Christian theology Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Study of Christian belief and practice}} {{Redirect|Christian doctrine|the United States court case known by that name|G. L. Christian & Associates v. United States}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}} {{Christianity|expanded=theology}} {{History of Christian theology}} '''Christian theology''' is the [[theology]] – the systematic study of the [[divine]] and [[religion]] – of [[Christianity]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] belief and practice.<ref>{{cite book |last= Entwistle |first= David N. |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0U8-CgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title= Integrative Approaches to Psychology and Christianity |page= 148|isbn= 9781498223485 |date= 2015-06-30 |publisher= Cascade Books }}</ref> It concentrates primarily upon the texts of the [[Old Testament]] and of the [[New Testament]], as well as on [[Christian tradition]]. Christian theologians use biblical [[exegesis]], [[rationality|rational]] analysis and argument. Theologians may undertake the study of Christian theology for a variety of reasons, such as in order to: * help them better understand Christian tenets<ref>See, e.g., Daniel L. Migliore, ''Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)</ref> * make [[comparative religion|comparisons]] between Christianity and other traditions<ref>See, e.g., David Burrell, ''Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions'' (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)</ref> * [[Christian apologetics|defend]] Christianity against objections and criticism * facilitate reforms in the Christian church<ref>See for example John Shelby Spong, ''Why Christianity Must Change or Die'' (New York: Harper Collins, 2001)</ref> * assist in the [[evangelism|propagation of Christianity]]<ref>See, e.g., Duncan Dormor et al. (eds), ''Anglicanism, the Answer to Modernity'' (London: Continuum, 2003)</ref> * draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address some present situation or perceived need<ref>For example, see Timothy Gorringe, ''Crime'', Changing Society and the Churches Series (London: SPCK, 2004).</ref> * education in [[Christian philosophy]], especially in [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] philosophy<ref name="Louth">Louth, Andrew. The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition: From Plato to Denys. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Armstrong|first=Karen|date= 1993|title= [[A History of God]]|url= |location= New York|publisher= Alfred A. Knopf|page= |isbn= 978-0345384560|author-link= Karen Armstrong}}</ref> Christian theology has permeated much of non-ecclesiastical [[Western culture]], especially in [[pre-modern]] Europe, although [[Christianity by country|Christianity is a worldwide religion]]. == Theological spectrum == * [[Conservative Christianity]] * [[Liberal Christianity]] ** [[Progressive Christianity]] * [[Moderate Christianity]] ==Christian traditions== {{See also|Catholic theology|Eastern Orthodox theology}} Christian theology varies significantly across the main branches of Christian tradition: [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]]. Each of those traditions has its own unique approaches to [[Seminary|seminaries]] and ministerial formation. ==Systematic theology== [[Systematic theology]] as a discipline of Christian theology formulates an orderly, rational and coherent account of [[Christian faith]] and beliefs.<ref> Compare: {{cite book | last1 = Jenson | first1 = Robert W. | author-link1 = Robert Jenson | year = 1997 | chapter = 1: What Systematic Theology Is About | title = Systematic Theology | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=71L6nWIcpo4C | volume = 1: The Triune God | edition = revised | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | publication-date = 2001 | page = 22 | isbn = 9780195145984 | access-date = 2019-02-05 | quote = Systematic theology is so called because it takes up questions posed not only by current urgency but also by perceived inherent connections of the faith. Thus systematic theology may raise problems that have not yet emerged in the church's life, and maintain discussions whose immediate ecclesial-pastoral challenge is in abeyance. [...] 'Systematic' theology is [...] concerned with the truth of the gospel, whether dogmatically defined or not. }}</ref> Systematic theology draws on the foundational [[sacred texts]] of Christianity, while simultaneously investigating the development of Christian doctrine throughout history, particularly through the ecumenical councils of the early church (such as the First [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicea]]) and [[Christian philosophy|philosophical]] evolution. Inherent to a [[system]] of theological thought is the development of a method, one which can apply both broadly and particularly. Christian systematic theology will typically explore: * [[God in Christianity|God]] ([[theology proper]]) * The [[Attributes of God in Christianity|attributes of God]] * The [[Trinity]] as espoused by Trinitarian Christians * [[Revelation]] * [[Biblical hermeneutics]] – the interpretation of Biblical texts * The [[Genesis creation narrative|creation]] * [[Divine providence]] * [[Theodicy]] – accounting for a benign God's tolerance of evil * [[Philosophy]] * [[Hamartiology]] – the study of [[sin]] * [[Christology]] – the study of the nature and person of Christ * [[Pneumatology (Christianity)|Pneumatology]] – the study of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] * [[Soteriology]] – the study of [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] * [[Ecclesiology]] – the study of the Christian church * [[Missiology]] – the study of the Christian message and of missions * [[Mystical theology|Spirituality]] and [[Christian mysticism|mysticism]] * [[Sacrament]]al theology * [[Eschatology]] – the ultimate destiny of humankind * [[Moral theology]] * [[Christian anthropology]] * The [[Afterlife#Christianity|afterlife]] ==Prolegomena: Scripture as a primary basis of Christian theology== ===Biblical revelation=== [[File:Gentile da Fabriano 052.jpg|thumb|upright| [[Thomas Aquinas]] from ''[[Valle Romita Polyptych]]'' by [[Gentile da Fabriano]]]] [[Revelation#Christianity|Revelation]] is the revealing or disclosing, or making something obvious through active or passive communication with God, and can originate directly from [[God in Christianity|God]] or through an agent, such as an [[Angel#Christianity|angel]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dr |first=STEVE ESOMBA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gaDFBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA148 |title=THE BOOK OF LIFE, KNOWLEDGE AND CONFIDENCE |date=6 June 2012 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-1-4717-3463-2 |language=en}}</ref> A person recognised as having experienced such contact is often called{{by whom|date=September 2020}} a [[prophet]]. Christianity generally considers the [[Bible]] as divinely or [[Supernatural revelation|supernaturally revealed]] or inspired. Such revelation does not always require the presence of God or an angel. For instance, in the concept which [[Catholic]]s call [[interior locution]], supernatural revelation can include just an [[inner voice]] heard by the recipient. [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225-1274) first described two types of revelation in Christianity: [[general revelation]] and [[special revelation]].{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} * General revelation occurs through observation of the [[Universe|created order]]. Such observations can logically lead to important conclusions, such as the existence of God and some of God's attributes. General revelation is also an element of [[Christian apologetics]].{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} * Certain specifics, such as the [[Trinity]] and the [[Incarnation]], as revealed in the teachings of the Scriptures, can not otherwise be deduced except by special revelation. ===Biblical inspiration=== {{Main|Biblical inspiration}} [[File:The Evangelist Matthew Inspired by an Angel.jpg|thumb|left|upright| [[Rembrandt]]'s ''The Evangelist Matthew Inspired by an Angel'', 1661]] The [[Bible]] contains many passages in which the authors claim divine inspiration for their message or report the effects of such inspiration on others. Besides the direct accounts of written [[revelation]] (such as [[Moses]] receiving the [[Ten Commandments]] inscribed on tablets of stone), the [[Prophet]]s of the [[Old Testament]] frequently claimed that their message was of divine origin by prefacing the revelation using the following phrase: "Thus says the LORD" (for example, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=IKings+12:22-24;IChronicles+17:3-4;Jeremiah+35:13;Ezekiel+2:4;Zechariah+7:9 1 Kgs 12:22–24;1 Chr 17:3–4; Jer 35:13; Ezek 2:4; Zech 7:9]; etc.). The [[Second Epistle of Peter]] claims that "no prophecy of Scripture ... was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit"<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2Peter+1:20-21 2 Pet 1:20–21] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411011340/http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2Peter+1:20-21 |date=11 April 2021 }}.</ref> The Second Epistle of Peter also implies that Paul's writings are inspired ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2Peter+3:16 2 Pet 3:16]). Many{{quantify|date=September 2020}} Christians cite a verse in Paul's letter to Timothy, 2 Timothy 3:16–17, as evidence that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable ..." Here St. Paul is referring to the Old Testament, since the scriptures have been known by Timothy from "infancy" (verse 15). Others offer an alternative reading for the passage; for example, theologian [[C. H. Dodd]] suggests that it "is probably to be rendered" as: "Every inspired scripture is also useful..."<ref name="dodd p25">{{cite book | last = Dodd | first = Charles Harold | author-link = C. H. Dodd | title = The Authority of the Bible | publisher = Collins | year = 1978 | location= London | isbn= 0-00-625195-1 |page=25}}</ref> A similar translation appears in the [[New English Bible]], in the [[Revised English Bible]], and (as a footnoted alternative) in the [[New Revised Standard Version]]. The Latin [[Vulgate]] can be so read.<ref>The [[Douay–Rheims Bible]], relying on the Vulgate, has "All scripture, inspired of God, is profitable to teach ...". See the comment in the [[New Jerusalem Bible]] study edition - footnote 'e', page 1967, Darton Longman Todd, 1985. {{ISBN|0-232-52077-1}}, but with the caution "less probably".</ref> Yet others defend the "traditional" interpretation; [[Daniel B. Wallace]] calls the alternative "probably not the best translation."<ref> {{cite book | author= Daniel B. Wallace | author-link1 = Daniel B. Wallace | title= Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament | location= Grand Rapids, Michigan|publisher= Zondervan|year= 1996 | isbn= 0-310-21895-0|pages= 313–314 | quote = Many scholars feel that the translation should be: 'Every inspired scripture is also profitable.' This is probably not the best translation, however, for the following reasons: (1) Contextually [...] (2) Grammatically [...] }} </ref> Some modern English versions of the Bible renders ''theopneustos'' with "God-breathed" ([[NIV]]) or "breathed out by God" ([[English Standard Version|ESV]]), avoiding the word ''inspiration'', which has the Latin root ''inspīrāre'' - "to blow or breathe into".<ref>{{oed | inspire }}</ref> ===Biblical authority=== [[Christianity]] generally regards the [[Biblical canon|agreed collections of books]] known as the [[Bible]] as authoritative and as written by human authors under the inspiration of the [[Holy Spirit]]. Some Christians believe that the Bible is [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]] (totally without error and free from contradiction, including the historical and scientific parts)<ref name="inerrancy">{{Cite book|last= Geisler & Nix |publisher= [[Moody Press]], Chicago |year= 1986 |title= A General Introduction to the Bible | isbn= 0-8024-2916-5}}</ref> or [[Biblical infallibility|infallible]] (inerrant on issues of faith and practice but not necessarily on matters of history or science).<ref name="infallible">{{Cite journal|last= Coleman|journal= Theology Today | volume = 31 | issue = 4|pages= 295–303|year= 1975|title= Biblical Inerrancy: Are We Going Anywhere?|doi= 10.1177/004057367503100404|s2cid= 170389190 }} </ref>{{request quotation|date=September 2020}}<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church, [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#II ''Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture'' (§105–108)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909213651/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#II |date=9 September 2010 }}</ref><ref> [[Heinrich Bullinger]]'s [[Second Helvetic Confession]] (1566), [https://web.archive.org/web/20060203091510/http://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c01.htm ''Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God''] - "We believe and confess the canonical Scriptures of the holy prophets and apostles of both Testaments to be the true Word of God, and to have sufficient authority of themselves, not of men. [...] And in this Holy Scripture, the universal Church of Christ has the most complete exposition of all that pertains to a saving faith, and also to the framing of a life acceptable to God [...]." </ref><ref>[[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]] (1978), [https://library.dts.edu/Pages/TL/Special/ICBI_1.pdf Online text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117191615/https://library.dts.edu/Pages/TL/Special/ICBI_1.pdf |date=17 January 2022 }}: "Article XI <br> We affirm that Scripture, having been given by divine inspiration, is infallible, so that, far from misleading us, it is true and reliable in all the matters it addresses."</ref><ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church: {{Cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Sacred Scripture |access-date=15 March 2020 |archive-date=9 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609220852/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm |url-status=bot: unknown }} - "107 The inspired books teach the truth. 'Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.'"</ref> Some Christians infer that the Bible cannot both refer to itself as being divinely inspired and also be errant or fallible. For if the Bible were divinely inspired, then the source of inspiration being divine, would not be subject to fallibility or error in that which is produced. For them, the doctrines of the divine inspiration, infallibility, and inerrancy, are inseparably tied together. The idea of biblical [[integrity]] is a further concept of infallibility, by suggesting that current biblical text is complete and without error, and that the integrity of biblical text has never been corrupted or degraded.<ref name="inerrancy"/> Historians{{which|date=September 2020}} note, or claim, that the doctrine of the Bible's infallibility was adopted{{when|date=September 2020}} hundreds of years after the books of the Bible were written.<ref> Compare: {{cite journal | title = Bible Infallibility - 'Evangelical' Defenders of the Faith | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GngeAQAAMAAJ | journal = The Westminster Review | publisher = Leonard Scott Publication | date = January 1861 | volume = 75 | page = 49 | access-date = 6 September 2020 | quote = [...] the doctrine of the infallibility of the Bible, a doctrine which, according to Mr. Ayre and his school, the apostles held and Christ sanctioned; which from the earliest times the Church has adopted, and which the plenary as well as the verbal inspirationists still maintain. }} </ref> ===Biblical canon=== {{Main| Biblical canon|Christian biblical canons|Development of the Christian biblical canon |Development of the New Testament canon}} {{Further| Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|Development of the Old Testament canon}} The content of the [[Protestant Bible|Protestant Old Testament]] is the same as the [[Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|Hebrew Bible canon]], with changes in the division and order of books, but the [[Catholic Bible|Catholic Old Testament]] contains additional texts, known as the [[deuterocanonical books]]. Protestants recognize 39 books in their Old Testament canon, while Roman Catholic and [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christians]] recognize 46 books as canonical.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} Both Catholics and Protestants use the same 27-book New Testament canon. Early Christians used the [[Septuagint]], a [[Koine]] Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures. Christianity subsequently endorsed various additional writings that would become the New Testament. In the 4th century a series of [[synod]]s, most notably the [[Synod of Hippo]] in AD 393, produced a list of texts equal to the 46-book canon of the Old Testament that Catholics use today (and the 27-book canon of the New Testament that all use). A definitive list did not come from any [[First seven ecumenical councils|early ecumenical council]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon of the New Testament] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190118034449/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm |date=18 January 2019 }}: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history."</ref> Around 400, [[Jerome]] produced the [[Vulgate]], a definitive Latin edition of the Bible, the contents of which, at the insistence of the [[Pope|Bishop of Rome]], accorded with the decisions of the earlier synods. This process effectively set the New Testament canon, although examples exist of other canonical lists in use after this time.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} During the 16th-century [[Protestant Reformation]] certain reformers proposed different canonical lists of the Old Testament. The texts which appear in the Septuagint but not in the Jewish canon fell out of favor, and eventually disappeared from Protestant canons. Catholic Bibles classify these texts as deuterocanonical books, whereas Protestant contexts label them as the [[biblical apocrypha|Apocrypha]]. ==Theology proper: God== {{Main|God in Christianity}} In [[Christianity]], God is the [[Creator God|creator and preserver of the universe]]. God is the [[Monotheism|sole]] [[The Ultimate (philosophy)|ultimate]] power in the universe but is distinct from it. The [[Bible]] never speaks of God as impersonal. Instead, it refers to him in [[Personal God|personal terms]]– who speaks, sees, hears, acts, and loves. God is understood to have a [[will (philosophy)|will]] and personality and is an [[Omnipotent|all powerful]], [[Divinity|divine]] and [[Omnibenevolence|benevolent]] being. He is represented in [[Scripture]] as being primarily concerned with people and their salvation.<ref name="Stagg"/> ===Attributes of God=== {{Main|Attributes of God in Christianity}} ====Classification==== Many [[Calvinism|Reformed]] theologians distinguish between the ''communicable'' attributes (those that human beings can also have) and the ''incommunicable'' attributes (those which belong to God alone).<ref>[[Herman Bavinck]], ''The Doctrine of God''. Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1979.</ref> ====Enumeration==== Some attributes ascribed to God in Christian theology<ref>The [[Westminster Shorter Catechism]]'s definition of God is merely an enumeration of his attributes: "God is a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness, and truth."[[Westminster Shorter Catechism]], Question and Answer 4. The [[Westminster Larger Catechism]] adds certain attributes to this description, such as "all-sufficient", "incomprehensible", "every where present" and "knowing all things". [[Westminster Larger Catechism]], Question and Answer 7. This answer has been criticised, however, as having "nothing specifically Christian about it."[[James B. Jordan]], "[http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/biblical-horizons/no-82-what-is-god/ What is God?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222000602/http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/biblical-horizons/no-82-what-is-god/ |date=22 December 2010 }}," ''Biblical Horizons Newsletter'', No. 82.</ref> are: *[[Aseity]]—That "God is so independent that he does not need us."<ref>[[D. A. Carson]], ''The Gagging of God'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan), 1996.</ref> It is based on [[Book of Acts|Acts]] 17:25, where it says that God "is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything" ([[NIV]]). This is often related to God's ''self-existence'' and his ''self-sufficiency''. *[[Eternity]]—That God exists beyond the [[time|temporal]] realm. *[[Grace (Christianity)|Graciousness]]—That God extends His favor and gifts to human beings unconditionally as well as conditionally. *[[Sacred|Holiness]]—That God is separate from sin and incorruptible. Noting the refrain of "[[Sanctus|Holy, holy, holy]]" in [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 6:3 and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8, *[[Immanence]]—That although God is [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] and holy, He is also accessible and can be dynamically experienced. *[[Immutability (theology)|Immutability]]—That God's essential nature is unchangeable. *[[Impassibility]]—That God does not experience emotion or suffering (a more controversial doctrine, disputed especially by [[open theism]]). *[[Impeccability]]—That God is incapable of error ([[sin]]). *[[Incorporeality]]—That God is without physical composition. A related concept is the ''[[spirituality]]'' of God, which is derived from [[Jesus]]' statement in [[Gospel of John|John]] 4:24, "God is spirit." *[[Love]]—That God is care and compassion. [[1 John]] 4:16 says "God is love." *[[Mission (Christianity)|Mission]]—That God is the supreme liberator. While the [[Missio dei|Mission of God]] is not traditionally included in this list, [[David Bosch]] has argued that "[[Mission (Christianity)|mission]] is not primarily an activity of the church, but an attribute of God."<ref>[[David Bosch|David J. Bosch]], ''Transforming Mission'' (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1991), 390.</ref> *[[Omnibenevolence]]—That God is omnibenevolent. [[Omnibenevolence]] of God refers to him being "all good". *[[Omnipotence]]—That God is supremely or all-powerful. *[[Omnipresence]]—That God is the supreme being, existing everywhere and at all times; the all-perceiving or all-conceiving foundation of reality. *[[Omniscience]]—That God is supremely or all-knowing. *Oneness—That God is without peer, also that every divine attribute is instantiated in its entirety (the qualitative [[infinity]] of God). See also [[Monotheism]] and [[Divine simplicity]]. *[[Divine providence|Providence]]—That God watches over His creation with interest and dedication. While the [[Divine providence|Providence]] of God usually refers to his activity in the world, it also implies his care for the universe, and is thus an attribute. A distinction is usually made between "general providence" which refers to God's continuous upholding the existence and natural order of the universe, and "special providence" which refers to God's extraordinary intervention in the life of people.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Providence.aspx#1O101-Providence Providence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417135306/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Providence.aspx#1O101-Providence |date=17 April 2011 }} in ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions''.</ref> See also [[Sovereignty]]. *[[Righteousness]]—That God is the greatest or only measure of human conduct. The righteousness of God may refer to his holiness, to his [[justice]], or to his saving activity through Christ. *[[Transcendence (religion)|Transcendence]]—That God exists beyond the natural realm of physical laws and thus is not bound by them;<ref>{{cite book |first=Machen, J. |last=Gresham |title=God Transcendent |publisher=Banner of Truth publishers |year=1998 |isbn=0-85151-355-7}}</ref> He is also wholly [[Other (philosophy)|Other]] and [[epistemology|incomprehensible]] apart from [[general revelation|general]] or [[special revelation|special self-revelation]]. *[[Trinity|Triune]]—The Christian God is understood (by trinitarian Christians) to be a "threeness" of [[God the Father|Father]], [[God the Son|Son]], and [[Holy Spirit]] that is fully consistent with His "oneness"; a single infinite being who is both within and beyond nature. Because the persons of the [[Trinity]] represent a personal relation even on the level of God to Himself, He is personal both in His relation toward us and in His relation toward Himself. *[[Veracity (ethics)|Veracity]]—That God is the Truth all human beings strive for; He is also impeccably honest. [[Epistle to Titus|Titus]] 1:2 refers to "God, who does not lie." *[[Wisdom]]—That God fully comprehends [[human nature]] and the world, and will see His will accomplished in heaven and on earth. [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 16:27 speaks about the "only wise God". ====Monotheism==== [[File:Christ in Gethsemane.jpg|thumb|upright|''Christ in Gethsemane'', [[Heinrich Hofmann (painter)|Heinrich Hofmann]], 1890]] Some Christians believe that the God worshiped by the Hebrew people of the pre-Christian era had always revealed himself as he did through [[Jesus]]; but that this was never obvious until Jesus was born (see [[John 1]]). Also, though the [[Angel of the Lord]] spoke to the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, some believe it has always been only through the [[Holy Spirit|Spirit of God]] granting them understanding, that men have been able to perceive later that God himself had visited them. This belief gradually developed into the modern formulation of the [[Trinity]], which is the doctrine that God is a single entity ([[Yahweh]]), but that there is a trinity in God's single being, the meaning of which has always been debated. This mysterious "Trinity" has been described as [[Hypostasis (religion)|hypostases]] in the [[Greek language]] ([[Consubstantial|subsistences]] in [[Latin]]), and "persons" in English. Nonetheless, Christians stress that they only believe in one God. Most Christian churches teach the Trinity, as opposed to Unitarian monotheistic beliefs. Historically, most Christian churches have taught that the nature of God is a [[Sacred mysteries|mystery]], something that must be revealed by [[special revelation]] rather than deduced through [[general revelation]]. Christian orthodox traditions (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant) follow this idea, which was codified in 381 and reached its full development through the work of the [[Cappadocian Fathers]]. They consider God to be a [[Wiktionary:triune|triune]] entity, called the Trinity, comprising the three "Persons"; [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]], and [[God the Holy Spirit]], described as being "of the same substance" ({{lang|grc|[[ousia|ὁμοούσιος]]}}). The true nature of an infinite God, however, is commonly described as beyond definition, and the word 'person' is an imperfect expression of the idea. Some critics contend that because of the adoption of a tripartite conception of deity, Christianity is a form of [[tritheism]] or [[polytheism]]. This concept dates from [[Arianism|Arian]] teachings which claimed that Jesus, having appeared later in the Bible than his Father, had to be a secondary, lesser, and therefore distinct god. For [[Jews]] and [[Muslims]], the idea of God as a trinity is [[heresy|heretical]]– it is considered akin to [[polytheism]]. Christians overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the very [[Nicene Creed]] (among others) which gives the orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity does begin with: "I believe in one God". In the 3rd century, [[Tertullian]] claimed that God exists as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—the three personae of one and the same substance.<ref name=UCP>''Critical Terms for Religious Studies.'' Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998. ''Credo Reference''. 27 July 2009</ref> To trinitarian Christians God the Father is not at all a separate god from God the Son (of whom [[Jesus]] is the incarnation) and the Holy Spirit, the other ''[[Hypostasis (religion)|hypostases]]'' (Persons) of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]].<ref name=UCP/> According to the Nicene Creed, the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history. In [[Christianity]], the [[doctrine]] of the Trinity states that God is one being who exists, simultaneously and [[eternity|eternally]], as a [[perichoresis|mutual indwelling]] of three Persons: the Father, the Son (incarnate as Jesus), and the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost). Since earliest Christianity, one's salvation has been very closely related to the concept of a triune God, although the Trinitarian doctrine was not formalized until the 4th century. At that time, the [[Constantine I and Christianity|Emperor Constantine]] convoked the [[First Council of Nicaea]], to which all bishops of the empire were invited to attend. [[Pope Sylvester I]] did not attend but sent his [[Papal legate|legate]]. The council, among other things, decreed the original Nicene Creed. ====Trinity==== {{Main|Trinity}} [[File:Rublevtrinität ubt.gif|upright|thumb|"Holy Trinity" from the Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, by [[Andrei Rublev]], c. 1400, but more properly known as the "Hospitality of Abraham." The three angels [[Christian symbolism|symbolize]] the Trinity.]] For most Christians, beliefs about God are enshrined in the doctrine of [[Trinitarianism]], which holds that the three persons of God together form a single God. The Trinitarian view emphasizes that God has a will and that [[God the Son]] has two wills, divine and human, though these are never in conflict (see [[Hypostatic union]]). However, this point is disputed by Oriental Orthodox Christians, who hold that ''God the Son'' has only one will of unified divinity and humanity (see [[Miaphysitism]]). The Christian doctrine of the Trinity teaches the unity of [[God the Father|Father]], [[God the Son|Son]], and [[Holy Spirit]] as three persons in [[monotheism|one Godhead]].<ref name="EB-purgatory">[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061946/purgatory Encyclopædia Britannica: Purgatory in world religions:] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820181124/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061946/purgatory |date=20 August 2008 }} "The idea of purification or temporary punishment after death has ancient roots and is well-attested in early Christian literature. The conception of purgatory as a geographically situated place is largely the achievement of medieval Christian piety and imagination."</ref> The doctrine states that [[God]] is the Triune God, existing as three ''persons'', or in the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] ''[[hypostasis (religion)|hypostases]]'',<ref>See discussion in {{CathEncy|wstitle=Person}}</ref> but one being.<ref>Grudem, Wayne A. 1994. ''Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine.'' Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press; Grand Rapids, MI: [[Zondervan]]. p. 226.</ref> Personhood in the Trinity does not match the common Western understanding of "person" as used in the English language—it does not imply an "individual, self-actualized center of free will and conscious activity."<ref name=Olsen>{{cite book |last=Olson |first=Roger E. |title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform. |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8308-1505-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian00olso }}</ref>{{rp|185–186.}} To the ancients, personhood "was in some sense individual, but always in community as well."<ref name=Olsen/>{{rp|p.186}} Each ''person'' is understood as having the one identical essence or nature, not merely similar natures. Since the beginning of the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|3rd century]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.ix.ii.html |title=Tertullian, Against Praxeas, chapter II |publisher=Ccel.org |date=1 June 2005 |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> the doctrine of the Trinity has been stated as "the one God exists in three Persons and [[homoousios|one substance]], Father, Son, and Holy Spirit."<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine" /> Trinitarianism, belief in the Trinity, is a mark of [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] as well as other prominent Christian sects arising from the [[Protestant Reformation]], such as [[Anglicanism]], [[Methodism]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Baptist]], and [[Presbyterianism]]. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' describes the Trinity as "the central dogma of Christian theology".<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=he Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |title=Trinity, doctrine of the}}</ref> This doctrine contrasts with [[Nontrinitarian]] positions which include [[Unitarianism]], [[Oneness Pentecostalism (doctrine)|Oneness]] and [[Modalism]]. A small minority of Christians hold non-trinitarian views, largely coming under the heading of [[Unitarianism]]. Most, if not all, Christians believe that God is spirit,<ref>{{bibleverse|John|4:24}}</ref> an uncreated, [[Omnipotence|omnipotent]], and eternal being, the creator and sustainer of all things, who works the redemption of the world through his Son, Jesus Christ. With this background, belief in the [[Christology|divinity of Christ]] and the Holy Spirit is expressed as the doctrine of the [[Trinity]],<ref>J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines'' pp. 87–90; T. Desmond Alexander, ''New Dictionary of Biblical Theology'' pp. 514–515; Alister E. McGrath, ''Historical Theology'' p. 61.</ref> which describes the single divine ''[[ousia]]'' (substance) existing as three distinct and inseparable ''hypostases'' (persons): the [[God the Father|Father]], the Son ([[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] the [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]), and the [[Holy Spirit]].<ref>{{bibleverse|1John|5:7||1 Jn 5:7 }}</ref> The Trinitarian doctrine is considered by most Christians to be a core tenet of their faith. [[Nontrinitarians]] typically hold that God, the Father, is supreme; that Jesus, although still divine Lord and Savior, is the [[Son of God]]; and that the Holy Spirit is a phenomenon akin to God's will on Earth. The holy three are separate, yet the Son and the Holy Spirit are still seen as originating from God the Father. The [[New Testament]] does not have the term "Trinity" and nowhere discusses the Trinity as such. Some emphasize, however, that the New Testament does repeatedly speak of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit to "compel a trinitarian understanding of God."<ref name=Stagg-p38>{{cite book |last=Stagg |first=Frank |title=New Testament Theology |publisher=Broadman Press |year=1962 |isbn=978-0-8054-1613-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newtestamenttheo0000stag/page/38 38 ff] |url=https://archive.org/details/newtestamenttheo0000stag/page/38 }}</ref> The doctrine developed from the biblical language used in New Testament passages such as the baptismal formula in {{bibleverse|Matthew|28:19}} and by the end of the [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th century]] it was widely held in its present form. ===God the Father=== {{Further|God the Father}} In many [[monotheist]] religions, God is addressed as the father, in part because of his active interest in human affairs, in the way that a father would take an interest in his children who are dependent on him and as a father, he will respond to humanity, his children, acting in their best interests.<ref>Diana L. Eck (2003) Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras. p. 98</ref> In Christianity, God is called "Father" in a more literal sense, besides being the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children.<ref>{{bibleverse|Heb|1:2–5}}, {{bibleverse|Gal|4:1–7}}</ref> The Father is said to be in unique relationship with his only begotten (''monogenes'') son, [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]], which implies an exclusive and intimate familiarity: "No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and any one to whom the Son chooses to reveal him."<ref>{{bibleverse|Mt.|11:27}}</ref> In Christianity, God the Father's relationship with humanity is as a father to children—in a previously unheard-of sense—and not just as the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children, his people. Thus, humans, in general, are sometimes called ''children of God''. To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is that of Creator and created beings, and in that respect he is the father of all. The New Testament says, in this sense, that the very idea of family, wherever it appears, derives its name from God the Father,<ref>{{bibleverse|Eph|3:15}}</ref> and thus God himself is the model of the family. However, there is a deeper "legal" sense in which Christians believe that they are made participants in the special relationship of Father and Son, through Jesus Christ as his spiritual [[bride of Christ|bride]]. Christians call themselves ''adopted'' children of God.<ref>"God sent forth His Son... that we might receive the adoption as sons. And because you are sons, God has sent forth the Spirit of His Son into your hearts crying out, "Abba, Father!" Therefore you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ."; {{bibleverse|Galatians|4:4–7}}</ref> In the New Testament, God the Father has a special role in his relationship with the person of the Son, where Jesus is believed to be his Son and his heir.<ref>{{bibleverse|Heb.|1:2–5}}</ref> According to the [[Nicene Creed]], the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history. ''See'' [[Christology]]. The Bible refers to Christ, called "[[Logos (Christianity)|The Word]]" as present at the beginning of God's creation.,<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:1}}</ref> not a creation himself, but equal in the personhood of the Trinity. In [[Eastern Orthodox]] theology, God the Father is the "principium" (''beginning''), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit, which gives intuitive emphasis to the threeness of persons; by comparison, Western theology explains the "origin" of all three ''hypostases'' or persons as being in the divine nature, which gives intuitive emphasis to the [[divine simplicity|oneness]] of God's being.{{Citation needed|reason=I think we need a reliable source for the contrasted "intuitive emphasises" in Eastern and Western theology|date=July 2019}} ===Christology and Christ=== {{Main|Christology|Jesus in Christianity|}} Christology is the field of study within Christian theology which is primarily concerned with the nature, person, and works of [[Jesus Christ]], held by Christians to be the [[Son of God]]. Christology is concerned with the meeting of the human ([[Son of Man]]) and divine ([[God the Son]] or [[Logos (Christianity)|Word of God]]) in the person of [[Jesus]]. Primary considerations include the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]], the relationship of Jesus's nature and person with the nature and person of God, and the [[soteriology|salvific]] work of Jesus. As such, Christology is generally less concerned with the details of Jesus's life (what he did) or teaching than with who or what he is. There have been and are various perspectives by those who claim to be his followers since the church began after his ascension. The controversies ultimately focused on whether and how a [[Theological anthropology|human]] nature and a [[divinity|divine]] nature can co-exist in one person. The study of the inter-relationship of these two natures is one of the preoccupations of the majority tradition. Teachings about Jesus and testimonies about what he accomplished during his three-year public ministry are found throughout the [[New Testament]]. Core biblical teachings about the person of Jesus Christ may be summarized that Jesus Christ was and forever is fully God (divine) and fully human in one sinless person at the same time,<ref name="Grudem">{{cite book |last=Grudem |first=Wayne A. |title=Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine |publisher=Zondervan |year=1994 |isbn=0-310-28670-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/systematictheolo00grud_0 }}</ref> and that through the death and [[resurrection of Jesus]], [[Christian views on sin|sinful]] humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of [[Heaven#Christianity|eternal life]] via his [[New Covenant]]. While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Christians believe that Jesus is [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] and "[[Hypostatic union|true God and true man]]" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. Scripture asserts that Jesus was conceived, by the Holy Spirit, and [[Nativity of Jesus|born]] of his [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|virgin mother Mary]] without a human father.<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|1:18–25}}, {{bibleverse|Luke|1:35}}, {{bibleverse|Luke|3:23}}</ref> The biblical accounts of Jesus's ministry include [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], [[Ministry of Jesus|preaching, teaching, healing]], [[Death of Christ|Death]], and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]. The apostle Peter, in what has become a famous proclamation of faith among Christians since the 1st century, said, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God."<ref>{{bibleverse|Matt|16:16}}</ref> Most Christians now wait for the [[Second Coming]] of Christ when they believe he will fulfill the remaining [[Messianic prophecy|Messianic prophecies]]. ====Christ==== Christ is the English term for the [[Greek (language)|Greek]] {{lang|grc|Χριστός}} (''Khristós'') meaning "[[anointing|the anointed one]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Christ |title=Etymology Online: ''Christ'' |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> It is a translation of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{Script/Hebrew|מָשִׁיחַ}} (''Māšîaḥ''), usually [[transliteration|transliterated]] into English as ''[[Messiah]]''. The word is often misunderstood to be the [[surname]] of [[Jesus]] due to the numerous mentions of ''Jesus Christ'' in the Christian [[Bible]]. The word is in fact used as a [[title]], hence its common reciprocal use ''Christ Jesus'', meaning Jesus the Anointed One or Jesus the Messiah. Followers of Jesus became known as [[Christians]] because they believed that Jesus was the Christ, or Messiah, [[prophecy|prophesied]] about in the [[Old Testament]], or [[Tanakh]]. ====Trinitarian ecumenical councils==== {{See also|Ecumenical council}} The Christological controversies came to a head over the persons of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]] and their relationship with one another. Christology was a fundamental concern from the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) until the [[Third Council of Constantinople]] (680). In this time period, the Christological views of various groups within the broader Christian community led to accusations of [[Christian heresy|heresy]], and, infrequently, subsequent [[religious persecution]]. In some cases, a sect's unique Christology is its chief distinctive feature, in these cases it is common for the sect to be known by the name given to its Christology. The decisions made at [[First Council of Nicaea]] and re-ratified at the [[First Council of Constantinople]], after several decades of ongoing controversy during which the work of Athanasius and the [[Cappadocian Fathers]] were influential. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular it was affirmed that the Son was ''[[homoousios]]'' (of one substance) with the Father. The [[Nicene Creed|Creed of the Nicene Council]] made statements about the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus, thus preparing the way for discussion about how exactly the divine and human come together in the person of Christ (Christology). Nicaea insisted that Jesus was fully divine and also human. What it did not do was make clear how one person could be both divine and human, and how the divine and human were related within that one person. This led to the Christological controversies of the [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th]] and [[Christianity in the 5th century|5th centuries]] of the Christian era. The [[Chalcedonian Creed]] did not put an end to all Christological debate, but it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for all other Christologies. Most of the major branches of Christianity—[[Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Lutheranism]], and [[Calvinism|Reformed]]—subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Eastern Christianity—[[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syrian Orthodoxy]], [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian Church]], [[Coptic Orthodoxy]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox]]y, and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolicism]]—reject it. ====Attributes of Christ==== =====God as Son===== {{Main|God the Son}} According to the Bible, the second Person of the Trinity, because of his eternal relation to the first Person (God as Father), is the [[Son of God]]. He is considered (by Trinitarians) to be coequal with the Father and Holy Spirit. He is [[Hypostatic union|all God and all human]]: the Son of God as to his divine nature, while as to his human nature he is from the lineage of David.<ref>{{bibleverse|Rom|1:3–4}}</ref><ref>Compare.{{Bibleverse|Galatians|4:4}};{{Bibleverse|Jn|1:1–14}};{{Bibleref2-nb|Jn|5:18–25}};{{Bibleref2-nb||Jn|10:30–38}}</ref> The core of Jesus's self-interpretation was his "filial consciousness", his relationship to God as child to parent in some unique sense<ref name="Stagg">Stagg, Frank. ''New Testament Theology'', Nashville: Broadman, 1962.</ref> (see [[Filioque]] controversy). His [[Ministry of Jesus|mission on earth]] proved to be that of enabling people to know God as their Father, which Christians believe is the essence of [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn|17:3}}</ref> God the Son is the second person of the [[Trinity]] in Christian theology. The [[doctrine]] of the Trinity identifies [[Jesus]] of [[Nazareth]] as [[God]] the Son, ''united in essence but distinct in person'' with regard to [[God the Father]] and God the [[Holy Spirit]] (the first and third persons of the Trinity). God the Son is co-eternal with God the Father (and the Holy Spirit), both before Creation and after the End (see [[Eschatology]]). So Jesus was always "God the Son", though not [[Revelation|revealed]] as such until he also became ''the'' "Son of God" through [[incarnation]]. "Son of God" draws attention to his humanity, whereas "God the Son" refers more generally to his divinity, including his pre-incarnate existence. So, in Christian theology, Jesus was always God the Son,<ref>"A brief account of the early Church councils and the Church fathers shows that they adopted the doctrine of the eternal subordination of the Son, and that this doctrine continues in the Church as orthodoxy to this day." Stephen D. Kovach and Peter R. Schemm Jr., "A Defense of the Doctrine of the Eternal Subordination of the Son", ''[[Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society]]'' '''42''' (1999): 461–476.</ref> though not [[Revelation|revealed]] as such until he also became the [[Son of God]] through [[incarnation]]. The exact phrase "God the Son" is not in the New Testament. Later theological use of this expression reflects what came to be standard interpretation of New Testament references, understood to imply Jesus's divinity, but the distinction of his person from that of the one God he called his Father. As such, the title is associated more with the development of the doctrine of the Trinity than with the [[Christology|Christological]] debates. There are over 40 places in the New Testament where Jesus is given the title "the Son of God", but scholars don't consider this to be an equivalent expression. "God the Son" is rejected by [[anti-trinitarians]], who view this reversal of the most common term for Christ as a doctrinal perversion and as tending towards [[tritheism]]. Matthew cites Jesus as saying, "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God (5:9)." The [[gospel]]s go on to document a great deal of controversy over Jesus being ''the'' Son of God, in a unique way. The book of the [[Acts of the Apostles]] and the letters of the New Testament, however, record the early teaching of the first Christians– those who believed Jesus to be ''both'' the Son of God, the Messiah, a man appointed by God, as well as God himself. This is evident in many places, however, the early part of the book of Hebrews addresses the issue in a deliberate, sustained argument, citing the scriptures of the Hebrew Bible as authorities. For example, the author quotes Psalm 45:6 as addressed by the God of Israel to Jesus. *[[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 1:8. About the Son he says, "Your throne, O God, will last for ever and ever." The author of Hebrews' description of Jesus as the exact representation of the divine Father has parallels in a passage in [[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]]. *Colossians 2:9–10. "in Christ all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodily form" John's gospel quotes Jesus at length regarding his relationship with his heavenly Father. It also contains two famous attributions of divinity to Jesus. *[[Gospel of John|John]] 1:1. "the Word was God" [in context, the ''Word'' is Jesus, see [[Christ the Logos]]] *[[Gospel of John|John]] 20:28. "Thomas said to him, 'My Lord and my God!'" The most direct references to Jesus as God are found in various letters. *[[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 9:5. "Christ, who is God over all" *[[Epistle to Titus|Titus]] 2:13. "our great God and Savior, Jesus Christ" *[[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]] 1:1. "our God and Savior Jesus Christ" The biblical basis for later trinitarian statements in creeds is the early baptism formula found in Matthew 28. *[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 28:19. Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name ''[''note the singular'']'' of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. See also [[Great Commission]]. =====Person of Christ===== {{Main|Person of Christ}} [[File:Christology Flowchart.PNG|thumb|500px|The various Christological positions, and their names]] ;Only divine? [[Docetism]] (from the Greek verb ''to seem'') taught that Jesus was fully divine, and his human body was only illusory. At a very early stage, various Docetic groups arose; in particular, the [[Gnosticism|gnostic]] sects which flourished in the 2nd century AD tended to have Docetic theologies. Docetic teachings were attacked by [[St. Ignatius of Antioch]] (early 2nd century), and appear to be targeted in the canonical [[Epistles of John]] (dates are disputed, but range from the late 1st century among traditionalist scholars to the late 2nd century among critical scholars). The Council of Nicaea rejected theologies that entirely ruled out any humanity in Christ, affirming in the [[Nicene Creed]] the doctrine of the [[Incarnation]] as a part of the doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. That is, that the second person of the Trinity became incarnate in the person [[Jesus]] and was fully human. ;Only human? {{See also|Jewish Christianity}} The early centuries of Christian history also had groups at the other end of the spectrum, arguing that Jesus was an ordinary mortal. The [[Adoptionists]] taught that Jesus was born fully human, and was adopted as [[Son of God|God's Son]] when [[John the Baptist]] baptised him<ref>{{Bibleverse||Mark|1:10}}</ref> because of the [[Ministry of Jesus|life he lived]]. Another group, known as the [[Ebionites]], taught that Jesus was not God, but the human [[Moshiach]] (messiah, anointed) prophet promised in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Some of these views could be described as [[Unitarianism]] (although that is a modern term) in their insistence on the oneness of God. These views, which directly affected how one understood the Godhead, were declared [[heresies]] by the Council of Nicaea. Throughout much of the rest of the ancient history of Christianity, Christologies that denied Christ's divinity ceased to have a major impact on the life of the church. ;How can he be both? :;What sort of divinity? {{Main|Arianism}} [[Arianism]] affirmed that Jesus was divine, but taught that he was nevertheless a created being (''there was [a time] when he was not [in existence]''), and was therefore less divine than God the Father. The matter boiled down to one iota; Arianism taught ''[[Homoiousia|Homo'''i'''ousia]]''—the belief that Jesus's divinity is ''similar'' to that of God the Father—as opposed to ''[[Homoousia]]''—the belief that Jesus's divinity is the ''same'' as that of God the Father. [[Arius]]' opponents additionally included in the term ''Arianism'' the belief that Jesus's divinity is ''different'' from that of God the Father (''Heteroousia''). Arianism was condemned by the Council of Nicea, but remained popular in the northern and western provinces of the empire, and continued to be the majority view of western Europe well into the 6th century. Indeed, even the Christian legend of Constantine's death-bed baptism involves a bishop who, in recorded history, was an Arian. In the modern era, a number of denominations have rejected the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity, including the [[Christadelphians]] and the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Bruce Milne|title=Know the Truth|publisher=Inter-Varsity Press|pages=181–182|isbn=0-8308-1793-X|year=1999}}</ref> ;What sort of amalgamation? The Christological debates following the Council of Nicaea sought to make sense of the interplay of the human and divine in the person of Christ while upholding the doctrine of the Trinity. [[Apollinaris of Laodicea]] (310–390) taught that in Jesus, the divine component took the place of the human ''[[nous]]'' (''thinking''– not to be confused with ''[[thelis]]'', meaning ''intent''). This however was seen as a denial of Jesus's true humanity, and the view was condemned at the [[First Council of Constantinople]]. Subsequently, [[Nestorius]] of Constantinople (386–451) initiated a view that effectively separated Jesus into two persons—one divine and one human; the mechanism of this combination is known as ''hypostas'''e'''s'', and contrasts with ''hypostas'''i'''s''—the view that there is no separation. Nestorius' theology was deemed heretical at the [[First Council of Ephesus]] (431). Though, as seen by the writings of [[Babai the Great]], the Christology of the [[Church of the East]] is highly similar to that of Chalcedon, many orthodox Christians (particularly in the West) consider this group to be the perpetuation of [[Nestorianism]]; the modern Assyrian Church of the East has at times shunned this term, as it implies acceptance of the entire theology of Nestorius. Various forms of [[Monophysitism]] taught that Christ only had one nature: that the divine had either dissolved ([[Eutychianism]]), or that the divine joined with the human as one nature in the person of Christ ([[Miaphysitism]]). A notable monophysite theologian was [[Eutyches]] ({{circa|380}}–456). [[Monophysitism]] was rejected as [[Christian heresy|heresy]] at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451, which affirmed that Jesus Christ had two natures (divine and human) joined in one person, in [[hypostatic union]] (see [[Chalcedonian creed]]). While Eutychianism was suppressed into oblivion by the Chalcedonians and Miaphysites, the Miaphysite groups who dissented from the Chalcedonian formula have persisted as the [[Oriental Orthodox Church]]. As theologians continued to search for a compromise between the Chalcedonian definition and the [[Monophysites]], other Christologies developed that partially rejected the full humanity of Christ. [[Monothelitism]] taught that in the one person of Jesus there were two natures, but only a divine will. Closely related to this is [[Monoenergism]], which held to the same doctrine as the Monothelites, but with different terminology. These positions were declared [[Christian heresy|heresy]] by the [[Third Council of Constantinople]] (the Sixth [[Ecumenical Council]], 680–681). =====Incarnation===== {{Main|Incarnation (Christianity)}} The Incarnation is the belief in [[Christianity]] that the second person in the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]], also known as [[God the Son]] or the [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]] (Word), "became flesh" when he was miraculously conceived in the womb of the [[Virgin Mary]]. The word Incarnate derives from [[Latin]] (in=in or into, caro, carnis=flesh) meaning "to make into flesh" or "to become flesh". The incarnation is a fundamental [[theology|theological]] teaching of [[Nicene Creed|orthodox (Nicene) Christianity]], based on its understanding of the [[New Testament]]. The incarnation represents the belief that Jesus, who is the non-created second [[hypostasis (philosophy)|hypostasis]] of the [[trinity|triune God]], took on a human body and nature and became [[Hypostatic union|both man and God]]. In the [[Bible]] its clearest teaching is in {{Bibleverse|John|1:14}}: "And the Word became flesh, and dwelt among us."<ref>McKim, Donald K. 1996. ''Westminster dictionary of theological terms''. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 140.</ref> [[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|right|Jesus, believed to be both man and God, painting by [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]]]] In the Incarnation, as traditionally defined, the divine nature of the Son was joined but not mixed with human nature<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/gc4_54.htm |title=Jacques Maritain Center: GC 4.54 |publisher=.nd.edu |access-date=2010-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622164244/http://www3.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/gc4_54.htm |archive-date=22 June 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> in one divine Person, [[Jesus]] Christ, who was both "truly God and truly man". The Incarnation is commemorated and celebrated each year at [[Christmas]], and also reference can be made to the Feast of the [[Annunciation]]; "different aspects of the mystery of the Incarnation" are celebrated at Christmas and the Annunciation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/Liturgy/zlitur109.htm |title=Advent Prayer and the Incarnation |publisher=Ewtn.com |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians. Alternative views on the subject (See [[Ebionites]] and the [[Gospel of the Hebrews|Gospel according to the Hebrews]]) have been proposed throughout the centuries (see below), but all were rejected by [[Mainstream Christianity|mainstream Christian bodies]]. In recent decades, an alternative doctrine known as "[[Oneness Pentecostalism (doctrine)|Oneness]]" has been espoused among various [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] groups (see below), but has been rejected by the remainder of [[Christendom]]. ;Description and development of the traditional doctrine In the [[Early Christianity|early Christian era]], there was considerable disagreement amongst Christians regarding the nature of Christ's Incarnation. While all Christians believed that Jesus was indeed the [[Son of God]], the exact nature of his Sonship was contested, together with the precise relationship of the "[[God the Father|Father]]," "Son" and "[[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]]" referred to in the New Testament. Though Jesus was clearly the "Son," what exactly did this mean? Debate on this subject raged most especially during the first four centuries of Christianity, involving [[Jewish Christians]], [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]], followers of the Presbyter [[Arius]] of Alexandra, and adherents of [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius the Great]], among others. Eventually, the Christian Church accepted the teaching of St. Athanasius and his allies, that Christ was the incarnation of the eternal second person of the [[Trinity]], who was fully God and fully a man simultaneously. All divergent beliefs were defined as [[heresy|heresies]]. This included [[Docetism]], which said that Jesus was a divine being that took on human appearance but not flesh; [[Arianism]], which held that Christ was a created being; and [[Nestorianism]], which maintained that the Son of God and the man, Jesus, shared the same body but retained [[Two Natures of Christ|two separate natures]]. The [[Oneness Pentecostalism|Oneness]] belief held by certain modern [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] churches is also seen as heretical by most mainstream Christian bodies. The most widely accepted the early Christian Church made definitions of the Incarnation and the nature of Jesus at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, the [[First Council of Ephesus|Council of Ephesus]] in 431, and the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451. These councils declared that Jesus was both fully God: begotten from, but not created by the Father; and fully man: taking his flesh and human nature from the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]]. These two natures, human and divine, were [[hypostatic union|hypostatically]] united into the one personhood of Jesus Christ.<ref>* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.toc.html The Seven Ecumenical Councils] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429154903/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.toc.html |date=29 April 2019 }}, from the ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', vols. 2–14 (CCEL.org) Contains detailed statements from each of these councils. The First Council of Nicaea, Council of Ephesus and Council of Chalcedon are the "First," "Third" and "Fourth" Ecumenical Councils, respectively.</ref> ;Fortuitous and Necessary Incarnation The link between the Incarnation and the [[Atonement in Christianity|Atonement]] within systematic theological thought is complex. Within traditional models of the Atonement, such as [[Penal substitution|Substitution]], [[Satisfaction theory of atonement|Satisfaction]] or [[Christus Victor]], Christ must be Divine in order for the Sacrifice of the Cross to be efficacious, for human sins to be "removed" or "conquered". In his work ''The Trinity and the Kingdom of God'', [[Jürgen Moltmann|Jurgen Moltmann]] differentiated between what he called a "fortuitous" and a "necessary" Incarnation. The latter gives a soteriological emphasis to the Incarnation: the Son of God became a man so that he could save us from our sins. The former, on the other hand, speaks of the Incarnation as a fulfilment of the [[Love of God]], of his desire to be present and living amidst humanity, to "walk in the garden" with us. Moltmann favours "fortuitous" incarnation primarily because he feels that to speak of an incarnation of "necessity" is to do an injustice to the [[Ministry of Jesus|life of Christ]]. Moltmann's work, alongside other systematic theologians, opens up avenues of liberation [[Christology]]. =====Hypostatic union===== {{Main|Hypostatic union|Chalcedonian}} [[File:Vladimirskaya.jpg|thumb|upright|A depiction of Jesus and Mary, the [[Theotokos of Vladimir]] (12th century)]] In short, this doctrine states that two natures, one human and one divine, are united in the one person of Christ. The Council further taught that each of these natures, the human and the divine, was distinct and complete. This view is sometimes called [[Dyophysite]] (meaning two natures) by those who rejected it. Hypostatic union (from the Greek for substance) is a technical term in Christian theology employed in mainstream [[Christology]] to describe the union of two natures, humanity and divinity, in Jesus Christ. A brief definition of the doctrine of two natures can be given as: "Jesus Christ, who is identical with the Son, is one person and one hypostasis in two natures: a human and a divine."<ref>Martin Lembke, lecture in the course "Meetings with the World's Religions", Centre for Theology and Religious Studies, Lund University, Spring Term 2010.</ref> The [[First Council of Ephesus]] recognised this doctrine and affirmed its importance, stating that the humanity and divinity of Christ are made one according to nature and hypostasis in the [[Logos]]. The [[First Council of Nicaea]] declared that the Father and the Son are of the same substance and are co-eternal. This belief was expressed in the Nicene Creed. [[Apollinaris of Laodicea]] was the first to use the term hypostasis in trying to understand the [[Incarnation]].<ref>Gregory of Nyssa, ''Antirrheticus adversus Apollinarem''.</ref> Apollinaris described the union of the divine and human in Christ as being of a single nature and having a single essence– a single hypostasis. The Nestorian [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]] went in the other direction, arguing that in Christ there were two natures ([[dyophysite]]) (human and divine) and two hypostases (in the sense of "essence" or "person") that co-existed.<ref>"Theodore" in ''The Westminster Dictionary of Christian History'', ed. J. Brauer. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971.</ref> The [[Chalcedonian Creed]] agreed with Theodore that there were two natures in the [[Incarnation]]. However, the [[Council of Chalcedon]] also insisted that hypostasis be used as it was in the Trinitarian definition: to indicate the person and not the nature as with Apollinarius. Thus, the Council declared that in Christ there are two natures; each retaining its own properties, and together united in one subsistence and in one single person.<ref>[[Enchiridion symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum|Denzinger]], ed. Bannwart, 148</ref> As the precise nature of this union is held to defy finite human comprehension, the hypostatic union is also referred to by the alternative term "mystical union." The [[Oriental Orthodox Church]]es, having rejected the Chalcedonian Creed, were known as [[Monophysites]] because they would only accept a definition that characterized the incarnate Son as having one nature. The [[Chalcedonian]] "in two natures" formula was seen as derived from and akin to a [[Nestorian doctrine|Nestorian]] Christology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php |title=The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon |access-date=5 October 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619122112/http://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php |archive-date=19 June 2008 }}</ref> Contrariwise, the Chalcedonians saw the Oriental Orthodox as tending towards [[Eutychianism|Eutychian]] Monophysitism. However, the Oriental Orthodox have in modern ecumenical dialogue specified that they have never believed in the doctrines of Eutyches, that they have always affirmed that Christ's humanity is consubstantial with our own, and they thus prefer the term "Miaphysite" to refer to themselves (a reference to Cyrillian Christology, which used the phrase "mia physis tou theou logou sesarkomene"). In recent times, leaders from the [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodox]] Churches have signed joint statements in an attempt to work towards reunification. =====Other Christological concerns===== ;The sinlessness of Christ {{main|Impeccability}} Although Christian orthodoxy holds that Jesus was fully human, the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], for example, states that Christ was 'holy and without evil' (7:26). The question concerning the sinlessness of Jesus Christ focuses on this seeming paradox. Does being fully human require that one participate in [[Fall of man|the "fall" of Adam]], or could Jesus exist in an "unfallen" status as [[Adam and Eve]] did before the "fall", according to Genesis 2–3? ;Kinds of sinlessness Evangelical writer [[Donald Macleod (theologian)|Donald Macleod]] suggests that the sinless nature of Jesus Christ involves two elements. "First, Christ was free of actual sin."<ref name="macleod220">[[Donald Macleod (theologian)|Donald Macleod]], ''The Person of Christ'' ([[InterVarsity Press]], 1998), 220.</ref> Studying the gospels there is no reference to Jesus praying for the forgiveness of sin, nor confessing sin. The assertion is that Jesus did not commit sin, nor could he be proven guilty of sin; he had no vices. In fact, he is quoted as asking, "Can any of you prove me guilty of sin?" in John 8:46. "Secondly, he was free from inherent sin ("[[original sin]]" or "[[ancestral sin]]")."<ref name="macleod220" /> ;Temptation of Christ '''The temptation of Christ''' shown in the gospels affirms that he was tempted. Indeed, the temptations were genuine and of a greater intensity than normally experienced by human beings.<ref>NRSV; Matthew 4.1–11.</ref> He experienced all the frail weaknesses of humanity. Jesus was tempted through hunger and thirst, pain and the love of his friends. Thus, the human weaknesses could engender temptation.<ref name="macleod226">Macleod 1998, p. 226</ref> Nevertheless, MacLeod notes that "one crucial respect in which Christ was not like us is that he was not tempted by anything within himself."<ref name="macleod226" /> The temptations Christ faced focused upon his person and identity as the incarnate Son of God. MacLeod writes, "Christ could be tempted through his sonship." The temptation in the wilderness and again in Gethsemane exemplifies this '''arena of temptation'''. Regarding the temptation of performing a sign that would affirm his sonship by throwing himself from the pinnacle of the temple, MacLeod observes, "The sign was for himself: a temptation to seek reassurance, as if to say, 'the real question is my own sonship. I must forget all else and all others and all further service until that is clear.{{'"}}<ref name="macleod227">Macleod 1998, p. 227</ref> MacLeod places this struggle in the context of the incarnation, "...he has become a man and must accept not only the appearance but the reality."<ref name="macleod227" /> ;Communication of attributes The communion of attributes (''[[Communicatio idiomatum]]'') of Christ's divine and human natures is understood according to Chalcedonian theology to mean that they exist together with neither overriding the other. That is, both are preserved and coexist in one person. Christ had '''all''' the properties of God and humanity. God did not stop being God and become man. Christ was not half-God and half-human. The two natures did not mix into a new third kind of nature. Although independent, they acted in complete accord; when one nature acted, so did the other. The natures did not commingle, merge, infuse each other, or replace each other. One was not converted into the other. They remained distinct (yet acted with one accord). ;Virgin Birth {{Main|Virgin Birth of Jesus}} [[File:Holy Doors.jpg|thumb|upright|Holy Doors from [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]], Mount Sinai, depicting the [[Annunciation]], {{Circa|12th century}}]] The Gospel according to Matthew and Gospel according to Luke suggest a virgin birth of Jesus Christ. Some now disregard or even argue against this "doctrine" to which most [[Christian denomination|denominations]] of Christianity ascribe. This section looks at the Christological issues surrounding belief or disbelief in the virgin birth. A non-virgin birth would seem to require some form of [[adoptionism]]. This is because a human conception and birth would seem to yield a fully human Jesus, with some other mechanism required to make Jesus divine as well. A non-virgin birth would seem to support the full humanity of Jesus. William Barclay: states, "The supreme problem of the virgin birth is that it does quite undeniably differentiate Jesus from all men; it does leave us with an incomplete incarnation."<ref>Barclay 1967, p. 81</ref> Barth speaks of the virgin birth as the divine sign "which accompanies and indicates the mystery of the incarnation of the Son."<ref>Barth 1956, p. 207</ref> Donald MacLeod<ref>MacLeod 1998, pp. 37–41</ref> gives several Christological implications of a virgin birth: * Highlights salvation as a [[supernatural]] act of God rather than an act of human initiative. * Avoids [[adoptionism]] (which is virtually required if a normal birth). * Reinforces the sinlessness of Christ, especially as it relates to Christ being outside the sin of Adam ([[original sin]]). ;Relationship of Persons The discussion of whether the three distinct persons in the Godhead of the Trinity were of greater, equal, or lesser by comparison was also, like many other areas of early Christology, a subject of debate. In [[Athenagoras of Athens]] ({{circa|133}}–190) writings we find a very developed trinitarian doctrine.<ref name=Kesich2007>{{Cite book| last = Kesich | first = Veselin| year = 2007| title = Formation and struggles : the church, A.D. 33–450| page = 159| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vc0wBCU70NwC&q=Justin+Martyr+christology&pg=RA1-PA154| isbn = 978-0-88141-319-9| publisher = St. Vladimir's Seminary Press| location = Crestwood, N.Y.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/athenagoras-plea.html |title=Athenagoras of Athens: A Plea for the Christians |publisher=Earlychristianwritings.com |date=2 February 2006 |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> On the one end of the spectrum was [[modalism]], a doctrine stating that the three persons of the Trinity were equal to the point of erasing their differences and distinctions. On the other end of the spectrum were [[tritheism]] as well as some radically [[subordinationist]] views, the latter of which emphasized the primacy of the Father of Creation to the deity of Christ and Jesus's authority over the Holy Spirit. During the Council of Nicea, the modalist bishops of Rome and Alexandria aligned politically with Athanasius; whereas the bishops of Constantinople (Nicomedia), Antioch, and Jerusalem sided with the subordinationists as middle ground between Arius and Athanasius. ====Approaches to Christology==== Theologians like [[Jurgen Moltmann]] and Walter Kasper have characterized Christologies as anthropological or cosmological. These are also termed 'Christology from below' and 'Christology from above' respectively. An anthropological Christology starts with the human person of Jesus and works from his life and ministry toward what it means for him to be divine; whereas, a cosmological Christology works in the opposite direction. Starting from the eternal Logos, a cosmological Christology works toward his humanity. Theologians typically begin on one side or the other and their choice inevitably colors their resultant Christology. As a starting point, these options represent "diverse yet complementary" approaches; each poses its own difficulties. Both Christologies 'from above' and 'from below' must come to terms with the two natures of Christ: human and divine. Just as light can be perceived as a wave or as a particle, so Jesus must be thought in terms of both his divinity and humanity. You cannot talk about "either or" but must talk about "both and".<ref name="Greene">{{Cite book |first = Colin J. D. |last = Greene |title = Christology in Cultural Perspective: Marking Out the Horizons |publisher = Paternoster Press |year = 2003 |location = London |pages =30 |isbn = 978-1842270158 }}</ref> ;Cosmological approaches Christologies from above start with the Logos, the second Person of the Trinity, establish his eternality, his agency in creation, and his economic Sonship. Jesus's unity with God is established by the Incarnation as the divine Logos assumes a human nature. This approach was common in the early church—e.g., St. Paul and St. John in the Gospels. The attribution of full humanity to Jesus is resolved by stating that the two natures mutually share their properties (a concept termed ''[[communicatio idiomatum]]'').<ref>[[#CITEREFGreene2003|Greene]], pp. 31–43, 324</ref> ;Anthropological approaches Christologies from below start with the human being Jesus as the representative of the new humanity, not with the pre-existent Logos. Jesus lives an exemplary life, one to which we aspire in religious experience. This form of Christology lends itself to mysticism, and some of its roots go back to emergence of Christ mysticism in the 6th century East, but in the West it flourished between the 11th and 14th centuries. A recent theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg contends that the resurrected Jesus is the "eschatological fulfillment of human destiny to live in nearness to God."<ref>[[#CITEREFGreene2003|Greene]], pp. 43–51</ref> ;Political approaches The Christian faith is inherently political because allegiance to Jesus as risen Lord relativises all earthly rule and authority. Jesus is called "Lord" over 230 times in Paul's epistles alone, and is thus the principal confession of faith in the Pauline epistles. Further, N.T. Wright argues that this Pauline confession is the core of the gospel of salvation. The Achilles' heel of this approach is the loss of eschatological tension between this present age and the future divine rule that is yet to come. This can happen when the state co-opts Christ's authority as was often the case in imperial Christology. Modern political Christologies seek to overcome imperialist ideologies.<ref>[[#CITEREFGreene2003|Greene]], pp. 51–71, 325</ref> ====Works of Christ==== ;Resurrection of Jesus {{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus}} [[File:TheResurrectionOfChrist.jpg|thumb|upright|The Resurrection of Christ by [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]], 1875.]] The resurrection is perhaps the most controversial aspect of the life of Jesus Christ. Christianity hinges on this point of Christology, both as a response to a particular history and as a confessional response.<ref>[[Reginald H. Fuller#The Foundations of New Testament Christology|Fuller 1965, p. 15]]</ref> Some Christians claim that because he was resurrected, the future of the world was forever altered. Most Christians believe that Jesus's resurrection brings reconciliation with God (II Corinthians 5:18), the destruction of death (I Corinthians 15:26), and forgiveness of sins for followers of Jesus Christ. After Jesus had died, and was buried, the [[New Testament]] states that he appeared to others in bodily form. Some skeptics say his appearances were only perceived by his followers in mind or spirit. The gospels state that the disciples believed they witnessed Jesus's resurrected body and that led to the beginning of the faith. They had previously hid in fear of persecution after Jesus's death. After seeing Jesus they boldly proclaimed the message of Jesus Christ despite tremendous risk. They obeyed Jesus's mandate to be reconciled to God through repentance (Luke 24:47), baptism, and obedience (Matthew 28:19–20). ;Offices as Prophet, Priest, and King Jesus Christ, the Mediator of humankind, fulfills the [[Threefold Office|three offices of Prophet, Priest, and King]]. [[Eusebius]] of the early church worked out this threefold classification, which during the Reformation played a substantial role in [[scholastic Lutheran Christology]] and in [[John Calvin]]'s<ref>John Calvin, Calvins Calvinism BOOK II Chapter 15 Centers for Reformed Theology and Apologetics [resource online] (1996–2002, accessed 3 June 2006);available from http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612235524/http://reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm |date=12 June 2010 }}</ref> and [[John Wesley]]'s Christology.<ref>H. Orton Wiley, Christian Theology Chapter 22 [resource online] (Nampa, Idaho: 1993–2005, accessed 3 June 2006); available from http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness_tradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090518055901/http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness%5Ftradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm |date=18 May 2009 }}</ref> ===Pneumatology: Holy Spirit=== {{Main|Pneumatology (Christianity)|Holy Spirit}} Pneumatology is the study of the [[Holy Spirit]]. ''Pneuma'' ([[wikt:πνεῦμα|πνεῦμα]]) is [[Greek language|Greek]] for "[[breath]]", which metaphorically describes a non-material being or influence. In Christian theology pneumatology refers to the study of the [[Holy Spirit]]. In [[Christianity]], the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost) is the Spirit of [[God in Christianity|God]]. Within mainstream (Trinitarian) Christian beliefs he is the third person of the [[Trinity]]. As part of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]], the Holy Spirit is equal with [[God the Father]] and with [[God the Son]]. The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully developed. Within mainstream (Trinitarian) Christianity the Holy Spirit is one of the three ''persons'' of the [[Trinity]] who make up the single [[Ousia|substance]] of God. As such the Holy Spirit is personal, and as part of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]], he is fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with [[God the Father]] and [[Son of God]].<ref name=Erickson103>{{Cite book| author = Millard J. Erickson| year = 1992| title = Introducing Christian Doctrine.| publisher = Baker Book House| page = 103| isbn = 0-8010-3215-6}}</ref><ref name=Hammond>{{Cite book| author = T C Hammond |editor=David F Wright | year = 1968| title = In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine.| edition= sixth| publisher = [[Inter-Varsity Press]]| pages = 54–56, 128–131}}</ref><ref name=cathhs>{{Cite web|title=Catholic Encyclopedia:Holy Spirit|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07409a.htm}}</ref> He is different from the Father and the Son in that he ''proceeds'' from the Father (or [[Filioque|from the Father and the Son]]) as described in the [[Nicene Creed]].<ref name=Hammond/> His [[sacred]]ness is reflected in the [[New Testament#The Gospels|New Testament gospels]]<ref>{{bibleverse||Mark|3:28–30}}, {{bibleverse||Matthew|12:30–32}}, {{bibleverse||Luke|12:8–10}}</ref> which proclaim [[blasphemy]] against the Holy Spirit as [[unforgivable sin|unforgivable]]. The English word comes from two Greek words: πνευμα (''pneuma'', spirit) and λογος (''logos'', teaching about). Pneumatology would normally include study of the person of the Holy Spirit, and the works of the Holy Spirit. This latter category would normally include Christian teachings on [[Regeneration (theology)|new birth]], [[spiritual gift]]s (charismata), [[Baptism with the Holy Spirit|Spirit-baptism]], [[sanctification]], the [[Biblical inspiration|inspiration]] of [[prophet]]s, and the indwelling of the Holy Trinity (which in itself covers many different aspects). Different [[Christian denomination]]s have different theological approaches. Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and gives them the ability to live a [[Christianity#Worship and practices|Christian lifestyle]]. The Holy Spirit dwells inside every Christian, each one's body being his temple.<ref>{{bibleverse|1Cor|3:16||1 Cor 3:16}}</ref> Jesus described the Holy Spirit<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn|14:26}}</ref> as ''[[Paraclete|paracletus]]'' in [[Latin]], derived from [[Greek language|Greek]]. The word is variously translated as ''Comforter, Counselor, Teacher, Advocate,''<ref>Spurgeon, Charles H. "The Comforter", 1855. Online: http://www.spurgeon.org/sermons/0005.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100627022922/http://www.spurgeon.org/sermons/0005.htm |date=27 June 2010 }} Accessed 29 April 2009</ref> guiding people in the way of the truth. The Holy Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the [[Fruit of the Holy Spirit]]. The Holy Spirit enables Christians, who still experience the effects of sin, to do things they never could do on their own. These spiritual gifts are not innate abilities "unlocked" by the Holy Spirit, but entirely new abilities, such as the ability to cast out [[demon]]s or simply bold speech. Through the influence of the Holy Spirit, a person sees more clearly the world around him or her and can use his or her mind and body in ways that exceed his or her previous capacity. A list of gifts that may be bestowed include the [[charism]]atic gifts of [[prophecy]], [[glossolalia|tongues]], healing, and knowledge. Christians holding a view known as [[cessationism]] believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times. Christians almost universally agree that certain "[[spiritual gift]]s" are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy.<ref>{{bibleverse|Rom|12:6–8|}}</ref> The experience of the Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as being [[anointing|anointed]]. After his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], Christ told his disciples that they would be "[[baptism|baptized]] with the Holy Spirit" and would receive power from this event,<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|1:4–8}}</ref> a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Acts. On the first [[Pentecost]], Jesus's disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native [[language]]. The Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. These include: *'''Conviction of [[sin]]'''. The Holy Spirit acts to convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions, and of their moral standing as sinners before God.<ref>''The Holy Spirit and His Gifts''. [[J. Oswald Sanders]]. Inter-Varsity Press. chapter 5.</ref> *'''Bringing to conversion'''. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith.<ref name=Erickson265>{{Cite book| author = Millard J. Erickson| year = 1992| title = Introducing Christian Doctrine.| publisher = Baker Book House| pages = 265–270| isbn = 0-8010-3215-6}}</ref> The new believer is "born again of the Spirit".<ref>Though the term "[[Born again (Christianity)|born again]]" is most frequently used by evangelical Christians, most denominations do consider that the new Christian is a "new creation" and "born again". See for example the Catholic Encyclopedia [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228172517/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm|date=28 February 2009}}</ref> *'''Enabling the Christian life'''. The Holy Spirit is believed to dwell in the individual believers and enable them to live a righteous and faithful life.<ref name=Erickson265/> * As a '''comforter''' or ''[[Paraclete]]'', one who intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of trial. *'''Inspiration and interpretation of scripture.''' The Holy Spirit both ''inspires'' the writing of the scriptures and ''interprets'' them to the Christian and church.<ref>{{Cite book| author = T C Hammond |editor=David F Wright | year = 1968| title = In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine.| edition= sixth| publisher = [[Inter-Varsity Press]]| page = 134}}</ref> The Holy Spirit is also believed to be active especially in the life of [[Jesus Christ]], enabling him to fulfill his work on earth. Particular actions of the Holy Spirit include: *'''Cause of his birth'''. According to the gospel accounts of the birth of Jesus, the "beginning of His incarnate existence", was due to the Holy Spirit.<ref name=Erickson268>{{Cite book| author = Millard J. Erickson| year = 1992| title = Introducing Christian Doctrine.| publisher = Baker Book House| pages = 267–268| isbn = 0-8010-3215-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| author = Karl Barth| year = 1949| title = Dogmatics in Outline| publisher = New York Philosophical Library| page = 95| isbn = 0-334-02838-8| author-link = Karl Barth}}</ref> *'''Anointing him at his baptism'''.<ref name=Erickson265/> *'''Empowerment of his ministry'''. The ministry of Jesus following his baptism (in which the Holy Spirit is described in the gospels as "descending on Him like a dove") is conducted in the power and at the direction of the Holy Spirit.<ref name=Erickson265/> ;Fruit of the Spirit {{Main|Fruit of the Holy Spirit}} Christians believe the "[[Fruit of the holy spirit|Fruit of the Spirit]]" consists of virtuous characteristics engendered in the Christian by the action of the Holy Spirit. They are those listed in {{bibleverse|Galatians|5:22–23|NIV}}: "But the fruit of the Spirit is [[Agape|love]], [[Eudaimonia|joy]], [[peace]], [[patience]], [[kindness]], [[Summum bonum|goodness]], [[Loyalty|faithfulness]], [[gentleness]], and [[self-control]]."<ref>{{Cite book| author = Stephen F. Winward | year = 1981 | title = Fruit of the Spirit | publisher = [[Inter-Varsity Press]]| isbn = 0-85110-430-4}}</ref> The [[Roman Catholic Church]] adds to this list [[generosity]], [[modesty]], and [[chastity]].<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', Section 1832.</ref> ;Gifts of the Spirit {{Main|Spiritual gift}} Christians believe that the Holy Spirit gives 'gifts' to Christians. These gifts consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian.<ref name=Erickson265/> They are frequently known by the Greek word for gift, ''Charisma'', from which the term [[charismatic]] derives. The New Testament provides three different lists of such gifts which range from the supernatural (healing, prophecy, [[glossolalia|tongues]]) through those associated with specific callings (teaching) to those expected of all Christians in some degree (faith). Most consider these lists not to be exhaustive, and other have compiled their own lists. Saint [[Ambrose]] wrote of the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit poured out on a believer at baptism: 1. Spirit of Wisdom; 2. Spirit of Understanding; 3. Spirit of Counsel; 4. Spirit of Strength; 5. Spirit of Knowledge; 6. Spirit of Godliness; 7. Spirit of [[Fear of God (religion)|Holy Fear]].<ref>De Sacramentis 3.8.</ref> It is over the nature and occurrence of these gifts, particularly the supernatural gifts (sometimes called charismatic gifts), that the greatest disagreement between Christians with regard to the Holy Spirit exists. One view is that the supernatural gifts were a special dispensation for the apostolic ages, bestowed because of the unique conditions of the church at that time, and are extremely rarely bestowed in the present time.<ref name=EricksonWorks>{{Cite book| author = Millard J. Erickson | year = 1992 | title = Introducing Christian Doctrine. | publisher = Baker Book House | pages = 265–275| isbn = 0-8010-3215-6}}</ref> This is the view of some in the Catholic Church<ref name=cathhs/> and many other mainstream Christian groups. The alternate view, espoused mainly by Pentecostal denominations and the charismatic movement, is that the absence of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work by the church. Although some small groups, such as the ''[[Montanists]]'', practiced the supernatural gifts they were rare until the growth of the [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] movement in the late 19th century.<ref name=EricksonWorks/> Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a ''Baptism of the Holy Spirit'' or ''Filling of the Holy Spirit'' which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. Many churches hold that the ''Baptism of the Holy Spirit'' is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit.<ref name=EricksonWorks/> ==Cosmology: Things created== {{Main|Christian cosmology}} {{rquote|right| And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day. <small>[[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 1: 3–5</small>}} The various [[authors of the Bible|authors]] of the [[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]] provide glimpses of their insight regarding [[Religious cosmology|cosmology]]. The [[cosmos]] was created by God by divine command, in the best-known and most complete account in the Bible, that of Genesis 1. ===World=== {{See also|Creator deity|Creationism}} Within this broad understanding, however, there are a number of views regarding exactly how this doctrine ought to be interpreted. * Some Christians, particularly [[Young Earth creationism|Young]] and [[Old Earth creationism|Old Earth creationists]], interpret Genesis as an accurate and literal account of creation. * Others may understand these to be, instead, spiritual insights more vaguely defined. It is a tenet of Christian faith (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant) that God is the [[creatio ex nihilo|creator of all things from nothing]], and has made human beings in the [[Image of God]], who by direct inference is also the source of the human [[Soul (spirit)|soul]]. In [[Chalcedonian]] Christology, [[Jesus the Logos|Jesus is the Word of God]], which was in the beginning and, thus, is uncreated, and hence [[God the Son|is God]], and consequently identical with the Creator of the world ''[[ex nihilo]]''. [[Roman Catholicism]] uses the phrase special creation to refer to the doctrine of immediate or special creation of each human soul. In 2004, the International Theological Commission, then under the presidency of Cardinal [[Joseph Ratzinger]], published a paper in which it accepts the current scientific accounts of the history of the universe commencing in the Big Bang about 15 billion years ago and of the evolution of all life on earth including humans from the micro organisms commencing about 4 billion years ago.<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20040723_communion-stewardship_en.html Communion and Stewardship: Human Persons Created in the Image of God] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140621050711/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20040723_communion-stewardship_en.html |date=21 June 2014 }},(23 July 2004), International Theological Commission, La Civiltà Cattolica 2004, IV, 254–286</ref> The [[Roman Catholic Church]] allows for both a [[literal interpretation|literal]] and [[Allegorical interpretation of the Bible|allegorical interpretation]] of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], so as to allow for the possibility of Creation by means of an [[Evolution|evolutionary process]] over great spans of time, otherwise known as [[theistic evolution]].{{Dubious|date=September 2010}} It believes that the creation of the world is a work of God through the ''[[Logos]]'', the Word (idea, intelligence, reason and logic): :"In the beginning was the Word...and the Word was God...all things were made through him, and without him was not anything made that was made." The New Testament claims that God created everything by the eternal Word, Jesus Christ his beloved Son. In him :"all things were created, in heaven and on earth.. . all things were created through him and for him. He is before all things, and in him all things hold together."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/para/291.htm |title=CCC Search Result– Paragraph # 291 |publisher=Scborromeo.org |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> ===Anthropology: Humanity=== {{Main|Christian anthropology}} {{Further|Theology of the body}} Christian anthropology is the study of [[Human nature|humanity]], especially as it relates to the divine. This [[theological anthropology]] refers to the study of the human ("anthropology") as it relates to [[God]]. It differs from the [[social science]] of [[anthropology]], which primarily deals with the comparative study of the physical and social characteristics of humanity across times and places. One aspect studies the innate nature or constitution of the human, known as the ''nature of mankind''. It is concerned with the relationship between notions such as [[Human body|body]], [[Soul (spirit)|soul]] and spirit which together form a person, based on their descriptions in the [[Bible]]. There are three traditional views of the human constitution– [[trichotomism]], [[dichotomism]] and [[monism]] (in the sense of anthropology).<ref>[[Millard Erickson]], ''Christian Theology'' 2nd edn, 537</ref> ====Components==== ;Soul {{See also|soul|nephesh|psyche (psychology)|Spirit (animating force)|Human body|Flesh}} The semantic domain of [[Bible|Biblical]] soul is based on the [[Hebrew]] word ''[[nephesh|nepes]]'', which presumably means "breath" or "breathing being".<ref>''Hebrew–English Lexicon,'' Brown, Driver & Briggs, Hendrickson Publishers.</ref> This word never means an immortal soul<ref>''Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology.''</ref> or an incorporeal part of the human being<ref>''Dictionary of Biblical Theology,'' Father Xavier Leon Dufour, 1985.</ref> that can survive death of the body as the spirit of dead.<ref>''New International Dictionary''.</ref> This word usually designates the person as a whole<ref>New Dictionary of Biblical Theology</ref> or its physical life. In the [[Septuagint]] ''nepes'' is mostly translated as ''psyche'' ({{lang|grc|[[wikt:ψυχή|ψυχή]]}}) and, exceptionally, in the [[Book of Joshua]] as ''empneon'' (ἔμπνεον), that is "breathing being".<ref>"A careful examination of the biblical material, particularly the words nefesh, neshama, and ruaḥ, which are often too broadly translated as "soul" and "spirit," indicates that these must not be understood as referring to the psychical side of a psychophysical pair. A man did not possess a nefesh but rather was a nefesh, as Gen. 2:7 says: "wayehi ha-adam le-nefesh ḥayya" (". . . and the man became a living being"). Man was, for most of the biblical writers, what has been called "a unit of vital power," not a dual creature separable into two distinct parts of unequal importance and value. While this understanding of the nature of man dominated biblical thought, in apocalyptic literature (2nd century BC–2nd century AD) the term nefesh began to be viewed as a separable psychical entity with existence apart from body.... The biblical view of man as an inseparable psychosomatic unit meant that death was understood to be his dissolution."—Britannica, 2004.</ref> The [[New Testament]] follows the terminology of the [[Septuagint]], and thus uses the word ''psyche'' with the Hebrew semantic domain and not the Greek,<ref>''Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament''</ref> that is an invisible power (or ever more, for [[Plato]]nists, immortal and immaterial) that gives life and motion to the body and is responsible for its attributes. In [[Patristic]] thought, towards the end of the 2nd century ''psyche'' was understood in more a Greek than a Hebrew way, and it was contrasted with the body. In the 3rd century, with the influence of [[Origen]], there was the establishing of the doctrine of the inherent immortality of the soul and its divine nature.<ref>The early Hebrews apparently had a concept of the soul but did not separate it from the body, although later Jewish writers developed the idea of the soul further. Old Testament references to the soul are related to the concept of breath and establish no distinction between the ethereal soul and the corporeal body. Christian concepts of a body-soul dichotomy originated with the ancient Greeks andwere introduced into Christian theology at an early date by St. Gregory of Nyssa and by St. Augustine.—''Britannica,'' 2004</ref> Origen also taught the [[Reincarnation|transmigration]] of the souls and their preexistence, but these views were officially rejected in 553 in the [[Fifth Ecumenical Council]]. Inherent immortality of the soul was accepted among western and eastern theologians throughout the [[middle ages]], and after the Reformation, as evidenced by the [[Westminster Confession]]. ;Spirit The spirit (Hebrew ''ruach'', Greek {{lang|grc|[[wikt:πνεῦμα|πνεῦμα]]}}, ''pneuma'', which can also mean "breath") is likewise an immaterial component. It is often used interchangeably with "soul", ''psyche'', although trichotomists believe that the spirit is distinct from the soul. :"When Paul speaks of the ''pneuma'' of man he does not mean some higher principle within him or some special intellectual or spiritual faculty of his, but simply his self, and the only questions is whether the self is regarded in some particular aspect when it is called ''pneuma''. In the first place, it apparently is regarded in the same way as when it is called ''psyche''– viz. as the self that lives in man's attitude, in the orientation of his will."<ref>Bultmann, I:206</ref> ;Body, Flesh The body (Greek {{lang|grc|[[wikt:σῶμα|σῶμα]]}} ''soma'') is the corporeal or physical aspect of a human being. Christians have traditionally believed that the body will be [[Resurrection of the dead|resurrected]] at the end of the age. Flesh (Greek {{lang|grc|[[wikt:σάρξ|σάρξ]]}}, ''sarx'') is usually considered synonymous with "body", referring to the corporeal aspect of a human being. The [[apostle Paul]] contrasts flesh and spirit in [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 7–8. ====Origin of humanity==== {{See also|Creationism|Theistic evolution|Image of God}} The [[Bible]] teaches in the book of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] the humans were created by God. Some Christians believe that this must have involved a miraculous creative act, while others are comfortable with the idea that God worked through the [[evolution]]ary process. The book of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] also teaches that human beings, male and female, were created in the image of God. The exact meaning of this has been debated throughout church history. ====Death and afterlife==== {{See also|Afterlife }} Christian anthropology has implications for beliefs about [[death]] and the [[afterlife]]. The Christian church has traditionally taught that the soul of each individual separates from the body at death, to be reunited at the [[resurrection of the dead|resurrection]]. This is closely related to the doctrine of the [[immortality of the soul]]. For example, the [[Westminster Confession]] (chapter XXXII) states: :"The bodies of men, after death, return to dust, and see corruption: but their souls, which neither die nor sleep, having an immortal subsistence, immediately return to God who gave them" ;Intermediate state {{Main|Intermediate state (Christianity)}} The question then arises: where exactly does the disembodied soul "go" at death? Theologians refer to this subject as the [[Intermediate state (Christianity)|intermediate state]]. The [[Old Testament]] speaks of a place called ''[[sheol]]'' where the spirits of the dead reside. In the [[New Testament]], ''[[hades]]'', the classical Greek realm of the dead, takes the place of ''sheol''. In particular, Jesus teaches in Luke 16:19–31 ([[Lazarus and Dives]]) that ''hades'' consists of two separate "sections", one for the righteous and one for the unrighteous. His teaching is consistent with [[Intertestamental period|intertestamental]] Jewish thought on the subject.<ref>D. K. Innes, "Sheol" in ''New Bible Dictionary'', IVP 1996.</ref> Fully developed Christian theology goes a step further; on the basis of such texts as Luke 23:43 and Philippians 1:23, it has traditionally been taught that the souls of the dead are received immediately either into heaven or hell, where they will experience a foretaste of their eternal destiny prior to the resurrection. ([[Roman Catholicism]] teaches a third possible location, [[Purgatory]], though this is denied by [[Protestants]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]].) :"the souls of the righteous, being then made perfect in holiness, are received into the highest heavens, where they behold the face of God, in light and glory, waiting for the full redemption of their bodies. And the souls of the wicked are cast into hell, where they remain in torments and utter darkness, reserved to the judgment of the great day." (''Westminster Confession'') Some Christian groups which stress a monistic anthropology deny that the soul can exist consciously apart from the body. For example, the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] teaches that the intermediate state is an [[Unconsciousness|unconscious]] sleep; this teaching is informally known as "[[soul sleep]]". ;Final state In Christian belief, both the righteous and the unrighteous will be resurrected at the [[last judgment]]. The righteous will receive incorruptible, immortal bodies (1 Corinthians 15), while the unrighteous will be sent to [[hell]]. Traditionally, Christians have believed that hell will be a place of eternal physical and psychological punishment. In the last two centuries, [[annihilationism]] has become popular. ===Mariology=== {{Main|Mariology}} The study of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]], doctrines about her, and how she relates to the Church, Christ, and the individual Christian is called Mariology. Examples of Mariology include the study of and doctrines regarding her [[perpetual virginity of Mary|Perpetual Virginity]], her [[Theotokos|Motherhood of God]] (and by extension her [[Mother of the Church|Motherhood/Intercession for all Christians]]), her [[Immaculate Conception]], and her [[assumption of Mary|Assumption into heaven]]. [[Catholic Mariology]] is the Marian study specifically in the context of the [[Catholic Church]]. ===Angelology=== {{Main|Heavenly host|Christian angelic hierarchy}} Most descriptions of angels in the Bible describe them in military terms. For example, in terms such as encampment ([http://www.bible.org/netbible/gen32.htm Gen.32:1–2]), command structure ([http://bible.org/netbible/psa91.htm Ps.91:11–12]; [http://bible.org/netbible/mat13.htm Matt.13:41]; [http://bible.org/netbible/index.htm?rev7.htm Rev.7:2]), and combat ([http://bible.org/netbible/index.htm?jdg5.htm Jdg.5:20]; [http://bible.org/netbible/index.htm?job19.htm Job 19:12]; [http://bible.org/netbible/index.htm?rev12.htm Rev.12:7]). Its specific hierarchy differs slightly from the [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Hierarchy of Angels]] as it surrounds more military services, whereas the Hierarchy of angels is a division of angels into non-military services to God. ====Members of the heavenly host==== {{Main|Cherub}} Cherubim are depicted as accompanying God's chariot-throne ([http://bible.org/netbible/psa80.htm Ps.80:1]). {{bibleverse||Exodus|25:18–22}} refers to two Cherub statues placed on top of the [[Ark of the Covenant]], the two cherubim are usually interpreted as guarding the throne of God. Other guard-like duties include being posted in locations such as the gates of Eden ([http://bible.org/netbible/gen3.htm Gen.3:24]). Cherubim were mythological winged bulls or other beasts that were part of ancient Near Eastern traditions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P9sYIRXZZ2MC |encyclopedia=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |first1=David Noel |last1=Freedman |first2=Allen C. |last2=Myers |first3=Astrid B. |last3=Beck |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8028-2400-4 |title=Cherubim}}</ref> {{Main|Archangel}} This angelic designation might be given to angels of various ranks. An example would be [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]] who is ranked variously as a Seraph, Cherub, and Archangel .<ref>{{Cite book|last = Davidson |first = Gustav | orig-year = 1967 | year = 1994 | title = A Dictionary of Fallen Angels, Including the Fallen Angels | publisher = Macmillan, Inc. | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-02-907052-9 }}</ref> This is usually a result of conflicting schemes of hierarchies of angels. {{Main|Angel}} It is not known how many angels there are but one figure given in [http://bible.org/netbible/rev5.htm Revelation 5:11] for the number of "many angels in a circle around the throne, as well as the living creatures and the elders" was "ten thousand times ten thousand", which would be 100 million. ====Demonology: Fallen angels==== [[File:AngelCaido.jpg|upright|thumb|Statue of the Fallen Angel, [[Retiro Park]] (Madrid, Spain).]] {{Main|Christian demonology|Demon|Fallen angel}} In most of [[Christianity]], a fallen angel is an [[angel]] who has been [[exile]]d or banished from [[Heaven]]. Often such banishment is a punishment for disobeying or rebelling against [[God]] (see [[War in Heaven]]). The best-known fallen angel is [[Lucifer]]. Lucifer is a name frequently given to [[Satan]] in [[Christianity|Christian]] belief. This usage stems from a particular interpretation, as a reference to a fallen angel, of a passage in the [[Bible]] ({{Bibleverse||Isaiah|14:3–20|ESV}}) that speaks of someone who is given the name of "Day Star" or "Morning Star" (in [[Latin]], ''Lucifer'') as fallen from heaven. The [[Greek Language|Greek]] etymological synonym of Lucifer, Φωσφόρος (''Phosphoros'', "light-bearer").<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://scripturetext.com/2_peter/1-19.htm |title=ScriptureText.com |publisher=ScriptureText.com |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=phosphorous |title=Etymonline.com |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> is used of the morning star in {{Bibleverse|2|Peter|1:19|ESV}} and elsewhere with no reference to Satan. But Satan is called Lucifer in many writings later than the Bible, notably in Milton's ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' (7.131–134, among others), because, according to Milton, Satan was "brighter once amidst the host of Angels, than that star the stars among." Allegedly, fallen angels are those which have committed one of the seven deadly sins. Therefore, are banished from heaven and suffer in hell for all eternity. Demons from hell would punish the fallen angel by ripping out their wings as a sign of insignificance and low rank. <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.online-literature.com/view.php/paradiselost/7?term=lucifer |title=Online-Literature.com |publisher=Online-Literature.com |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> ===Heaven=== [[File:Paradiso Canto 31.jpg|thumb|[[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] and [[Beatrice Portinari|Beatrice]] gaze upon the highest heavens; from [[Gustave Doré]]'s illustrations to the ''[[Divine Comedy]]''.]] {{main|Heaven (Christianity)}} [[Christianity]] has taught Heaven as a place of [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]], in that it is a shared plane to be attained by all the elect (rather than an abstract experience related to individual concepts of the ideal). The Christian Church has been divided over how people gain this eternal life. From the 16th to the late 19th century, [[Christendom]] was divided between the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] view, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] view, the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic]] view, the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Jacobite]] view, the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Abyssinian]] view and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] views. See also [[Christian denominations]]. Heaven is the English name for a [[transcendence (religion)|transcendental]] realm wherein human beings who have transcended human living live in an [[afterlife]]. in the Bible and in English, the term "heaven" may refer to the physical heavens, the [[atmosphere|sky]] or the seemingly endless expanse of the [[universe]] beyond, the traditional literal meaning of the term in English. Christianity maintains that entry into Heaven awaits such time as, "When the form of this world has passed away." (*[https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_21071999_en.html JPII]) One view expressed in the Bible is that on the day Christ returns the righteous dead are resurrected first, and then those who are alive and judged righteous will be brought up to join them, to be taken to heaven. (I Thess 4:13–18) Two related and often confused concepts of heaven in Christianity are better described as the [[Resurrection of the dead|"resurrection of the body"]], which is exclusively of biblical origin, as contrasted with the "[[immortality of the soul]]", which is also evident in the Greek tradition. In the first concept, the soul does not enter heaven until the [[last judgement]] or the "end of time" when it (along with the body) is resurrected and judged. In the second concept, the [[Soul#Christianity|soul]] goes to a heaven on another plane such as the [[Intermediate state (Christianity)|intermediate state]] immediately after death. These two concepts are generally combined in the doctrine of the double judgement where the soul is judged once at death and goes to a temporary heaven, while awaiting a second and final physical judgement at the [[Eschatology|end of the world]].(*[https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_21071999_en.html" JPII], also see [[eschatology]], [[afterlife]]) One popular medieval view of Heaven was that it existed as a physical place above the clouds and that God and the Angels were physically above, watching over man. Heaven as a physical place survived in the concept that it was located far out into space, and that the stars were "lights shining through from heaven". Many of today's biblical scholars, such as [[N. T. Wright]], in tracing the concept of Heaven back to its Jewish roots, see Earth and Heaven as overlapping or interlocking. Heaven is known as God's space, his dimension, and is not a place that can be reached by human technology. This belief states that Heaven is where God lives and reigns whilst being active and working alongside people on Earth. One day when God restores all things, Heaven and Earth will be forever combined into the [[New Heavens and New Earth]] of the [[World to Come]]. {{See also|Salvation|Soteriology}} Religions that teach about heaven differ on how (and if) one gets into it, typically in the [[afterlife]]. In most, entrance to Heaven is conditional on having lived a "good life" (within the terms of the spiritual system). A notable exception to this is the '[[sola fide]]' belief of many mainstream Protestants, which teaches that one does not have to live a perfectly "good life," but that one must accept [[Jesus Christ]] as one's saviour, and then Jesus Christ will assume the guilt of one's [[sin]]s; believers are believed to be forgiven regardless of any good or bad "works" one has participated in.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.allaboutjesuschrist.org/|title=What do you think?|access-date=2008-10-05|publisher=AllAboutJesusChrist.org}}</ref> Many religions state that those who do not go to heaven will go to a place "without the presence of God", [[Hell]], which is eternal (see [[annihilationism]]). Some religions believe that other afterlives exist in addition to Heaven and Hell, such as [[Purgatory]]. One belief, [[universalism]], believes that everyone will go to Heaven eventually, no matter what they have done or believed on earth. Some forms of Christianity believe Hell to be the termination of the soul. Various [[saint]]s have had [[Vision (spirituality)|visions]] of heaven ({{bibleverse|2|Corinthians|12:2–4|KJV}}). The Eastern Orthodox concept of life in heaven is described in one of the [[prayer for the dead|prayers for the dead]]: "...a place of light, a place of green pasture, a place of repose, whence all sickness, sorrow and sighing are fled away."<ref>''Book for Commemoration of the Living and the Dead'', trans. Father Lawrence (Holy Trinity Monastery, Jordanville NY), p. 77.</ref> The Church bases its belief in Heaven on some main biblical passages in the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures (Old and New Testaments) and collected church wisdom. Heaven is the Realm of the Blessed [[Trinity]], the [[angels]]<ref>Treated extensively in [[C. S. Lewis]], ''The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'' (1964).</ref> and the [[saints]].<ref>See discussion at http://forums.catholic.com/showthread.php?p=3322510 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509060655/http://forums.catholic.com/showthread.php?p=3322510 |date=9 May 2011 }}, where a.o. Hebrews 12:22–24 is quoted.</ref> The essential joy of heaven is called the [[beatific vision]], which is derived from the vision of God's essence. The soul rests perfectly in God, and does not, or cannot desire anything else than God. After the [[Last Judgment]], when the soul is reunited with its body, the body participates in the happiness of the soul. It becomes incorruptible, glorious and perfect. Any physical defects the body may have laboured under are erased. Heaven is also known as [[paradise]] in some cases. [[The Great Gulf]] separates heaven from [[hell]]. Upon dying, each soul goes to what is called "the [[particular judgement]]" where its own afterlife is decided (i.e. Heaven after Purgatory, straight to Heaven, or [[Hell]].) This is different from "the general judgement" also known as "the [[Last judgement]]" which will occur when [[Second Coming|Christ returns]] to judge all the living and the dead. The term Heaven (which differs from "The [[Kingdom of God|Kingdom of Heaven]]" see note below) is applied by the biblical authors to the realm in which God currently resides. Eternal life, by contrast, occurs in a renewed, unspoilt and perfect creation, which can be termed Heaven since God will choose to dwell there permanently with his people, as seen in {{bibleverse||Revelation|21:3}}. There will no longer be any separation between God and man. The believers themselves will exist in incorruptible, resurrected and new bodies; there will be no sickness, no death and no tears. Some teach that death itself is not a natural part of life, but was allowed to happen after [[Adam and Eve]] disobeyed [[God]] (see [[original sin]]) so that mankind would not live forever in a state of [[sin]] and thus a state of separation from God. Many evangelicals understand this future life to be divided into two distinct periods: first, the [[Millennialism|Millennial Reign of Christ]] (the one thousand years) on this earth, referred to in {{bibleverse||Revelation|20:1–10}}; secondly, the [[New Heavens and New Earth]], referred to in Revelation 21 and 22. This millennialism (or chiliasm) is a revival of a strong tradition in the [[Early Church]]<ref>For instance, with Justin Martyr. See: Philippe Bobichon, "Millénarisme et orthodoxie dans les écrits de Justin Martyr" in ''Mélanges sur la question millénariste de l'Antiquité à nos jours'', Martin Dumont (dir.) [Bibliothèque d'étude des mondes chrétiens, 11], Paris, 2018, pp. 61-82</ref> that was dismissed by Saint Augustine of Hippo and the Roman Catholic Church after him. Not only will the believers spend eternity with God, they will also spend it with each other. John's vision recorded in Revelation describes a [[New Jerusalem]] which comes from Heaven to the New Earth, which is seen to be a symbolic reference to the people of God living in community with one another. 'Heaven' will be the place where life will be lived to the full, in the way that the designer planned, each believer 'loving the Lord their God with all their heart and with all their soul and with all their mind' and 'loving their neighbour as themselves' (adapted from Matthew 22:37–38, the [[Great Commandment]])—a place of great joy, without the negative aspects of earthly life. See also [[World to Come]]. ;Purgatory [[Purgatory]] is the condition or temporary punishment<ref name="EB-purgatory"/> in which, it is believed, the [[souls]] of those who die in a state of grace are made ready for [[Heaven (Christianity)|Heaven]]. This is a theological idea that has ancient roots and is well-attested in [[early Christian]] literature, while the poetic conception of purgatory as a geographically situated place is largely the creation of medieval Christian piety and imagination.<ref name="EB-purgatory"/> The notion of purgatory is associated particularly with the [[Latin Church]] of the [[Catholic Church]] (in the [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] it is a doctrine, though often without using the name "Purgatory"); [[Anglican]]s of the [[Anglo-Catholic]] tradition generally also hold to the belief.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} [[John Wesley]], the founder of [[Methodism]], believed in an [[Intermediate state (Christianity)|intermediate state]] between death and the [[Last judgment|final judgment]] and in the possibility of "continuing to grow in holiness there."<ref name="Methodism">{{cite web|title=What happens after a person dies?|url=http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=lwL4KnN1LtH&b=4746355&content_id={94F6F768-0EA6-4C1B-B6B6-0C88EC04E8A2}¬oc=1|quote=Purgatory is believed to be a place where the souls of the faithful dead endure a period of purification and cleansing, aided by the prayers of the living, prior to their entrance into heaven. Although John Wesley believed in an intermediate state between death and the final judgment, that idea is not formally affirmed in Methodist doctrine, which "reject the idea of purgatory but beyond that maintain silence on what lies between death and the last judgment." (Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials by Ted A. Campbell)|publisher=[[The United Methodist Church]]|access-date=10 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="Wesley">{{cite web|author=Robin Russell|title=Heavenly minded: It's time to get our eschatology right, say scholars, authors|url=http://www.umportal.org/article.asp?id=5101|quote=John Wesley believed in the intermediate state between death and the final judgment "where believers would share in the 'bosom of Abraham' or 'paradise,' even continuing to grow in holiness there," writes Ted Campbell, a professor at Perkins School of Theology, in his 1999 book Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials (Abingdon). That view has not been officially affirmed by the Church.|publisher=UM Portal|access-date=10 March 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722154244/http://www.umportal.org/article.asp?id=5101|archive-date=22 July 2011}}</ref> The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es believe in the possibility of a change of situation for the souls of the dead through the prayers of the living and the offering of the [[Divine Liturgy]],<ref name="Orthodox Confession of Faith">''[http://esoptron.umd.edu/ugc/ocf1c.html Orthodox Confession of Faith] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990421091223/http://esoptron.umd.edu/ugc/ocf1c.html |date=21 April 1999 }}'', questions 64–66.</ref> and many Eastern Orthodox, especially among ascetics, hope and pray for a general [[apocatastasis]].<ref>Olivier Clément, L'Église orthodoxe. Presses Universitaires de France, 2006, Section 3, IV</ref> A similar belief in at least the possibility of a final salvation for all is held by [[Mormonism]].<ref>See, for instance, [http://www.mormon.org/mormonorg/eng/basic-beliefs/heavenly-father-s-plan-of-salvation/life-after-death LDS Life After Death] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714104559/http://www.mormon.org/mormonorg/eng/basic-beliefs/heavenly-father-s-plan-of-salvation/life-after-death |date=14 July 2009 }}</ref> [[Judaism]] also believes in the possibility of after-death purification<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6558-gehenna|title=GEHENNA - JewishEncyclopedia.com|website=jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref> and may even use the word "purgatory" to present its understanding of the meaning of [[Gehenna]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chabad.org/search/keyword_cdo/kid/10797/jewish/Gehinnom.htm|title=Browse by Subject|website=www.chabad.org}}</ref> However, the concept of soul "purification" may be explicitly denied in these other faith traditions. ===Hell=== [[File:Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_Hell.jpg|thumb|upright|Hell as depicted in [[Hieronymus Bosch]]'s [[triptych]] ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'' (c. 1504).]] {{Main|Hell in Christian beliefs}} Hell in [[Christianity|Christian]] beliefs, is a place or a state in which the [[Soul (spirit)|soul]]s of the unsaved will suffer the consequences of [[sin]]. The Christian doctrine of Hell derives from the teaching of the [[New Testament]], where Hell is typically described using the Greek words ''[[Gehenna]]'' or ''[[Tartarus]]''. Unlike [[Hades in Christianity|Hades]], [[Sheol]], or [[Purgatory]] it is eternal, and those damned to Hell are without hope. In the [[New Testament]], it is described as the place or state of [[punishment]] after death or [[last judgment]] for those who have rejected Jesus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ibs.org/bible/verse/?q=John3:18&niv=yes |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120804200948/http://www.ibs.org/bible/verse/?q=John3:18&niv=yes |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-08-04 |title=Biblical Reference: John 3:18 |publisher=Ibs.org |access-date=2010-08-08 }}</ref> In many classical and popular depictions it is also the abode of [[Satan]] and of Demons.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hell |title=hell– Definitions from Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> Hell is generally defined as the eternal fate of unrepentant sinners after this life.<ref name="Hell"/> Hell's character is inferred from biblical teaching, which has often been understood literally.<ref name="Hell">"Hell." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Souls are said to pass into Hell by God's irrevocable judgment, either immediately after death ([[particular judgment]]) or in the [[general judgment]].<ref name="Hell"/> Modern theologians generally describe Hell as the logical consequence of the soul using its free will to reject the will of God.<ref name="Hell"/> It is considered compatible with God's justice and mercy because God will not interfere with the soul's free choice.<ref name="Hell"/> Only in the King James Version of the bible is the word "Hell" used to translate certain words, such as ''[[sheol]]'' (Hebrew) and both ''[[hades]]'' and ''[[Gehenna]]''(Greek). All other translations reserve Hell only for use when [[Gehenna]] is mentioned. It is generally agreed that both [[sheol]] and [[hades]] do not typically refer to the place of eternal punishment, but to the [[underworld]] or temporary abode of the dead.<ref>''New Bible Dictionary'' third edition, IVP 1996. Articles on "Hell", "Sheol".</ref> Traditionally, the majority of Protestants have held that Hell will be a place of unending conscious torment, both physical and spiritual,<ref name="Acute">{{Cite book|title=The Nature of Hell|author=Evangelical Alliance Commission on Unity and Truth among Evangelicals|publisher=Acute, Paternoster (London)|year=2000|isbn=0-9532992-2-8}}</ref> although some recent writers (such as [[C. S. Lewis]]<ref>C. S. Lewis, ''The Great Divorce'', 1946</ref> and [[J.P. Moreland]]<ref>Lee Strobel, ''The Case for Faith'', 2000</ref>) have cast Hell in terms of "eternal separation" from God. Certain biblical texts have led some theologians to the conclusion that punishment in Hell, though eternal and irrevocable, will be proportional to the deeds of each soul (e.g. {{Bibleverse||Matthew|10:15|NIV}}, {{Bibleverse||Luke|12:46–48|NIV}}).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Introducing Christian Doctrine, 2nd ed|author=Millard Erickson|publisher=Baker Academic|year=2001|author-link=Millard Erickson}}</ref> Another area of debate is the fate of the unevangelized (i.e. those who have never had an opportunity to hear the Christian gospel), those who die in infancy, and mentally disabled people. Some Protestants agree with [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] that people in these categories will be damned to Hell for [[original sin]], while others believe that God will make an exception in these cases.<ref name="Acute"/> A "significant minority" believe in the doctrine of [[Christian conditionalism|conditional immortality]],<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.eauk.org/theology/acute/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&pageid=9164|title=The Nature of Hell. Conclusions and Recommendations|publisher=[[Evangelical Alliance]]|year=2000|access-date=11 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222053151/http://www.eauk.org/theology/acute/loader.cfm?csModule=security%2Fgetfile&pageid=9164|archive-date=22 February 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> which teaches that those sent to Hell will not experience eternal conscious punishment, but instead will be extinguished or [[annihilationism|annihilated]] after a period of "limited conscious punishment".<ref name="NDBThell">''New Dictionary of Biblical Theology''; IVP Leicester 2000, "Hell"</ref> Prominent evangelical theologians who have adopted conditionalist beliefs include [[John Wenham]], [[Edward Fudge]], [[Clark Pinnock]] and [[John Stott]] (although the latter has described himself as an "agnostic" on the issue of annihilationism).<ref name="Acute"/> Conditionalists typically reject the traditional concept of the immortality of the soul. Some Protestants (such as [[George MacDonald]], [[Karl Barth|Karl Randall]], [[Keith DeRose]] and [[Thomas Talbott]]), also, however, in a minority, believe that after serving their sentence in [[Gehenna]], all souls are reconciled to [[God]] and admitted to heaven, or ways are found at the time of death of drawing all souls to repentance so that no "hellish" suffering is experienced. This view is often called [[Christian universalism]]—its conservative branch is more specifically called 'Biblical or [[Trinitarian Universalism]]'—and is not to be confused with [[Unitarian Universalism]]. See [[universal reconciliation]], ''[[apocatastasis]]'' and [[the problem of Hell]]. ===Theodicy: Allowance of evil=== {{Further|Theodicy and the Bible}} [[Theodicy]] can be said to be defense of God's goodness and omnipotence in view of the existence of evil. Specifically, Theodicy is a specific branch of [[theology]] and [[philosophy]] which attempts to reconcile belief in [[God]] with the perceived existence of [[evil]].<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica: Theodicy</ref> As such, theodicy can be said to attempt to justify the behaviour of [[God]] (at least insofar as God allows evil). Responses to the problem of evil have sometimes been classified as ''defenses'' or ''theodicies''. However, authors disagree on the exact definitions.<ref name="Stanford">The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil The Problem of Evil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906123231/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/evil/ |date=6 September 2018 }}", [[Michael Tooley]]</ref><ref name="IepEvidential">The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "[http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm The Evidential Problem of Evil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410032149/http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/evil-evi.htm |date=10 April 2009 }}", Nick Trakakis</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopaedia |first=Ted |last=Honderich |author-link=Ted Honderich |year=2005 |title=theodicy |encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |isbn=0-19-926479-1 |quote=[[John Hick]], for example, proposes a theodicy, while [[Alvin Plantinga]] formulates a defense. The idea of human free will often appears in both of these strategies, but in different ways.}}</ref> Generally, a ''defense'' attempts to show that there is no logical incompatibility between the existence of evil and the existence of God. A defense need not argue that this is a probable or plausible explanation, only that the defense is logically possible. A defense attempts to answer the ''logical'' problem of evil. A theodicy, on the other hand, is a more ambitious attempt to provide a plausible justification for the existence of evil. A theodicy attempts to answer the ''evidential'' problem of evil.<ref name="IepEvidential" /> [[Richard Swinburne]] maintains that it does not make sense to assume there are greater goods, unless we know what they are, i.e., we have a successful theodicy.<ref name=swinburne05>{{cite encyclopaedia |first=Richard |last=Swinburne |author-link=Richard Swinburne |year=2005 |title=evil, the problem of |editor=[[Ted Honderich]] |encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |isbn=0-19-926479-1}}</ref> As an example, some authors see arguments including [[demon]]s or the [[fall of man]] as not logically impossible but not very plausible considering our knowledge about the world. Thus they are seen as defenses but not good theodicies.<ref name="IepEvidential"/> [[C. S. Lewis]] writes in his book [[The Problem of Pain]]: {{Blockquote|We can, perhaps, conceive of a world in which God corrected the results of this abuse of free will by His creatures at every moment: so that a wooden beam became soft as grass when it was used as a weapon, and the air refused to obey me if I attempted to set up in it the sound waves that carry lies or insults. But such a world would be one in which wrong actions were impossible, and in which, therefore, freedom of the will would be void; nay, if the principle were carried out to its logical conclusion, evil thoughts would be impossible, for the cerebral matter which we use in thinking would refuse its task when we attempted to frame them.<ref>Lewis, C. S., ''The Problem of Pain'' HarperCollins:New York, 1996 pp. 24–25</ref>}} Another possible answer is that the world is corrupted due to the sin of mankind. Some answer that because of sin, the world has fallen from the grace of God, and is not perfect. Therefore, evils and imperfections persist because the world is fallen.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} [[William A. Dembski]] argues that the effects of Adam's sin recorded in the Book of Genesis were 'back-dated' by God, and hence applied to the earlier history of the universe.<ref>William A. Dembski, The End of Christianity: Finding a Good God in an Evil World. (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2009</ref> Evil is sometimes seen as a test or trial for humans. [[Irenaeus|Irenaeus of Lyons]] and more recently [[John Hick]] have argued that evil and suffering are necessary for spiritual growth. This is often combined with the free will argument by arguing that such spiritual growth requires free will decisions. A problem with this is that many evils do not seem to cause any kind of spiritual growth, or even permit it, as when a child is abused from birth and becomes, seemingly inevitably, a brutal adult. The problem of evil is often phrased in the form: ''Why do bad things happen to good people?''. [[Christianity]] teach that all people are inherently sinful due to the [[fall of man]] and [[original sin]]; for example, [[Calvinist]] theology follows a doctrine called [[federal headship]], which argues that the first man, [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], was the legal representative of the entire human race. A counterargument to the basic version of this principle is that an omniscient God would have predicted this, when he created the world, and an omnipotent God could have prevented it. The [[Book of Isaiah]] clearly claims that God is the source of at least some natural disasters, but Isaiah doesn't attempt to explain the motivation behind the creation of evil.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah+45%3A7&version=KJV|title=Bible Gateway passage: Isaiah 45:7 – King James Version|website=Bible Gateway}}</ref> In contrast, the [[Book of Job]] is one of the most widely known formulations of the problem of evil in Western thought. In it, Satan challenges God regarding his servant Job, claiming that Job only serves God for the blessings and protection that he receives from him. God allows Satan to plague Job and his family in a number of ways, with the limitation that Satan may not take Job's life (but his children are killed). Job discusses this with three friends and questions God regarding his suffering which he finds to be unjust. God responds in a speech and then more than restores Job's prior health, wealth, and gives him new children. [[Bart D. Ehrman]] argues that different parts of the Bible give different answers. One example is evil as punishment for sin or as a consequence of sin. Ehrman writes that this seems to be based on some notion of free will although this argument is never explicitly mentioned in the Bible. Another argument is that suffering ultimately achieves a greater good, possibly for persons other than the sufferer, that would not have been possible otherwise. The Book of Job offers two different answers: suffering is a test, and you will be rewarded later for passing it; another that God in his might chooses not to reveal his reasons. [[Ecclesiastes]] sees suffering as beyond human abilities to comprehend. [[Apocalyptic literature|Apocalyptic]] parts, including the [[New Testament]], see suffering as due to cosmic evil forces, that God for mysterious reasons has given power over the world, but which will soon be defeated and things will be set right.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D., ''God's Problem: How the Bible Fails to Answer Our Most Important Question – Why We Suffer''. HarperOne, 2008</ref> ==Hamartiology: Sin== {{Main|Hamartiology|Christian views on sin|Christian anthropology}} The Greek word in the [[New Testament]] that is translated in English as "sin" is ''[[hamartia]]'', which literally means ''missing the target''. [[1 John]] 3:4 states: "Everyone who sins breaks the law; in fact, sin is [[antinomianism|lawlessness]]". Jesus [[Expounding of the Law|clarified the law]] by defining its foundation: "Jesus replied: 'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.' This is the first and [[Great Commandment|greatest commandment]]. And the second is like it: 'Love your neighbor as yourself.' All the [[Torah|Law]] and the [[Neviim|Prophets]] hang on these two commandments." ({{bibleverse||Matthew|22:36–40|NIV}}) Hamartiology ({{lang-el|ἁμαρτία}}, ''[[hamartia]]'', "missing the mark," "sin," + -λογια, ''[[Logos|-logia]]'', "sayings" or "discourse") is the branch of [[Christianity|Christian]] theology, more specifically, [[systematic theology]], which is the study of [[sin]] with a view to articulating a doctrine of it. Substantial branches of hamartiological understanding subscribe to the doctrine of [[original sin]], which was taught by the Apostle Paul in Romans 5:12–19 and popularized by [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]]. He taught that all the descendants of [[Adam and Eve]] are guilty of Adam's sin without their own personal choice.<ref>[[Herman Bavinck|Bavinck, Herman]]. ''Reformed Dogmatics'' Vol. 3. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2004) pp. 75–125 detail the historical development of Hamartiology, including Pelagius's position and the mediating positions)</ref> In contrast, [[Pelagius (British monk)|Pelagius]] argued that humans enter life as essentially ''[[tabula rasa|tabulae rasae]]''. [[Fall of man|The fall]] that occurred when Adam and Eve disobeyed [[God]] was held by his group to have affected humankind only minimally. But few theologians continue to hold this hamartiological viewpoint. A third branch of thinking takes an intermediate position, arguing that after the fall of Adam and Eve, humans are born impacted by sin such that they have very decided tendencies toward sinning (which by personal choice all accountable humans but [[Jesus]] soon choose to indulge). The degree to which a Christian believes humanity is impacted by either a literal or metaphorical "fall" determines their understanding of related theological concepts like [[salvation]], [[Justification (theology)|justification]], and [[sanctification]]. Christian views on sin are mostly understood as legal infraction or contract violation, and so salvation tends to be viewed in legal terms, similar to Jewish thinking. ===Sin=== {{Main|Sin}} [[File:Forbidden fruit.jpg|thumb|A [[Sistine Chapel]] fresco depicts the expulsion of [[Adam and Eve]] from the garden of Eden for their sin of eating from the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil.]] In [[religion]], sin is the concept of acts that violate a [[norm (philosophy)|rule of God]]. The term sin may also refer to the [[state (polity)|state]] of having committed such a violation. Commonly, the moral [[code of conduct]] is decreed by a divine entity, i.e. [[Divine law]]. Sin is often used to mean an action that is prohibited or considered wrong; in some religions (notably some sects of [[Christianity]]), sin can refer not only to physical actions taken, but also to thoughts and internalized motivations and feelings. Colloquially, any thought, word, or act considered immoral, [[shame]]ful, harmful, or alienating might be termed "sinful". An elementary concept of "sin" regards such acts and elements of Earthly living that one cannot take with them into [[Heaven|transcendental living]]. Food, for example is not of transcendental living and therefore its excessive savoring is considered a sin. A more developed concept of "sin" deals with a distinction between sins of [[death]] ([[mortal sin]]) and the sins of human living ([[venial sin]]). In that context, mortal sins are said to have the dire consequence of [[divine punishment|mortal penalty]], while sins of living ([[food]], casual or informal [[Human sexual activity|sexuality]], [[play (activity)|play]], [[inebriation]]) may be regarded as essential spice for transcendental living, even though these may be destructive in the context of human living (obesity, [[infidelity]]). Common ideas surrounding sin in various religions include: * [[Punishment]] for sins, from other people, from [[God]] either in life or in [[afterlife]], or from the Universe in general. * The question of whether an act must be intentional to be sinful. * The idea that one's [[conscience]] should produce [[guilt (emotion)|guilt]] for a conscious act of sin. * A scheme for determining the seriousness of the sin. * [[Repentance]] from (expressing regret for and determining not to commit) sin, and [[Restitution (theology)|atonement]] (repayment) for past deeds. * The possibility of [[forgiveness]] of sins, often through communication with a deity or intermediary; in [[Christianity]] often referred to as [[salvation]]. [[Crime]] and [[justice]] are related [[secularism|secular]] concepts. In [[Western Christianity]], "sin is [[Antinomianism|lawlessness]]" (1 John 3:4) and so salvation tends to be understood in legal terms, similar to Jewish law. Sin alienates the sinner from God. It has damaged, and completely severed, the relationship of humanity to God. That relationship can only be restored through acceptance of [[Christ|Jesus Christ]] and his death on the cross as a sacrifice for mankind's sin (see [[Salvation]] and [[Substitutionary atonement]]). In [[Eastern Christianity]], sin is viewed in terms of its effects on relationships, both among people and between people and God. Sin is seen as the refusal to follow God's plan, and the desire to be like God and thus in direct opposition to him (see the account of [[Adam and Eve]] in the [[Book of Genesis]]). To sin is to want control of one's destiny in opposition to the will of God, to do some rigid beliefs. In the [[Russian Orthodox|Russian]] variant of [[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]], sin sometimes is regarded as any mistake made by people in their life. From this point of view every person is sinful because every person makes mistakes during his life. When person accuses others in sins he always must remember that he is also sinner and so he must have mercy for others remembering that God is also merciful to him and to all humanity. ===Fall of man=== {{Main|Fall of man}} The fall of man or simply the fall refers in [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrine to the transition of the first humans from a state of innocent obedience to [[God]], to a state of guilty disobedience to God. In the [[Book of Genesis]] chapter 2, [[Adam and Eve]] live at first with God in a [[paradise]], but are then deceived or tempted by the [[Serpent (Bible)|serpent]] to eat [[Forbidden fruit|fruit]] from the [[Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil]], which had been forbidden to them by God. After doing so they become ashamed of their nakedness, and God consequently expelled them from [[paradise]]. The fall is not mentioned by name in the [[Bible]], but the story of disobedience and expulsion is recounted in both Testaments in different ways. The Fall can refer to the wider theological inferences for all humankind as a consequence of Eve and Adam's [[original sin]]. Examples include the teachings of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] in {{Bibleverse|Romans|5:12–19}} and {{Bibleverse|1Cor|15:21–22||1 Cor. 15:21–22}}. Some [[Christian denominations]] believe the fall corrupted the entire natural world, including human nature, causing people to be born into [[original sin]], a state from which they cannot attain [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]] without the [[Grace (Christianity)|gracious intervention of God]]. [[Protestants]] hold that [[Jesus]]' death was a [[Atonement (ransom view)|"ransom"]] by which humanity was offered freedom from the sin acquired at the fall. In other religions, such as [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], and [[Gnosticism]], the term "the fall" is not recognized and varying interpretations of the Eden narrative are presented. [[Christianity]] interprets the fall in a number of ways. Traditional Christian theology accepts the teaching of [[Paul of Tarsus|St Paul]] in his letter to the [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]]<ref>Paul's Epistle to the Romans, chapter 3 verse 23</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Theology is a synthesis on the bible, and so needs theological sources|date=March 2010}} "For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God" and of [[John the Evangelist|St John]]'s [[Gospel]] that "God so loved the world that he sent his only son (Jesus Christ) that whoever believes in him should not perish, but have everlasting life".<ref>{{bibleverse|John|3:16|}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Theology is a synthesis on the bible, and so needs theological sources|date=March 2010}} The doctrine of [[original sin]], as articulated by [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine of Hippo's]] interpretation of [[Paul of Tarsus]], provides that the fall caused a fundamental change in human nature, so that all descendants of Adam are born in [[sin]], and can only be redeemed by [[Grace (Christianity)|divine grace]]. Sacrifice was the only means by which humanity could be redeemed after the fall. Jesus, who was without sin, died on the [[crucifixion|cross]] as the ultimate redemption for the sin of humankind. ===Original sin=== {{Main|Original sin}} Thus, the moment Adam and Eve ate the fruit from the tree—which God had commanded them not to do—sinful death was born; ''it was an act of disobedience, thinking they could become like gods, that was the sin''. Since Adam was the head of the human race, he is held responsible for the evil that took place, for which reason the [[fall of man]] is referred to as the "[[sin of Adam]]". This sin caused Adam and his descendants to lose unrestricted access to God Himself. The years of life were limited. "Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned" ({{bibleverse||Romans|5:12|KJV}}). In Christian theology, the [[death of Jesus]] on the [[Christian cross|cross]] is the [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]] to the sin of Adam. "For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive." ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15:22|KJV}}). As a result of that act of Christ, all who put their trust in [[Solus Christus|Christ alone]] now have unrestricted access to God through prayer and in presence. Original sin, which Eastern Christians usually refer to as [[ancestral sin]],<ref>The term "[[ancestral sin]]" is also used, as in [[Greek language|Greek]] προπατορικὴ ἁμαρτία (e.g. [http://www.parembasis.gr/2003/03_10_16.htm Πόλεμος και φτώχεια– η ορθόδοξη άποψη], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721082731/http://www.parembasis.gr/2003/03_10_16.htm |date=21 July 2011 }} [http://www.monipetraki.gr/sarakosti.html Η νηστεία της Σαρακοστής] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617130930/http://www.monipetraki.gr/sarakosti.html |date=17 June 2016 }}, [http://www.oodegr.com/oode/protestant/luther_antimonaxismos1.htm Πώς στράφηκε ο Λούθηρος κατά του Μοναχισμού– του Γεωργίου Φλωρόφσκυ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215084126/http://www.oodegr.com/oode/protestant/luther_antimonaxismos1.htm |date=15 February 2017 }}) or προπατορικὸ ἁμάρτημα (e.g. [http://www.apostoliki-diakonia.gr/GR_MAIN/catehism/theologia_zoi/themata.asp?contents=selides_katixisis/contents_TaIeraMistiria.asp&main=kat010&file=4.4.1.htm Απαντήσεις σε ερωτήματα δογματικά– Ανδρέα Θεοδώρου, εκδ. Αποστολικής Διακονίας, 1997, σελ. 156–161] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921182150/http://www.apostoliki-diakonia.gr/GR_MAIN/catehism/theologia_zoi/themata.asp?contents=selides_katixisis%2Fcontents_TaIeraMistiria.asp&main=kat010&file=4.4.1.htm |date=21 September 2020 }}, [http://www.pelagia.org/htm/b26.e.i_despotikes_eortes.01.htm Θεοτόκος και προπατορικό αμάρτημα] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100427075227/http://www.pelagia.org/htm/b26.e.i_despotikes_eortes.01.htm |date=27 April 2010 }})</ref> is, according to a doctrine proposed in Christian theology, humanity's state of [[sin]] resulting from the [[fall of man]].<ref name="ODCC-OS">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |title=Original Sin}}</ref> This condition has been characterized in many ways, ranging from something as insignificant as a slight deficiency, or a tendency toward sin yet without collective guilt, referred to as a "sin nature," to something as drastic as [[total depravity]] or automatic guilt by all humans through collective guilt.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Brodd | first = Jeffrey | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, MN | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref> Those who uphold the doctrine look to the teaching of [[Paul the Apostle]] in {{bibleverse||Romans|5:12–21}} and {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15:22}} for its [[Bible|scriptural]] base,<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine" /> and see it as perhaps implied in Old Testament passages such as {{bibleverse||Psalm|51:5}} and {{bibleverse||Psalm|58:3}}. [[File:Sandro Botticelli 050.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Augustine of Hippo]] wrote that original sin is transmitted by concupiscence and enfeebles freedom of the will without destroying it.<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine" />]] The [[Apostolic Father]]s and the [[Apologist]]s mostly dealt with topics other than original sin.<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine" /> The doctrine of original sin was first developed in 2nd-century Bishop of Lyon [[Irenaeus]]'s struggle against [[Gnosticism]].<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine" /> The Greek Fathers emphasized the cosmic dimension of the fall, namely that since Adam human beings are born into a fallen world, but held fast to belief that man, though fallen, is free.<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine" /> It was in the West that precise definition of the doctrine arose.<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine" /> [[Augustine of Hippo]] taught that original sin was both an act of foolishness (''insipientia'') and of pride and disobedience to the God of Adam and Eve. He thought it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: self-centeredness or failure in seeing truth.<ref>Augustine wrote to [[Julian of Eclanum]]: ''Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit''. (''Contra Julianum'', V, 4.18; PL 44, 795)</ref> The sin would not have taken place, if satan hadn't sown into their senses ''"the root of evil"'' (''radix Mali'').<ref>''Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus'' ("Contra Julianum", I, 9.42; PL 44, 670)</ref> The sin of Adam and Eve wounded their nature, affecting human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire. The consequences of the fall were transmitted to their descendants in the form of ''concupiscence'', which is a [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] term, and not a [[Psychology|psychological]] one. [[Thomas Aquinas]] explained Augustine's doctrine pointing out that the ''libido'' (''concupiscence''), which makes the original sin pass from parents to children, is not a ''libido actualis'', i.e. sexual lust, but ''libido habitualis'', i.e. a wound of the whole of human nature.<ref>''Libido quae transmittit peccatum originale in prolem, non-est libido actualis, quia dato quod virtute divina concederetur alicui quod nullam inordinatam libidinem in actu generationis sentiret, adhuc transmitteret in prolem originale peccatum. Sed libido illa est intelligenda habitualiter, secundum quod appetitus sensitivus non-continetur sub ratione vinculo originalis iustitiae. Et talis libido in omnibus est aequalis'' (STh Iª-IIae q. 82 a. 4 ad 3).</ref> Augustine insisted that concupiscence was not ''a being'' but ''bad quality'', the privation of good or a wound.<ref>''Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor''. (''De nuptiis et concupiscentia'', I, 25. 28; PL 44, 430; cf. ''Contra Julianum'', VI, 18.53; PL 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; PL 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; PL 44, 697; ''Contra Secundinum Manichaeum'', 15; PL 42, 590.</ref> The bishop of Hippo admitted that sexual concupiscence (''libido'') might have been present in the perfect human nature in the paradise, and that only later it had become disobedient to human will as a result of the first couple's disobedience to God's will in the original sin.<ref>Augustine wrote to [[Julian of Eclanum]]: ''Quis enim negat futurum fuisse concubitum, etiamsi peccatum non-praecessisset? Sed futurus fuerat, sicut aliis membris, ita etiam genitalibus voluntate motis, non-libidine concitatis; aut certe etiam ipsa libidine– ut non-vos de illa nimium contristemus– non-qualis nunc est, sed ad nutum voluntarium serviente'' (Contra Julianum, IV. 11. 57; PL 44, 766). See also his late work: ''Contra secundam Iuliani responsionem imperfectum opus'', II, 42; PL 45,1160; ibid. II, 45; PL 45,1161; ibid., VI, 22; PL 45, 1550–1551. Cf.{{Cite book|title=Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale |last= Schmitt|first=É. |year= 1983|series = Études Augustiniennes | location= Paris|page= 104}}</ref> The original sin have made humanity a ''massa damnata''<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine" /> (mass of perdition, condemned crowd). In Augustine's view (termed "Realism"), all of humanity was really present in Adam when he sinned, and therefore all have sinned. Original sin, according to Augustine, consists of the guilt of Adam which all humans inherit. As sinners, humans are utterly depraved in nature, lack the freedom to do good, and cannot respond to the will of God without [[Grace (Christianity)|divine grace]]. Grace is [[irresistible grace|irresistible]], results in conversion, and leads to [[perseverance of the saints|perseverance]].<ref name="Gonzalez">{{Cite book|author=Justo L. Gonzalez |title=A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation) |publisher=Abingdon Press |date=1970–1975}}</ref> Augustine's formulation of original sin was popular among Protestant reformers, such as [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]], and also, within Roman Catholicism, in the [[Jansenism|Jansenist]] movement, but this movement was declared heretical by the Catholic Church.<ref>{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia|title=Jansenius and Jansenism|last=Forget|first=Jacques|volume=8|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08285a.htm|accessdate=2010-08-08}}</ref> There are wide-ranging disagreements among Christian groups as to the exact understanding of the doctrine about a state of sinfulness or absence of holiness affecting all humans, even children, with some Christian groups denying it altogether. The notion of original sin as interpreted by [[Augustine of Hippo]] was affirmed by the [[Protestant Reformation|Protestant Reformer]] John Calvin. [[John Calvin|Calvin]] believed that humans inherit Adamic guilt and are in a state of sin from the moment of conception. This inherently sinful nature (the basis for the [[Calvinism|Calvinistic]] doctrine of "[[total depravity]]") results in a complete alienation from God and the total inability of humans to achieve reconciliation with God based on their own abilities. Not only do individuals inherit a sinful nature due to Adam's fall, but since he was the federal head and representative of the human race, all whom he represented inherit the guilt of his sin by imputation. ;New Testament The scriptural basis for the doctrine is found in two New Testament books by [[Paul the Apostle]], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=romans%205:12-21&version=NIV Romans 5:12–21] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%2015:22&version=NIV 1 Corinthians 15:22], in which he identifies Adam as the one man through whom death came into the world.<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine" /> <ref>''Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned''—for sin indeed was in the world before the law was given, but sin is not counted where there is no law. Yet death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over those whose sinning was not like the transgression of Adam, who was a type of the one who was to come.—[[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 5:12–14, [[English Standard Version|ESV]] "Therefore, as one trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all men. For ''as by the one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man's obedience the many will be made righteous''. Now the law came in to increase the trespass, but where sin increased, grace abounded all the more, so that, as sin reigned in death, grace also might reign through righteousness leading to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord."—Rom. 5:18–21, ESV</ref> ===Total depravity=== {{Main|Total depravity}} Total depravity (also called absolute inability and total corruption) is a theological [[doctrine]] that derives from the [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustinian]] concept of [[original sin]]. It is the teaching that, as a consequence of the [[fall of man]], every person born into the world is enslaved to the service of [[sin]] and, apart from the [[irresistible grace|efficacious]] or [[prevenient grace]] of God, is utterly unable to choose to follow [[God]] or choose to accept [[salvation]] as it is freely offered. It is also advocated to various degrees by many Protestant confessions of faith and catechisms, including those of [[Lutheranism]],<ref>The ''[[Book of Concord]]'', "The Thorough Declaration of the Formula of Concord," [http://www.bookofconcord.org/fc-sd/originalsin.html chapter II, sections 11 and 12] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516222600/http://bookofconcord.org/fc-sd/originalsin.html |date=16 May 2008 }}; The [[Augsburg Confession]], [http://www.reformed.org/documents/augsburg.html Article 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612222415/http://reformed.org/documents/augsburg.html |date=12 June 2010 }}</ref> [[Arminianism]],<ref>Arminius, James ''The Writings of James Arminius'' (three vols.), tr. [[James Nichols (printer)|James Nichols]] and William R. Bagnall (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1956), I:252</ref> and [[Calvinism]].<ref>[[Canons of Dordrecht]], [http://www.reformed.org/documents/canons_of_dordt.html "The Third and Fourth Main Points of Doctrine"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729015115/http://www.reformed.org/documents/canons_of_dordt.html |date=29 July 2013 }}; [[Westminster Confession of Faith]], [http://www.reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/ch_VI.html chapter 6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613003712/http://reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/ch_VI.html |date=13 June 2010 }}; [[Westminster Larger Catechism]], [http://www.reformed.org/documents/wlc_w_proofs/WLC_001-050.html Question 25] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613061952/http://reformed.org/documents/wlc_w_proofs/WLC_001-050.html |date=13 June 2010 }}; [[Heidelberg Catechism]], [http://www.reformed.org/documents/heidelberg.html question 8] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903084031/https://reformed.org/documents/heidelberg.html |date=3 September 2020 }}</ref> Total depravity is the fallen state of man as a result of original sin. The doctrine of total depravity asserts that people are by nature not inclined or even able to love God wholly with heart, mind, and strength, but rather all are inclined by nature to serve their own will and desires and to reject the rule of God. Even religion and [[philanthropy]] are wicked to God to the extent that these originate from a human imagination, passion, and will and are not done to the glory of God. Therefore, in [[Calvinism|Reformed theology]], if God is to save anyone He must [[Predestination (Calvinism)|predestine]], call, elect individuals to salvation since fallen man does not want to, indeed is incapable of choosing God.<ref>The ''[[Westminster Confession of Faith]]'', [http://www.reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/ch_IX.html 9.3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613003851/http://reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/ch_IX.html |date=13 June 2010 }}</ref> Total depravity does not mean, however, that people are as evil as possible. Rather, it means that even the good which a person may intend is faulty in its premise, false in its motive, and weak in its implementation; and there is no mere refinement of natural capacities that can correct this condition. Thus, even acts of generosity and altruism are in fact [[psychological egoism|egoist]] acts in disguise. All good, consequently, is derived from God alone, and in no way through man.<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Ra McLaughlin |journal=Reformed Perspectives |title=Total Depravity, part 1 |url=http://thirdmill.org/newfiles/ra_mclaughlin/TH.McLaughlin.Total_Depravity.1.html |access-date=2008-07-14 |quote=[Any person] can do outwardly good works, but these works come from a heart that hates God, and therefore fail to meet God's righteous standards.}}</ref> ===Comparison among Protestants=== This table summarizes three Protestant beliefs on depravity. {| class="wikitable" |- ! '''Topic''' !! '''Calvinism''' !! '''Lutheranism''' !! '''Arminianism''' |- | '''Depravity and human will''' || For [[John Calvin|Calvin]], in Total Depravity<ref>Charles Partee, ''The Theology of John Calvin'' (Westminster John Knox, 2008), 129. "By total depravity Calvin means totally susceptible to sin."</ref> humanity possesses "free will,"<ref name="ReferenceA">John Calvin, ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'', trans. Henry Beveridge, III.23.2.</ref> but it is in bondage to sin,<ref name="ReferenceB">John Calvin, ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'', trans. Henry Beveridge, II.3.5.</ref> until it is "transformed."<ref name="ReferenceC">John Calvin, ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'', trans. Henry Beveridge, III.3.6.</ref> || For [[Martin Luther|Luther]], in Total Depravity<ref name=WELS-Compare/><ref>Robert L. Browning and Roy A. Reed, ''Forgiveness, Reconciliation, and Moral Courage'' (Eerdmans, 2004), 113. "Luther did not mean by 'total depravity' that everything a person did was depraved. He meant that depravity, sin and wickedness can invade any and every part of life."</ref> humanity possesses free-will/free choice in regard to "goods and possessions," but regarding "salvation or damnation" people are in bondage either to God or Satan."<ref name="Henry Cole 1823">Henry Cole, trans, ''Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will'' (London, T. Bensley, 1823), 66. The controversial term ''liberum arbitrium'' was translated "free-will" by Cole. However [[Ernest Gordon Rupp]] and Philip Saville Watson, ''Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation'' (Westminster, 1969) chose "free choice" as their translation.</ref> || For [[Jacobus Arminius|Arminius]], in Depravity<ref>Roger E. Olson, ''Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities'' (InterVarsity Press, 2009), 17. "Arminians of the heart emphatically do not deny total depravity," but prefer not to use the word.</ref> humanity possesses freedom from necessity, but not "freedom from sin" unless enabled by "[[prevenient grace]]."<ref name="Keith D 2012">Keith D. Stanglin and Thomas H. McCall, ''Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace'' (Oxford University, 2012), 157–158.</ref> |} ==Soteriology: Salvation== {{Main|Salvation in Christianity}} Christian [[soteriology]] is the branch of Christian theology that deals with one's [[salvation]].<ref>Soteriology. Dictionary.com. WordNet 3.0. Princeton University. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Soteriology {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071113004719/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/soteriology |date=13 November 2007 }} (accessed: 2 March 2008).</ref> It is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''sōtērion'' (salvation) (from ''sōtēr'' savior, preserver) + English [[-logy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/soteriology |title=soteriology– Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=25 April 2007 |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> Atonement is a doctrine that describes how human beings can be reconciled to [[God]]. In Christian theology the atonement refers to the forgiving or pardoning of one's [[sin]] through the death of [[Jesus Christ]] by [[crucifixion]], which made possible the reconciliation between God and creation. Within Christianity there are three main theories for how such atonement might work: the [[Atonement (ransom view)|ransom theory]], the [[Atonement (satisfaction view)|satisfaction theory]] and the [[Atonement (moral influence view)|moral influence theory]]. Christian soteriology is unlike and not to be confused with [[collective salvation]]. ===Traditional focus=== Christian soteriology traditionally focuses on how God ends the separation people have from him due to [[sin]] by reconciling them with himself. ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%205:10-11;&version=9; Rom. 5:10–11]). Many Christians believe they receive the forgiveness of sins ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=51&chapter=2&verse=38&version=31&context=verse Acts 2:38]), life ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=52&chapter=8&verse=11&version=31&context=verse Rom. 8:11]), and salvation ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=59&chapter=5&verse=9&version=31&context=verse 1 Thess. 5:9]) bought by [[Jesus]] through his innocent suffering, death, and resurrection from the dead three days later ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=47&chapter=28&version=47&context=chapter Matt. 28]). Christ's death, resurrection, ascension, and sending of the [[Holy Spirit]], is called ''The Paschal Mystery''. Christ's human birth is called the ''[[Incarnation]]''. Either or both are considered in different versions of soteriology. While not neglecting the ''Paschal Mystery'', many Christians believe salvation is brought through the ''Incarnation'' itself, in which God took on human nature so that humans could partake in the divine nature (2 Peter 1.4). As [[St. Athanasius]] put it, God became human so that we might become divine (St. Athanasius, De inc. 54, 3: PG 25, 192B.). This [[Grace (Christianity)|grace]] in Christ ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=53&chapter=1&verse=4&version=31&context=verse 1 Cor. 1:4]) is received as a gift of God that cannot be merited by works done prior to one's conversion to Christianity ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ephesians%202:8-9;&version=31; Eph. 2:8–9]), which is brought about by hearing God's Word ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=52&chapter=10&verse=17&version=50&context=verse Rom. 10:17]) and harkening to it. This involves accepting Jesus Christ as the personal saviour and Lord over one's life. ===Distinct schools=== Protestant teaching, originating with [[Martin Luther]], teaches that salvation is received by [[Sola gratia|grace alone]] and that one's sole necessary response to this grace is [[Sola fide|faith alone]]. Older Christian teaching, as found in Catholic and Orthodox theology, is that salvation is received by [[Sola gratia|grace alone]], but that one's necessary response to this grace comprises both faith and works (James 2:24, 26; Rom 2:6–7; Gal 5:6). ===Catholic soteriology=== Human beings exists because God wanted to share His life with them. In this sense, every human being is God's child. In a fuller sense, to come to salvation is to be reconciled to God through Christ and to be united with His divine Essence via [[Divinization (Christian)|Theosis]] in the [[beatific vision]] of the Godhead. The graces of Christ's passion, death, and resurrection are found in the [[Catholic sacraments|seven sacraments]] of the [[Catholic Church]]. ===Comparison among Protestants=== {{Comparison among Protestants}} ==Ecclesiology: Church== {{Main|Ecclesiology}} [[Ecclesiology]] (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἐκκλησίᾱ}}, ''ekklēsiā'', "[[wikt:congregation|congregation]], [[church (building)|church]]"; and {{lang|grc|-λογία}}, ''[[-logy|-logia]]'') is the study of the theological understanding of the [[Christian church]], including the [[institution|institutional structure]], [[sacrament]]s and practices (especially the [[worship]] of God) thereof. Specific areas of concern include the church's role in [[salvation]], its origin, its relationship to the historical [[Jesus|Christ]], its discipline, its [[eschatology|destiny]], and its [[clergy|leadership]]. Ecclesiology is, therefore, the study of the church as a thing in, and of, itself. Different ecclesiologies give shape to very different institutions. Thus, in addition to describing a broad discipline of theology, ecclesiology may be used in the specific sense of a particular church or denomination's character, self-described or otherwise. This is the sense of the word in such phrases as ''Roman Catholic ecclesiology'', ''Lutheran ecclesiology'', and ''ecumenical ecclesiology''. ;Issues addressed by ecclesiology Ecclesiology asks the questions: * '''Who is the Church?''' Is it a visible or earthly [[corporation]] or a unified, visible society—a "church" in the sense of a specific denomination or institution, for instance? Or is it the body of all believing [[Christianity|Christians]] (see [[invisible church]]) regardless of their [[religious denomination|denominational]] differences and disunity? What is the relationship between living Christians and [[saint|departed]] Christians (the "[[cloud of witnesses]]")– do they (those on Earth and those in Heaven) constitute together the Church? * '''Must one join a church?''' That is, what is the role of corporate [[worship]] in the spiritual lives of believers? Is it in fact necessary? Can salvation be found outside of formal membership in a given faith community, and what constitutes "membership?" ([[Baptism]]? Formal acceptance of a [[creed]]? Regular participation?) * '''What is the [[authority]] of ''the'' Church?''' Who gets to interpret the doctrines of the Church? Is the organizational structure itself, either in a single corporate body, or generally within the range of formal church structures, an ''independent vehicle'' of [[revelation]] or of [[God]]'s [[Grace (Christianity)|grace]]? Or is the Church's authority instead dependent on and derivative of a ''separate and prior divine revelation external to the organization'', with individual institutions being "the Church" only to the extent that they teach this message? For example, is the [[Bible]] a written part of a wider revelation entrusted to the Church as faith community, and therefore to be interpreted within that context? Or is the Bible the revelation itself, and the Church is to be defined as a group of people who claim adherence to it? * '''What does the Church do?''' What are the [[sacrament]]s, divine ordinances, and [[Christian liturgy|liturgies]], in the context of the Church, and are they part of the Church's mission to preach the [[Gospel]]? What is the comparative emphasis and relationship between [[worship]] service, [[spiritual formation]], and [[Mission (Christian)|mission]], and is the Church's role to create [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] of [[Christ]] or some other function? Is the Eucharist the defining element of the rest of the sacramental system and the Church itself, or is it secondary to the act of preaching? Is the Church to be understood as the vehicle for salvation, or the salvific presence in the world, or as a community of those already "saved?" * '''How should the Church be governed?''' What was the mission and authority of the Apostles, and is this handed down through the sacraments today? What are the proper methods of choosing [[clergy]] such as [[bishop]]s and [[priest]]s, and what is their role within the context of the Church? Is an [[Holy Orders|ordained]] clergy necessary? * Who are the leaders of a church? Must there be a policy-making board of "leaders" within a church and what are the qualifications for this position, and by what process do these members become [[Holy Orders|official, ordained]] "leaders"? Must leaders and clergy be "ordained," and is this possible [[Apostolic succession|only by those who have been ordained by others]]? ===Ecclesiastical polity=== {{Main|Ecclesiastical polity}} Ecclesiastical polity is the operational and governance structure of a [[Church body|church]] or [[Christian denomination]]. It also denotes the [[Minister of religion|ministerial]] structure of the church and the authority relationships between churches. Polity is closely related to [[Ecclesiology]], the study of doctrine and theology relating to church organization. Issues of church governance appear in the first chapters of the [[Acts of the Apostles]]; the first act recorded after the [[Ascension of Jesus Christ|ascension]] is the election of [[Saint Matthias|Matthias]] to replace [[Judas Iscariot]]. Over the years a system of episcopal polity developed. During the [[Protestant Reformation]], arguments were made that the [[New Testament]] prescribed structures quite different from that of the [[Catholic Church]] of the day, and different Protestant bodies used different types of polity. It was during this period that [[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]] wrote ''[[Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity]]'' to defend the polity of the [[Church of England]] against the [[Puritans]]. Episcopal polity is used in several closely related senses. Most commonly it refers to the field of church governance in the abstract, but it also can refer to the governance of a particular Christian body. In this sense it is used as a term in [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]]. "Polity" is sometimes used as a shorthand for the church governance structure itself. Though each church or denomination has its own characteristic structure, there are three general types of polity. ;Episcopal polity {{Main|Episcopal polity}} Churches having episcopal polity are governed by [[bishop]]s. The title bishop comes from the Greek word ''episkopos'', which literally translates into ''overseer''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bishop |title=Bishop– Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=25 April 2007 |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> In regard to [[Catholicism]], bishops have authority over the [[diocese]], which is both sacramental and political; as well as performing [[ordination]]s, [[confirmation]]s, and [[consecration]]s, the bishop supervises the [[clergy]] of the diocese and represents the diocese both secularly and in the hierarchy of church governance. Bishops in this system may be subject to higher ranking bishops (variously called [[archbishop]]s, [[Metropolitan bishop|metropolitans]] or [[patriarch]]s, depending upon the tradition; ''see also [[Bishop]] for further explanation of the varieties of bishops''.) They also meet in councils or [[synod]]s. These synods, subject to presidency by higher ranking bishops, may govern the dioceses which are represented in the council, though the [[synod]] may also be purely advisory. Note that the presence of the office of "bishop" within a church is not proof of episcopal polity. For example, in [[Mormonism]], the "bishop" occupies the office that in an [[Anglican]] church would be occupied by a [[priest]]. Also, episcopal polity is not usually a simple chain of command. Instead, some authority may be held, not only by synods and colleges of bishops, but by [[Laity|lay]] and [[Clergy|clerical]] councils. Further, patterns of authority are subject to a wide variety of historical rights and honors which may cut across simple lines of authority. Episcopal polity is the predominant pattern in [[Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Anglican]] churches. It is also common in [[Methodist]] and [[Lutheran]] churches. Among churches with episcopal polity, different theories of autonomy are expressed. So in [[Roman Catholicism]] the church is viewed as a single polity headed by the [[pope]], but in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] the various churches retain formal [[autonomy]] but are held to be unified by shared doctrine and [[conciliarity]]—that is, the authority of councils, such as [[ecumenical council]]s, [[Holy Synod]]s and the former standing council, the [[Endemusa Synod]]. ;Presbyterian polity {{Main|Presbyterian polity}} Many [[Reformed church|Reformed]] churches, notably those in the [[Presbyterian]] and Continental Reformed traditions, are governed by a hierarchy of councils. The lowest level council governs a single local church and is called the ''[[Kirk Session|session]]'' or ''[[Consistory (Protestantism)#Reformed usage|consistory]]''; its members are called ''[[Elder (religious)|elders]]''. The [[minister of religion|minister]] of the church (sometimes referred to as a ''teaching elder'') is a member of and presides over the session; lay representatives (''ruling elders'' or, informally, just elders) are elected by the congregation. The session sends representatives to the next level higher council, called the ''[[presbytery (church polity)|presbytery]]'' or ''classis''. In some Presbyterian churches there are higher level councils ([[synod]]s or [[General Assembly (presbyterian church)|general assemblies]]). Each council has authority over its constituents, and the representatives at each level are expected to use their own judgment. Hence higher level councils act as courts of appeal for church trials and disputes, and it is not uncommon to see rulings and decisions overturned. Presbyterian polity is, of course, the characteristic governance of [[Presbyterian]] churches, and also of churches in the Continental [[Reformed church|Reformed]] tradition. Elements of presbyterian polity are also found in other churches. For example, in the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] governance by bishops is paralleled by a system of deputies, who are lay and clerical representatives elected by parishes and, at the national level, by the dioceses. Legislation in the [[General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|general convention]] requires the separate consent of the bishops and of the deputies. Note that, in episcopal polity, a [[presbyter]] refers to a [[priest]]. ;Congregational polity {{Main|Congregational polity}} [[Congregationalist polity]] dispenses with titled positions such as [[bishop]] as a requirement of church structure. The local congregation rules itself, though local leaders and councils may be appointed. Members may be sent from the congregation to associations that are sometimes identified with the church bodies formed by [[Lutheran]]s, [[Presbyterian]]s, [[Anglican]]s, and other non-congregational [[Protestants]]. The similarity is deceptive, however, because the congregationalist associations do not exercise control over their members (other than ending their membership in the association). Many congregationalist churches are completely independent in principle. One major exception is [[Ordination]], where even congregationalist churches often invite members of the [[vicinage]] or association to ordain their called pastor. It is a principle of congregationalism that ministers do not govern congregations by themselves. They may preside over the congregation, but it is the congregation which exerts its authority in the end. Congregational polity is sometimes called "Baptist polity", as it is the characteristic polity of [[Baptist church]]es. ===Priesthood=== {{Main|Priesthood}} * [[Laity]], [[Priesthood of all believers]] * [[Clergy]], [[Bishop]], [[Priest]], [[Pastor]], [[Elder (Christianity)|Elder]] ===Church discipline=== {{Main|Church discipline}} ===Missiology=== {{Main|Missiology}} ===Sacrament=== {{Main|Sacrament}} A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's ''Concise Dictionary of Religion'', is what [[Roman Catholic]]s believe to be "a [[Rite (Christianity)|rite]] in which [[God]] is uniquely active". [[Augustine of Hippo]] defined a [[Christianity|Christian]] sacrament as "a visible sign of an invisible reality". The Anglican [[Book of Common Prayer]] speaks of them as "an outward and visible sign of an inward and invisible [[Grace (Christianity)|Grace]]." Examples of sacraments would be [[Baptism]] and the [[Eucharist]]."<ref>Hexam's ''Concise Dictionary of Religion'' "Sacrament" obtained at https://www.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/concise/WORDS-S.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303103908/http://www.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/concise/WORDS-S.html |date=3 March 2009 }}</ref> Therefore a sacrament is a [[religious symbol]] or often a rite which conveys [[Grace (Christianity)|divine grace]], [[blessing]], or [[sanctity]] upon the believer who participates in it, or a tangible symbol which represents an intangible reality. As defined above, an example would be [[baptism]] in water, representing (and conveying) the [[Grace (Christianity)|grace]] of the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]], the [[Forgiveness of Sins]], and membership into the [[Christian church|Church]]. Anointing with [[holy anointing oil]] is another example which is often synonymous with receiving the [[Holy Spirit]] and salvation. Another way of looking at Sacraments is that they are an external and physical sign of the conferral of [[Sanctifying Grace]].<ref>Catholic Encyclopaedia: "Sacraments" http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714192551/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13295a.htm |date=14 July 2010 }}</ref> Throughout the Christian faith, views concerning which rites are sacramental, that is conferring [[sanctifying grace]], and what it means for an external act to be sacramental vary widely. Other religious traditions also have what might be called "sacraments" in a sense, though not necessarily according to the Christian meaning of the term. ;General definitions and terms In the majority of Western Christianity, the generally accepted definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign that conveys spiritual [[Grace (Christianity)|grace]] through Christ. Christian [[Church body|churches]], [[religious denomination|denominations]], and [[sect]]s are divided regarding the number and operation of the sacraments. Sacraments are generally held to have been instituted by [[Jesus Christ]], although in some cases this point is debated. They are usually administered by the [[clergy]] to a recipient or recipients, and are generally understood to involve visible and invisible components. The invisible component (manifested inwardly) is understood to be brought about by the action of the Holy Spirit, [[God]]'s grace working in the sacrament's participants, while the visible (or outward) component entails the use of such things as water, oil, and bread and wine that is blessed or [[Consecration|consecrated]]; the laying-on-of-hands; or a particularly significant covenant that is marked by a public benediction (such as with marriage or absolution of sin in the reconciliation of a penitent). As defined by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], recognised by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox churches]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], (though these two do not categorically define the number), and [[Independent Catholic Churches|Independent Catholic]] and [[Old Catholic Church]]. The Orthodox Churches (Eastern and Oriental) typically do not limit the number of sacraments, viewing all encounters with reality in life as sacramental in some sense, and their acknowledgement of the number of sacraments at seven as an innovation of convenience not found in the [[Church Fathers]]. It came into use, although infrequently, later on from later encounters with the West and its Sacramental Theology.<ref>The Sacraments http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=122&SID=3 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617013804/http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=122&SID=3 |date=17 June 2010 }}</ref> Other denominations and traditions, both in eastern and western Christianity may affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, these include many of the [[Protestant]] denominations and some of the [[Old Believers]] in the Orthodox communion, some of whom reject all sacraments except Baptism. Since some post-Reformation denominations do not regard clergy as having a classically [[sacerdotalism|sacerdotal]] or priestly function, they avoid the term "sacrament," preferring the terms "sacerdotal function," "ordinance," or "tradition." This belief invests the efficacy of the ''ordinance'' in the obedience and participation of the believer and the witness of the presiding minister and the congregation. This view stems from a highly developed concept of the [[priesthood of all believers]]. In this sense, the believer himself or herself performs the sacerdotal role {{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}. ====Eucharist==== {{Main|Eucharist}} * [[Transsubstantiation]] (Roman Catholicism) * [[Anglican Eucharistic theology]] * [[Sacramental Union]] (Lutheran) Eucharist, also called Communion, or the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a Christian [[sacrament]] or [[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]], generally considered to be a re-enactment of the [[Last Supper]], the final meal that Jesus [[Christ]] shared with his disciples before his arrest and eventual [[crucifixion]]. The consecration of bread and a cup within the [[Sacrament|rite]] recalls the moment at the Last Supper when [[Jesus]] gave his disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and wine, saying, "This is my [[blood]]".<ref name="EB-purgatory"/><ref>Ignazio Silone, ''Bread and Wine'' (1937).</ref> There are different interpretations of the significance of the Eucharist, but "there is more of a consensus among Christians about the meaning of the Eucharist than would appear from the confessional debates over the sacramental presence, the effects of the Eucharist, and the proper auspices under which it may be celebrated."<ref name=EB-Eucharist>{{cite encyclopedia|author=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist |title=Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Eucharist |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> The phrase "the Eucharist" may refer not only to the rite but also to the consecrated [[bread]] (leavened or unleavened) and [[wine]] (or, in some [[Protestant]] denominations, unfermented [[grape juice]]) used in the rite,<ref>cf. [http://www.bartleby.com/61/48/E0234800.html The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition 2000] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210031238/http://www.bartleby.com/61/48/E0234800.html |date=10 February 2009 }}</ref> and, in this sense, communicants may speak of "receiving the Eucharist", as well as "celebrating the Eucharist". ''Eucharist'' is from [[Greek language|Greek]] εὐχαριστία (''eucharistia''), meaning thanksgiving. The verb εὐχαριστῶ, the usual word for "to thank" in the [[Septuagint]] and the [[New Testament]], is found in the major texts concerning the Lord's Supper, including the earliest: {{blockquote| For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had ''given thanks'', he broke it, and said, "This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me." ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23–24|ESV}})}} '''The Lord's Supper''' (Κυριακὸν δεῖπνον) derives from 1 Corinthians 11:20–21. {{blockquote| When you come together, it is not the Lord's Supper you eat, for as you eat, each of you goes ahead without waiting for anybody else. One remains hungry, another gets drunk. }} '''Communion''' is a translation; other translations are "participation", "sharing", "fellowship"<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bible.cc/1_corinthians/10-16.htm |title=Parallel Translations |publisher=Bible.cc |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> of the Greek κοινωνία (''koinōnía'') in {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|10:16}}. The [[King James Version]] has {{blockquote| The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the ''communion'' of the blood of Christ? The bread which we break, is it not the ''communion'' of the body of Christ?<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|10:16|KJV}}</ref>}} {{Further|Origin of the Eucharist}} [[File:Juan de Juanes 002.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''Christ with the Eucharist'' by [[Vicente Juan Masip]], 16th century.]] The [[Last Supper]] appears in all three [[Synoptic Gospels]]: [[Gospel according to Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel according to Mark|Mark]], and [[Gospel according to Luke|Luke]]; and in the [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]],<ref name="EB-purgatory"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Tyndale Bible Dictionary |editor-first1=Philip W. |editor-last1=Comfort |editor-first2=Walter A. |editor-last2=Elwell |year=2001 |isbn=0-8423-7089-7 |title=Lord's Supper, The|last1=Comfort |first1=Philip Wesley }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |editor-first1=F. L. |editor-last1=Cross |editor-first2=E. A. |editor-last2=Livingstone |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |title=Eucharist|last1=Cross |first1=Frank Leslie |last2=Livingstone |first2=Elizabeth A. }}</ref> while the last-named of these also indicates something of how early Christians celebrated what [[Paul the Apostle]] called the Lord's Supper. As well as the Eucharistic dialogue in [[Gospel according to John|John]] chapter 6. In his [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] ({{circa|54}}–55), [[Paul the Apostle]] gives the earliest recorded description of Jesus's [[Last Supper]]: "The Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, 'This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.' In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying, 'This cup is the [[New Covenant|new covenant]] in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me'."<ref>({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23–25}}</ref> The synoptic gospels, first Mark,<ref>And as they were eating, he took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας– eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to them, and said, "Take; this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, and they all drank of it. And he said to them, "This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many. Truly, I say to you, I shall not drink again of the fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God." Mark 14:22–25</ref> and then Matthew<ref>Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread, and blessed (εὐλογήσας– eulogēsas), and broke it, and gave it to the disciples and said, "Take, eat; this is my body." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he gave it to them, saying, "Drink of it, all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you I shall not drink again of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom." Matthew 26:26–29</ref> and Luke,<ref>They prepared the passover. And when the hour came, he sat at table, and the apostles with him. And he said to them, "I have earnestly desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer; for I tell you I shall not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God." And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he said, "Take this, and divide it among yourselves; for I tell you that from now on I shall not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes." And he took bread, and when he had given thanks (εὐχαριστήσας– eucharistēsas) he broke it and gave it to them, saying, "This is my body which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me." And likewise the cup after supper, saying, "This cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood. ..." Luke 22:13–20</ref> depict Jesus as presiding over the Last Supper. References to Jesus's body and blood foreshadow his crucifixion, and he identifies them as a new covenant.<ref name="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> In the gospel of John, the account of the Last Supper has no mention of Jesus taking bread and wine and speaking of them as his body and blood; instead it recounts his humble act of washing the disciples' feet, the prophecy of the betrayal, which set in motion the events that would lead to the cross, and his long discourse in response to some questions posed by his followers, in which he went on to speak of the importance of the unity of the disciples with him and each other.<ref name="Harris" /><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Tyndale Bible Dictionary |editor-first1=Philip W. |editor-last1=Comfort |editor-first2=Walter A. |editor-last2=Elwell |year=2001 |isbn=0-8423-7089-7 |title=John, Gospel of|last1=Comfort |first1=Philip Wesley }}</ref> The expression ''The Lord's Supper'', derived from [[St. Paul]]'s usage in {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:17–34}}, may have originally referred to the [[Agape feast]], the shared [[communal meal]] with which the Eucharist was originally associated.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Lambert | first = J. C. | title = The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia | publisher = [[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.]] | year = 1978 | edition = reprint | isbn = 0-8028-8045-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/internationalsta0002unse }}</ref> The Agape feast is mentioned in {{bibleverse||Jude|12|NIV}}. But ''The Lord's Supper'' is now commonly used in reference to a celebration involving no food other than the sacramental bread and wine. The [[Didache]] (Greek: teaching) is an early Church order, including, among other features, instructions for [[baptism]] and the Eucharist. Most scholars date it to the early 2nd century,<ref>[[Bruce Metzger]]. The canon of the New Testament. 1997</ref> and distinguish in it two separate Eucharistic traditions, the earlier tradition in chapter 10 and the later one preceding it in chapter 9.<ref>"There are now two quite separate Eucharistic celebrations given in Didache 9–10, with the earlier one now put in second place." Crossan. The historical Jesus. Citing Riggs, John W. 1984</ref> The Eucharist is mentioned again in chapter 14. Ignatius of Antioch, one of the Apostolic Fathers and a direct disciple of the [[Apostle John]], mentions the Eucharist as "the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ",<ref>" ... (t)he eucharist is the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which flesh suffered for our sins, and which in His loving-kindness the Father raised up. ... Let that eucharist alone be considered valid which is under the bishop or him to whom he commits it. ... It is not lawful apart from the bishop either to baptize, or to hold a love-feast. But whatsoever he approves, that also is well-pleasing to God, that everything which you do may be secure and valid." [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/smyrnaeans.html Letter to the Smyrnaeans, 6, 8] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225192321/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/smyrnaeans.html |date=25 February 2021 }} "Give heed to keep one Eucharist. For there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup unto union with His blood. There is one altar, as there is one bishop, together with the presbytery and deacons, my fellow-servants; that whatsoever you do, you may do according unto God."[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/philadelphians.html Letter to the Philadelphians, 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129072313/http://earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/philadelphians.html |date=29 November 2010 }}</ref> and Justin Martyr speaks of it as more than a meal: "the food over which the prayer of thanksgiving, the word received from Christ, has been said ... is the flesh and blood of this Jesus who became flesh ... and the deacons carry some to those who are absent."<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.lxv.html First Apology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731060254/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.lxv.html |date=31 July 2017 }}, 65–67</ref> ;Eucharistic theology {{Main|Eucharistic theology|Eucharistic theologies contrasted}} Many Christian denominations classify the Eucharist as a [[sacrament]].<ref>For example, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglo-Catholics, Old Catholics; and cf. the presentation of the Eucharist as a sacrament in the [http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry.html#c10499 ''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'' document] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080709031256/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry.html |date=9 July 2008 }} of the [[World Council of Churches]]</ref> Some [[Protestants]] prefer to call it an ''[[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]]'', viewing it not as a specific channel of [[Grace (Christianity)|divine grace]] but as an expression of faith and of obedience to [[Christ]]. Most Christians, even those who deny that there is any real change in the elements used, recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present.<ref>"Most Christian traditions also teach that Jesus is present in the Eucharist in some special way, though they disagree about the mode, the locus, and the time of that presence" ([https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist Encyclopædia Britannica Online)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080519053204/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033174/Eucharist |date=19 May 2008 }}.</ref> [[Roman Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] teach that the consecrated elements truly become the body and blood of Jesus Christ. [[Transubstantiation]] is the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] explanation given by Roman Catholics as to how this transformation occurs. [[Lutheran]]s believe that the body and blood of Jesus are present "in, with and under" the forms of bread and wine, a concept known as the [[sacramental union]]. The [[Reformed church|Reformed]] churches, following the teachings of [[John Calvin]], believe in a spiritual (or "pneumatic") [[real presence]] of Christ by the power of the [[Holy Spirit]] and received by faith. [[Anglicans]] adhere to [[Anglican eucharistic theology|a range of views]] although the Anglican church officially teaches the real presence. Some Christians reject the concept of the real presence, believing that the Eucharist is only a [[memorialism|memorial]] of the death of Christ. The [https://web.archive.org/web/20080709031256/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/resources/documents/wcc-commissions/faith-and-order-commission/i-unity-the-church-and-its-mission/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry-faith-and-order-paper-no-111-the-lima-text/baptism-eucharist-and-ministry.html#c10499 ''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'' document] of the [[World Council of Churches]], attempting to present the common understanding of the Eucharist on the part of the generality of Christians, describes it as "essentially the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit", "Thanksgiving to the Father", "Anamnesis or Memorial of Christ", "the sacrament of the unique sacrifice of Christ, who ever lives to make intercession for us", "the sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, the sacrament of his [[real presence]]", "Invocation of the Spirit", "Communion of the Faithful", and "Meal of the Kingdom". ====Baptism==== {{Main|Baptism}} * [[Infant baptism]] * [[Believer's baptism]] ==Eschatology== {{Unreferenced section|date=June 2019}} [[File:Michelangelo - Cristo Juiz.jpg|thumb|Detail from the [[Last Judgement]] by [[Michelangelo]]]] {{Main|Christian eschatology}} [[Eschatology]] (derived from the Greek roots ἔσχατος "last" and λογία "discourse," "study") is the study of the end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world. Broadly speaking, it is the study of the destiny of man as revealed in the [[Bible]]. Eschatology is concerned with the [[afterlife]], beginning with [[death]] and the personal [[judgment]] which follows the death of the individual, and which is followed by the destination of [[heaven]] or [[hell]]. (In Catholic theology, heaven is sometimes preceded by [[purgatory]].) Eschatology also concerns itself with events which are said to happen at the end of this age: the [[Second Coming|return of Jesus]], the [[resurrection of the dead]], the [[Rapture]], the [[Tribulation]], and following these things, the Millennium, or thousand years of peace, which has been interpreted both literally and symbolically. Finally, eschatology concerns itself with the [[Eschatology|end of the world]] and its associated events: the [[Last Judgment]]; the banishment of Death, Hades, and Satan and his followers to the Lake of Fire; and the creation of a new heaven and earth. [[Millennarianism|Millenarianists]], [[Millerism|Seventh Day Adventists]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and other recently founded sects have been influential in the modern development of these doctrines, though their roots are biblical. Eschatology is an ancient branch of study in Christian theology, with study of the "last things" and the [[Second Coming of Christ]] first touched on by [[Ignatius of Antioch]] ({{circa|35}}–107 AD), then given more consideration by the Christian apologist in Rome, [[St Justin Martyr|Justin Martyr]] ({{circa|100}}–165).<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/36639639 |title=Philippe Bobichon, Millénarisme et orthodoxie dans les écrits de Justin Martyr |journal=In Mélanges Sur la Question Millénariste de l'Antiquité À Nos Jours, Martin Dumont (Dir.) [Bibliothèque d'Étude des Mondes Chrétiens, 11], Paris, 2018, P. 61-82. |access-date=23 March 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414075605/https://www.academia.edu/36639639/_Mill%C3%A9narisme_et_orthodoxie_dans_les_%C3%A9crits_de_Justin_Martyr_ |url-status=live |last1=Bobichon |first1=Philippe }}</ref> Treatment of eschatology continued in the West in the teachings of the influential theologian of Roman North Africa, [[Tertullian]] ({{circa|160}}–225), and was given fuller reflection and speculation soon after in the East by the master theologian, [[Origen]] ({{circa|185}}–254).<ref>Alexander Roberts & James Donaldson, eds. ''Ante-Nicene Fathers''. (16 vol.) Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1994. The writings of Ignatius and Justin Martyr can be found in Vol. 1; Tertullian, in Volumes 3–4; and Origen, in Volume 4.</ref> [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]], and other 16th-century reformers wrote long tracts about the End Times, but interest in eschatology dwindled after the Reformation until the late 19th century, when it became popular in the Reformed, Pentecostal, and Evangelical sects. It was increasingly recognized as a formal division of theological study during the 20th century. The second coming of Christ is the central event in Christian eschatology. Most Christians believe that death and suffering will continue to exist until Christ's return. Others believe that suffering will gradually be eliminated prior to his coming, and that the elimination of injustice is our part in preparing for that event. Needless to say, there are a variety of viewpoints concerning the order and significance of eschatological events. ===Approaches to interpretation=== {{Unreferenced section|date=June 2019}} * The ''[[Preterism|Preterist]]'' approach (from the Latin ''praeteritus'' "gone by") seeks parallels between ''Revelation'' and the events of the 1st century, such as [[Herod the Great|Herod]]'s attempt to [[Massacre of the Innocents|kill the infant Christ]], the struggle of Christianity to survive the persecutions of Judaism and the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)|fall of Jerusalem]] in 70 AD, the [[Abomination of Desolation|desecration of the temple]] in the same year, and the growth of Christianity from a sect within Judaism to an independent religion. * The ''[[Historicism (Christian eschatology)|Historicist]]'' method takes a broader historical approach and seeks parallels between ''Revelation'' and the major people and events of history, especially those which have had a direct effect on [[Israel]] and the Church. * The ''[[Futurism (Christian eschatology)|Futurist]]'' method approaches ''Revelation'' as chiefly referring to events that have not yet come to pass but will take place at the end of this age and at the end of the world. The main focus is the return of Christ. * The ''[[Idealism (Christian eschatology)|Idealist]]'' model, also known as ''Spiritualist'' or ''Symbolic'' model, approaches the images of ''Revelation'' as symbols representing larger themes and concepts, rather than actual people and events. It sees in Revelation an allegorical representation of the ongoing struggle of the forces of light and darkness, and the ultimate [[triumph of good over evil]]. ==See also== {{Portal|Christianity}} * [[Biblical law in Christianity]] * [[Eastern Orthodox – Roman Catholic theological differences]] * [[Lists of Christian theologians]] * [[Outline of theology]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last=Berkhof |first=Louis. |title=The History of Christian Doctrine |publisher=Banner of Truth |year=1996 |isbn=0-85151-005-1}} *{{cite book|last=Demarest|first=Bruce A. |title=The Cross and Salvation: The Doctrine of Salvation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0_1wAEACAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Crossway Books|isbn=978-0-89107-937-8}} * {{Cite book|last=Edwards|first=Mark|year=2009|title=Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church|publisher=Ashgate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9acTl-jAkAC|isbn=9780754662914}} * {{cite book |last=Hill |first=Jonathan |year=2003 |title=The History of Christian Thought |publisher=Lion Books |isbn=0-7459-5093-0}} ** Volume 1: ''The Living God'' (1992). {{ISBN|0-06-066363-4}} ** Volume 2: ''The Word of Life'' (1992). {{ISBN|0-06-066364-2}} ** Volume 3: ''Life in the Spirit'' (1994). {{ISBN|0-06-066362-6}} *{{cite book|last=Kang|first=Paul ChulHong |title=Justification: The Imputation of Christ's Righteousness from Reformation Theology to the American Great Awakening and the Korean Revivals|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNIpgIkTMHIC|year=2006|publisher=[[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang]]|isbn=978-0-8204-8605-5|location=New York}} *{{cite book|last=Lange|first=Lyle W. |title=God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5W0yOQAACAAJ|year=2005|publisher=Northwestern Publishing House|location=Milwaukee|isbn=978-0-8100-1744-3}} * {{cite book|last=Luther|first=Martin |author-link=Martin Luther|translator-first=Henry |translator-last=Cole|title=Martin Luther on the Bondage of the Will: Written in Answer to the Diatribe of Erasmus on Free-will. First Pub. in the Year of Our Lord 1525|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CkBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA66|year=1823|publisher=T. Bensley|location=London}} * {{cite book |title=The Christian Theology Reader |first=Alister |last=McGrath |author-link=Alister McGrath |isbn=978-0470654842|date=7 March 2011 |publisher=Wiley }} * {{cite book |title=Christian Theology: An Introduction |first=Alister |last=McGrath |date=4 October 2010 |publisher=Wiley |author-link=Alister McGrath|isbn=978-1444335149}} *{{cite book|last=Muller|first=Richard A. |title=Calvin and the Reformed Tradition: On the Work of Christ and the Order of Salvation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUhexw_A7AUC&pg=PA45|year=2012|publisher=Baker Books|isbn=978-1-4412-4254-9}} *{{cite book| first=Roger E. |last=Olson|title=Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities|location=Downers Grove |publisher=InterVarsity Press |date= 2009}} *{{cite book|last1=Rupp|first1=Ernest Gordon |author-link1=Ernest Gordon Rupp|last2=Watson|first2=Philip Saville |title=Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IU_8JDjxL34C|year=1969|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|location=Louisville|isbn=978-0-664-24158-2}} *{{cite book|last1=Stanglin|first1=Keith D. |last2=McCall|first2=Thomas H. |title=Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=00ulN0NOINsC|date=15 November 2012|publisher=OUP USA|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-975567-7}} * See the [http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/theology Christian Theology Reading Room] (Tyndale Seminary) for an extensive collection of online resources for Christian Theology. * [http://ccel.org/ Christian Classics Ethereal Library] * [http://jonathanscorner.com Jonathan Hayward, contemporary Orthodox theologian] * [http://orthodoxchurchfathers.com/ Orthodox Church Fathers: Christian Theology Classics Search Engine] ==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130131073408/http://argumentrix.com/wiki/Appendix:Christian_theology Table of Christian theological terms] in Argumentrix (archived 31 January 2013) {{Christian theology|state=uncollapsed}} {{Christianity footer}} {{Theology|faith|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Christian theology}} [[Category:Christian theology| ]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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