suggests the following reasons for the failure of decommunization:<ref name=mandelbaum/> *After 45–70 years of communist rule, nearly every family has members associated with the state. After the initial desire "to root out the reds" came a realization that massive punishment is wrong and finding only some guilty is hardly justice. *The urgency of the current economic problems of postcommunism makes the crimes of the communist past "old news" for many citizens. *Decommunization is believed to be a power game of elites. *The difficulty of dislodging the social elite makes it require a [[totalitarian state]] to disenfranchise the "[[enemies of the people]]" quickly and efficiently and a desire for normalcy overcomes the desire for punitive justice. *Very few people have a perfectly clean slate and so are available to fill the positions that require significant expertise. Compared with the [[decommunization]] efforts of the other former constituents of the [[Eastern Bloc]] and the [[Soviet Union]], decommunization in Russia has been restricted to half-measures, if conducted at all.<ref>Karl W. Ryavec. ''Russian Bureaucracy: Power and Pathology'', 2003, Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|0-8476-9503-4}}, page 13</ref> Notable anti-communist measures in the Russian Federation include the banning of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (and the creation of the [[Communist Party of the Russian Federation]]) as well as changing the names of some Russian cities back to what they were before the 1917 [[October Revolution]] (Leningrad to [[Saint Petersburg]], Sverdlovsk to [[Yekaterinburg]] and Gorky to [[Nizhny Novgorod]]),<ref name="Goodbye, Lenin: Ukraine moves to ban communist symbols"/> though others were maintained, with [[Ulyanovsk]] (former Simbirsk), [[Tolyatti]] (former Stavropol) and [[Kirov, Kirov Oblast|Kirov]] (former Vyatka) being examples. Even though Leningrad and Sverdlovsk were renamed, regions that were named after them are still officially called Leningrad and Sverdlovsk oblasts. [[File:The Spasskaya Tower, photographed in 1883, published 1884 (Saviour Tower - Спасская башня), Moscow Kremlin, Red Square.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Spasskaya Tower]] had kept its red star and did not restore the two-headed eagle present before communist takeover.]] [[Nostalgia for the Soviet Union]] is gradually on the rise in Russia.<ref name="The Russians with fond memories of the USSR">{{citation|title = The Russians with fond memories of the USSR|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/video_and_audio/headlines/37130143|publisher = BBC News|author = Steve Rosenberg|date = 19 Aug 2016|accessdate = 20 Aug 2016|archive-date = 21 August 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160821111034/http://www.bbc.com/news/video_and_audio/headlines/37130143|url-status = dead}}</ref> Communist symbols continue to form an important part of the rhetoric used in [[Media of Russia|state-controlled media]], as banning on them in other countries is seen by the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Russia)|Russian foreign ministry]] as "sacrilege" and "a perverse idea of good and evil".<ref name="Goodbye, Lenin: Ukraine moves to ban communist symbols">{{cite news|url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-32267075 |first= Vitaly |last= Shevchenko |title= Goodbye, Lenin: Ukraine moves to ban communist symbols |work= [[BBC News]] |date=14 April 2015 |accessdate= 1 June 2016}}</ref> The process of [[decommunization in Ukraine]], a neighbouring [[post-Soviet state]], was met with fierce criticism by Russia,<ref name="Goodbye, Lenin: Ukraine moves to ban communist symbols"/> who regularly dismisses [[Soviet war crimes]].<ref name="The rape of Berlin">{{citation|title = The rape of Berlin|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-32529679|publisher = BBC News|author = Lucy Ash|date = 1 May 2016|accessdate = 1 June 2016}}</ref> The [[State Anthem of the Russian Federation]], adopted in 2000 (the same year [[Vladimir Putin]] began his first term as president of Russia), uses the exact same music as the [[State Anthem of the Soviet Union]], but with new lyrics written by [[Sergey Mikhalkov]]. Conversely, decommunization in Ukraine started during and after the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991<ref name="BBC8380433">{{cite news |author=Rostyslav Khotin |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8380433.stm |title=Ukraine tears down controversial statue |agency=[[BBC News]] |date=27 November 2009 |access-date=17 October 2017}}</ref> With the success of the [[Revolution of Dignity]] in 2014, the [[Ukrainian government]] approved [[Ukrainian decommunization laws|laws]] that outlawed [[communist symbol]]s.<ref name="ectniiU">{{cite magazine|url= https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/ukraine/2015-04-28/kievs-purge |title= Decommunizing Ukraine |first= Alexander J. |last= Motyl |author-link= Alexander J. Motyl |magazine= [[Foreign Affairs]] |date= 28 April 2015 |access-date= 19 May 2015}}</ref> On 15 May 2015, President of Ukraine [[Petro Poroshenko]] signed a set of laws that started a six-month period for the removal of communist monuments (excluding [[World War II]] monuments) and renaming of public places named after communist-related themes.<ref name="decommunizaion">[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2015/05/15/7068057/ Poroshenko signed the laws about decomunization]. [[Ukrayinska Pravda]]. 15 May 2015<br />[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/265988.html Poroshenko signs laws on denouncing Communist, Nazi regimes], [[Interfax-Ukraine]]. 15 May 2015</ref><ref name="bbc32267075">{{cite news|url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-32267075 |first= Vitaly |last= Shevchenko |title= Goodbye, Lenin: Ukraine moves to ban communist symbols |work= [[BBC News]] |date=14 April 2015 |access-date= 17 May 2015}}</ref> At the time, this meant that 22 cities and 44 villages were set to get new names.<ref name="22 cities and 44 villages">{{in lang|uk}} [http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2015/06/4/7070191 In Ukraine rename 22 cities and 44 villages], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (4 June 2015)</ref> Until 21 November 2015, municipal governments had the authority to implement this;<ref name="depo.ua new names Ukraine"/> if they failed to do so, the [[Oblasts of Ukraine]] had until 21 May 2016 to change the names.<ref name="depo.ua new names Ukraine"/> If after that date the settlement had retained its old name, the [[Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine]] would wield authority to assign a new name to the settlement.<ref name="depo.ua new names Ukraine">{{in lang|uk}} [http://poltava.depo.ua/ukr/poltava/komsomolsk-u-bud-yakomu-vipadku-pereymenuyut-01102015183700 "Komsomolsk in any case be renamed"], ''[[depo.ua]]'' (1 October 2015)</ref> In 2016, 51,493 streets and 987 cities and villages were renamed, and 1,320 [[Lenin monuments]] and 1,069 monuments to other communist figures removed.<ref name="rdiU16">[https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-society_and_culture/2147127-decommunization-reform-25-districts-and-987-populated-areas-in-ukraine-renamed-in-2016.html "Decommunization reform: 25 districts and 987 populated areas in Ukraine renamed in 2016"], ''[[Ukrinform]]'' (27 December 2016)</ref> Violation of the law carries a penalty of a potential media ban and prison sentences of up to five years.<ref name="dwdc9415">[http://www.dw.de/ukraine-lawmakers-ban-communist-and-nazi-propaganda/a-18372853 "Ukraine lawmakers ban 'Communist and Nazi propaganda{{'"}}], ''[[Deutsche Welle]]'' (9 April 2015)</ref><ref name="oscedc18515">[http://www.osce.org/fom/158581 "New laws in Ukraine potential threat to free expression and free media, OSCE Representative says"], ''[[OSCE]]'' (18 May 2015)</ref> On 24 July 2015, the [[Ministry of the Interior (Ukraine)|Ministry of the Interior]] stripped the [[Communist Party of Ukraine]], the [[Communist Party of Ukraine (renewed)]], and the [[Communist Party of Workers and Peasants]] of their right to participate in elections and stated it was continuing the court actions that started in July 2014 to end the registration of [[w:Category:Communist parties in Ukraine|communist parties in Ukraine]].<ref name="Banukcom24715">{{cite news |url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/ukraines-justice-ministry-outlaws-communists-from-elections-394217.html |title=Ukraine's Justice Ministry outlaws Communists from elections |work=[[Kyiv Post]] |date=24 July 2015}}</ref> By 16 December 2015, these three parties had been banned in Ukraine; the Communist Party of Ukraine appealed the ban to the [[European Court of Human Rights]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 December 2016 |title=The European Court has begun consideration of a complaint against the KPU's ban |url=http://pda.pravda.com.ua/news/id_7131315/ |access-date= |website=[[Ukrayinska Pravda]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ishchenko |first=Volodymyr |date=2015-12-18 |title=Kiev has a nasty case of anti-communist hysteria |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/18/ukraine-communist-party-ban-hysteria |access-date= |website=[[The Guardian]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 December 2015 |title=Ukraine court bans Communist Party |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/world/report-ukraine-court-bans-communist-party-2157044 |access-date= |website=[[Daily News & Analysis]] |language=en}}</ref> ==Influence== The Cold War continues to influence world affairs. The post-Cold War world is considered to be [[Polarity (international relations)#Unipolarity|unipolar]], with the United States the sole remaining [[superpower]].{{efn-ua|[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm "Country profile: United States of America"]. [[BBC News]]. Retrieved 11 March 2007}}{{sfn|Blum|2006|p=87}} The Cold War defined the political role of the United States after World War II—by 1989 the United States had military alliances with 50 countries, with 526,000 troops stationed abroad,{{sfn|PBS|2004}} with 326,000 in Europe (two-thirds of which were in [[West Germany]]){{sfn|Duke|1989|p=175}} and 130,000 in Asia (mainly [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]]).{{sfn|PBS|2004}} The Cold War also marked the zenith of peacetime [[military–industrial complex]]es, especially in the Soviet Union and the United States, and large-scale [[History of military technology|military funding of science]].{{sfn|Calhoun|2002}} These complexes, though their origins may be found as early as the 19th century, snowballed considerably during the Cold War.{{sfn|Pavelec|2009|pp=xv–xvi}} [[File:Enlargement of the European Union 77.gif|thumb|Since the end of the Cold War, the [[European Union|EU]] has [[Enlargement of the European Union|expanded eastwards]] into the former Warsaw Pact and parts of the former Soviet Union.]] Cumulative US military expenditures throughout the entire Cold War amounted to an estimated $8 trillion. Further nearly 100,000 Americans died in the [[Korean War|Korean]] and [[Vietnam War]]s.{{sfn|LaFeber|2002|p=1}} Although Soviet casualties are difficult to estimate, as a share of gross national product the financial cost for the Soviet Union was much higher than that incurred by the United States.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=213}} In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers' [[proxy war]]s around the globe, most notably in eastern Asia.{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=266}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Kim|first=Samuel S.|chapter=The Evolving Asian System|title=International Relations of Asia|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]|date=2014|isbn=9781442226418|page=45|quote=With three of the four major Cold War fault lines—divided Germany, divided Korea, divided China, and divided Vietnam—East Asia acquired the dubious distinction of having engendered the largest number of armed conflicts resulting in higher fatalities between 1945 and 1994 than any other region or sub-region. Even in Asia, while Central and South Asia produced a regional total of 2.8 million in human fatalities, East Asia's regional total is 10.4 million including the Chinese Civil War (1 million), the Korean War (3 million), the Vietnam War (2 million), and the Pol Pot genocide in Cambodia (1 to 2 million).}}</ref> Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced persons crises have declined sharply in the post-Cold War years.{{efn-ua|Monty G. Marshall and Ted Gurr, {{cite web|url=http://www.systemicpeace.org/PC2005.pdf|archive-date=24 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624210152/http://www.systemicpeace.org/PC2005.pdf|title=Peace and Conflict|url-status=dead|access-date=1 June 2016 }}, Center for Systemic Peace (2006). Retrieved 14 June 2008. {{cite web|url=http://www.systemicpeace.org/PC2005.pdf|archive-date=24 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624210152/http://www.systemicpeace.org/PC2005.pdf|title=Peace and Conflict|url-status=dead|access-date=1 June 2016}}}} However, the aftermath of the Cold War is not considered to be concluded. Many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute. The breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by communist governments produced new civil and ethnic conflicts, particularly in the former [[Yugoslavia]]. In Central and Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of [[economic growth]] and an increase in the number of [[liberal democracy|liberal democracies]], while in other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied by [[failed state|state failure]].{{sfn|Halliday|2001|p=2e}} ==In popular culture== {{See also|Culture during the Cold War}} During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union invested heavily in propaganda designed to influence people around the world, especially using motion pictures.{{sfn|Shaw|Youngblood|2010|loc=ch. 1}}{{page needed|date=September 2015}} The Cold War endures as a popular topic reflected in entertainment media, and continuing to the present with post-1991 Cold War-themed feature films, novels, television and web series, and other media. In 2013, a KGB-sleeper-agents-living-next-door action drama series, ''[[The Americans]]'', set in the early 1980s, was ranked No. 6 on the [[Metacritic]] annual Best New TV Shows list; its six-season run concluded in May 2018.<ref>{{cite web |title=2013 Film Critic Top Ten Lists |url=https://www.metacritic.com/feature/film-critic-top-10-lists-best-movies-of-2013 |website=Metacritic |access-date=5 November 2022 |language=en |archive-date=11 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211032303/https://www.metacritic.com/feature/film-critic-top-10-lists-best-movies-of-2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Lowry |first1=Brian |title=The Americans – Variety |newspaper=Variety |url=http://variety.com/2013/tv/reviews/the-americans-1117949116/ |access-date=5 November 2022 |date=26 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226182921/http://variety.com/2013/tv/reviews/the-americans-1117949116/ |archive-date=26 February 2015 }}</ref> ==Historiography== {{Main|Historiography of the Cold War}} As soon as the term "Cold War" was popularized to refer to post-war tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, interpreting the course and origins of the conflict has been a source of heated controversy among historians, political scientists, and journalists.{{sfn|Nashel|1999}} In particular, historians have sharply disagreed as to who was responsible for the breakdown of Soviet–US relations after the Second World War; and whether the conflict between the two superpowers was inevitable or could have been avoided.{{sfn|Ambrose|Brinkley|2011|pp=789–799}} Historians have also disagreed on what exactly the Cold War was, what the sources of the conflict were, and how to disentangle patterns of action and reaction between the two sides.{{sfn|Halliday|2001|p=2e}} Although explanations of the origins of the conflict in academic discussions are complex and diverse, several general schools of thought on the subject can be identified. Historians commonly speak of three different approaches to the study of the Cold War: "orthodox" accounts, "revisionism", and "post-revisionism".{{sfn|Calhoun|2002}} "Orthodox" accounts place responsibility for the Cold War on the Soviet Union and its expansion further into Europe.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002}} "Revisionist" writers place more responsibility for the breakdown of post-war peace on the United States, citing a range of US efforts to isolate and confront the Soviet Union well before the end of World War II.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002}} "Post-revisionists" see the events of the Cold War as more nuanced and attempt to be more balanced in determining what occurred during the Cold War.{{sfn|Calhoun|2002}} Much of the historiography on the Cold War weaves together two or even all three of these broad categories.{{sfn|Byrd|2003}} ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=25em}} * [[American imperialism]] * [[Canada in the Cold War]] * [[Cold peace]] * [[McCarthyism]] * [[Outline of the Cold War]] * [[Red Scare]] * [[Second Cold War]] * [[:Category:Cold War by period]] {{div col end}} ==Footnotes== {{notelist-ua}} ==References== {{reflist|23em}} ==Sources== ===Books=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book| last1=Aarons| first1=Mark| chapter=Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide| title=The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law)| date=2007| page=80| editor1=David A. Blumenthal| editor2=Timothy L. H. McCormack| publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]| isbn=978-90-04-15691-3| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA80| access-date=20 November 2017| archive-date=29 January 2017| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170129054607/https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA80| url-status=live}} * {{cite book | last1=Andrew | first1=Christopher | last2=Mitrokhin | first2=Vasili | title=The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB | date=2000 | author-link=Christopher Andrew (historian) | publisher=[[Basic Books]] | author-link2=Mitrokhin, Vasili }} * Ang, Cheng Guan. ''Southeast Asia's Cold War: An Interpretive History'' (University of Hawai'i Press, 2018). [https://issforum.org/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-XX-39.pdf online review] *{{cite book |last=Bevins |first=Vincent |author-link=Vincent Bevins |date=2020 |title=[[The Jakarta Method|The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World]] |url= |location= |publisher=[[PublicAffairs]] |isbn=978-1541742406}} * {{cite book |last1=Blum |first1=William |title=Rogue State: A Guide to the World's Only Superpower |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_u2v3 |url-access=registration |date=2006 |publisher=Common Courage Press |isbn=978-1-56751-374-5 |edition=3rd }} * {{cite book | last=Blumberg | first=Arnold | title=Great Leaders, Great Tyrants?: Contemporary Views of World Rulers Who Made History | date=1995 | publisher=Greenwood Press | location=Westport, Connecticut | isbn=978-0-313-28751-0 }} * {{cite book |title=Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro |url=https://archive.org/details/fidelbiographyof0000bour |url-access=registration |last=Bourne |first=Peter G. |author-link=Peter Bourne |year=1986 |publisher=Dodd, Mead & Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-396-08518-8 }} * {{cite book | last=Breslauer | first=George W. | title=Gorbachev and Yeltsin as Leaders | date=2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-89244-5 }} * {{cite book |last1=Bronson |first1=Rachel |title=Thicker Than Oil: America's Uneasy Partnership with Saudi Arabia |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-536705-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=soE8DwAAQBAJ |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729154150/https://books.google.com/books?id=soE8DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last=Bulmer-Thomas | first=Victor | title=The Political Economy of Central America since 1920 | date=1987 | author-link=Victor Bulmer-Thomas | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-34284-1 }} * {{cite book | last=Carlton | first=David | title=Churchill and the Soviet Union | date=2000 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTPzJRV9hhgC&pg=PA116 | publisher=Manchester University Press | via=Google Books | isbn=978-0-7190-4107-5 | access-date=3 December 2017 | archive-date=13 March 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313225749/https://books.google.com/books?id=MTPzJRV9hhgC&pg=PA116 | url-status=live }} * {{cite book|last=Chandler|first=David|title=Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot, Revised Edition|location=Chiang Mai, Thailand|publisher=Silkworm Books|date=2000}} * {{cite book |last1=Chretien |first1=Todd |title=Eyewitnesses to the Russian Revolution |date=2017 |publisher=Haymarket Books |isbn=978-1-60846-880-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oG4kDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT129 |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729143357/https://books.google.com/books?id=oG4kDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT129 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book 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M. | title=Yalta: The Price of Peace | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC | date=2010 | publisher=Penguin Publishing Group | isbn=978-1-101-18992-4 | access-date=23 October 2019 | archive-date=13 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191213192543/https://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last=Power | first=Samantha | title=A Problem From Hell: America and the Age of Genocide | date=2013 | publisher=Basic Books | isbn=978-0-465-05089-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LTAgAQAAQBAJ&q=cambodia.+tens+of.+1973.+civilians&pg=PT81 | access-date=30 December 2018 | archive-date=29 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729150134/https://books.google.com/books?id=LTAgAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT81&lpg=PT81&dq=cambodia.+tens+of.+1973.+civilians | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last=Puddington | first=Arch | title=Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty | date=2003 | publisher=University Press of Kentucky | isbn=978-0-8131-9045-7 | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/broadcastingfree0000pudd }} * {{cite book |title=Fidel Castro |last=Quirk |first=Robert E. |author-link=Robert E. Quirk |year=1993 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |location=New York and London |isbn=978-0-393-03485-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/fidelcastro00robe }} * {{cite book | last=Reagan | first=Ronald | title=The Reader's companion to American history | date=1991 | editor=[[Eric Foner|Foner, Eric]] | editor2=[[John A. Garraty|Garraty, John Arthur]] | url=https://archive.org/details/readerscompanion00fone | url-access=registration | access-date=16 June 2008 | publisher=Houghton Mifflin Books | isbn=978-0-395-51372-9 }} *{{cite book | last = Hussain | first = Rizwan | title = Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot, England Burlington, VT | date = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-7546-4434-7 }} * {{cite book | last=Roadnight | first=Andrew | title=United States Policy towards Indonesia in the Truman and Eisenhower Years | date=2002 | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan | location=New York | isbn=978-0-333-79315-2 }} * {{cite book | last=Roberts | first=Geoffrey | title=Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 | date=2006 | author-link=Geoffrey Roberts | publisher=Yale University Press | isbn=978-0-300-11204-7 }} * {{cite book | last=Robinson | first=Geoffrey B. | title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66 | date=2018 | url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html | publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] | isbn=978-1-4008-8886-3 | quote=a US Embassy official in Jakarta, Robert Martens, had supplied the Indonesian Army with lists containing the names of thousands of PKI officials in the months after the alleged coup attempt. According to the journalist Kathy Kadane, "As many as 5,000 names were furnished over a period of months to the Army there, and the Americans later checked off the names of those who had been killed or captured." Despite Martens later denials of any such intent, these actions almost certainly aided in the death or detention of many innocent people. They also sent a powerful message that the US government agreed with and supported the army's campaign against the PKI, even as that campaign took its terrible toll in human lives | access-date=6 June 2018 | archive-date=19 April 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419011656/https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html | url-status=live }} *{{cite book|last=Roht-Arriaza|first=Naomi|title=Impunity and human rights in international law and practice|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=1995|isbn=0-19-508136-6}} * {{cite book | last=Rose | first=Euclid A. | title=Dependency and Socialism in the Modern Caribbean: Superpower Intervention in Guyana, Jamaica, and Grenada, 1970–1985 | date=2002 | publisher=Lexington Books | isbn=978-0-7391-0448-4 }} * {{cite book | last=Rothschild | first=Donald | title=Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa: Pressures and Incentives for Cooperation | date=1997 | publisher=The Brookings Institution | location=Washington | isbn=978-0-8157-7593-5 }} * {{cite book | last=Schraeder | first=Peter J. | title=United States Foreign Policy Toward Africa: Incrementalism, Crisis, and Change | date=1994 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=goKxyUia-7UC | isbn=978-0-521-46677-6 | access-date=20 June 2015 | archive-date=11 May 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111854/http://books.google.com/books?id=goKxyUia-7UC | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last=Schudson | first=Michael | title=The Rise of the Right to Know: Politics and the Culture of Transparency, 1945–1975 | date=2015 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dm93CgAAQBAJ&q=francis+powers,+lying,+scandal&pg=PT114 | publisher=Harvard University Press | isbn=978-0-674-91580-0 | access-date=13 May 2020 | archive-date=29 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729150441/https://books.google.com/books?id=Dm93CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT114&dq=francis+powers,+lying,+scandal | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last=Sebestyen | first=Victor | title=1946: The Making of the Modern World | date=2014 | publisher=Pan Macmillan | isbn=978-0-230-75800-1 }} * {{cite book |last1=Senior |first1=Michael |title=Victory on the Western Front: The Development of the British Army 1914-1918 |date=2016 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-5267-0957-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YE-uDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |access-date=13 May 2020 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729150357/https://books.google.com/books?id=YE-uDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last=Senn | first=Alfred Erich | title=Lithuania 1940: Revolution from Above | date=2007 | publisher=Rodopi | isbn=978-90-420-2225-6 }} * {{cite book|title=Russian foreign policy since 1990|first=Peter|last=Shearman|date=1995|publisher=[[Westview Press]]|isbn=978-0-8133-2633-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHuakfpPujQC&pg=PA8}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book | last=Simpson | first=Bradley | title=Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 | date=2010 | url=https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 | publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] | isbn=978-0-8047-7182-5 | quote="Washington did everything in its power to encourage and facilitate the army-led massacre of alleged PKI members, and U.S. officials worried only that the killing of the party's unarmed supporters might not go far enough, permitting Sukarno to return to power and frustrate the [Johnson] Administration's emerging plans for a post-Sukarno Indonesia. This was efficacious terror, an essential building block of the [[neoliberal]] policies that the West would attempt to impose on Indonesia after Sukarno's ouster." | access-date=10 July 2018 | archive-date=25 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213245/https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last=Smith | first=Joseph | title=The Cold War 1945–1991 | date=1998 | publisher=Blackwell | location=Oxford | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FnnF9NKMJdkC | isbn=978-0-631-19138-4 | access-date=20 June 2015 | archive-date=6 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906033754/https://books.google.com/books?id=FnnF9NKMJdkC | url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Jean Edward |author-link1=Jean Edward Smith |title=FDR |url=https://archive.org/details/fdr00smit |url-access=registration |date=2007 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-4000-6121-1 }} * {{cite book | last=Starr | first=S. 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Frederick Starr | publisher=M E Sharpe Inc | isbn=978-0-7656-1318-9 }} * {{cite book | last=Stockwell | first=John | title=In search of enemies | date=1979 | location=London | publisher=Futura Publications Limited | orig-date=1978 | isbn=978-0-393-00926-2 }} * {{cite book | last=Stone | first=Norman | title=The Atlantic and Its Enemies: A History of the Cold War | date=2010 | author-link=Norman Stone | publisher=Basic Books Press | isbn=978-0-465-02043-0 }} * {{cite book | last=Stueck | first=William | title=Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History | date=25 April 2013 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zDvMXm7fHpUC&q=stalin,+korea,+armistice | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=978-1-4008-4761-7 | access-date=13 May 2020 | archive-date=29 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729152931/https://books.google.com/books?id=zDvMXm7fHpUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=stalin,+korea,+armistice#v=snippet | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last=Suh | first=Jae-Jung | title=Truth and Reconciliation in South Korea: Between the Present and Future of the Korean Wars | date=2013 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yYjbAAAAQBAJ&q=south+korea,+kim,+truth,+massacre,+dictatorship&pg=PA28 | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-1-135-73820-4 | access-date=13 May 2020 | archive-date=29 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729144913/https://books.google.com/books?id=yYjbAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28&dq=south+korea,+kim,+truth,+massacre,+dictatorship | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last=Taubman | first=William | title=Khrushchev: The Man and His Era | date=2004 | author-link=William Taubman | publisher=W.W. Norton & Company | isbn=978-0-393-32484-6 | title-link=Khrushchev: The Man and His Era }} * {{cite book | last=Todd | first=Allan | title=History for the IB Diploma Paper 3 The Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Russia (1924–2000) | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VCX-CwAAQBAJ | date=2016 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-316-50369-0 | access-date=3 December 2017 | archive-date=2 April 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402000803/https://books.google.com/books?id=VCX-CwAAQBAJ | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last=Tripp | first=Charles R.H. | title=A History of Iraq | date=2002 | author-link=Charles R. H. 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Patrice | chapter=Chapter 5: "Industrial repression" and Operation Condor in Latin America | title=State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical Terrorism Studies) | date=2011 | page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=acGNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA107 107] | author-link1=J. Patrice McSherry | editor1=Esparza, Marcia | editor2=Henry R. Huttenbach | editor3=Daniel Feierstein | publisher=[[Routledge]] | isbn=978-0-415-66457-8 | chapter-url=https://www.routledge.com/State-Violence-and-Genocide-in-Latin-America-The-Cold-War-Years/Esparza-Huttenbach-Feierstein/p/book/9780415496377 | quote=Operation Condor also had the covert support of the US government. Washington provided Condor with military intelligence and training, financial assistance, advanced computers, sophisticated tracking technology, and access to the continental telecommunications system housed in the Panama Canal Zone. | access-date=12 April 2017 | archive-date=19 July 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719232658/https://www.routledge.com/State-Violence-and-Genocide-in-Latin-America-The-Cold-War-Years/Esparza-Huttenbach-Feierstein/p/book/9780415496377 | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last1=Nuenlist | first1=Christian | first2=Anna | last2=Locher | first3=Garret | last3=Martin | title=Globalizing de Gaulle: International Perspectives on French Foreign Policies, 1958–1969 | date=2010 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tcicr6TrwjUC&pg=PA101 | publisher=Lexington Books | isbn=978-0-7391-4250-9 | access-date=29 October 2018 | archive-date=29 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729144631/https://books.google.com/books?id=tcicr6TrwjUC&pg=PA101 | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last1=Shaw | first1=Martin | title=Theory of the Global State: Globality as an Unfinished Revolution | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6HHJ1gSfjfsC&pg=PA141 | date=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-59730-2 | pages=141– | access-date=23 October 2019 | archive-date=29 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729143705/https://books.google.com/books?id=6HHJ1gSfjfsC&pg=PA141 | url-status=live }} * {{cite book | last1=Shaw | first1=Tony | last2=Youngblood | first2=Denise Jeanne | title=Cinematic Cold War: The American and Soviet Struggle for Hearts and Minds | date=2010 | publisher=University Press of Kansas | isbn=978-0-7006-1743-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Tompson | first = William | title = Khrushchev: a Political Life | publisher = [[Palgrave Macmillan]] | date = 1997 | isbn = 978-0-312-16360-0 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/khrushchevapolit0000tomp }} * {{cite book | last1=Towle | first1=Philip | chapter=Cold War | title=The Oxford History of Modern War | date=2000 | page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofm00town/page/160 160] | author-link=Philip Towle | editor=Charles Townshend | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=New York | isbn=978-0-19-285373-8 | chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofm00town/page/160 }} * {{cite book | last1=Towle | first1=Philip | title=The Oxford History of Modern War }} * {{cite book | last1=Zubok | first1=Vladislav | last2=Pleshakov | first2=Constantine | title=Inside the Kremlin's Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev | date=1996 | publisher=Harvard University Press | isbn=978-0-674-45531-3 | url=https://archive.org/details/insidekremlinsco00zubo }} * {{cite book | title=Politics and Economics in the Eighties | date=1991 | editor1-last=Carliner | editor1-first=Geoffrey | editor2-last=Alesina | editor2-first=Alberto | publisher=University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-01281-0 }} * {{cite book | title=The League of Nations in retrospect | date=2010 | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | isbn=978-3-11-090585-4 | ref={{harvid|De Gruyter|2010}} }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Byrd | first=Peter | title=Cold War (entire chapter) | date=2003 | editor1=McLean, Iain | editor2=McMillan, Alistair | encyclopedia=The concise Oxford dictionary of politics | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xLbEHQAACAAJ | access-date=16 June 2008 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-280276-7 | archive-date=29 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729150444/https://books.google.com/books?id=xLbEHQAACAAJ | url-status=live }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Calhoun | first=Craig | title=Cold War (entire chapter) | date=2002 | author-link=Craig Calhoun | encyclopedia=Dictionary of the Social Sciences | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SvSZHgAACAAJ&q=Dictionary+of+the+Social+Sciences | access-date=16 June 2008 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-512371-5 }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Nashel | first=Jonathan | title=Cold War (1945–91): Changing Interpretations (entire chapter) | date=1999 | editor=Whiteclay Chambers, John | encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to American Military History | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtMKHgAACAAJ&q=The+Oxford+Companion+to+American+Military+History | access-date=16 June 2008 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-507198-6 }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Schmitz | first=David F. | title=Cold War (1945–91): Causes [entire chapter] | date=1999 | author-link=David F. Schmitz | editor=Whiteclay Chambers, John | encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to American Military History | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtMKHgAACAAJ | access-date=16 June 2008 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-507198-6 }}{{Dead link|date=January 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book |last1=van Dijk |first1=Ruud |title=The 1952 Stalin Note Debate: Myth Or Missed Opportunity for German Unification? |date=1996 |publisher=Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars }} * {{cite book |last=van Dijk |first=Ruud |title=Encyclopedia of the Cold War, Volume 1 |publisher= Taylor & Francis |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-97515-5 }} * {{citation |last=Weathersby |first=Kathryn |date=1993 |title=Soviet Aims in Korea and the Origins of the Korean War, 1945–50: New Evidence From the Russian Archives |publisher=Cold War International History Project: Working Paper No. 8 |url=http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/soviet-aims-korea-and-the-origins-the-korean-war-1945-50-new-evidence-the-russian |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525180815/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/soviet-aims-korea-and-the-origins-the-korean-war-1945-50-new-evidence-the-russian |url-status=live }} {{refend}} ===Journals=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal |last1=Bungert |first1=Heike |title=A New Perspective on French-American Relations during the Occupation of Germany, 1945? 1948: Behind-the-Scenes Diplomatic Bargaining and the Zonal Merger |journal=Diplomatic History |date=July 1994 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=333–352 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1994.tb00217.x }} * {{cite journal | last = Cseresnyés | first = Ferenc | title = The '56 Exodus to Austria | date =Summer 1999 | pages = 86–101 | journal = The Hungarian Quarterly | volume = XL | issue = 154 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20041127172402/http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no154/086.html | url = http://www.hungarianquarterly.com/no154/086.html | archive-date = 27 November 2004 | access-date = 9 October 2006 }} * {{cite journal | last = Esno | first = Tyler | title = Reagan's Economic War on the Soviet Union | date = April 2018 | pages = 281–304 | journal = Diplomatic History | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | doi = 10.1093/dh/dhx061 | issn = 0145-2096 }} * {{cite journal | last = Farid | first = Hilmar | title = Indonesia's original sin: mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66 | date = 2005 | pages = 3–16 | journal = [[Inter-Asia Cultural Studies]] | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.1080/1462394042000326879 | s2cid = 145130614 }} * {{cite journal | last = Garthoff | first = Raymond L. | title = Foreign intelligence and the historiography of the Cold War | journal = Journal of Cold War Studies | volume = 6 | number = 2 | date = 2004 | pages = 21–56 | doi = 10.1162/152039704773254759 | s2cid = 57563600 }} * {{cite journal | last = Iatrides | first = John O. | title = The British Labour Government and the Greek Civil War: The Imperialism of 'Non-Intervention' (review) | date = 1 October 1996 | pages = 373–376 | journal = Journal of Modern Greek Studies | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | doi = 10.1353/mgs.1996.0020 | s2cid = 142792238 | issn = 1086-3265 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Locard |first1=Henri |title=State Violence in Democratic Kampuchea (1975–1979) and Retribution (1979–2004) |journal=European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire |date=1 March 2005 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=121–143 |doi=10.1080/13507480500047811 |s2cid=144712717 |issn=1350-7486}} * {{Cite journal |first=James I |last=Matray |title=Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea |journal=Journal of American History |date=Sep 1979 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=314–333 |jstor=1900879 |publisher=JStor |doi=10.2307/1900879}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Milanović | first1 = Branko | title = After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism | date = 2015 | pages = 135–138 | doi = 10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402 | journal = [[Challenge (economics magazine)|Challenge]] | volume = 58 | issue = 2 | s2cid = 153398717 | author-link = Branko Milanović }} * {{cite journal | last = Painter | first = D. 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News | access-date = 11 June 2008 | ref = {{harvid|BBC|1957}} | archive-date = 3 February 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200203064920/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/4/newsid_2685000/2685115.stm | url-status = live }} * {{cite news | title = Toward the Summit; Previous Reagan-Gorbachev Summits | date = 29 May 1988 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/29/world/toward-the-summit-previous-reagan-gorbachev-summits.html | work = The New York Times | access-date = 21 June 2008 | ref = {{harvid|New York Times|1988}} | archive-date = 10 November 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121110074622/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/29/world/toward-the-summit-previous-reagan-gorbachev-summits.html | url-status = live }} * {{cite news|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=19 May 2013|title=What Guilt Does the U.S. Bear in Guatemala?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/05/19/what-guilt-does-the-us-bear-in-guatemala|work=The New York Times|ref={{harvid|New York Times|2013}}|access-date=23 April 2017|archive-date=18 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218104609/http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/05/19/what-guilt-does-the-us-bear-in-guatemala|url-status=live}} {{refend}} ===Web=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite web | last=Allen | first=Richard V. | title=The Man Who Won the Cold War | author-link=Richard V. Allen | url=http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover-digest/article/7398 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501052925/http://www.hoover.org/publications/hoover-digest/article/7398 | archive-date=1 May 2011 | publisher=Hoover Institution |date=January 30, 2000 | access-date=3 November 2011 }} * {{cite web |last=Čulík |first=Jan |date=21 August 1998 |title=Den, kdy tanky zlikvidovaly české sny Pražského jara |author-link=Jan Čulík |url=http://www.britskelisty.cz/9808/19980821h.html |publisher=Britské Listy |access-date=23 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928050554/http://www.britskelisty.cz/9808/19980821h.html |archive-date=28 September 2007 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite web |last=Fenton |first=Ben |title=The secret strategy to launch attack on Red Army |date=1 October 1998 |url=http://webarchiveproject.org/26299/ |url-status=dead |access-date=29 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528222149/http://webarchiveproject.org/26299/ |archive-date=28 May 2008 |work=The Daily Telegraph }} * {{Cite journal |title=Why the Security Council Failed |last=Glennon |first=Michael J. |journal=Foreign Affairs |date=May–June 2003 |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=16–35 |doi=10.2307/20033576 |jstor=20033576 |access-date=26 April 2020 |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/iraq/2003-05-01/why-security-council-failed |archive-date=28 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728165559/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/iraq/2003-05-01/why-security-council-failed |url-status=live }} * {{cite web | last=Harriman | first=Pamela C. | title=Churchill and ... Politics: The True Meaning of the Iron Curtain Speech | date=Winter 1987–1988 | url=http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=711 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015163941/http://winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=711 | archive-date=15 October 2007 | author-link=Pamela Harriman | access-date=22 June 2008 | publisher=Winston Churchill Centre | url-status=dead }} * {{cite web |last=Kalb |first=Marvin |title=It's Called the Vietnam Syndrome, and It's Back |date=22 January 2013 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2013/01/22-obama-foreign-policy-kalb | publisher=Brookings Institution |access-date=12 June 2015 |archive-date=13 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613220713/http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2013/01/22-obama-foreign-policy-kalb |url-status=live }} * {{cite web | last1=Von Geldern | first1=James | last2=Siegelbaum | first2=Lewis | title=The Soviet-led Intervention in Czechoslovakia | publisher=Soviethistory.org | url=http://soviethistory.org/index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1968czechoslovakia&Year=1968 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090817200255/http://soviethistory.org/index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1968czechoslovakia&Year=1968 | archive-date=17 August 2009 | access-date=7 March 2008 }} * {{cite web | title=Address given by Mikhail Gorbachev to the Council of Europe | date=6 July 1989 | url=http://www.ena.lu/?doc=11160 | publisher=[[European Navigator|Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe]] | access-date=11 February 2007 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927220033/http://www.ena.lu/?doc=11160 | archive-date=27 September 2007 | ref={{harvid|European Navigator|1989}} }} * {{cite web | title=Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces | url=https://fas.org/nuke/control/inf/index.html | access-date=21 June 2008 | publisher=Federation of American Scientists | ref={{harvid|Federation of American Scientists}} | archive-date=24 July 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724134840/http://www.fas.org/nuke/control/inf/index.html | url-status=live }} * {{cite web | title=LGM-118A Peacekeeper | date=15 August 2000 | url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/lgm-118.htm | access-date=10 April 2007 | publisher=Federation of American Scientists | ref={{harvid|Federation of American Scientists|2000}} | archive-date=15 April 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415175256/http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/lgm-118.htm | url-status=live }} * {{cite web | title=Milestones: 1945–1952 – Office of the Historian | url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/truman-doctrine | website=history.state.gov | ref={{harvid|Milestones: 1945–1952}} | access-date=25 October 2017 | archive-date=18 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118193318/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/truman-doctrine | url-status=live }} * {{cite web | title=Milestones: 1969–1976 – Office of the Historian | url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/detente | website=history.state.gov | access-date=21 June 2019 | ref={{harvid|Milestones: 1969–1976}} | archive-date=11 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190611223144/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1969-1976/detente | url-status=live }} * {{cite web | title=Report by Soviet Deputy Interior Minister M.N. Holodkov to Interior Minister N. P. Dudorov (15 November 1956) | date=4 November 2002 | work=The 1956 Hungarian Revolution, A History in Documents | publisher=George Washington University: The National Security Archive | url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB76/doc8.pdf | access-date=2 September 2006 | ref={{harvid|Holodkov|1956}} | archive-date=8 September 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060908023144/http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB76/doc8.pdf | url-status=live }} * {{cite web | title=U.S. Military Deployment 1969 to the present | date=26 October 2004 | publisher=[[PBS]] | url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/pentagon/maps/5.html | access-date=30 November 2010 | ref={{harvid|PBS|2004}} | archive-date=15 May 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515131246/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/pentagon/maps/5.html | url-status=live }} * {{cite web | url=https://sites.tufts.edu/atrocityendings/2015/08/07/cambodia-u-s-bombing-civil-war-khmer-rouge/ | title=Cambodia: U.S. bombing, civil war, & Khmer Rouge | publisher=[[World Peace Foundation]] | date=7 August 2015 | access-date=30 August 2019 | ref={{harvid|World Peace Foundation|2015}} | archive-date=14 July 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714181839/https://sites.tufts.edu/atrocityendings/2015/08/07/cambodia-u-s-bombing-civil-war-khmer-rouge/ | url-status=live }} * {{cite web | title=Measures which the United States Government Might Take in Support of a Successor Government to Mosaddegh | date=March 1953 | url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran530300.pdf | publisher=George Washington University | access-date=7 November 2007 | ref={{harvid|George Washington University|1953}} | archive-date=17 June 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140617082256/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran530300.pdf | url-status=live }} * {{Cite web | url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/03/x01.htm | title=Interview to "Pravda" Correspondent Concerning Mr. Winston Churchill's Speech | website=www.marxists.org | ref=CITEREFMarxists Internet Archive | access-date=4 April 2017 | archive-date=31 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200131200528/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1946/03/x01.htm | url-status=live }} {{refend}} ==Further reading== {{Further|Bibliography of the Cold War|Cold War in Asia#Further reading|Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union|}} ==External links== {{Sister project links|auto=1|d=Q8683|wikt=y|s=Category:Cold War|v=Category:Cold War}} {{Spoken Wikipedia|Cold War.ogg|date=11 July 2012}} {{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes|label=the Cold War}} ===Archives=== * [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/program/cold-war-international-history-project The Cold War International History Project (CWIHP)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080918203432/http://coldwarfiles.org/ The Cold War Files] * [https://persuasivemaps.library.cornell.edu/browse-subject Select "Communism & Cold War" value to browse Maps from 1933–1982 at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection], [[Cornell University Library]] * [http://www.conelrad.com/ CONELRAD Cold War Pop Culture Site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729202943/http://www.conelrad.com/ |date=29 July 2020 }} * [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/war-conflict/cold-war/cold-war-culture-the-nuclear-fear-of-the-1950s-and-1960s/topic---cold-war-culture-the-nuclear-fear-of-the-1950s-and-1960s.html CBC Digital Archives – Cold War Culture: The Nuclear Fear of the 1950s and 1960s] ===Bibliography=== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060203121815/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues%2FArms+Race Annotated bibliography for the arms race from the Alsos Digital Library] ===Educational resource=== * [http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/ Electronic Briefing Books] at the National Security Archive, George Washington University ===News=== * {{cite news|work=BBC|title=Cold War|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/themes/world_politics/cold_war/default.stm}} Video and audio news reports from during the cold war. ===Films=== * André Bossuroy, Europe for Citizens Programme of the European Union, {{cite news|work=Documentary 26 min, 2019|title=30 years ago, the fall of the Berlin Wall, the end of the Cold War|url=https://vimeo.com/368099620}} {{Cold War}} {{United States topics}} {{Soviet Union topics}} {{Western world}} {{International relations}} {{Portal bar|1940s|1950s|1960s|1970s|1980s|1990s|Communism|Socialism|Soviet Union|United States}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Cold War| ]] [[Category:20th-century conflicts]] [[Category:Global conflicts]] [[Category:History of international relations]] [[Category:Wars involving the Soviet Union]] [[Category:Wars involving the United States]] [[Category:Soviet Union–United States military relations]] [[Category:Aftermath of World War II]] 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