Antisemitism in the United States

{{Short description|Hatred towards the Jewish people within the US}}
{{merge from|Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century|date=October 2023}}
[[File:Baptists-against-jews.jpg|thumb|right|A protest against Jews, held by the [[Westboro Baptist Church]]]]
[[Antisemitism]] has [[History of antisemitism in the United States|long existed]] in the United States. Most Jewish community relations agencies in the United States draw distinctions between [[antisemitism]], which is measured in terms of attitudes and behaviors, and the security and status of [[American Jews]], which are both measured by the occurrence of specific incidents. 

[[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] data shows that in every year since 1991, Jews were the most frequent victims of religiously motivated [[hate crime]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=ADL Urges Action After FBI Reports Jews Were Target of Most Religion-Based Hate Crimes in 2018|url=https://www.adl.org/news/press-releases/adl-urges-action-after-fbi-reports-jews-were-target-of-most-religion-based-hate|website=Anti-Defamation League}}</ref> The number of hate crimes against Jews may be underreported, as in the case for many other targeted groups.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Pink|first1=Aiden|date=August 17, 2020|title=Colleges express outrage about anti-Semitism— but fail to report it as a crime|url=https://forward.com/news/452483/college-antisemitic-hate-crimes/|access-date=2021-02-09|website=The Forward}}</ref>

According to a survey which was conducted by the Anti-Defamation League in 2019, antisemitism is rejected by a majority of Americans, with 79% of them lauding Jews' cultural contributions to the nation. The same poll found that only 19% of Americans adhered to the longstanding [[antisemitic canard]] that Jews co-control [[Wall Street]],<ref name="adl-poll">{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-News/ADL-poll-Anti-Semitic-attitudes-on-rise-in-USA|title=ADL poll: Anti-Semitic attitudes on rise in USA|newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]]|date=November 3, 2011|access-date=December 20, 2013}}</ref> while 31% agreed with the statement "Jewish employers go out of their way to hire other Jews".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Antisemitic Attitudes in the U.S.: A Guide to ADL's Latest Poll|url=https://www.adl.org/survey-of-american-attitudes-toward-jews|access-date=2021-02-09|website=Anti-Defamation League}}</ref> In 2023, the Biden administration launched<ref>{{Citation |title=Launch of U.S. National Strategy to Counter Antisemitism |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPt8ZWreEjE |access-date=2023-07-24 |language=en}}</ref> the [[U.S. National Strategy to Counter Antisemitism]].

{{Jews and Judaism sidebar |Population}}

==American viewpoints on Jews and antisemitism==
{{Main|Antisemitic trope|Racial antisemitism|Religious antisemitism|Stereotypes of Jews}}

===Roots of American attitudes towards Jews and Jewish history in America===
{{main|History of antisemitism in the United States}}
Krefetz (1985) asserts that antisemitism in the 1980s seems "rooted less in [[Religious antisemitism|religion]] or contempt and more rooted in envy, jealousy and fear" of Jewish affluence, and the hidden power of "[[Economic antisemitism|Jewish money]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krefetz |first=Gerald |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8903309 |title=Jews and money : the myths and the reality |date=1982 |publisher=Ticknor & Fields |others=Mazal Holocaust Collection |isbn=0-89919-129-0 |location=New Haven |oclc=8903309}}</ref> Historically, antisemitic attitudes and rhetoric have tended to increase whenever the United States has faced a serious economic crisis,<ref>[[Michelle Goldberg|Goldberg, Michelle]]. ''Kingdom Coming: The Rise of Christian Nationalism''. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2006. pp. 186-187.</ref> as well as during moments of political and social uncertainty and fear, such as with the rise of [[Nativism (politics)|nativist]] anti-immigration organizing in the early twentieth century, the emergence of the [[Nazism|Nazi]]-affiliated [[German-American Bund]] in the 1930s, and the [[Anti-communism|anti-Communist]] political movement during the [[Red Scare]].<ref>Richard Frankel, "One Crisis Behind? Rethinking Antisemitic Exceptionalism in the United States and Germany." ''American Jewish History'' 97.3 (July 2013): 235-258.</ref> Academic David Greenberg has written in ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]'', "Extreme [[anti-communism]] always contained an antisemitic component: Radical, alien Jews, in their [[demonology]], orchestrated the Communist conspiracy." He also has argued that, in the years which followed [[World War II]], some groups on "[[Radical right (United States)|the American right]] remained closely tied to the unvarnished antisemites of the '30s who railed against the 'Jew Deal'", a bigoted term which was used against the [[New Deal]] measures of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].<ref name=slate>{{cite news|last1=Greenberg|first1=David|title=Nixon and the Jews. Again.|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/history_lesson/2002/03/nixon_and_the_jews_again.html |access-date=August 29, 2018|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|date=March 12, 2002}}</ref> American antisemites have viewed the fraudulent text ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' as a real reference to a supposed Jewish cabal which was out to subvert and ultimately destroy the U.S.<ref name=beck>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/feb/02/far-right-glenn-beck|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=31 January 2015|date=2 February 2011|title=Glenn Beck and the echoes of Charles Coughlin|first=Paul|last=Harris}}</ref> Both the association of Jews with Communism and the fixation on a Jewish cabal purported in ''The Protocols of the Elders of Zion'' are conspiracies transplanted to the American context from European modernity: in a moment of economic revolution and socialist politics rising in contexts across Europe, conservative leaders from Christian Russia to interwar Great Britain manipulated a public fear of [[Jewish Bolshevism]] to scapegoat Jewish populations for strategic political gain.<ref>Hanebrink, Paul. ''A Specter Haunting Europe: The Myth of Judeo-Bolshevism''. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2018. pp. 11-20.</ref>

The "[[Great Replacement]]" theme, a version of the broader [[white genocide conspiracy theory]], was stressed by people who highlighted the supposed threat of [[American Jews|Jews]] and other [[Immigration to the United States|immigrants]] replacing [[Americans]] who were born in the country.<ref>Andrew S. Winston, "'Jews will not replace us!': Antisemitism, Interbreeding and Immigration in Historical Context." ''American Jewish History'' 105.1 (2021): 1-24.</ref> In the 1920s and 1930s, antisemitic activists were led by [[Henry Ford#Antisemitism and The Dearborn Independent|Henry Ford]] and other figures like [[Charles Lindbergh]], [[William Dudley Pelley]], [[Charles Coughlin]] and [[Gerald L. K. Smith]], and some of them were also members of organizations like the [[America First Committee]], the [[Christian Nationalist Crusade]], the [[German American Bund]], the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and the [[Silver Legion of America]]. They promulgated [[Antisemitic canard|canards]] and [[List of conspiracy theories#Antisemitism|various interrelated conspiracy theories]] that widely spread the fear that, through an evil transnational network, Jews were working for the destruction or replacement of [[white Americans]] along with the fear that Jews were working for the destruction or replacement of [[Christianity in the United States]].<ref>See Andrew S. Winston, "'Jews will not replace us!': Antisemitism, Interbreeding and Immigration in Historical Context." ''American Jewish History'' 105.1 (2021): 1-24. at p. 6.</ref><ref>Leonard Dinnerstein, ''Anti-Semitism in America'' (1994) pp 78-127.</ref>

===Tropes and stereotypes===
{{main|Antisemitic trope|Stereotypes of Jews}}

The most persistent form of [[antisemitism]] has consisted of a series of widely circulating [[Antisemitic trope|tropes]] and [[Stereotypes of Jews|stereotypes]] in which [[Jews]] are portrayed as being socially, religiously, and economically unacceptable to American life, because of their inferiority to white Christian society or because of conspiratorial thinking in which Jews are accused of plotting to undermine the racial and economic hierarchies which make up the [[Historical racial and ethnic demographics of the United States|historical fabric]] of [[Society of the United States|American society]]. As a whole, the Jewish people were looked down upon. They were made to feel unwanted, they were marginalized by American society and they were considered a menace to the United States.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2006|page=589|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=we2KvdT3zOsC&pg=PA589|isbn=978-0253346858}}</ref>

Martin Marger wrote, "A set of distinct and consistent negative stereotypes, some of which can be traced as far back as the [[Middle Ages]] in [[Antisemitism in Europe|Europe]], has been applied to [[Jews]]."<ref>{{cite book|title=Race and Ethnic Relations: American and Global Perspectives|first=Martin N.|last=Marger|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2008|page=3234|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TXP78beGTpcC&q=Jews+money+antisemitism&pg=PA324|quote=It is the connection of Jews with money, however, that appears to be the sine qua non of anti-Semitism.|isbn=9780495504368}}</ref>
David Schneder wrote, "Three large clusters of traits are part of the Jewish stereotype (Wuthnow, 1982). First, [American] Jews are seen as being powerful and manipulative. Second, they are accused of dividing their loyalties between the United States and Israel. A third set of traits concerns Jewish materialistic values, aggressiveness, clannishness."<ref>{{cite book|title=The psychology of stereotyping|first=David J.|last=Schneider|publisher=Guilford Press|year=2004|page=461|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VuHFFpZCg-QC&pg=PA461|isbn=9781572309296}}</ref>

Stereotypes of Jewish people share some of the same content as [[stereotypes of Asians]]: perceived disloyalty, power, intelligence, and dishonesty overlap. The similarity between the content of stereotypes of Jews and the content of stereotypes of Asians may stem from the fact that many immigrant Jews and many immigrant Asians both developed a merchant role, a role which was also historically held by many [[Indian diaspora in Southeast Africa|Indians in East Africa]], where the content of stereotypes of them resembles the content of [[Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States|stereotypes of Asians]] and [[American Jews|Jews in the United States]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The handbook of social psychology, Volume 2|pages=380–381|year=1998}}</ref>

Some of the [[antisemitic trope]]s which have been cited by the [[Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith|Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL) in its studies of U.S. social trends include the claims that "Jews have too much power in the business world," "Jews are more willing to use shady practices to get what they want," and "Jews always like to be at the head of things." Another issue that garners attention is the assertion that Jews have an excessive amount of influence on [[American cinema]] and [[American news media|news media]]. Put together, these lines of thinking about Jews demonstrate a common trend in the history of both American and global antisemitism—the inflation of stereotypes of Jews into a theory about how power (politics, economics, media, etc.) functions in society, an irrational theory that deflects responsibility for social ills away from actual authorities and leaders and onto minority Jewish communities.<ref name=November/>

In contemporary [[alt-right]] and right-wing circles, these tropes of power-hungry Jews sometimes manifest through coded references to "globalists," accusations that liberal agendas are the sole product of prominent Jews, and conspiracy theories (such as [[QAnon]]) that can be linked to the medieval [[blood libel]] against Jews.<ref>{{cite web|title=QAnon's Antisemitism and What Come's Next|date=2021-09-17|website=Anti-Defamation League|url=https://www.adl.org/resources/reports/qanons-antisemitism-and-what-comes-next}}</ref>

===Statistics of American viewpoints and analysis===
{{Further|Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century}}
Polls and studies point to a steady decrease in antisemitic attitudes, beliefs, and manifestations among the American public.<ref name=November/><ref name="Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism">{{cite web|title=The Resuscitation of Anti-Semitism: An American Perspective - An Interview with Abraham Foxman|url=http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-13.htm|work=[[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]]|access-date=24 October 2013}}</ref> A 1992 survey by the [[Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith|Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL) showed that about 20% of Americans—between 30 and 40 million adults—held antisemitic views, a considerable decline from the total of 29% found in 1964. However, another survey by the same organization concerning antisemitic incidents showed that the curve has risen without interruption since 1986.<ref name="Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism"/>

====2005 survey====
The number of Americans holding antisemitic views declined markedly six years later when another ADL study classified only 12 percent of the population—between 20 and 25 million adults, as "most antisemitic." Confirming the findings of previous surveys, both studies also found that African Americans were significantly more likely than whites to hold antisemitic views, with 34 percent of blacks classified as "most antisemitic," compared to 9 percent of whites in 1998.<ref name="Post-Holocaust and Anti-Semitism"/>
The 2005 Survey of American Attitudes Towards Jews in America, a national poll of 1,600 American adults conducted in March 2005, found that 14% of Americans—or nearly 35 million adults—hold views about Jews that are "unquestionably antisemitic," compared to 17% in 2002, In 1998, the number of Americans with hardcore antisemitic beliefs had dropped to 12% from 20% in 1992.

The 2005 survey found "35 percent of foreign-born [[Hispanics]] (down from 44% [in 2002])" and 36 percent of [[African-American]]s hold strong antisemitic beliefs, four times more than the 9 percent for whites."<ref name="2005-ADL-survey">{{cite web|title=ADL Survey: Antisemitism In America Remains Constant; 14 Percent Of Americans Hold 'Strong' Antisemitic Beliefs|url=http://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASUS_12/4680_12.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207193710/https://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASUS_12/4680_12.htm|archive-date=7 February 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> The 2005 Anti-Defamation League survey includes data on [[Hispanic]] attitudes, with 29% being most antisemitic (as opposed as 9% for whites and 36% for blacks), being born in the United States lessened the prevalence of that attitude: 35% of foreign-born Hispanics and only 19% of those born in the US.<ref name="2005-ADL-survey" />

The survey findings come at a time of increased antisemitic activity in America. The 2004 ADL Audit of Antisemitic Incidents reported that antisemitic incidents reached their highest level in nine years. A total of 1,821 antisemitic incidents were reported in 2004, an increase of 17% over the 1,557 incidents reported during 2003.<ref>{{Cite press release|url=http://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASUS_12/4671_12.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 14, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060214141101/https://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASUS_12/4671_12.htm|date=April 4, 2005|title=ADL Audit: Antisemitic Incidents At Highest Level in Nine Years}}</ref> "What concerns us is that many of the gains we had seen in building a more tolerant and accepting America seem not to have taken hold as firmly as we had hoped," said Abraham H. Foxman, ADL National Director. "While there are many factors at play, the findings suggest that antisemitic beliefs endure and resonate with a substantial segment of the population, nearly 35 million people."

====After 2005====
In 2007 an [[ABC News]] report recounted that past ABC polls across several years have tended to find that about 6% of Americans self-report prejudice against Jews as compared to about 25% being against [[Arab Americans]] and about 10% against [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic Americans]]. The report also remarked that a full 34% of Americans reported having "some racist feelings" in general as a self-description.<ref name=abc>{{cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/images/US/1048a1Hispanics.pdf|title=Aquí Se Habla Español – and Two-Thirds Don't Mind|work=[[ABC News]]|date=Oct 8, 2007|access-date=Dec 20, 2013}}</ref>

A 2009 study which was titled "Modern Anti-Semitism and Anti-Israeli Attitudes", published in the ''[[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]]'' in 2009, tested a new theoretical model of antisemitism among Americans in the Greater New York area with three experiments. The research team's theoretical model proposed that [[mortality salience]] (reminding people that they will someday die) increases antisemitism and that antisemitism is often expressed as anti-Israel attitudes. The first experiment showed that mortality salience led to higher levels of antisemitism and lower levels of support for Israel. The study's methodology was designed to tease out antisemitic attitudes that are concealed by polite people. The second experiment showed that mortality salience caused people to perceive Israel as very important, but did not cause them to perceive any other country this way. The third experiment showed that mortality salience led to a desire to punish Israel for human rights violations but not to a desire to punish Russia or India for identical human rights violations. According to the researchers, their results "suggest that Jews constitute a unique cultural threat to many people's worldviews, that antisemitism causes hostility to Israel, and that hostility to Israel may feed back to increase antisemitism." Furthermore, "those claiming that there is no connection between antisemitism and hostility toward Israel are wrong."<ref>Modern Anti-Semitism and Anti-Israeli Attitudes, Florette Cohen, Department of Psychology, The College of Staten Island, City University New York; [[Lee Jussim]], Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick; Kent D. Harber, Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Newark; Gautam Bhasin, Department of Counseling, Columbia Teacher's College, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2009, Vol. 97, No. 2, 290–306 [http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/97/2/290.html psycnet.apa.org]</ref>

The 2011 ''Survey of American Attitudes Toward Jews in America'' released by the ADL found that the recent [[Late-2000s recession|world economic recession]] increased some antisemitic viewpoints among Americans. [[Abraham H. Foxman]], the organization's national director, argued, "It is disturbing that with all of the strides we have made in becoming a more tolerant society, antisemitic beliefs continue to hold a vice-grip on a small but not insubstantial segment of the American public." Specifically, the polling found that 19% of Americans answered "probably true" to the assertion that "Jews have too much control/influence on Wall Street" while 15% concurred with the related statement that Jews seem "more willing to use shady practices" in business. Nonetheless, the survey generally reported positive attitudes for most Americans, the majority of those who were surveyed expressed [[philo-Semitic]] sentiments such as 64% agreeing that Jews have contributed much to U.S. social culture.<ref name="adl-poll"/>

President [[Donald Trump]] declared himself to be a supporter of Israel and American Jews. Trump signed the [[Executive Order on Combating Anti-Semitism]].<ref>David N. Myers, "The Perils of Naming: On Donald Trump, Jews, and Antisemites," ''Journal of Holocaust Research'' (2021) 35:2, 154-162, DOI:10.1080/25785648.2021.1899511</ref> However, a 2019 survey by the Jewish Electorate Institute found that 73% of American Jews feel less secure since the [[election of Donald Trump]] to the presidency.  Since 2016, antisemitic attacks against synagogues have contributed to this fear. The 2019 survey found that combatting antisemitism is a priority issue in domestic politics among American Jews, including [[millennials]].<ref>[https://www.jewishelectorateinstitute.org/poll-domestic-issues-dominate-the-priorities-of-the-jewish-electorate/ "Poll: Domestic Issues Dominate The Priorities Of The Jewish Electorate."] ''Jewish Electorate Institute''. 22 May 2019. 22 May 2019.</ref>

==Antisemitism within the African-American community==
{{see also|African American–Jewish relations}}
Surveys which were conducted by the ADL in 2007, 2009, 2011, and 2013 all found that an overwhelming majority of [[African-Americans]] who were questioned rejected antisemitism and they generally expressed the same kinds of tolerant viewpoints as other [[Americans]] who were also surveyed. For example, the results of the ADL's 2009 study revealed that 28% of African-Americans who were surveyed expressed antisemitic views while a 72% majority did not. However, those three surveys all revealed that negative attitudes towards Jews were stronger among African-Americans than they were among the general population at large.<ref name=presentation>{{cite web|url=http://archive.adl.org/anti_semitism_domestic/adl-2011-anti-semitism_presentation.pdf|title=ADL 2011 Antisemitism Presentation|publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712053337/http://archive.adl.org/anti_semitism_domestic/adl-2011-anti-semitism_presentation.pdf|access-date=January 31, 2015|archive-date=2014-07-12}}</ref>

According to earlier ADL research, dating back to 1964, the trend that African-Americans are significantly more likely to hold antisemitic beliefs across all education levels than [[white Americans]] has remained unchanged over the years. Nonetheless, the percentage of the population which holds a negative opinion of Jews has also waned considerably in the black community during this period. In 1967, the ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' published the article "[[Negroes Are Anti-Semitic Because They're Anti-White]]" in which the [[African-American]] author [[James Baldwin]] sought to explain the prevalence of black antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web|title=To what degree does Anti-Semitism among African Americans simply reflect Anti-White sentiment?|url=http://www.dominican.edu/query/ncur/display_ncur.php?id=2045|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020102407/http://www.dominican.edu/query/ncur/display_ncur.php?id=2045|archive-date=2007-10-20}}</ref><ref>Jessica T. Simes (2009). [https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/jsimes/files/ssj_simes_2009.pdf "Does anti-Semitism among African Americans simply reflect anti-White sentiment?"], 46 ''The Social Science Journal'' 384–89.</ref> An ADL poll from 1992 stated that 37% of African-Americans surveyed displayed antisemitism;<ref name=November>{{cite web|url=http://www.adl.org/antisemitism_survey/survey_print.asp|title=Anti-Semitism and Prejudice in America: Highlights from an ADL Survey - November 1998|publisher=[[Anti-Defamation League]]|access-date=January 31, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009023051/http://archive.adl.org/antisemitism_survey/survey_print.html|archive-date=Oct 9, 2014}}</ref> in contrast, a poll from 2011 found that only 29% did so.<ref name=presentation/>

The more education people have the less antisemitic they are. In 1998 among blacks with no college education, 43% fell into the most antisemitic group (versus 18% of the general population) compared to only 27% among blacks with some college education and just 18% among blacks with a four-year college degree (versus 5% of people in the general population with a four-year college degree).<ref name=November/>  At all educational levels, Blacks were more likely than whites to accept anti-Jewish stereotypes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/adl-survey-finds-anti-semitism-high-in-black-community |title=Anti-Semitism and Prejudice in America: Highlights from an ADL Survey |publisher=Anti-Defamation League|via=Jewish Virtual Library |date=November 1998 |access-date=23 May 2019}}</ref>

[[Brookings Institution]] fellow [[Jamie Kirchick]] said in 2018 that antisemitism has been a particular problem in parts of America's black community since the split between the mainstream [[Civil rights movement]] led by [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and the more radical [[Black Power movement]] of the late 1960s. Kirchick says that leaders on the political left continue to foment antisemitism.<ref>{{cite news|author=Jamie Kirchick |author-link=Jamie Kirchick|title=The Rise of Black Anti-Semitism |url=https://www.commentarymagazine.com/articles/rise-black-anti-semitism/ |accessdate=30 December 2019 |publisher=Commentary Magazine |date=June 2018}}</ref>

A 2019 study found that 28% of African Americans believed that they were seeing more Black people that they personally knew express antisemitism than in the past.<ref name="research">{{cite web |last1=Earls |first1=Aaron |title=African Americans Have Mixed Opinions and Often No Opinions on Israel |url=https://blog.lifeway.com/newsroom/2019/11/05/african-americans-have-mixed-opinions-and-often-no-opinions-on-israel/ |website=LifeWay Research |date=5 November 2019 |publisher=LifeWay |access-date=10 January 2021}}</ref> In the same study, 19% of African Americans believed that Jewish people were impeding Black progress in America.<ref name="research"/> Four percent (4%) of African Americans self-identified as being [[Black Hebrew Israelites]] in 2019.<ref name="research"/>

===Leadership===

Prominent members of the African-American community have spoken out against antisemitism, including [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-14|title=Kareem Abdul-Jabbar: Where Is the Outrage Over Anti-Semitism in Sports and Hollywood?|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/kareem-abdul-jabbar-is-outrage-anti-semitism-sports-hollywood-1303210|access-date=2021-02-10|website=The Hollywood Reporter|language=en}}</ref> and [[Zach Banner]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kobrinetz|first=Shayna|title=USC alum Zach Banner uses platform to fight anti-semitism|url=https://usctrojans.com/news/2020/7/11/usc-athletics-usc-alum-zach-banner-uses-platform-to-fight-anti-semitism.aspx|access-date=2021-02-10|website=USC Athletics|language=en}}</ref> In December 2022, taking a joint stand against increasing instances of [[Racism in the United States|racism]] and antisemitism in the United States, African-American leaders New York City Mayor [[Eric Adams]], Reverends [[Al Sharpton]] and [[Conrad Tillard]], and [[Vista Equity Partners]] CEO and [[Carnegie Hall]] Chairman [[Robert F. Smith (investor)|Robert F. Smith]], joined Jewish leaders Rabbi [[Shmuley Boteach]] and [[Elisha Wiesel]], and jointly hosted 15 Days of Light, celebrating [[Hanukkah]] and [[Kwanzaa]] in a unifying holiday ceremony at Carnegie Hall.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://amsterdamnews.com/news/2022/12/21/mayor-eric-adams-the-rev-al-sharpton-others-gather-for-joint-kwanzaa-hanukkah-celebration/|title=Mayor Eric Adams, Rev. Al Sharpton, others gather for joint Kwanzaa, Hanukkah celebration|date=December 21, 2022|website=New York Amsterdam News}}</ref>  Sharpton said: "There is never a time more needed than now for Blacks and Jews to remember the struggle that we've gone through. You can't fight for anybody if you don't fight for everybody. I cannot fight for Black rights if I don't fight for Jewish rights ... because then it becomes a matter of self-aggrandizement rather than fighting for humanity. It's easy for Blacks to stand up for racism. It's easy for Jews to stand up to antisemitism. But if you want to really be a leader, you got to speak as a Black against antisemitism and antisemites, and you got to speak as a Jew against racism."<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.jns.org/wire/mayor-eric-adams-rev-al-sharpton-robert-f-smith-robert-f-smith-rev-conrad-tillard-rabbi-shmuley-boteach-and-elisha-wiesel-join-together-to-host-15-days-of-light-celebrating-hanukkah-and/|title=Mayor Eric Adams, Rev. Al Sharpton, Robert F. Smith, Robert F. Smith, Rev. Conrad Tillard, Rabbi Shmuley Boteach and Elisha Wiesel join together to host '15 Days of Light,' celebrating Hanukkah and Kwanzaa|website=JNS}}</ref><ref name="auto13a">{{Cite web|url=https://www.yahoo.com/now/black-jewish-leaders-gather-carnegie-032200862.html|title=Black and Jewish Leaders Gather at Carnegie Hall to Take a Stand Against Antisemitism and Racism|website=Yahoo|date=December 20, 2022|access-date=December 30, 2022|archive-date=December 25, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225013742/https://www.yahoo.com/now/black-jewish-leaders-gather-carnegie-032200862.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Smith said: "When we unify the souls of our two communities, we can usher in light to banish the darkness of racism, bigotry, and antisemitism."<ref name="auto1"/>

Prominent African American figures such as [[Louis Farrakhan]] and [[Kanye West]] have received widespread condemnation for propagating anti-semitism.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-disturbing-rise-of-anti-semitism-among-black-celebs-from-diddy-and-nick-cannon-to-ice-cube | title=The Disturbing Rise of Anti-Semitism Among Black Celebs | newspaper=The Daily Beast | date=16 July 2020 | last1=Costa | first1=Cassie da }}</ref>

==Holocaust denial==
{{further|Holocaust denial}}
[[Austin App]], a [[German Americans|German-American]] [[La Salle University]] professor of [[Middle English literature|medieval English literature]], is considered the first major American Holocaust denier.<ref>Atkins, Stephen E. (2009). Austin J. App and Holocaust Denial. Holocaust denial as an international movement. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. pp. 153–55. {{ISBN|0-313-34539-2}}.</ref> App wrote extensively in newspapers and periodicals, and he also wrote a couple of books which detailed his defense of [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Holocaust denial]]. App's work inspired the [[Institute for Historical Review]], a California center which was founded in 1978 with the sole purpose of denying the Holocaust.<ref>Carlos C. Huerta and Dafna Shiffman-Huerta "Holocaust Denial Literature: Its Place in Teaching the Holocaust", in Rochelle L. Millen. New Perspectives on the Holocaust: A Guide for Teachers and Scholars, NYU Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0-8147-5540-2}}, p. 189.</ref> One of the newer forms of antisemitism is the denial of the Holocaust by [[historical negationism|negationist]] historians and [[Neo-Nazism|neo-Nazis]].<ref>Antisemitism In The Contemporary World. Edited by Michael Curtis. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1986, 333 pp., $42.50. {{ISBN|0-8133-0157-2}}.</ref>

The results of a survey which was conducted in 2020 revealed that close to two-thirds of [[Millennials]] and [[Generation Z|Gen Z adults]] were not aware that 6 million Jews were killed in the Holocaust.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Miller|first=Ryan W.|title=Almost two-thirds of millennials, Gen Z don't know that 6 million Jews were killed in the Holocaust, survey finds|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2020/09/16/holocaust-history-millennials-gen-z-cant-name-concentration-camps/5792448002/|access-date=2021-02-10|website=USA TODAY}}</ref> 24% of them believed that the Holocaust might be a myth or that accounts of it are exaggerated.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Conference|first=Claims|title=First-Ever 50-State Survey on Holocaust Knowledge of American Millennials and Gen Z Reveals Shocking Results|url=http://www.claimscon.org/millennial-study/|access-date=2021-02-10|website=Claims Conference|date=13 August 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-16|title=Nearly two-thirds of US young adults unaware 6m Jews killed in the Holocaust|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/16/holocaust-us-adults-study|access-date=2021-02-10|website=The Guardian}}</ref>

==Antisemitic organizations==
===White supremacists===
{{expand section|date=May 2019}}
[[File:Knights Party flag.PNG|thumb|The flag of the Knights Party, the political branch of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan]]
There are a number of antisemitic organizations in the United States, some of them violent, which espouse [[religious antisemitism]], [[racial antisemitism]] and [[white supremacy]]. They include [[Christian Identity]] Churches, [[White Aryan Resistance]], the [[Ku Klux Klan]], the [[American Nazi Party]], and many other organizations. Several [[Christian fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] churches, such as the [[Westboro Baptist Church]] and the [[Faithful Word Baptist Church]], also preach [[Antisemitism in Christianity|antisemitic messages]]. The largest neo-Nazi organizations in the United States are the National Nazi Party and the [[National Socialist Movement (United States)|National Socialist Movement]]. Adopting the look and emblems of [[white power skinhead]]s, many members of these antisemitic groups shave their heads and tattoo themselves with [[Nazi symbolism|Nazi symbols]] such as [[swastika]]s, [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] [[Runic insignia of the Schutzstaffel|insignias]], and "[[Heil Hitler]]". Additionally, antisemitic groups march and preach antisemitic messages throughout America.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/WBC/default.asp?LEARN_Cat=Extremism&LEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_America&xpicked=3&item=WBC|title=Extremism in America - About Westboro Baptist Church|access-date=2011-12-18|archive-date=2010-07-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707223315/http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/WBC/default.asp?LEARN_Cat=Extremism&LEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_America&xpicked=3&item=WBC|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Although most American Jews are of European descent and 80% to 90% identify as white (as noted by Ilana Kaufman of the [[Jewish Community Relations Council]]), white nationalists hate the religious and ethnic diversity that Jews represent.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chang |first1=Ailsa |author-link=Ailsa Chang |last2=Kaufman |first2=Ilana |title=How Anti-Semitism Is Tied To White Nationalism |url=https://www.npr.org/2018/10/30/662253632/how-anti-semitism-is-tied-to-white-nationalism |website=NPR |access-date=25 April 2023}}</ref>

===Nation of Islam===
{{Main|Nation of Islam and antisemitism}}
{{See|Antisemitism in Islam}}

A number of Jewish organizations, Christian organizations, Muslim organizations, and academics consider the [[Nation of Islam]] antisemitic. Specifically, they claim that the Nation of Islam has engaged in revisionist and antisemitic interpretations of the Holocaust and exaggerates the role of Jews in the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://networks.h-net.org/h-antisemitism|title=H-Antisemitism &#124; H-Net|website=networks.h-net.org}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=February 2022}}

In December 2012, the [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] put the NOI's leader [[Louis Farrakhan]] on its list of the ten most prominent antisemites in the world. He was the only American to make it onto the list. The organization cited statements that he had made in October of that year in which he claimed that "Jews control the media" and "Jews are the most violent of people".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/jewish-world/jewish-features/wiesenthal-ranks-top-10-anti-semites-israel-haters|title=Wiesenthal ranks top 10 anti-Semites, Israel-haters|website=The Jerusalem Post &#124; JPost.com|date=28 December 2012 }}</ref>

Farrakhan has denied charges of antisemitism, but in his denial, he included a reference to "[[Serpent seed|Satanic Jews]]." After he was banned from [[Facebook]], he denied being a "hater" but admitted that Facebook's designation of him as a "dangerous individual" was correct.<ref>{{cite news |last1=G. McCann |first1=Herbert |title=Farrakhan delivers insult while denying he's anti-Semitic |url=https://apnews.com/70da24ff7b344c098e91d9b3505a98e0 |work=AP NEWS |date=May 10, 2021 |language=en|access-date=17 January 2020}}</ref>
<!--==New antisemitism==
[[File:AntiWarRallyFeb162003.jpg|thumb|Poster held by a protester at an anti-war rally in [[San Francisco]] on February 16, 2003]]
{{Excerpt|New antisemitism}}-->

==Antisemitism on college campuses{{anchor|Antisemitism on college campuses}}==
{{further|Universities and antisemitism|Academic boycott of Israel#United States|Qatari involvement in higher education in the United States}}

Many Jewish intellectuals who fled from [[Nazi Germany]] after [[Adolf Hitler's rise to power]] in the 1930s [[Emigration of Jews from Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe#United States|immigrated to the United States]]. There, they hoped to continue their academic careers, but barring a scant few, they found little acceptance in elite institutions in [[Great Depression in the United States|Depression-era America]] with its undercurrent of antisemitism. Instead, they [[Jewish refugees teaching in black colleges|found work in historically black colleges]] and universities in the [[Southern United States|American South]].<ref name="AAR">{{Cite news|url=https://aaregistry.org/story/jewish-profs-and-hbcus/|title=Jewish Prof's and HBCU's - African American Registry|work=African American Registry |access-date=2018-12-24}}</ref><ref name="Hoch-1983">{{Cite journal|last=Hoch|first=Paul K.|date=1983-05-11|title=The reception of central European refugee physicists of the 1930s: USSR, UK, US.|journal=Annals of Science|volume=40|issue=3|pages=217–246|doi=10.1080/00033798300200211|issn=0003-3790}}</ref>

On April 3, 2006, the [[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]] announced its finding that incidents of antisemitism are a "serious problem" on college campuses throughout the United States. The Commission recommended for the [[U.S. Department of Education]]'s [[Office for Civil Rights]] to protect college students from antisemitism by vigorous enforcement of Title VI of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]]. It further recommended for the [[U.S. Congress]] to clarify that Title VI applies to discrimination against Jewish students.<ref>[[U.S. Commission on Civil Rights]]: {{cite web|url=http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/050306FRUSCCRRCAS.pdf|title=Findings and Recommendations Regarding Campus Antisemitism}}&nbsp;{{small|(19.3&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}. April 3, 2006</ref>

In February 2015, the [[Louis D. Brandeis Center for Human Rights under Law]] and [[Trinity College (Connecticut)|Trinity College]]<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kosmin|first1=Barry|last2=Keysar|first2=Ariela|title=Anti-Semitism Report|url=http://www.brandeiscenter.com/images/uploads/articleuploads/trinity-Anti-Semitism.pdf|website=Louis D. Brandeis Center|publisher=Louis D. Brandeis Cent for Human Rights Under Law|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318213350/http://www.brandeiscenter.com/images/uploads/articleuploads/trinity-Anti-Semitism.pdf|archive-date=2015-03-18}}</ref> presented the results of a national survey of American Jewish college students. The survey had a 10-12% response rate and did not claim to be representative. The report showed that 54% of the 1,157 self-identified Jewish students at 55 campuses nationwide who took part in the online survey reported having experienced or witnessed antisemitism on their campuses during the Spring semester of the last academic year.

A 2017 report by [[Brandeis University]]'s [[Steinhardt Social Research Institute]] indicated that most Jewish students never experience anti-Jewish remarks or physical attacks. The study, "Limits to Hostility," notes that even though it is often reported in the news, actual antisemitic hostility remains rare on most campuses and is seldom encountered by Jewish students.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lipman|first1=Steve|title=What Anti-Semitism On Campus?|url=https://jewishweek.timesofisrael.com/what-anti-semitism-on-campus/|website=The New York Jewish Week|publisher=The Jewish Week Media Group |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209163005/https://jewishweek.timesofisrael.com/what-anti-semitism-on-campus/ |archive-date=9 February 2019|date=18 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The study attempted to document the student experience at the campus level, adding detail to previous national-level surveys.<ref name="LimitsOfHostility">{{cite web|last1=Wright|first1=Graham|last2=Shain|first2=Michelle|last3=Hecht|first3=Shahar|last4=Saxe|first4=Leonard|title=The Limits of Hostility:Students Report on Antisemitism and Anti-Israel Sentiment at Four US Universities|url=https://www.brandeis.edu/ssri/pdfs/campusstudies/LimitsofHostility.pdf|publisher=Brandeis University |access-date=10 December 2019|date=December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171218135607/https://www.brandeis.edu/ssri/pdfs/campusstudies/LimitsofHostility.pdf|archive-date=December 18, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{rp|5}} The report summary highlights the finding that antisemitism exists on campus, but "Jewish students do not think their campus is hostile to Jews."

The National Demographic Survey of American Jewish College Students provided a snapshot of the type, context, and location of antisemitism as it was experienced by a large national sample of Jewish students on university and four-year college campuses.<ref>{{cite web|title=National Survey of U.S. Jewish College Students Shows High Rate of Anti-Semitism on Campuses|url=http://www.trincoll.edu/NewsEvents/NewsArticles/pages/National-Survey-of-U-S-Jewish-College-Students-Shows-High-Rate-of-Anti-Semitism.aspx|work=Trinity College|access-date=4 August 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212005945/https://www.trincoll.edu/NewsEvents/NewsArticles/pages/National-Survey-of-U-S-Jewish-College-Students-Shows-High-Rate-of-Anti-Semitism.aspx|archive-date=February 12, 2016}}</ref> Inside Higher Ed focused on the more surprising findings of the report, like the fact that high rates of antisemitism were also reported at institutions regardless of their location or type, and the data collected after the survey suggests that discrimination occurs during low-level, everyday interpersonal activities, and Jewish students feel that their reports of antisemitism are largely ignored by the administration.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mulhere|first1=Kaitlin|title=Campus Anti-Semitism|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2015/02/24/bias-reported-survey-jewish-college-students|access-date=4 August 2016}}</ref> However, not all of the reception was positive, and [[The Forward]] argued that the study documented only a snapshot in time, rather than a trend; it did not survey a representative sample of Jewish college students; and it was flawed by allowing students to define antisemitism and thus the term open to interpretation.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ulinich|first1=Anya|title=The Anti-Semitism Surge That Isn't|url=http://forward.com/opinion/editorial/217167/the-anti-semitism-surge-that-isnt/|website=The Forward|date=24 March 2015 |access-date=4 August 2016}}</ref>

In September 2021, in collaboration with the [[Cohen Group]], the Brandeis Center conducted a poll of American Jewish fraternity and sorority members. The survey found that more than 65% of the respondents had experienced or were familiar with an antisemitic attack in the previous 120 days. Nearly half of the respondents felt the need to hide their Jewish identity out of fear.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Murakami |first=Kery |date=November 26, 2021 |title="Jewish leaders worry about rising antisemitism from the left" |work=The Washington Times |url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2021/nov/26/jewish-leaders-worry-about-rising-antisemitism-lef/ |access-date=July 6, 2022}}</ref>

Sara Fredman Aeder, director of development at NYU Bronfman Center, studied antisemitism on US campuses for her PhD study. She found that most Jewish students had never experienced antisemitism on campus or personally knew of such occurrences. Rather, their fears were informed by what they read online and in social media.<ref>{{cite web | author = Sara Fredman Aeder | title = Reality vs. perception on college campuses | date = August 24, 2022 | url = https://ejewishphilanthropy.com/reality-vs-perception-on-college-campuses/}}</ref>

==Hate crimes==
===Overview===

{{see also|List of antisemitic incidents in the United States|List of attacks on Jewish institutions in the United States}}
{{Pie chart
|title = Antisemitic vandalism incidents by location
|value1 = 22
|label1 = Private residence
|value2 = 7
|label2 = College campus
|value3 = 11
|label3 = Jewish institution / school
|value4 = 12
|label4 = Non-Jewish school
|value5 = 35
|label5 = Public area
|value6 = 12
|label6 = Private building / area
|value7 = 1
|label7 = Cemetery
}}

In April 2019, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) reported that antisemitism in the U.S. was at "near-historic levels," with 1,879 attacks recorded against individuals and institutions during 2018, "the third-highest year on record since the ADL started tracking such data in the 1970s."<ref>{{cite web|title=Anti-Semitic Incidents Remained at Near-Historic Levels in 2018; Assaults Against Jews More Than Doubled|url=https://www.adl.org/news/press-releases/anti-semitic-incidents-remained-at-near-historic-levels-in-2018-assaults|website=Anti-Defamation League}}</ref>

This followed data from earlier in the decade which showed a multi-year slide in antisemitism, including a 19% decline in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=ADL Audit: Anti-Semitic Incidents Declined 19 Percent Across the United States in 2013|url=http://www.adl.org/press-center/press-releases/anti-semitism-usa/adl-audit-anti-semitic-incidents-2013.html|work=ADL|access-date=17 May 2014}}</ref>

The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) organizes [[Uniform Crime Reports]] (UCR) which are designed to collect and evaluate statistics of offenses which are committed in the U.S. In 2014, 1,140 victims of anti-religious [[Hate crime laws in the United States|hate crimes]] were listed, of which 56.8% were motivated by offenders' anti-Jewish biases. 15,494 law enforcement agencies contributed to the UCR analysis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/latest-hate-crime-statistics-available|title=Latest Hate Crime Statistics Available|website=Federal Bureau of Investigation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ucr.fbi.gov/hate-crime/2014/topic-pages/victims_final|title=Victims|website=FBI}}</ref>

According to the [[American Enterprise Institute]], Jews were the most likely of any group, religious or otherwise, to be targeted for hate crimes in the U.S. in 2018,<ref>{{cite web|title=New 2018 FBI data: Jews were 2.7X more likely than blacks, 2.2X more likely than Muslims to be hate crime victims|url=https://www.aei.org/carpe-diem/new-2018-fbi-data-jews-were-2-7x-more-likely-than-blacks-2-2x-more-likely-than-muslims-to-be-hate-crime-victim/|website=American Enterprise Institute - AEI|date=14 November 2019}}</ref> 2016,<ref>{{cite web|title=2016 FBI data: Jews were 3X more likely than blacks, 1.5X more likely than Muslims to be hate crime victims|url=https://www.aei.org/carpe-diem/2016-fbi-data-jews-were-3x-more-likely-than-blacks-1-5x-more-likely-than-muslims-to-be-a-hate-crime-victim/|website=American Enterprise Institute - AEI|date=13 November 2017}}</ref> and 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aei.org/carpe-diem/2015-fbi-data-jews-were-nearly-3x-more-likely-than-blacks-1-5x-more-likely-than-muslims-to-be-a-hate-crime-victim/|title=2015 FBI data: Jews were nearly 3X more likely than blacks, 1.5X more likely than Muslims to be a hate crime victim|date=6 December 2016}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that Jews were the most targeted in proportion to their population size in 2005,<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite web|last1=Park|first1=Haeyoun|last2=Mykhyalyshyn|first2=Iaryna|title=L.G.B.T. People Are More Likely to Be Targets of Hate Crimes Than Any Other Minority Group|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/06/16/us/hate-crimes-against-lgbt.html|website=The New York Times|date=16 June 2016}}</ref> and they were the second-most targeted individuals after LGBT individuals in 2014.<ref name="nytimes.com"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Interesting facts of the day on US hate crimes in 2014|url=https://www.aei.org/carpe-diem/interesting-facts-of-the-day-on-us-hate-crimes-in-2014/|website=American Enterprise Institute - AEI|date=6 December 2015}}</ref>

The [[NYPD]] reported a 75% increase in the amount of [[swastika]] graffiti between 2016 and 2018, with an uptick observed after the Pittsburgh shooting. Out of 189 hate crimes in [[New York City]] in 2018, 150 featured swastikas.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hate crimes in NY: Jews targeted in 2018 more than all other groups combined|url=https://forward.com/fast-forward/418047/swastika-graffitti-up-76-since-trump-election-says-nyc-police/|access-date=23 January 2019|publisher=Forward|date=23 January 2018}}</ref> On February 1, 2019, graffiti which read "fucking Jews" was found on the wall of a [[synagogue]] in LA.<ref>{{cite news|title=Anti-Semitic graffiti found on LA synagogue|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/anti-semitic-graffiti-found-on-la-synagogue/|access-date=23 January 2019|newspaper=The Times of Israel|date=1 February 2019}}</ref> During [[Hanukkah]] festivities in December 2019, a number of attacks committed in New York were possibly motivated by antisemitism, including a [[2019 Monsey Hanukkah stabbing|mass stabbing in Monsey]].<ref name="guardian-28dec2019">{{cite news|title=Synagogue stabbings: five hurt in Monsey attack, say reports|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/dec/29/synagogue-stabbings-three-hurt-in-monsey-attack-say-reports |access-date=December 28, 2019|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=December 28, 2019}}</ref>

In May 2021, there was an upsurge of violent assaults on Jews in the United States at the same time as the [[2021 Israel–Palestine crisis|Gaza conflict]], according to the Secure Community Network and Network Contagion Research Institute.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kampeas |first1=Ron |title=Antisemitic acts in US soared 80% in a month, Jewish group reports |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/antisemitic-acts-in-us-soared-80-percent-in-a-month-jewish-group-reports-669174 |access-date=28 February 2022 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=May 26, 2021}}</ref>

=== 2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting ===
{{Main|Pittsburgh synagogue shooting}}
[[File:Tree of Life – Or L'Simcha synagogue facade.jpg|thumb|People paying their respects at a memorial to the victims of the Tree of Life synagogue]]
The [[Pittsburgh synagogue shooting]] was a terrorist attack in the form of a [[mass shooting]], which took place at the [[Tree of Life – Or L'Simcha Congregation]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Synagogue Life|url=https://www.tolols.org/fullscreen-page/comp-j65rgtsh/8310e407-9e01-4119-a085-587d95f5e327/0/%3Fi%3D0%26p%3D%26s%3D|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031052641/https://www.tolols.org/fullscreen-page/comp-j65rgtsh/8310e407-9e01-4119-a085-587d95f5e327/0/?i=0&p=&s=|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 31, 2018|publisher=Tree of Life * Or l'Simcha Congregation|access-date=October 27, 2018}}</ref> [[synagogue]] in the [[Squirrel Hill (Pittsburgh)|Squirrel Hill]] neighborhood of Pittsburgh. The congregation, along with New Light Congregation and Congregation Dor Hadash, which also worshipped in the building, was attacked during [[Shabbat]] [[Shacharit|morning services]] on October 27, 2018. The perpetrator killed eleven people and wounded six. It was the deadliest attack ever on the Jewish community in the United States. A lone suspect, identified as 46-year-old Robert Gregory Bowers, was arrested at the scene. In 2023 he was tried in federal court and sentenced to death.<ref>See [https://www.nbcnews.com/news/crime-courts/pittsburgh-synagogue-mass-shooter-robert-bowers-sentenced-death-rcna97942  Julianne McShane and Minyvonne Burke. "Pittsburgh synagogue mass shooter sentenced to death after victims face him in court" ''NBC News'' Aug. 3, 2023.]</ref>

=== 2019 Poway synagogue shooting ===
{{Main|Poway synagogue shooting}}
The '''Poway synagogue shooting''' occurred on April 27, 2019, at [[Chabad of Poway]] synagogue in [[Poway, California]]. It came on the last day of the Jewish [[Passover]] holiday, which fell on a [[Shabbat]]. Armed with an [[AR-15 style rifle]] the gunman, John Earnest, fatally shot one woman and injured three other persons, including the synagogue's rabbi.  A month before the shooting, Earnest had attempted to burn down a mosque in [[Escondido, California|Escondido]].  In September 2021, Earnest was sentenced by a state court to life in prison without the possibility of parole.<ref name="Kimball2019">{{Cite news |last1=Kimball |first1=Spencer |date=2019-04-27 |title='It was a hate crime': One dead, three injured in synagogue shooting in San Diego area |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/04/27/police-respond-to-reports-of-shooting-at-synagogue-in-san-diego-area.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429200823/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/04/27/police-respond-to-reports-of-shooting-at-synagogue-in-san-diego-area.html |archive-date=2019-04-29 |access-date=May 5, 2019 |work=[[CNBC]] |publisher= |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== 2019 Jersey City shooting ===
{{excerpt|2019 Jersey City shooting}}

===2023 Los Angeles shooting===
In February 2023, 28 year-old Jaime Tran shot two Jewish men when they were leaving religious services at two separate synagogues in the same predominantly Jewish neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. According to the police, the victims were carried to a hospital in stable condition. Tran was arrested by police and admitted he shot the men for being Jewish. Tran may be sentenced to life in prison.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Campbell |first1=Josh |last2=Tucker |first2=Emma |title=Federal prosecutors charge man with 2 hate crimes after allegedly shooting 2 Jewish men in Los Angeles |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/02/17/us/los-angeles-jewish-shooting-suspect-arrest/index.html |website=CNN|date=17 February 2023 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Jewish|Judaism|United States}}
* [[Antisemitism]], worldwide
* [[History of antisemitism]]
* [[Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century]]
* [[History of antisemitism#United States]]
* [[History of antisemitism in the United States]]
* [[History of the Jews in the United States]]
* [[The Holocaust]]
** [[Holocaust denial]]
** [[United States and the Holocaust]]
* [[Interminority racism in the United States]]
* [[List of antisemitic incidents in the United States]]
* [[List of attacks on Jewish institutions in the United States]]
* [[Racism in the United States#Jewish Americans]]
* [[Radical right (United States)]]
* [[Religious discrimination in the United States]]
* [[Xenophobia in the United States]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=}}

==Further reading==
* Bernstein, David L. ''Woke Antisemitism: How a Progressive Ideology Harms Jews'' (2022)
* Buckley, William F. ''In Search of Anti-Semitism'', New York: Continuum, 1992
* Dershowitz, Alan M. ''Chutzpah'' 1st ed., Boston: Little, Brown, c1991
* Dinnerstein, Leonard. ''Antisemitism in America'', (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=mJLHrb-o5E0C&oi=fnd&pg=PR19&dq=Antisemitism+America&ots=fr5O0dtZ3Y&sig=0goRwM7kmaB4_QZ0ao0j0frFg-g online]
* [[Leonard Dinnerstein|Dinnerstein, Leonard]] ''Uneasy at Home: Antisemitism and the American Jewish Experience'', New York: Columbia University Press, 1987.
*Dobkowski, Michael N. ''The Tarnished Dream: The Basis of American Anti-Semitism'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979, a major scholarly study [https://archive.org/details/tarnisheddreamba0000dobk online]
* Dolan, Edward F. ''Anti-Semitism'', New York: F. Watts, 1985.
* ''Extremism on the Right: A Handbook'' New revised edition, New York: Anti Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, 1988.
* Flynn, Kevin J. and Gary Gerhardt ''The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America's Racist Underground'', New York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan, c1989
* Gerber, David A., ed. ''Anti-Semitism in American History'' (U of Illinois Press, 1986), essays by experts.
* Ginsberg, Benjamin ''The Fatal Embrace: Jews and the State'', (U of Chicago Press, 1993)
* ''Hate Groups in America: a Record of Bigotry and Violence'', (2nd ed, Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, 1988)
* Jaher, Frederic Cople ''A Scapegoat in the Wilderness: The Origins and Rise of Anti-Semitism in America'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994
* Lang, Susan S. ''Extremist Groups in America'', (New York: F. Watts, 1990).
* Lee, Albert ''Henry Ford and the Jews'', (New York: Stein and Day, 1980).
* Lipstadt, Deborah E. ''Antisemitism: Here and Now'' (2019)
* Mart, Michelle. "Constructing a universal ideal: anti-Semitism, American Jews, and the founding of Israel." ''Modern Judaism'' 20.2 (2000): 181–208.
* Rausch, David A. ''Fundamentalist-evangelicals and Anti-semitism'' (Philadelphia: Trinity Press International, 1993).
* Ridgeway, James ''[[Blood in the Face]]: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads and the Rise of a New White Culture'', (New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 1990).
* Shapiro, Edward S. "The Approach of War: Congressional Isolationism and Anti-Semitism, 1939–1941." ''American Jewish History'' 74.1 (1984): 45–65. [https://homefrontwwii.ferrellhistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/SHAPIRO-anti-semitism-in-Congress-1984-20-p.pdf online]
* Volkman, Ernest ''A Legacy of Hate: Anti-Semitism in America'', New York: F. Watts, 1982
* Weiner, Deborah R. "Insiders and Outsiders: Jewish-Gentile Relations in Baltimore during the Interwar Era' ''Maryland Historical Magazine'' 110#4 (2015) pp. 463-488 in 19203 and 1930s

===Historiography and memory===
* Brackman, Harold David. "The attack on Jewish Hollywood: A chapter in the history of modern American Anti-Semitism." ''Modern Judaism'' 20.1 (2000): 1–19.
* Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and Anti-Semitism: A Cultural History up to World War II'', (Cambridge University Press 2001).
* Dinnerstein, Leonard. "Anti-Semitism exposed and attacked, 1945–1950." ''American Jewish History'' 71.1 (1981): 134–149. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/37651/summary online]
* Gerber, David A. "Leonard Dinnerstein (1934–2019): The Historian and His Subject." ''American Jewish History'' 105.1 (2021): 235–245. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/804161/summary online]
* Goldman, Eric A. "Gentleman's Agreement and Crossfire: Films That Took on Anti-Semitism in 1947 (The 1940s)." in ''The American Jewish Story through Cinema'' (University of Texas Press, 2021) pp.&nbsp;50–96.
* Levinson, Daniel J., and R. Nevitt Sanford. "A scale for the measurement of anti-Semitism." ''Journal of Psychology'' 17.2 (1944): 339–370.
* Hirsch, Herbert and Jack D. Spiro, eds. ''Persistent Prejudice: Perspectives on Anti-Semitism'', Fairfax, Va.: George Mason University Press; Lanham, MD: Distributed by arrangement with University Pub. Associates, c1988
* Lipstadt, Deborah E. ''Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory'', (1993)
* Roth, Philip ''[[The Plot Against America]]'', (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2004), a novel about 1940s

* Short, K. R. M. "Hollywood fights anti-Semitism, 1940-1945." in ''Film & Radio Propaganda in World War II'' (Routledge, 2021) pp.&nbsp;146–172.
* Tevis, Britt P. "Trends in the Study of Antisemitism in United States History." ''American Jewish History'' 105.1 (2021): 255–284. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/804163/summary online]
* [[Gary Tobin|Tobin, Gary A.]] and Sharon L. Sassler ''Jewish Perceptions of Antisemitism'', New York: Plenum Press, c1988

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130430102625/http://bostonreview.net/BR34.3/malhotra_margalit.php State of the Nation: Anti-Semitism and the economic crisis] by [[Neil Malhotra]] and Yotam Margalit in ''[[Boston Review]]''

{{Antisemitism in the United States}}
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[[Category:Antisemitism in the United States| ]]
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