Advaita Vedanta

{{Short description|Hindu tradition of textual interpretation}}

{{Redirect|Advaita}}

{{EngvarB|date=March 2015}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}

{{Hinduism}}

{{Advaita}}

{{Hindu philosophy}}

{{Contains special characters|Indic}}

[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|right|thumb|[[Adi Shankara]], the most prominent exponent of Advaita Vedānta tradition.]]

'''''Advaita Vedanta''''' ({{IPAc-en|ʌ|d|ˈ|v|aɪ|t|ə|_|v|ɛ|ˈ|d|ɑː|n|t|ə}}; {{lang-sa|अद्वैत वेदान्त}}, {{IAST3|Advaita Vedānta}}) is a [[Hinduism|Hindu]]-tradition of textual exegesis and [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]] and a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[sādhanā]], a path of spiritual discipline and experience.{{refn|group=note|name=spiritual experience}} In a narrow sense it refers to the scholarly tradition belonging to the [[Āstika and nāstika|orthodox]] Hindu [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] tradition, written in Sanskrit;{{refn|group=note|name="Vedanta_meaning"}} in a broader sense it refers to a popular, syncretic tradition, blending Vedānta with other traditions and producing works in vernacular.{{sfn|Allen|2017}}

The term ''Advaita'' (literally  "non-secondness", but usually rendered as "[[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualism]]",{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|p=3}}{{sfn|Milne|1997}} and often equated with [[monism]]{{refn|group=note|name=Monism}}) refers to the idea that ''[[Brahman]]'' alone is ultimately [[Satya|real]], while the transient [[phenomenon (philosophy)|phenomenal world]] is an illusory appearance (''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]'') of Brahman. In this view, ''[[Jiva|jivatman]]'', the experiencing self, is ultimately non-different ("na aparah") from ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]-[[Brahman]]'', the highest Self or [[ultimate Reality|Reality]].{{sfn|Menon|2012}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=3, note 2; p.54}}{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=100-101}}{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman}} The ''jivatman'' or individual self is a mere reflection or limitation of singular ''Ātman'' in a multitude of apparent individual bodies.{{sfn|Indich|2000|p=50}}

In the Advaita tradition, ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation from suffering and rebirth){{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=8–14, 31–34, 44–45, 176–178}}{{sfn|Fost|1998|pp=387–405}} is attained through recognizing this illusoriness of the phenomenal world and disidentification from the body-mind complex and the notion of 'doership',{{refn|group=note|name=self-evident}} and acquiring ''[[Vidya (Knowledge)|vidyā]]'' (knowledge){{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} of one's true identity as ''Atman''-''Brahman'',{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=48–52}}{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=78–79}}{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=68}} self-luminous (''[[svayam prakāśa]]''){{refn|group=note|name=self-luminous}} awareness or [[Sakshi (Witness)|Witness-consciousness]].{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=60}}{{refn|group=note|name=Consciousness}} Upanishadic statements such as ''[[tat tvam asi]]'', "that['s how] you are," destroy the ignorance (''[[avidya (Hinduism)|avidyā]]'') regarding one's true identity by revealing that ''(jiv)Ātman'' is non-different from immortal{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman_immortal}} ''Brahman''.{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman}} While the prominent 8th century [[Vedanga|Vedic scholar]] and teacher (''[[acharya]]''){{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=1}} [[Adi Shankara]] emphasized that, since Brahman is ever-present, Brahman-knowledge is [[Subitism|immediate]] and requires no 'action' or 'doership', that is, striving (to attain) and effort,{{sfn|Dubois|2013|p=xvii}}{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=182 (Up.I.18.103-104)}} the Advaita tradition also prescribes elaborate preparatory practice, including contemplation of the [[mahavakyas]]{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=125–142}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} and accepting yogic samadhi as a means to knowledge, posing a paradox which is also recognized in other spiritual disciplines and traditions.{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}}{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021}}{{refn|group=note|name=subitism}}

The earliest Advaita writings are the [[Sannyasa Upanishads]] (first centuries CE), the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}) and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada|Gauḍapāda]] (7th century).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Advaita Vedānta adapted [[Buddhist philosophy|philosophical concepts]] from [[Buddhism]], giving them a Vedantic basis and interpretation,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=13, 691}} and was influenced by, and influenced, various traditions and texts of [[Indian philosophy]].{{sfn|Novetzke|2007|pp=255–272}}{{sfn|Goodall|1996|p=xli}}{{sfn|Davis|2014|pp=13, 167 with note 21}} While Adi Shankara (9th century) is generally regarded as the most prominent exponent of the Advaita Vedānta tradition,{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=x–xi, 8–10, 17–18}}{{sfn|Phillips|1998|p=332, note 68}}{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=221, 680}}{{sfn|Madaio|2017}} his early influence has been questioned,{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} as his prominence started to take shape only centuries later in the 14th century, with the ascent of Sringeri matha and its ''jagadguru'' [[Vidyaranya]] (Madhava, 14th cent.) in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].{{refn|group=note|name="Sringeri_14th_c"}} While Shankara did not embrace ''Yoga'',{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=24, note 12}} the Advaita Vedānta tradition in medieval times explicitly incorporated elements from the yogic tradition and texts like the ''[[Yoga Vasistha]]'' and the ''Bhagavata Purana'',{{sfn|Madaio|2017|pp=4–5}} culminating in [[Swami Vivekananda]]'s full embrace and propagation of Yogic samadhi as an Advaita means of knowledge and liberation.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} In the 19th century, due to the influence of [[Vidyaranya]]'s ''[[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha|Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha]]'',{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160}} the importance of Advaita Vedānta was overemphasized by [[Indology|Western scholarship]],{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=3}} and Advaita Vedānta came to be regarded as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality, despite the numerical dominance of [[Ishvara|theistic]] [[Bhakti]]-oriented religiosity.{{sfn|Sharma|2006|p=38–43, 68–75}}{{sfn|King|2013|p=128–132}}{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} In modern times, Advaita views appear in various [[Neo-Vedanta|Neo-Vedānta]] movements.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=119–133}}

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==Etymology and nomenclature==

===Etymology===
The word '''Advaita''' is a composite of two Sanskrit words:
* Prefix "a-" (अ), meaning "non-"
* "Dvaita" (द्वैत), which means 'duality' or 'dualism'.<ref group=web name="EB_Dvaita"/>
''Advaita'' is often translated as "non-duality," but a more apt translation is "non-secondness."{{sfn|Menon|2012}} ''Advaita'' has several meanings:
* Nonduality of subject and object{{sfn|Loy|1988}}{{sfn|Reddy Juturi|2021}}<ref group=web name="Tao"/> As Gaudapada states, when a distinction is made between subject and object, people grasp to objects, which is ''samsara''. By realizing one's true identity as ''Brahman'', there is no more grasping, and the mind comes to rest.{{sfn|Reddy Juturi|2021}}
* Nonduality of Atman and Brahman, the famous diction of Advaita Vedanta that Atman is not distinct from Brahman; the knowledge of this identity is liberating.
* Monism: there is no other reality than ''Brahman'', that "Reality is not constituted by parts," that is, ever-changing 'things' have no existence of their own, but are appearances of the one Existent, Brahman; and that there is in reality no duality between the "experiencing self" (''jiva'') and ''Brahman'', the Ground of Being.{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman}}

The word ''Vedānta'' is a composition of two Sanskrit words: The word [[Vedas|Veda]] refers to the whole corpus of vedic texts, and the word "anta" means 'end'. From this, one meaning of ''Vedānta'' is "the end of the Vedas" or "the ultimate knowledge of the Vedas". ''Veda'' can also mean "knowledge" in general, so ''Vedānta'' can be taken to mean "the end, conclusion or finality of knowledge". [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] is one of six orthodox schools of [[Hindu philosophy]].

===Advaita Vedanta===
While "a preferred terminology" for Upanisadic philosophy "in the early periods, before the time of Shankara" was ''Puruṣavāda'',{{sfn|Timalsina|2017}}{{refn|group=note|name="Puruṣavāda"|See also [[Purusha]].}} the Advaita Vedānta school has historically been referred to by various names, such as ''Advaita-vada'' (speaker of Advaita), ''Abheda-darshana'' (view of non-difference), ''Dvaita-vada-pratisedha'' (denial of dual distinctions), and ''Kevala-dvaita'' (non-dualism of the isolated).{{sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}} It is also called ''māyāvāda'' by Vaishnava opponents, akin to [[Madhyamaka]] [[Buddhism]], due to their insistence that phenomena ultimately lack an inherent essence or reality,{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=78}}{{sfn|Lorenzen|2015}}{{sfn|Baird|1986}}{{sfn|Goswami Abhay Charan Bhaktivedanta|1956}}

According to Richard King, a professor of Buddhist and Asian studies, the term ''Advaita'' first occurs in a recognizably Vedantic context in the prose of [[Mandukya Upanishad]].{{sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}} 

According to [[Frits Staal]], a professor of philosophy specializing in Sanskrit and Vedic studies, the word ''Advaita'' itself is from the Vedic era, and the Vedic sage [[Yajnavalkya]] (8th or 7th-century BCE{{sfn|Scharfstein|1998|p=9–11}}{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxxvi with footnote 20}}) is credited to be the one who coined it.{{sfn|Staal|2008|p=365 note 159}} Stephen Phillips, a professor of philosophy and Asian studies, translates the ''Advaita'' containing verse excerpt in ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'', as "An ocean, a single seer without duality becomes he whose world is Brahman."{{refn|group=note|
{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|
सलिले एकस् द्रष्टा '''अद्वैत'''स् भवति एष ब्रह्मलोकस्
सम्राट् ति ह एनम् उवाच अनुशशास याज्ञवल्क्यस्
एषा अस्य परमा गतिस् एषास्य परमा सम्पद्
|attr1=''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] 4.3.32''<ref group=web>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/s/1cl Wikisource] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175559/https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_4 |date=16 January 2024 }}, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.3.32</ref>|
An ocean, a single seer '''without duality''' becomes he whose world is Brahman,
O King, Yajnavalkya instructed
This is his supreme way. This is his supreme achievement.
|attr2=Transl: Stephen Phillips{{sfn|Phillips|2009|p=295 note 24}}{{refn|group=note|For an alternate English translation: Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n159/mode/2up The Thirteen Principal Upanishads], BU 4.3.32, Oxford University Press, p. 138.}}}}

A reference to Non-duality is also made in the ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'', within a dialogue between the Vedic sage [[Aruni|Uddalaka Aruni]] and his son Svetaketu, as follows :
{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|
सदेव सोम्येदमग्र आसीत एकमेवा '''अद्वितीय'''म्
तद्धैक आहुरसदेवेदमग्र आसीदेकमेवाद्वितीयं तस्मादसतः सज्जायत
|attr1=''[[Chandogya Upanishad]] 6.2.1''<ref group=web>Sanskrit: [https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/chandogya-upanishad-english/d/doc239260.html Wisdomlimb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220906220300/https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/chandogya-upanishad-english/d/doc239260.html |date=6 September 2022 }}, Chandogya upnishad 6.2.1</ref>|
Somya, before this world was manifest, there was only existence, one '''without duality''' 
On this subject, some maintain that before this world was manifest, there was only non-existence, one without a second. 
Out of that non-existence, existence emerged.
|attr2=[[Chandogya Upanishad]]}}}}

===Advaita tradition===
While the term "Advaita Vedanta" in a strict sense may refer to the scholastic tradition of textual exegesis established by Shankara, "advaita" in a broader sense may refer to a broad current of advaitic thought, which incorporates advaitic elements with yogic thought and practice and other strands of Indian religiosity, such as [[Kashmir Shaivism]] and the [[Nath]] tradition.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}} The first connotation has also been called "Classical Advaita"{{sfn|Madaio|2017}}{{sfn|King|1995|p=9}} and "doctrinal Advaita,"{{sfn|Sharma|1993|p=xiv}} and its presentation as such is due to mediaeval [[Doxography|doxographies]],{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} the influence of Orientalist Indologists like [[Paul Deussen]],{{sfn|Madaio|2017|pp=2, note 6}} and the Indian response to colonial influences, dubbed [[neo-Vedanta]] by Paul Hacker, who regarded it as a deviation from "traditional" Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Madaio|2017}} Yet, post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta incorporated yogic elements, such as the [[Yoga Vasistha]], and influenced other Indian traditions, and neo-Vedanta is based on this broader strand of Indian thought.{{sfn|Madaio|2017}} This broader current of thought and practice has also been called "greater Advaita Vedanta,"{{sfn|Allen|2017}} "vernacular advaita,"{{sfn|Madaio|2017}} and "experiential Advaita."{{sfn|Sharma|1993|p=xiv}} It is this broader advaitic tradition which is commonly presented as "Advaita Vedanta," though the term "advaitic" may be more apt.{{sfn|Madaio|2017}}{{refn|group=note|name=Madaio2017_umbrella}}

===Monism===
{{See also|Metaphysics|Ontology}}

The nondualism of Advaita Vedānta is often regarded as an idealist [[monism]].{{refn|group=note|name=Monism}} According to King, Advaita Vedānta developed "to its ultimate extreme" the monistic ideas already present in the Upanishads.{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|King|1995|p=65}}: "The prevailing monism of the Upanishads was developed by the Advaita Vedanta to its ultimate extreme."}} In contrast, states Milne, it is misleading to call Advaita Vedānta "monistic," since this confuses the "negation of difference" with "conflation into one."{{sfn|Milne|1997|p=168}} ''Advaita'' is a negative term (a-dvaita), states Milne, which denotes the "negation of a difference," between subject and object, or between perceiver and perceived. {{sfn|Milne|1997|p=168}}

According to Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta teaches monistic oneness, however without the multiplicity premise of alternate monism theories.{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|pp=3, 10, 13–14 with footnotes}} According to Jacqueline Suthren Hirst, Adi Shankara positively emphasizes "oneness" premise in his Brahma-sutra Bhasya 2.1.20, attributing it to all the Upanishads.{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=79}}

Nicholson states Advaita Vedānta contains realistic strands of thought, both in its oldest origins and in Shankara's writings.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=68}}

==Darśana (view) – central concerns==
[[File:Wassertropfen.jpg|right|thumb|A drop merging in the Ocean, an analogy for the Jivatman merging into Brahman]]
{{See|Hindu philosophy}}

Advaita is a subschool of Vedānta, the latter being one of the six classical [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu ''darśanas'']], an integrated body of textual interpretations and religious practices which aim at the attainment of ''[[moksha]]'', release or liberation from transmigratory existence.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=73}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|It is not a philosophy in the western meaning of the word, according to Milne.{{sfn|Milne|1997|p=166}}}} Traditional Advaita Vedānta centers on the study and what it believes to be correct understanding of the ''sruti'', revealed texts, especially the Principal Upanishads,{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=237}}{{sfn|Dalal|2009|pp=16, 26–27}} along with the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gitā]], which are collectively called as ''Prasthantrayi''.

A main question in all schools of Vedanta is the relation between the individual self ([[jiva]]) and ''Atman''/''Brahman''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=25}} Shankara and his followers regard Atman/Brahman to be the ultimate Real, and ''jivanatman'' "ultimately [to be] of the nature of Atman/Brahman."{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=100-101}} This truth is established from a literal reading of selected parts{{sfn|Long|2020|p=245}} of the oldest [[Principal Upanishads]] and [[Brahma Sutras]], and is also found in parts of the [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gitā]] and numerous other Hindu texts,{{sfn|Menon|2012}} and is regarded to be self-evident,{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=101}}{{refn|group=note|Reason clarifies the truth and removes objections, according to the Advaita school, however it believes that pure logic cannot lead to philosophical truths and only experience and meditative insights do. The ''Sruti'', it believes is a collection of experience and meditative insights about liberating knowledge,{{sfn|Koller|2006|p=xii}}}} though great effort is made to show the correctness of this reading, and its compatibility with reason and experience, by criticizing other systems of thought.{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=101}} [[Vidya (philosophy)|''Vidya'']], correct knowledge or understanding of the identity of [[Atman (Hinduism)|jivan-ātman]] and [[Brahman]], destroys or makes null ''[[Avidya (Hinduism)|avidya]]'' ('false knowledge'), and results in [[Moksha|liberation]].{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=99–106}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Sharma|1993|pp=72–83}}: "According to Advaita, the pure subject is our true self whose knowledge is liberative, (...) If the subject could be realised in its purity then all misery would cease: this is called self-knowledge"}}

According to the contemporary Advaita tradition, this knowledge can be obtained by ''[[svādhyāya]]'', study of the self and of the Vedic texts, which consists of four stages of [[Nididhyāsana|''samanyasa'']]: ''[[Renunciation|virāga]]'' ('renunciation'), ''sravana'' ('listening to the teachings of the sages'), ''[[Manana (reflection)|manana]]'' ('reflection on the teachings') and ''[[nididhyāsana]]'', introspection and profound and repeated meditation on the [[mahavakyas]], selected Upanishadic statements such as ''[[tat tvam asi]]'' ('that art thou' or 'you are That') which are taken literal, and form the ''srutic'' evidence for the identity of ''jivanatman'' and Atman-Brahman.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}{{sfn|Derrida|1992|p=203}}<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100234232 |title=Oxford Index, ''nididhyāsana'' |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=5 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705051012/http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100234232 |url-status=live }}</ref> This meditation negates the misconceptions, false knowledge, and [[ahamkara|false ego-identity]], rooted in [[Maya (Hinduism)|''maya'']], which obfuscate the ultimate truth of the oneness of Brahman, and one's true identity as ''Atman-Brahman.''{{sfn|Long|2020|p=245}} This culminates in what Adi Shankara refers to as ''anubhava'', immediate intuition, a direct awareness which is construction-free, and not construction-filled. It is not an awareness ''of'' Brahman, but instead an awareness that ''is'' Brahman.{{sfn|Davis|2010|p=34–35}} Although the threefold practice is broadly accepted in the Advaita tradition, and affirmed by [[Mandana Misra]],{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=18-19}} it is at odds with Shankara,{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=97}} who took a [[Subitism|subitist]] position,{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=6}} arguing that ''moksha'' is attained at once when the ''mahavakyas'', articulating the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'', are understood.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=9}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=182 (Up.I.18.103-104)}}<ref group=note>See also kelamuni (2006), ''The Philosophy of Adi Shankaracharya'', section "II. The Threefold Means," on Brahma Sutra Bhashya 4.1.2 and subitism.</ref>

While closely related to [[Samkhya]],{{sfn|Scheepers|2010|p=126, 128}} the Advaita Vedānta tradition rejects the dualism of [[Samkhya]] ''[[purusha]]'' (primal consciousness) and ''[[prakriti]]'' (nature), instead stating that Brahman is the sole Reality,{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013}} "that from which the origination, subsistence, and dissolution of this universe proceed."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=19}} Samkhya argues that Purusha is the efficient cause of all existence while Prakriti is its material cause.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=19}} Advaita, like all Vedanta schools, states that Brahman is both the efficient and the material cause. What created all existence is also present in and reflected in all beings and inert matter, the creative principle was and is everywhere, always.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|pp=18–20}} By accepting this postulation, various theoretical difficulties arise which Advaita and other Vedānta traditions offer different answers for.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|pp=20–22}}{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013}} First, how did Brahman, which is ''sat'' ('existence'), without any distinction, become manifold universe? Second, how did Brahman, which is ''cit'' ('consciousness'), create the material world? Third, if Brahman is ''ananda'' ('bliss'), why did the empirical world of sufferings arise? The [[Brahma Sutras]] do not answer these philosophical queries, and later Vedantins including Shankara had to resolve them.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|pp=20–22}} To solve these questions, Shankara introduces the concept of "Unevolved Name-and-Form," or primal matter corresponding to ''Prakriti'', from which the world evolves,{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=20}} coming close to Samkhya dualism.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=22}} Shankara's notion of "Unevolved Name-and-Form" was not adopted by the later Advaita tradition; instead,  the later tradition turned ''avidya'' into a metaphysical principle, namely ''mulavidya'' or "root ignorance," a metaphysical substance which is the "primal material cause of the universe (''upadana'')."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=78}} [[Prakasatman]]s (13th c.) defense of ''[[Vivartavada|vivarta]]'' to explain the origin of the world, which declared phenomenal reality to be an [[maya (Hinduism)#Hinduism|illusion]],{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}} became the dominant explanation, with which the primacy of Atman/Brahman can be maintained.{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013}}

==Reality and ignorance==
[[File:SwansCygnus olor.jpg|right|thumb|The swan is an important motif in Advaita. The white colour of swan symbolises [[Sattva]] gun & the ability to discern '''Satya''' (Real, Eternal) from '''Mithya''' (Unreal, Changing), just as the mythical swan [[Paramahamsa]] discerns milk from water.]]

Classical Advaita Vedānta states that all reality and everything in the experienced world has its root in Brahman, which is unchanging Consciousness.{{sfn|Menon|2012}} To Advaitins, there is no duality between a Creator and the created universe.{{sfn|Menon|2012}}{{sfn|Sharma|2008|p=5–14}} All objects, all experiences, all matter, all consciousness, all awareness are somehow also this one fundamental reality Brahman.{{sfn|Menon|2012}} Yet, the knowing self has various experiences of reality during the waking, dream and dreamless states,{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|pp=171–172, 191}} and Advaita Vedānta acknowledges and admits that from the empirical perspective there are numerous distinctions.{{sfn|Grimes|2004|pp=31–33}} Advaita explains this by postulating different levels of reality,{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=232}}{{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=174–178}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=246–247}}{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|pp=171–172, 191}} and by its theory of errors (''anirvacaniya khyati'').{{sfn|Thrasher|1993|p=1–7}}{{sfn|Menon|2012}}

===Three levels of Reality/truth===
{{See also|Three Bodies Doctrine (Vedanta)|Two truths doctrine}}

Shankara proposes three levels of reality, using sublation as the ontological criterion:{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=232}}{{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=174–178}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=246–247}}
* ''{{IAST|Pāramārthika}}'' (''paramartha'', absolute), the Reality that is metaphysically true and ontologically accurate. It is the state of experiencing that "which is absolutely real and into which both other reality levels can be resolved". This reality is the highest; it can't be sublated (assimilated) by any other.{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=232}}{{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=176–178}}
* ''{{IAST|Vyāvahārika}}'' (''vyavahara''), or ''samvriti-saya'',{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=131}} consisting of the empirical or pragmatical reality. It is ever changing over time, thus empirically true at a given time and context but not [[metaphysics|metaphysically]] true. It is "our world of experience, the phenomenal world that we handle every day when we are awake". It is the level in which both ''[[jiva]]'' (living creatures or individual Selfs) and ''[[Iswara]]'' are true; here, the material world is also true but this is incomplete reality and is sublatable.{{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=176–178}}{{sfn|Malkovsky|2001|p=42–44}}
* ''{{IAST|Prātibhāsika}}'' (''pratibhasika'', apparent reality, unreality), "reality based on imagination alone". It is the level of experience in which the mind constructs its own reality. Well-known examples of ''pratibhasika'' is the imaginary reality such as the "roaring of a lion" fabricated in dreams during one's sleep, and the perception of a rope in the dark as being a snake.{{sfn|Sharma|1995|pp=176–178}}{{sfn|Hiriyanna|1993|p=359–363}}{{sfn|Sharma|1997|p=1–16}}

Absolute and relative reality are valid and true in their respective contexts, but only from their respective particular perspectives.{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|pp=171–172, 191}}{{sfn|Grimes|2004|pp=31–33}}{{sfn|Murti|1996|p=294–296, 194–195}} John Grimes explains this Advaita doctrine of absolute and relative truth with the example of light and darkness.{{sfn|Grimes|2004|pp=31–33}} From the sun's perspective, it neither rises nor sets, there is no darkness, and "all is light". From the perspective of a person on earth, sun does rise and set, there is both light and darkness, not "all is light", there are relative shades of light and darkness. Both are valid realities and truths, given their perspectives. Yet, they are contradictory. What is true from one point of view, states Grimes, is not from another. To Advaita Vedānta, this does not mean there are two truths and two realities, but it only means that the same one Reality and one Truth is explained or experienced from two different perspectives.{{sfn|Grimes|2004|pp=31–33}}{{sfnp|Grimes|1994|pp=35–38}}

As they developed these theories, Advaita Vedānta scholars were influenced by some ideas from the [[Nyaya]], [[Samkhya]] and [[Yoga]] schools of Hindu philosophy.{{sfnp|Sinha|2013|pp=306–314}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=246–247}} These theories have not enjoyed universal consensus among Advaitins, and various competing ontological interpretations have flowered within the Advaita tradition.{{sfn|Menon|2012}}{{sfnp|Ram-Prasad|2013a|pp=190–194}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Timalsina|2008|p=xvii}}: "Advaita can be approached from various angles. Not only are there multiple interpretations of Advaita, there are different starting points from which one can arrive at the conclusion of non-duality".}}

===''Pāramārthika'' - ''Sat'' (True Reality)===

====Ātman====
{{Main|Ātman (Hinduism)}}
{{See also|Samadhi|Buddha-nature|Sunyata|Choiceless awareness}}

Ātman ([[IAST]]: ātman, [[Sanskrit]]: आत्मन्) is the "real self"{{sfnp|Dalal|2011|p=38}}{{sfnp|Johnson|2009|p=entry "Atman (self)"}}{{sfn|Bowker|2000c|loc="Atman"}}{{sfn|Timalsina|2014|pp=3–23}}{{refn|group=note|[https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210157/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/atman Atman], Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), '''Quote''': "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul"}} or "essence"<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+atman&trans=Translate&direction=AU |title=Sanskrit Dictionary, ''Atman'' |access-date=21 December 2015 |archive-date=22 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222144841/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+atman&trans=Translate&direction=AU |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="Payne2005p200"}} of the individual. It is ''caitanya'', Pure Consciousness,{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=103 (verse 1), p.105 (note 1)}} a consciousness, states Sthaneshwar Timalsina, that is "self-revealed, self-evident and self-aware (''svaprakashata''),"{{sfn|Timalsina|2014|pp=3–23}} and, states Payne, "in some way permanent, eternal, absolute or unchanging."{{refn|group=note|name="Payne2005p200"}} It is self-existent awareness, limitless and non-dual.{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=7, 99–103}} It is "a stable subjectivity, or a unity of consciousness through all the specific states of individuated phenomenality."{{sfn|Ram-Prasad|2013|p=235}} Ātman, states Eliot Deutsch, is the "pure, undifferentiated, supreme power of awareness", it is more than thought, it is a state of being, that which is conscious and transcends subject-object divisions and momentariness.{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=48–51}} According to Ram-Prasad, "it" is not an object, but "the irreducible essence of being [as] subjectivity, rather than an objective self with the quality of consciousness."{{sfn|Ram-Prasad|2013|p=237}}

According to Shankara, it is self-evident and "a matter not requiring any proof" that Atman, the 'I', is 'as different as light is from darkness' from non-Atman, the 'you' or 'that', the material world whose characteristics are mistakingly superimposed on Atman, resulting in notions as "I am this" and "This is mine."<ref name="ShankaraBSBpreamble"/> One's real self is not the constantly changing body, not the desires, not the emotions, not the ego, nor the dualistic mind,{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p=44–45, 90}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=50–51, 101–107}}{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=256–258, 261–263}}}} but the introspective, inwardly self-conscious "on-looker" (''saksi''),{{sfn|Raju|1985|pp=[https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju/page/448 448]–449}} which is in reality completely disconnected from the non-Atman.<ref name="ShankaraBSBpreamble"/>

The ''jivatman'' or individual self is a mere reflection of singular Atman in a multitude of apparent individual bodies.{{sfn|Indich|2000|p=50}} It is "not an individual subject of consciousness,"{{sfn|Ram-Prasad|2013|p=235}} but the same in each person and identical to the universal eternal [[Brahman]],{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp=9–13, 29–30, 45–47, 79–86}} a term used interchangeably with Atman.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992}}

''Atman'' is often translated as [[soul]],{{refn|group=note|name="Soul"}} though the two concepts differ significantly, since "soul" includes mental activities, whereas "Atman" solely refers to detached witness-consciousness.

=====Three states of consciousness and Turiya=====
Advaita posits three states of consciousness, namely waking (jagrat), dreaming (svapna), deep sleep (suṣupti), which are empirically experienced by human beings,{{sfn|Sharma|2004|p=3}}{{sfn|Indich|2000|pp=57–60}} and correspond to the [[Three Bodies Doctrine (Vedanta)|Three Bodies Doctrine]]:{{sfn|Wilber|2000|p=132}}
# The first state is the waking state, in which we are aware of our daily world.{{sfn|Sharma|2004|pp=15–40, 49–72}} This is the gross body.
# The second state is the dreaming mind. This is the [[subtle body]].{{sfn|Sharma|2004|pp=15–40, 49–72}}
# The third state is the state of deep sleep. This is the [[causal body]].{{sfn|Sharma|2004|pp=15–40, 49–72}}

Advaita also posits "the fourth," [[Turiya]], which some describe as pure consciousness, the background that underlies and transcends these three common states of consciousness.<ref group=web name=rm>{{cite book |url=http://bhagavan-ramana.org/ramana_maharshi/books/tw/tw617.html |author=Ramana Maharshi |title=States of Consciousness |access-date=16 February 2013 |archive-date=9 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209164417/http://bhagavan-ramana.org/ramana_maharshi/books/tw/tw617.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref group=web name=sc1>{{cite book|url=http://www.yogaofsrichinmoy.com/yoga/summits_of_god-life|author=Sri Chinmoy|title=Summits of God-Life|access-date=16 February 2013|archive-date=15 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215153917/http://www.yogaofsrichinmoy.com/yoga/summits_of_god-life/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Turiya is the state of liberation, where states Advaita school, one experiences the infinite (''ananta'') and non-different (''advaita/abheda''), that is free from the dualistic experience, the state in which [[ajativada]], non-origination, is apprehended.{{sfn|King|1995|p=300 note 140}} According to Candradhara Sarma, Turiya state is where the foundational Self is realized, it is measureless, neither cause nor effect, all pervading, without suffering, blissful, changeless, self-luminous,{{refn|group=note |name=self-luminous}} real, immanent in all things and transcendent.{{sfn|Sarma|1996|pp=122, 137}} Those who have experienced the Turiya stage of self-consciousness have reached the pure awareness of their own non-dual Self as one with everyone and everything, for them the knowledge, the knower, the known becomes one, they are the ''Jivanmukta''.{{sfn|Sarma|1996|pp=126, 146}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=128–131, 5–8, 30–37}}{{sfn|Indich|2000|pp=106–108}}{{sfnp|Sullivan|1997|pp=59–60}}{{sfnp|Gupta|1998|pp=26–30}}

Advaita traces the foundation of this ontological theory in more ancient Sanskrit texts.{{sfn|Raju|1985|pp=32–33}} For example, chapters 8.7 through 8.12 of [[Chandogya Upanishad]] discuss the "four states of consciousness" as awake, dream-filled sleep, deep sleep, and beyond deep sleep.{{sfn|Raju|1985|pp=32–33}}{{sfnp|Hume|1921|p=Chandogya Upanishad – Eighth Prathapaka, Seventh through Twelfth Khanda, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n289/mode/2up pp. 268–273]}} One of the earliest mentions of ''Turiya'', in the Hindu scriptures, occurs in verse 5.14.3 of the ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''.{{refn|group=note|{{harvtxt|Olivelle|1998|p=77}};<br/>Sanskrit ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् Wikisource]): प्राणोऽपानो व्यान इत्यष्टावक्षराणि अष्टाक्षर ह वा एकं गायत्र्यै पदम् एतदु हैवास्या एतत् स यावदिदं प्राणि तावद्ध जयति योऽस्या एतदेवं पदं वेद अथास्या एतदेव '''तुरीयं''' दर्शतं पदं परोरजा य एष तपति यद्वै चतुर्थं तत्तुरीयम् दर्शतं पदमिति ददृश इव ह्येष परोरजा इति सर्वमु ह्येवैष रज उपर्युपरि तपत्य् एव हैव श्रिया यशसा तपति योऽस्या एतदेवं पदं वेद ॥ ३ ॥}} The idea is also discussed in other early Upanishads.{{sfn|Indich|2000|pp=58–67, 106–108}}

=====''Svayam prakāśa'' (self-luminosity)=====
{{Main|prakāśa}}
In the Advaita tradition, consciousness is svayam prakāśa, "self-luminous,"{{sfn|Indich|2000|p=24, 28}}{{sfn|Menon|2012}}{{refn|group=note|name=self-luminous}} which means that "self is pure awareness by nature."{{sfn|Ganeri|2019|p=103}} According to Dasgupta, it is "the most fundamental concept of the Vedanta."{{sfn|Dasgupta|1975|p=148-149}} According to [[Tiruppattur R. Venkatachala Murti|T. R. V. Murti]], the Vedanta concept is explained as follows:
{{blockquote|The point to be reached is a foundational consciousness that is unconditional, self-evident, and immediate (''svayam-prakāśa''). It is that to which everything is presented, but is itself no presentation, that which knows all, but is itself no object. The self should not be confused with the contents and states which it enjoys and manipulates. If we have to give an account of it, we can describe it only as what it is not, for any positive description of it would be possible only if it could be made an object of observation, which from the nature of the case it is not. We "know" it only as we withdraw ourselves from the body with which we happen to be identified, in this transition.{{sfn|Murti|1983|p=339}}{{refn|group=note|Compare {{harvnb|Fasching|2021}}: For Advaita Vedānta, consciousness is to be distinguished from all contents of consciousness that might be introspectively detectable: It is precisely consciousness of whatever contents it is conscious of and not itself one of these contents. Its only nature is, Advaita holds, prakāśa (manifestation); in itself it is devoid of any content or structure and can never become an object.}}}}

According to Jonardon Ganeri, the concept was introduced by the Buddhist philosopher [[Dignāga]] (c.480–c.540 CE), and accepted by the Vedanta tradition;{{sfn|Ganeri|2019|p=103}} according to Zhihua Yao, the concept has older roots in the [[Mahasanghika#Self-Awareness and the Mind|Mahasanghika]] school.{{sfnp|Yao|2005|p=2}}

====Brahman====
{{Main|Brahman|Satcitananda}}

According to Advaita Vedānta, [[Brahman]] is the true Self, consciousness, awareness, and the only Reality (''[[Satya|Sat]]'').{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=122}}{{sfn|Raju|2006|p=426; Conclusion chapter part XII}}{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman_definitions}} Brahman is ''Paramarthika Satyam'', "Absolute Truth"{{sfn|Venkatramaiah|2000|p=xxxii}} or absolute Real.{{sfn|Padiyath|2014|p=177}} It is That which is [[Ajativada|unborn]] and unchanging,{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=122}}{{sfn|Brodd|2009|p=43–47}} and immortal.{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman_immortal}} Other than ''Brahman'', everything else, including the universe, material objects and individuals, are ever-changing and therefore [[maya (illusion)|maya]]. Brahman is "not sublatable",{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}} which means it cannot be superseded by a still higher reality:{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=231}}
{{blockquote|the true Self, pure consciousness [...] the only Reality (''sat''), since It is untinged by difference, the mark of ignorance, and since It is the one thing that is not sublatable".{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}}}

In Advaita, Brahman is the substrate and cause of all changes.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a|p=122}}{{sfn|Brodd|2009|p=43–47}} Brahman is considered to be the material cause{{refn|group=note|It provides the "stuff" from which everything is made}} and the efficient cause{{refn|group=note|It sets everything into working, into existence}} of all that exists.{{sfn|Raju|2006|p=426 and Conclusion chapter part XII}}{{sfnp|Dhavamony|2002|pp=43–44}}{{sfnp|Martinez-Bedard|2006|pp=18–35}} }}The Brahma Sutras I.1.2 state that Brahman is:
{{blockquote|...that from which the origination, subsistence, and dissolution of this universe proceed.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=18-19}} {{refn|group=note|Gambhirananda: "That (is Brahman) from which (are derived) the birth etc. of this (universe)."{{sfn|Gambhirananda|2021|p=13}}}}}}

Advaita's Upanishadic roots state Brahman's qualities{{refn|group=note|''Svarupalakshana'', qualities, definition based on essence}} to be ''[[Satcitananda|Sat-cit-ānanda]]'',{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=228}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=9}}{{sfnp|Arapura|1986|pp=12, 13–18}} "true being-consciousness-bliss,"{{sfnp|Arapura|1986|pp=12, 13–18}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=9–10 with footnote 2}} or "Eternal Bliss Consciousness".{{sfn|Werner|1994}}{{refn|group=note|The Advaitin scholar Madhusudana Sarasvati explained Brahman as the Reality that is simultaneously an absence of falsity (sat), absence of ignorance (cit), and absence of sorrow/self-limitation (ananda).{{sfnp|Arapura|1986|pp=12, 13–18}}}} A distinction is made between ''[[nirguna Brahman]]'', formless Brahman, and ''[[Saguna brahman|saguna Brahman]]'', Brahman with form, that is, ''Ishvara'', God. ''Nirguna Brahman'' is undescrible, and the Upanishadic ''[[neti neti]]'' ('not this, not that' or 'neither this, nor that') negates all conceptualizations of Brahman.{{sfn|Derrida|1992|p=203}}{{sfnp|Pradhan|2014|p=19}}

===''Vyāvahārika'' (conventional reality) – ''Avidya'' and ''{{IAST|Māyā}}'' ===

====''Avidyā'' (ignorance)====
''[[Avidyā (Hinduism)|Avidyā]]'' is a central tenet of Shankara's Advaita, and became the main target of Ramanuja's criticism of Shankara.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=152}}{{sfn|Grimes|1990|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} In Shankara's view, avidyā is ''adhyasa'', "the superimposition of the qualities of one thing upon another."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=77}} As Shankara explains in the ''Adhyasa-bhasya'', the introduction to the ''Brahmasutrabhasya'':
{{blockquote|Owing to an absence of discrimination, there continues a natural human behaviour in the form of 'I am this' or 'This is mine'; this is avidya. It is a superimposition of the attributes of one thing on another. The ascertainment of the nature of the real entity by separating the superimposed thing from it is vidya (knowledge, illumination).}}

Due to ''avidya'', we're steeped in ''loka drsti'', the empirical view.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=157}} From the beginning we only perceive the empirical world of multiplicity, taking it to be the only and true reality.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=157}}{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=114–122}} Due to avidyā there is ignorance, or nescience, of the real Self, ''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman-Brahman]]'', mistakingly identifying the Self with the body-mind complex.<ref group=web name="EB_Maya"/> With ''parmartha drsti'' ignorance is removed and ''vidya'' is acquired, and the Real, distinctionless Brahman is perceived as the True reality.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=157}}

The notion of avidyā and its relationship to Brahman creates a crucial philosophical issue within Advaita Vedānta thought: how can avidyā appear in Brahman, since Brahman is pure consciousness?{{sfnp|Kaplan|2007}} For Shankara, ''avidya'' is a perceptual or psychological error.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=78}} According to Satchidanandendra Saraswati, for Shankara "''avidya'' is only a technical name to denote the natural tendency of the human mind that is engaged in the act of superimposition."{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=160}} The later tradition diverged from Shankara by turning ''avidya'' into a metaphysical principle, namely ''mulavidya'' or "root ignorance," a metaphysical substance which is the "primal material cause of the universe (''upadana'')," thereby setting aside Shankara's 'Unevolved Name-and-Form' as the explanation for the existence of materiality.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=78}}{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=149}} According to Mayeda, "[i]n order to save monism, they characterized ''avidya'' as indefinable as real or unreal (''sadasadbhyam anirvacanya''), belonging neither to the category of being nor to that of non-being."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=78}} In the 20th century, this theory of ''mulavidya'' became a point of strong contention among Advaita Vedantins, with [[Satchidanandendra Saraswati]] arguing that Padmapada and Prakasatman had misconstrued Shanakara's stance.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|p=150}}

Shankara did not give a 'location' of ''avidya'', giving precedence to the removal of ignorance.{{sfn|Doherty|2005|p=209-210}}{{refn|group=note|Compare [[Parable of the Poisoned Arrow]]}} Sengaku Mayeda writes, in his commentary and translation of [[Adi Shankara]]'s Upadesasahasri:
{{blockquote|Certainly the most crucial problem which Sankara left for his followers is that of avidyā. If the concept is logically analysed, it would lead the Vedanta philosophy toward dualism or nihilism and uproot its fundamental position.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=82}}}}

The later Advaita-tradition diverged from Shankara, trying to determinate a locus of ''avidya'',{{sfn|Potter|2006|p=7-8}} with the Bhamati-school locating ''avidya'' in the ''jiva'' c.q. ''prakriti'', while the Vivarana-school locates it in Brahman.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|pp=155-156}}{{sfn|Potter|2006|p=7-8}}

====''{{IAST|Māyā}}'' (appearance)====
In Advaita Vedanta, the perceived empirical world, "including people and other existence," is Māyā, "appearance."{{sfnp|Vroom|1989|pp=122–123}}{{sfn|Shastri|1911|pp=5 and ix}} Jiva, conditioned by the human mind, is subjected to experiences of a subjective nature, and misunderstands and interprets the physical, changing world as the sole and final reality.{{sfnp|Vroom|1989|pp=122–123}} Due to ''avidya'', we take the [[phenomenon (philosophy)|phenomenal world]] to be the final reality,<ref group=web name="EB_Maya"/> while in Reality only ''Sat'' ( True Reality, Brahman) is Real and unchanging.{{sfn|Shastri|1911|pp=58–73}}

While Shankara took a realistic stance, and his explanations are "remote from any connotation of illusion," the 13th century scholar [[Prakasatman]], founder of the influential [[Vivarana]] school, introduced the notion that the world is illusory.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}}{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013}} According to Hacker, maya is not a prominent theme for Shankara, in contrast to the later Advaita tradition, and "the word ''maya'' has for [Shankara] hardly any terminological weight."{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|p=266, note 21}}

====Five ''koshas'' (sheaths)====
Due to avidya, atman is covered by ''[[koshas]]'' (sheaths or bodies), which hide man's true nature. According to the [[Taittiriya Upanishad]], the Atman is covered by five koshas, usually rendered "sheath".{{sfnp|Roeser|2005|p=15}} They are often visualized like the layers of an onion.{{sfnp|Belling|2006}} From gross to fine the five sheaths are:
# Annamaya kosha,  physical/food sheath
# [[Prana|Pranamaya kosha]], life-force sheath
# Manomaya kosha, mental sheath
# [[Vijñāna|Vijnanamaya kosha]], discernment/wisdom sheath
# [[Anandamaya kosha]], bliss sheath (''[[Ananda]]'')

===''Parinamavada'' and ''vivartavada'' - causality and change ===
{{See also|Samkhya#Causality|l1=Satkāryavāda|Ajativada|Vivartavada}}

Cause and effect are an important topic in all schools of [[Vedanta]].{{refn|group=note|These concepts are discussed in ancient and medieval texts of [[Hinduism]], and other Indian religions, using synonymous terms. Cause is referred to as ''{{IAST|kāraṇa}}'' (कारण),  ''nidana'' (निदान), ''hetu'' (हेतु) or ''mulam'' (मूलम्), while effect is referred to as ''{{IAST|kārya}}'' (कार्य), ''phala'' (फल), ''parinam'' (परिणाम) or ''Shungam'' (शुङ्ग).<ref group=web name ="spokensanskrit_cause"/>{{sfnp|Nagao|1991|pp=127–128}} Two sorts of causes are recognised, namely {{IAST|Nimitta kāraṇa}}, the [[efficient cause]], that which causes the existence of the universe, and {{IAST|Upādāna kāraṇa}}, the [[material cause]], that from which the matery of this universe comes.{{sfnp|Lipner|1996|pp=109–126}} All schools of Vedānta agree that Brahman is both the material and the efficient cause, and all subscribe to the theory of ''[[Satkaryavada|Satkāryavāda]]'',<ref group=web name="IEP_Bheda"/> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}{{refn|group=note|Advaita furthermore states that effect ({{IAST|''kārya''}}) is non-different from cause ({{IAST|''kāraṇa''}}), but the cause is different from the effect. This principle is called {{IAST|''kārya-kāraṇa ananyatva''}}. When the cause is destroyed, the effect will no longer exist. For example, cotton cloth is the effect of the cotton threads, which is the material cause. Without threads there will be no cotton cloth. Without cotton there will be no thread. According to Swami Sivananda, in his comments on the {{IAST|Brahmasūtra-Bhāṣya}} 2.1.9, Adi Shankara describes this as follows:
{{blockquote|{{IAST|''ananyatve'pi kāryakāraṇayoḥ kāryasya kāraṇātmatvaṃ na tu kāraṇasya kāryātmatvaṃ''}}<br>Despite the non-difference of cause and effect, the effect has its self in the cause but not the cause in the effect.<br>The effect is of the nature of the cause and not the cause the nature of the effect.<br>Therefore the qualities of the effect cannot touch the cause.<ref group=web>{{cite web|url=http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_2/bs_2.1.03.html |title=Brahma Sutras by Swami Sivananda |publisher=Swami-krishnananda.org |access-date=2011-06-10| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110612173736/http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/bs_2/bs_2.1.03.html| archive-date= 12 June 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>}}}}

There are different views on the origination of the empirical world from Brahman. All commentators "agree that Brahman is the cause of the world," but disagree on how exactly Brahman is the cause of the world.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} According to Nicholson, "Mediaeval Vedantins distinguished two basic positions." ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'' is the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} ''[[Vivartavada]]'' is the idea that 
{{blockquote|the world is merely an unreal manifestation (''vivarta'') of Brahman. Vivartavada states that although Brahman appears to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are unreal manifestation, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}

{{Quote box |width=25em | bgcolor=#e6f2ff |align=right |salign = right
|quote=20th verse of ''Brahmajnanavalimala'', attributed to Shankara:

ब्रह्म सत्यं जगन्मिथ्या <br/>
जीवो ब्रह्मैव नापरः

Brahman is real, the world is an illusion<br/>
Brahman and [[Jiva]] are not different.

''Brahmajnanavalimala'' 1.20<ref>Sanskrit:[https://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_shankara/brahmajna.html?lang=sa Sanskrit documents] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623112419/https://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_shankara/brahmajna.html?lang=sa |date=23 June 2021 }}, Brahmajnanalimala 1.20</ref>}}

The ''Brahma Sutras'', the ancient Vedantins, most sub-schools of Vedānta,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" /> as well as Samkhya argue for ''parinamavada''.<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" /> The "most visible advocates of Vivartavada," states Nicholson, are the Advaitins, the followers of Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} "Although the world can be described as conventionally real", adds Nicholson, "the Advaitins claim that all of Brahman's effects must ultimately be acknowledged as unreal before the individual self can be liberated".<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" />{{refn|group=note|According to Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedānta states that from "the standpoint of Brahman-experience and Brahman itself, there is [[Ajativada|no creation]]" in the absolute sense, all empirically observed creation is relative and mere transformation of one state into another, all states are provisional and a cause-effect driven modification.{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=40–43}}}}

Yet, Adi Shankara himself most likely explained causality through ''parinamavada''.<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" />{{sfn|King|1999|p=221}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}} In Shankara's works "''Brahman'' constitutes the basic essence (''svabhava'') of the universe (BS Bh 3.2.21) and as such the universe cannot be thought of as distinct from it (BS Bh 2.1.14)." In Shankara's view, then, "The world is real, but only in so far as its existence is seen as totally dependent upon ''Brahman''."{{sfn|King|1999|p=221}}

Shankara introduced the concept of "Unevolved Name-and-Form," or primal matter corresponding to ''Prakriti'', from which the world evolves,{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=20}} but this concept was not adopted by the later Advaita tradition.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}} Vivartavada became the dominant explanation, with which the primacy of Atman/Brahman can be maintained.{{sfn|Koller|2006}}{{sfn|Koller|2013}} Scholars such as Hajime Nakamura and Paul Hacker already noted that Adi Shankara did not advocate ''Vivartavada'', and his explanations are "remote from any connotation of illusion".{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}}{{refn|group=note|According to Hugh Nicholson, "the definitive study on the development of the concept of ''vivarta'' in Indian philosophy, and in Advaita Vedanta in particular, remains Hacker's ''Vivarta''.{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|pp=266 note 20, 167–170}}  According to Hacker, "the word ''maya'' has for [Shankara] hardly any terminological weight."{{sfn|Nicholson, Hugh|2011|p=266 note 21}}}}

It was the 13th century scholar Prakasatman, who founded the influential [[Vivarana]] school, who gave a definition to ''vivarta'', introducing the notion that the world is illusory. It is Prakasatman's theory that is sometimes misunderstood as Adi Shankara's position.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=25–27}} Andrew Nicholson concurs with Hacker and other scholars, adding that the ''vivarta-vada'' isn't Shankara's theory, that Shankara's ideas appear closer to ''parinama-vada'', and the ''vivarta'' explanation likely emerged gradually in Advaita subschool later.<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" />{{refn|group=note|Compare the misunderstanding of [[Yogachara]]s concept of [[The doctrine of Vijñapti-mātra|vijñapti-mātra]], 'representation-only', as 'consciousness-only'.}}

==Moksha – liberating knowledge of Brahman==

===Knowledge is liberating===
[[File:Sri Ramana Maharshi - Portrait - G. G Welling - 1948.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ramana Maharshi]], the Indian sage who is widely regarded as a Jivanmukta]]
{{See also|Jnana|Prajna (Vedic)|Mahāvākyas#Prajñānam Brahma|l1=Jnana|l2=Prajna|l3=Prajñānam Brahma}}

The soteriological goal, in Advaita, is to gain self-knowledge as being in essence (Atman), awareness or [[Sakshi (Witness)|witness-consciousness]], and complete understanding of the identity of ''jivan-ātman'' and [[Brahman]].{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}} Correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is the attainment of ''Brahman'', immortality,{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|p=26}} and leads to ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation) from suffering{{refn|group=note|The suffering created by the workings of the mind entangled with physical reality}} and ''samsara'', the cycle of rebirth{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}} This is stated by Shankara as follows:
{{blockquote|
<poem>
I am other than name, form and action.
My nature is ever free!
I am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brahman.
I am pure Awareness, always non-dual.
</poem>
|Adi Shankara, [[Upadesasahasri]] 11.7|{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}}}}

According to Advaita Vedānta, liberation can be achieved while living, and is called ''[[Jivanmukti]]''.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=320}} {{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=183–184}}{{refn|group=note|name=transformation}} in contrast to ''Videhamukti'' (moksha from samsara after death) in theistic sub-schools of Vedānta.{{sfn|Deussen|1980}}{{better source needed|date=January 2022}} The Atman-knowledge, that is the knowledge of true Self and its relationship to Brahman is central to this liberation in Advaita thought.{{refn|group=note|The true Self is itself just that pure consciousness, without which nothing can be known in any way.(...) And that same true Self, pure consciousness, is not different from the ultimate world Principle, Brahman&nbsp; (...) Brahman (<nowiki>=</nowiki>the true Self, pure consciousness) is the only Reality (''sat''), since It is untinged by difference, the mark of ignorance, and since It is the one thing that is not sublimatable.{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}}} Atman-knowledge, to Advaitins, is that state of full awareness, liberation and freedom which overcomes dualities at all levels, realizing the divine within oneself, the divine in others and all beings, the non-dual Oneness, that Brahman is in everything, and everything is Brahman.{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=7, 99–103}}{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp=9–13, 29–30, 45–47, 79–86}}{{refn|group=note|name="Fowler2002_monism"}}

According to [[Anantanand Rambachan]], in Advaita, this state of liberating self-knowledge includes and leads to the understanding that "the self is the self of all, the knower of self sees the self in all beings and all beings in the self."{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=109–111}}

===Attaining ''vidyā'' (knowledge)===
{{Main|Jnana Yoga}}

Advaita Vedānta regards the liberated state of being ''Atman-Brahman'' as one's true identity and inherent to being human. According to Shankara and the Vivarana-school, no human action can 'produce' this liberated state, as it is what one already is.{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}} As Swami Vivekananda stated:
{{blockquote|The Vedas cannot show you Brahman, you are That already. They can only help to take away the veil that hides truth from our eyes. The cessation of ignorance can only come when I know that God and I are one; in other words, identify yourself with Atman, not with human limitations. The idea that we are bound is only an illusion [Maya]. Freedom is inseparable from the nature of the Atman. This is ever pure, ever perfect, ever unchangeable.
|Adi Shankara's commentary on Fourth [[Brahma Sutras#Chapter 4: The benefits of spiritual knowledge|Vyasa Sutra]], Swami Vivekananda{{sfnp|Vivekananda|1947|pp=63-65}}}}

Yet, the Advaita-tradition also emphasizes human effort, the path of Jnana Yoga, a progression of study and training to realize one's true identity as ''Atman-Brahman'' and attain [[moksha]].{{sfn|Barua|2015|p=262}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|pp=104–105}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=125–142}} According to critics of [[neo-Advaita]], which also emphasizes direct insight, traditional Advaita Vedanta entails more than self-inquiry or bare insight into one's real nature, but also includes self-restraint, textual studies and ethical perfection. It is described in classical Advaita books like Shankara's [[Upadesasahasri]]{{sfn|Mayeda|2006}} and the [[Vivekachudamani]], which is also attributed to Shankara.

''Sruti'' (scriptures), proper reasoning and meditation are the main sources of knowledge (''vidya'') for the Advaita Vedānta tradition.{{sfn|Rambachan|1984}}{{sfn|Dalal|2009|p=22}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}} It teaches that correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman is achievable by ''[[svādhyāya]]'',{{sfn|Sivananda|1977|p=viii}} study of the self and of the Vedic texts, and three stages of practice: ''sravana'' (perception, hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation),{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}} a three-step methodology that is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]''.{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}<ref name="John A. Grimes 1996 98–99">{{harvnb|Grimes|1996|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA99 98–99]}}</ref>

==== Preparation: the fourfold qualities ====
The Advaita student has to develop the fourfold qualities,{{sfnp|Maharaj|2014|pp=88, context: pp. 82–108}}
 or behavioral qualifications (''Samanyasa'', ''Sampattis'', ''sādhana-catustaya''):{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=251–254}}<ref name=davis38>{{cite book|author=Leesa S. Davis|title=Advaita Vedanta and Zen Buddhism: Deconstructive Modes of Spiritual Inquiry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_kHcG0tspgC&pg=PA38 |year=2010|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-0-8264-2068-8|pages=38–39}}</ref>{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105–108}}{{refn|group=note|These characteristics and steps are described in various Advaita texts, such as by Shankara in Chapter 1.1 of ''Brahmasutrabhasya'',{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}} and in the Bhagavad Gita Chapter 10}} A student is Advaita Vedānta tradition is required to develop these four qualities -
# ''{{IAST|Nityānitya vastu viveka}}'' (नित्यानित्य वस्तु विवेकम्) – Viveka is the ability to correctly discriminate between the real and eternal (''nitya'') and the substance that is apparently real, illusory, changing and transitory (''anitya'').{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=251–254}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}
# ''{{IAST|Ihāmutrārtha phala bhoga virāga}}'' (इहाऽमुत्रार्थ फल भोगविरागम्) – The renunciation (''virāga'') of all desires of the mind (bhoga) for sense pleasures, in this world (iha) and other worlds. Willing to give up everything that is an obstacle to the pursuit of truth and self-knowledge.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref name=gthibaut>George Thibaut, {{Google books|2QswAAAAYAAJ|The Sacred Books of the East: The Vedanta-Sutras, Part 1|page=12}}, Oxford University Press, Editor: Max Muller, p. 12 with footnote 1</ref>
# ''{{IAST|Śamādi ṣatka sampatti}}'' (शमादि षट्क सम्पत्ति) – the sixfold virtues or qualities -
## ''Śama'' - mental tranquility, ability to focus the mind.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref name=gthibaut/>
## ''[[Temperance (virtue)#Hinduism|Dama]]'' - self-restraint,{{refn|group=note|Example self-restraints mentioned in Hindu texts: one must refrain from any violence that causes injury to others, refrain from starting or propagating deceit and falsehood, refrain from theft of other's property, refrain from sexually cheating on one's partner, and refrain from avarice.{{sfnp|Heim|2005|pp=341–354}}{{sfnp|Lochtefeld|2001|p=777}}{{sfnp|Rao|1926}}}} the virtue of temperance.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref name=gthibaut/> restraining the senses.
## ''[[Uparati]]'' - dispassion, lack of desire for worldly pleasures, ability to be quiet and disassociated from everything;{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}} discontinuation of all religious duties and ceremonies<ref name=gthibaut/>
## ''[[Titiksha|Titikṣa]]'' - endurance, perseverance, putting up with pairs of opposites (like heat and cold, pleasure and pain), ability to be patient during demanding circumstances{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref name=gthibaut/>
## ''[[Śraddhā]]'' - having faith in teacher and the [[Sruti]] scriptural texts{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}
## ''[[Samadhana|Samādhāna]]'' - contentedness, satisfaction of mind in all conditions, attention, intentness of mind{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref name=gthibaut/>
# ''{{IAST|Mumukṣutva}}'' (मुमुक्षुत्वम्) – An intense longing for freedom, liberation and wisdom, driven to the quest of knowledge and understanding. Having moksha as the primary goal of life{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}{{sfnp|Maharaj|2014|pp=88, context: pp. 82–108}}

==== The threefold practice: ''sravana'' (hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation)====
The Advaita tradition teaches that correct knowledge, which destroys ''avidya'', psychological and perceptual errors related to Atman and Brahman,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=78–79}} is obtained in ''jnanayoga'' through three stages of practice,<ref name=davis38/> ''sravana'' (hearing), ''manana'' (thinking) and ''nididhyasana'' (meditation).{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}} This three-step methodology is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of the ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'':{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}<ref name="John A. Grimes 1996 98–99"/>
* ''Sravana'', which literally means hearing. The student listens and discusses the ideas, concepts, questions and answers.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}}{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}} of the sages on the [[Upanishads]] and Advaita Vedānta, studying the Vedantic texts, such as the [[Brahma Sutras]], aided by discussions with the [[guru]] (teacher, counsellor).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=251–254}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=xvii}}
* ''Manana'' refers to thinking on these discussions and contemplating over the various ideas based on ''svadhyaya'' and ''sravana''.{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}}<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert P. Waxler|author2=Maureen P. Hall|title=Transforming Literacy: Changing Lives Through Reading and Writing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dB7gXgmOhR4C&pg=PA105 |year=2011|publisher=Emerald |isbn=978-0-85724-628-8|pages=105–106}}</ref> It is the stage of [[Manana (reflection)|reflection on the teachings]];{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}}
* ''[[Nididhyāsana]]'', the stage of meditation and introspection.{{sfn|Deutsch|1980|p=105-108}}<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100234232 |title=Oxford Index, ''nididhyāsana'' |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=5 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705051012/http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100234232 |url-status=live }}</ref> This stage of practice aims at realization and consequent conviction of the truths, non-duality and a state where there is a fusion of thought and action, knowing and being.{{sfn|Dalal|2009|p=16}}{{sfn|Rao|Paranjpe|2015|p=6–7, 177–178, 215}}

Although the threefold practice is broadly accepted in the Advaita tradition, Shankara's works show an ambivalence toward it: while accepting its authenticity and merits, as it is based in the scriptures, he also takes a [[Subitism|subitist]] position,{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=6}} arguing that ''moksha'' is attained at once when the ''mahavakyas'', articulating the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'', are understood.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=9}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=182 (Up.I.18.103-104)}}<ref group=note>See also kelamuni (2006), ''The Philosophy of Adi Shankaracharya'', section "II. The Threefold Means," on Brahma Sutra Bhashya 4.1.2 and subitism.</ref> According to Rambachan, "it is not possible to reconcile Sankara's views with this seemingly well-ordered system."{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=97}}

[[Mandana Misra]], on the other hand, explicitly affirms the threefold practice as the means to acquire knowledge of Brahman, referring to meditation as ''dhyana''.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=18}} He states that these practices, though conceptual, 'can eliminate both ignorance and coneptuality at the same time, leaving only the "pure, transparent nature" of self-awareness'.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=19}}

Bilimoria states that these three stages of Advaita practice can be viewed as ''sadhana'' practice that unifies ''[[Yoga]]'' and ''[[Karma]]'' ("action," referring here to ritual) ideas, and was most likely derived from these older traditions.<ref>{{cite book|author=P.P. Bilimoria|title=Śabdapramāṇa: Word and Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arvrCAAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-009-2911-1|pages=299–301}}</ref>{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=106–110}}

====Guru====
{{Main|Guru}}

Advaita Vedānta school has traditionally had a high reverence for Guru (teacher), and recommends that a competent Guru be sought in one's pursuit of spirituality, though this is not mandatory.{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=182}} Reading of Vedic literature and reflection is the most essential practice.{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=182}} Adi Shankara, states Comans, regularly employed compound words "such as ''Sastracaryopadesa'' (instruction by way of the scriptures and the teacher) and ''Vedāntacaryopadesa'' (instruction by way of the Upanishads and the teacher) to emphasize the importance of Guru".{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=182}} According to Comans, this reflects the Advaita tradition which holds a competent teacher as important and essential to gaining correct knowledge, freeing oneself from false knowledge, and to self-realization.{{sfn|Comans|2000|pp=182–183}} Nevertheless, in the Bhamati-school the guru has a less essential role, as he can explain the teachings, but the student has to venture its further study.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}}

A guru is someone more than a teacher, traditionally a reverential figure to the student, with the ''guru'' serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student.<ref name=joelmlecko33>Joel Mlecko (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269931 The Guru in Hindu Tradition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906162935/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269931 |date=6 September 2023 }} Numen, Volume 29, Fasc. 1, pp. 33–61</ref> The guru, states Joel Mlecko, is more than someone who teaches specific type of knowledge, and includes in its scope someone who is also a "counselor, a sort of parent of mind and soul, who helps mold values and experiential knowledge as much as specific knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who reveals the meaning of life."<ref name=joelmlecko33/>

====''Pramana'' (means of knowledge)====
In classical Indian thought, ''[[pramana]]'' ([[epistemology|means of knowledge]]) concerns questions like how correct knowledge can be acquired; how one knows, how one doesn't; and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.<ref>{{cite book |first=Karl |last=Potter |year=2002 |title=Presuppositions of India's Philosophies |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-0779-0 |pages=25–26}}</ref><ref name=dpsb>{{cite book |first=DPS |last=Bhawuk |year=2011 |title=Spirituality and Indian Psychology |editor=Anthony Marsella |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-8109-7 |page=172}}</ref> In contrast to other schools of Indian philosophy, early Vedanta paid little attention to ''[[pramana]]''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=46}} The ''Brahmasutras'' are not concerned with ''pramana'', and ''pratyaksa'' (sense-perception) and ''anumana'' (inference) refer there to ''sruti'' and ''smriti'' respectively.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=46}} Shankara recognized the means of knowledge,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=46}}{{refn|group=note|Mayeda refers to statements from Shankara regarding epistemology (''pramana-janya'') in section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri, and section 1.1.4 of Brahmasutra-bhasya.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=46–47}}{{sfnp|Bādarāyaṇa|1936|p=35}}{{refn|group=note| NB: some manuscripts list Upadesasahasri verse 1.18.133 as 2.18.133, while Mayeda lists it as 1.18.133, because of interchanged chapter numbering.{{sfn|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|loc=Verse 2.8.133, p. 258}}{{sfn|Potter|2014|p=249}}}} but his thematic focus was upon [[metaphysics]] and [[soteriology]], and he took for granted the ''pramanas''.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=47}} For Shankara, ''sabda'' is the only means of knowledge for attaining ''Brahman-jnana''.{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=49-50}} According to Sengaku Mayeda, "in no place in his works [...] does he give any systematic account of them,"{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=47}} taking ''Atman-Brahman'' to be self-evident (''svapramanaka'') and self-established (''svatahsiddha''), and "an investigation of the means of knowledge is of no use for the attainment of final release."{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=47}}

Nevertheless, the Advaita tradition accepts altogether six kinds of {{IAST|pramāṇas}}.{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}{{sfn|Datta|1932|pp=221–253}}{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=228}}{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=49-50}} While Adi Shankara emphasized ''[[Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism|Śabda]]'' (शब्द), relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts with regard to religious insights,<ref name=dpsb/>{{sfn|Deutsch|2000|p=245-248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}{{sfn|King|1999|p=14}} and also accepted ''pratyakṣa'' (प्रत्यक्षाय), perception; and ''anumāṇa'' (अनुमान), inference — Classical Advaita Vedānta, just like the [[Kumārila Bhaṭṭa|Bhatta Purvamimamsaka school]], also accepts ''upamāṇa'' (उपमान), comparison, analogy; ''arthāpatti'' (अर्थापत्ति), postulation, derivation from circumstances;<ref name=dpsb/>{{sfn|Flood1996|p=225}} and ''[[anupalabdhi]]'' (अनुपलब्धि), non-perception, negative/cognitive proof.{{sfn|Deutsch|2000|p=245-248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}

=====Samadhi=====
The Advaita tradition emphasizes that, since Brahman is ever-present, Brahman-knowledge is immediate and requires no 'action', that is, striving and effort, as articulated by Shankara;{{sfn|Dubois|2013|p=xvii}} yet, it also prescribes elaborate preparatory practice, including yogic samadhi, posing a paradox which is also recognized in other spiritual disciplines and traditions.{{sfn|Barua|2015}}{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021}}{{refn|group=note|name=subitism}}

Shankara regarded the ''srutis'' as the means of knowledge of Brahman, and he was ambivalent about yogic practices and meditation, which at best may prepare one for ''Brahma-jnana''.<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021/> According to Rambachan, criticising Vivekananda, Shankara states that the knowledge of Brahman can only be obtained from inquiry of the [[Shruti]], and not by Yoga or samadhi, which at best can only silence the mind.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994|pp=124–125}} The Bhamati school and the Vivarana school differed on the role of contemplation, but they both "deny the possibility of perceiving supersensuous knowledge through popular yoga techniques."{{sfn|Cenkner|1995|p=96}} Later Advaita texts like the ''[[Dṛg-Dṛśya-Viveka]]'' (14th century) and ''[[Vedantasara (of Sadananda)|Vedāntasara (of Sadananda)]]'' (15th century) added [[samādhi]] as a means to liberation, a theme that was also emphasized by Swami Vivekananda.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|pp=4–5}} The [[Vivekachudamani]], traditionally attributed to Shankara but post-dating him,{{sfn|Grimes|2004|p=23}} "conceives of ''[[nirvikalpa samadhi]]'' as the premier method of Self-realization over and above the well-known vedantic discipline of listening, reflection and deep contemplation."{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}} Koller states that yogic concentration is an aid to gaining knowledge in Advaita.{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=101}}

===== ''Anubhava'' ('experience')=====
The role of ''anubhava'', ''anubhuti'' ("experience," "intuition"{{sfn|Bowker|2000b|loc="Anubhava"}}) as "experience" in gaining ''Brahman-jnana'' is contested. While neo-Vedanta claims a central position for ''anubhava'' as "experience," Shankara himself regarded reliance on textual authority as sufficient for gaining ''Brahman-jnana'',{{sfn|Halbfass|2017|p=387}}{{refn|group=note|See also ramesam, [https://www.advaita-vision.org/atma-anubhava-anubhuti/ ''AtmA anubhava / anubhUti''] (blog).}} "the intuition of Brahman,"{{sfn|Bowker|2000b|loc="Anubhava"}} and used ''anubhava'' interchangeably with ''pratipatta'', "understanding".{{sfn|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=68}} Arvind Sharma argues that Shankara's own "direct experience of the ultimate truth" guided him in selecting "those passages of the scriptures that resonate with this experience and will select them as the key with which to open previously closed, even forbidden, doors."{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=177}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Sharma|2000|p=177}} refers to ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'' 4.1.15, "which tradition views as an allusion to his own direct experience of the ultimate truth." It runs as follows: [...] How can one contest the heart-felt cognition of another as possessing ''brahman''-knowledge, even though bearing a body?}}

The ''[[Vivekachudamani]]'' "explicit[ly] declar[es] that experience (''anubhuti'') is a ''pramana'', or means of knowing (VCM 59),"{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}} and [[neo-Vedanta]] also accepts ''anubhava'' ("personal experience") as a means of knowledge.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}} Dalal and others state that ''anubhava'' does not center around some sort of "mystical experience," but around the correct knowledge of Brahman.{{sfn|Dalal|2009|p=22}}{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=1–14}} Nikhalananda concurs, stating that (knowledge of) ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'' can only be reached by ''[[buddhi]]'', "reason,"{{sfn|Nikhalananda|1931|p=viii}} stating that mysticism is a kind of intuitive knowledge, while ''buddhi'' is the highest means of attaining knowledge.{{sfn|Nikhalananda|1931|pp=viii–ix}}

====''Adhyaropa Apavada'' - imposition and negation====
{{See also|Neti neti|l1=Neti Neti}}

Since Gaudapada,{{sfn|Nelson|1996|p=29}} who adopted the Buddhist four-cornered negation which negates any positive predicates of 'the Absolute',{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177}}{{Sfn|Sarma|2007|pp=126, 143-144}}{{refn|group=note|1. Something is. 2. It is not. 3. It both is and is not. 4. It neither is nor is not.{{sfn|Garfield|Priest|2003}}}} a central method in Advaita Vedanta to express the inexpressable is the method called ''Adhyaropa Apavada''.{{sfn|Nelson|1996|p=29}} In this method, which was highly estimated by [[Satchidanandendra Saraswati]], a property is imposed (''adhyaropa'') on Atman to convince one of its existence, whereafter the imposition is removed (''apavada'') to reveal the true nature of Atman as nondual and undefinable.{{sfn|Murthi|2009|pp=158-159}} In this method, "That which cannot be expressed is expressed through false attribution and subsequent denial."{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2006|p=5}} As Shankara writes, "First let me bring them on the right path, and then I will gradually be able to bring them round to the final truth afterwards."{{sfn|Shah-Kazemi|2006|p=5}} For example, Atman, the real "I," is described as [[Sakshi (Witness)|witness]], giving "it"  an attribute to separate it from non-self. Since this implies a duality between observer and observed, next the notion of "witness" is dropped, by showing that the Self cannot be seen and is beyond qualifications, and only that what is remains, without using any words:<ref group=web name=adhyAropa_apavAda>{{Cite web |url=https://www.advaita-vedanta.in/adhyaropa-apavada |title=''adhyAropa apavAda'' |access-date=29 January 2022 |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129091002/https://www.advaita-vedanta.in/adhyaropa-apavada |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{blockquote|After one separates oneself i.e. 'I' or Atman from the sense objects, the qualities superimposed on Self are also negated by saying that which not being and not non-being, cannot be described by words, without beginning and end (BG 13.32) or as in Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahman, beyond words, beyond mind and speech, etc. Here there is an attempt to negate the earlier attribute like being witness, bliss, most subtlest, etc. After this negation of false superimposition, Self Alone shines. One enters into the state of Nirvikalp Samadhi, where there is no second, no one to experience and hence this state cannot be described in words.<ref group=web name=adhyAropa_apavAda/>}}

====The ''Mahavyakas'' - the identity of Ātman and Brahman ====
''Moksha'', liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality, is attained by disidentification from the body-mind complex and gaining self-knowledge as being in essence ''Atman'', and attaining knowledge of the identity of ''Atman'' and [[Brahman]].{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=183}}{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|p=26}} According to Shankara, the individual Ātman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality, but this difference is only an illusion, and at the highest level of reality they are really identical.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=14}} The real self is ''Sat'', "the Existent," that is, ''Atman-Brahman''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=12, 172}}{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=49}}{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman}} Whereas the difference between Atman and non-Atman is deemed self-evident, knowledge of the identity of Atman and Brahman is revealed by the ''shruti'', especially the Upanishadic statement ''tat tvam asi''.

=====''Mahavakyas''=====
According to Shankara, a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman''. In the Advaita Vedanta tradition, four of those statements, the ''[[Mahavakyas]]'', which are taken literal, in contrast to other statements, have a special importance in revealing this identity.{{sfn|Long|2020|p=245}}{{sfn|Braue|1984|p=81}} They are:
* तत्त्वमसि, ''[[Tattvamasi|tat tvam asi]]'', [[Chandogya Upanishad|Chandogya VI.8.7]]. Traditionally rendered as "That Thou Art" (that you are),{{sfn|Brereton|1986}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=349 note 8.7-16.3}}{{sfn|Black|2012|p=36}} with ''[[Tattva|tat]]'' in Ch.U.6.8.7 referring to ''[[Satya|sat]]'', "the Existent"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|pp=55 note 9; 57}}{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=151-152; p.349 note 8.7-16.3}}); correctly translated as "That's how [thus] you are,"{{sfn|Brereton|1986}}{{sfn|Black|2012|p=36}}{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=152}} with ''tat'' in Ch.U.6.12.3, its original location from where it was copied to other verses,{{sfn|Brereton|1986}} referring to "the very nature of all existence as permeated by [the finest essence]"{{sfn|Bhatawadekar|2013|p=203, note 14}}{{sfn|Brereton|1986|p=107}}
* अहं ब्रह्मास्मि, ''[[aham brahmāsmi]]'', [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad|Brhadāranyaka I.4.10]], "I am Brahman," or "I am  Divine."{{sfn|Braue|1984|p=80}}
* प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म, ''prajñānam brahma'', [[Aitareya Upanishad|Aitareya V.3]], "''Prajñānam''{{refn|group=note|"Consciousness",{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=234}}<ref group=web name="Jiddu">{{Cite web |url=http://www.jiddu-krishnamurti.net/en/1969/1969-07-26-jiddu-krishnamurti-can-one-experience-the-infinite |title=Jiddu Krishnamurti, ''Saanen 2nd Conversation with Swami Venkatesananda 26 July 1969'' |access-date=3 January 2019 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106223706/http://jiddu-krishnamurti.net/en/1969/1969-07-26-jiddu-krishnamurti-can-one-experience-the-infinite |url-status=live }}</ref> "intelligence",{{sfn|Sivaraman|1973|p=146}}{{sfn|Braue|1984|p=80}} "wisdom"}} ''is Brahman''."{{refn|group=note|"the Absolute",{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=234}}<ref group=web name="Jiddu" /> "infinite",<ref group=web name="Jiddu" /> "the Highest truth"<ref group=web name="Jiddu" />}}
* अयमात्मा ब्रह्म, ''ayamātmā brahma'', [[Mandukya Upanishad|Mandukya II]], "This Atman is Brahman."

=====''That you are''=====
The longest chapter of Shankara's ''[[Upadesasahasri]]'', chapter 18, "That Art Thou," is devoted to considerations on the insight "I am ever-free, the existent" (''[[Sat (Sanskrit)|sat]]''), and the identity expressed in [[Chandogya Upanishad#Sixth Prapāṭhaka|Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7]] in the ''[[Mahāvākyas|mahavakya]]'' (great sentence) "''tat tvam asi''", "that thou art."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=50, 172}}{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=57}} In this statement, according to Shankara, ''tat'' refers to '''[[Satya|Sat]]'',{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=57}} "the Existent"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|pp=55 note 9; 57}}{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=151-152}}{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=172, Up.18.3, 18.6, 18.7}} Existence, Being,<ref group=web name="ShankaraBasya">{{cite web |url=http://shankarabhashya.com/index.php?PHPSESSID=343e9e12ffd6b71c499e1722e8813e90&topic=87.0 |title=Topic: CHAPTER 6 - SECTION 8 |date=April 7, 2019 |website=Shankarabhashya.com |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209212211/http://shankarabhashya.com/index.php?topic=87.0 |url-status=live }}</ref> or Brahman,{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=172, Up.18.6}} the Real, the "Root of the world,"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=57}}{{refn|group=note|While the Vedanta tradition equates ''sat'' ("the Existent") with Brahman, the Chandogya Upanishad itself does not refer to Brahman.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Black|2012|p=36}} {{harvtxt|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}: "Although the text does not use the term ''brahman'', the Vedanta tradition is that the Existent (''sat'') referred to is no other than Brahman."}} the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=8}}{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=151-152}}<ref group=web name="ShankaraBasya"/> "Tvam" refers to one's real I, ''pratyagatman'' or inner Self,{{sfn|Lipner|2000|pp=60, 62}} the "direct Witness within everything,"{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=60}} "free from caste, family, and purifying ceremonies,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=218 (up.II.1.24)}} the essence, ''Atman'', which the individual at the core is.{{sfnp|Muller|1879|pp=92-109 with footnotes}}{{sfn|Goodall|1996|pp=136–137}} As Shankara states in the ''[[Upadesasahasri]]'': 
{{blockquote|Up.I.174: "Through such sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own ''Atman'', the Witness of all the internal organs." Up.I.18.190: "Through such sentences as "[Thou art] the Existent" [...] right knowledge concerning the inner ''Atman'' will become clearer." Up.I.18.193-194: "In the sentence "Thou art That" [...] [t]he word "That" means inner ''Atman''."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=190-192}}}}

The statement "tat tvam asi" sheds the false notion that ''Atman'' is different from ''Brahman''.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=91; 219 (Up.II.1.28)}} According toNakamura, the non-duality of ''atman'' and ''Brahman'' "is a famous characteristic of Sankara's thought, but it was already taught by Sundarapandya"{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=675}} (c.600 CE or earlier).{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=176}} Shankara cites Sundarapandya in his comments to ''Brahma Sutra'' verse I.1.4:
{{blockquote|When the metaphorical or false ''atman'' is non-existent, [the ideas of my] child, [my] body are sublated. Therefore, when it is realized that 'I am the existent ''Brahman, atman''', how can anyduty exist?{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=178}}}}

From this, and a large number of other accordances, Nakamura concludes that Shankar was not an original thinker, but "a synthesizer of existing Advaita and the rejuvenator, as well as a defender, of ancient learning."{{sfn|Nakamura|1999|p=679}}

=====Direct perception versus contemplation of the ''Mahavakyas''=====
In the ''Upadesasahasri Shankara'', Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic ''mahavakya''. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=182 (Up.I.18.103-104)}} and rejects ''prasamcaksa'' or ''prasamkhyana'' meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends ''parisamkhyana'',{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=173-174 (Up.I.18.9-19); p.196 note 13}} separating ''Atman'' from everything that is not ''Atman'', that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=251-253 (Up.II.3)}} Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only ''Atman'' exists, stating that "all the sentences of the ''Upanishads'' concerning non-duality of ''Atman'' should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=253 (Up.II.3)}} As Mayeda states, "how they [''prasamcaksa'' or ''prasamkhyana'' versus ''parisamkhyana''] differ from each other in not known."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=196 note 13}}

''Prasamkhyana'' was advocated by Mandana Misra,{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=155}} the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century.{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33-34}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} "According to Mandana, the ''mahavakyas'' are incapable, by themselves, of bringing about ''brahmajnana''. The ''Vedanta-vakyas'' convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation (''prasamkhyana''). The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the ''mahavakyas''.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=155-156}} Vācaspati Miśra, a student of Mandana Misra, agreed with Mandana Misra, and their stance is defended by the Bhamati-school, founded by Vācaspati Miśra.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|p=156}} In contrast, the [[Vivarana]] school founded by Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300){{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} follows Shankara closely, arguing that the ''mahavakyas'' are the direct cause of gaining knowledge.{{sfn|Cenkner|1995|p=95}}

Shankara's insistence on direct knowledge as liberating also differs from the ''[[asparsa yoga]]'' described in Gaudapada's ''Mandukyakarika'' III.39-46.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=367}} In this practice of 'non-contact' (''a-[[sparśa]]''), the mind is controlled and brought to rest, and does not create "things" (appearances) after which it grasps; it becomes non-dual, free from the subject-[grasping]-object dualism.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=365-366}}{{sfn|Reddy Juturi|2021}} Knowing that only ''Atman-Brahman'' is real, the creations of the mind are seen as false appearances (MK III.31-33). When the mind is brought to rest, it becomes or is ''Brahman'' (MK III.46).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=367}}

=====Renouncement of ritualism=====
In the ''Upadesasahasri'' Shankara discourages ritual worship such as oblations to ''Deva'' (God), because that assumes the Self within is different from [[Brahman]].{{refn|group=note|name="ritualism"|Shankara, himself, had renounced all religious ritual acts;{{sfn|Potter|2008|p=16}}<br/>For an example of Shankara's reasoning "why rites and ritual actions should be given up",<ref>Karl Potter on p. 220;{{full citation needed|date=February 2022}}</ref> Elsewhere, Shankara's ''Bhasya'' on various Upanishads repeat "give up rituals and rites".<ref>{{cite book |title=Shankara's Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad |translator=S Madhavananda |year=1950 |url=https://archive.org/details/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda |pages=[https://archive.org/details/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda/page/348/mode/2up?view=theater 348–350, 754–757]}}</ref>}}{{refn |group=note |name="Mookerji" |1=Compare {{harvnb|Mookerji|2011}} on [[Svādhyāya]] (Vedic learning). {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|pp=29–31}} notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the ''Ŗik'' (words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge of ''dharma'' and ''Parabrahman''. {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|pp=29, 34}} concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension of [[Nirukta|their meaning]] was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation." {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|p=35}} refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts, ''akshara-praptī'', is followed by ''[[artha]]-[[Buddhi|bodha]]'', perception of their meaning." (''[[Artha]]'' may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context.{{sfn|Potter|1998|p=610 (note 17)}}<ref group=web>{{cite web |url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=artha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 |title=artha |work=Sanskrit English Dictionary |publisher=University of Koeln, Germany |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607221225/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=artha&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 |archive-date=2015-06-07}}</ref>) According to {{harvtxt|Mookerji|2011|p=36}}, "the realization of [[rta|Truth]]" and the knowledge of ''[[paramatman]]'' as revealed to the ''rishis'' is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.}} The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman".{{sfn|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=219–221}} The false notion that ''Atman'' is different from ''Brahman''{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=91; 219 (Up.II.1.28)}} is connected with the novice's conviction that (''Upadesasaharsi II.1.25'')
{{blockquote|...I am one [and] He is another; I am ignorant, experience pleasure and pain, am bound and a transmigrator [whereas] he is essentially different from me, the god not subject to transmigration. By worshipping Him with oblation, offerings, homage and the like through the [performance of] the actions prescribed for [my] class and stage of life, I wish to get out of the ocean of transmigratory existence. How am I he?{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=91, 218}}}}

Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-''Brahman''," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=172-173 (Up.I.18.3-8)}} According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove[s] the delusion of a hearer,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=183 (Up.I.18.99-100)}} "so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own ''Atman'', the witness of all internal organs,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=190 (Up.I.18.174)}} and not from any actions.{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=192 (Up.I.18.196-197); p.195 (Up.I.18.2019)}}{{refn|group=note|Up.I.18.219: "The renunciation of all actions becomes the means for discriminating the meaning of the word "Thou" since there is an [Upanisadic] teaching, "Having become calm, self-controlled [..., one sees ''Atman'' there in oneself]" (Bhr. Up. IV, 4, 23)."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=195 (Up.I.18.2019)}}}} With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since [the use of] rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity [of ''Atman''] with the highest ''Atman''."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=85, 220 (Up.II.1.30)}}

==Ethics==
Some claim, states Deutsch, "that Advaita turns its back on all theoretical and practical considerations of morality and, if not unethical, is at least 'a-ethical' in character".{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=99}} However, Deutsch adds, ethics ''does'' have a firm place in this philosophy. Its ideology is permeated with ethics and value questions enter into every metaphysical and epistemological analysis, and it considers "an independent, separate treatment of ethics are unnecessary".{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=99}}<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bauer | first=Nancy F. | title=Advaita Vedanta and Contemporary Western Ethics | journal=Philosophy East and West | publisher=University of Hawaii Press | volume=37 | issue=1 | year=1987 | pages=36–50 | doi=10.2307/1399082 | jstor=1399082}}</ref> According to Advaita Vedānta, states Deutsch, there cannot be "any absolute moral laws, principles or duties", instead in its axiological view Atman is "beyond good and evil", and all values result from self-knowledge of the reality of "distinctionless Oneness" of one's real self, every other being and all manifestations of Brahman.{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=100}} Advaitin ethics includes lack of craving, lack of dual distinctions between one's own Self and another being's, good and just [[Karma]].{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|pp=101–102 with footnotes}}

The values and ethics in Advaita Vedānta emanate from what it views as inherent in the state of liberating self-knowledge. This state, according to Rambachan, includes and leads to the understanding that "the self is the self of all, the knower of self sees the self in all beings and all beings in the self."{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=109–111}} Such knowledge and understanding of the indivisibility of one's and other's Atman, Advaitins believe leads to "a deeper identity and affinity with all". It does not alienate or separate an Advaitin from his or her community, rather awakens "the truth of life's unity and interrelatedness".{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|pp=109–111}} These ideas are exemplified in the [[Isha Upanishad]] – a ''sruti'' for Advaita, as follows:

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
One who sees all beings in the self alone, and the self of all beings,
feels no hatred by virtue of that understanding.
For the seer of oneness, who knows all beings to be the self,
where is delusion and sorrow?
</poem>
|''Isha Upanishad 6–7''|Translated by A Rambachan{{sfn|Rambachan|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ORPkAf3SZBQC&pg=PA109 109]}}}}

Adi Shankara, in verse 1.25 to 1.26 of his ''Upadeśasāhasrī'', asserts that the Self-knowledge is understood and realized when one's mind is purified by the observation of [[Yamas]] (ethical precepts) such as [[Ahimsa]] (non-violence, abstinence from injuring others in body, mind and thoughts), [[Satya]] (truth, abstinence from falsehood), [[Asteya]] (abstinence from theft), [[Aparigraha]] (abstinence from possessiveness and craving) and a simple life of meditation and reflection.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=88–89}} Rituals and rites can help focus and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|p=92}} but can be abandoned when moving on to "hearing, reflection, and meditation on the Upanishads."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=33}}

Elsewhere, in verses 1.26–1.28, the Advaita text Upadesasahasri states the ethical premise of equality of all beings. Any ''Bheda'' (discrimination), states Shankara, based on class or caste or parentage is a mark of inner error and lack of liberating knowledge.{{sfn|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|pp=17–19}} This text states that the fully liberated person understands and practices the ethics of non-difference.{{sfn|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|pp=17–19}}

{{Blockquote|One, who is eager to realize this highest truth spoken of in the Sruti, should rise above the fivefold form of desire: for a son, for wealth, for this world and the next, and are the outcome of a false reference to the Self of Varna (castes, colors, classes) and orders of life. These references are contradictory to right knowledge, and reasons are given by the Srutis regarding the prohibition of the acceptance of difference. For when the knowledge that the one non-dual Atman (Self) is beyond phenomenal existence is generated by the scriptures and reasoning, there cannot exist a knowledge side by side that is contradictory or contrary to it.
|Adi Shankara, Upadesha Sahasri 1.44|{{sfn|Sankara|2006|pp=226–227}}<ref group=note>{{harvnb|Śaṅkarācārya|1949|p=32}};<br/>'''Sanskrit''': तच् चैतत् परमार्थदर्शनं प्रतिपत्तुमिच्छता वर्णाश्रमाद्यभिमान-कृतपाञ्क्तरूपपुत्रवित्तलोकैषणादिभ्यो व्युत्थानं कर्तव्यम् । सम्यक्प्रत्ययविरोधात् तदभिमानस्य भेददर्शनप्रतिषेधार्थोपपत्तिश्चोपपद्यते । न ह्येकस्मिन्नात्मन्यसंसारित्वबुद्धौ शास्त्रन्यायोत्पादितायां तद्विपरीता बुद्धिर्भवति । न ह्य् अग्नौ शितत्वबुद्धिः, शरीरे वाजरामरणबुद्धिः । तस्मादविद्याकार्यत्वात् सर्वकर्मणां तत्साधनानां च यज्ञोपवीतादीनां परमार्थदर्शनिष्टेन त्यागः कर्तव्यः ॥ ४४॥</ref>}}

==Texts==
The [[Upanishads]], the [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gitā]] and [[Brahma Sutras]] are the central texts of the Advaita Vedānta tradition, providing doctrines about the identity of ''Atman'' and ''Brahman'' and their changeless nature.{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=35}}

Adi Shankara gave a nondualist interpretation of these texts in his commentaries. [[Adi Shankara]]'s ''[[Bhashya]]'' (commentaries) have become central texts in the Advaita Vedānta philosophy, but are one among many ancient and medieval manuscripts available or accepted in this tradition.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=221, 680}} The subsequent Advaita tradition has further elaborated on these sruti and commentaries. Adi Shankara is also credited for the famous text [[Nirvana Shatakam]].

===''Prasthanatrayi''===
The ''Vedānta'' tradition provides exegeses of the ''[[Upanishads]]'', the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'', and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavadgita]]'', collectively called the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]'', literally, ''three sources''.{{sfn|Grimes|1990|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=35}}
# The ''[[Upanishads]]'',{{refn|group=note|Many in number, the ''Upanishads'' developed in different schools at various times and places, some in the Vedic period and others in the medieval or modern era (the names of up to 112 ''Upanishads'' have been recorded).{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=28}} All major commentators have considered the twelve to thirteen oldest of these texts as the principal ''Upanishads'' and as the foundation of Vedanta.}} or ''Śruti prasthāna''; considered the ''[[Sruti|{{IAST|Śruti}}]]'' (Vedic scriptures) foundation of ''Vedānta''.{{refn|group=note|The Śruti includes the four Vedas including its four layers of embedded texts&nbsp;– the ''Samhitas'', the ''Brahmanas'', the ''Aranyakas'', and the early ''Upanishads''.<ref>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|0-7190-1867-6}}, pp. 2–3</ref>}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=26}}{{sfn|Coburn|1984|p=439}}{{sfn|Deutsch|2000|p=245–248}} Most scholars, states [[Eliot Deutsch]], are convinced that the Śruti in general, and the Upanishads in particular, express "a very rich diversity" of ideas, with the early ''Upanishads'' such as ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'' and ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'' being more readily amenable to ''Advaita Vedānta'' school's interpretation than the middle or later ''Upanishads''.{{sfn|Deutsch|1988|pp=4–6 with footnote 4}}{{sfn|Sharma|2007|pp=18–19}} In addition to the oldest ''Upanishads'', states Williams, the ''Sannyasa Upanishads'' group composed in pre-''Shankara'' times "express a decidedly ''Advaita'' outlook".<ref>Stephen Phillips (1998), ''Classical Indian Metaphysics'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814899}}, p. 332 note 68</ref>
# The ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'', or ''Nyaya prasthana'' / ''Yukti prasthana''; considered the reason-based foundation of ''Vedānta''. The ''Brahma Sutras'' attempted to synthesize the teachings of the ''Upanishads''. The diversity in the teachings of the ''Upanishads'' necessitated the systematization of these teachings. The only extant version of this synthesis is the ''Brahma Sutras'' of ''[[Badarayana]]''. Like the ''Upanishads'', ''Brahma Sutras'' is also an aphoristic text, and can be interpreted as a non-theistic ''Advaita Vedānta'' text or as a theistic ''Dvaita Vedānta'' text. This has led, states Stephen Phillips, to its varying interpretations by scholars of various sub-schools of ''Vedānta''.<ref>Stephen Phillips (1998), ''Classical Indian Metaphysics'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814899}}, p. 332 note 69</ref> The ''Brahmasutra'' is considered by the Advaita school as the ''Nyaya Prasthana'' (canonical base for reasoning).{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36}}
# The ''[[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gitā]]'', or ''Smriti prasthāna''; considered the ''[[Smriti]]'' (remembered tradition) foundation of ''Vedānta''.{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36}} It has been widely studied by ''Advaita'' scholars, including a commentary by ''Adi Shankara''.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36, 77, 210–212}}

===Textual authority===
The Advaita Vedānta tradition considers the knowledge claims in the Vedas to be the crucial part of the Vedas, not its ''karma-kanda'' (ritual injunctions).{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}} The knowledge claims about self being identical to the nature of ''Atman-Brahman'' are found in the [[Upanishads]], which Advaita Vedānta has regarded as "errorless revealed truth."{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}} Nevertheless, states Koller, Advaita Vedantins did not entirely rely on revelation, but critically examined their teachings using reason and experience, and this led them to investigate and critique competing theories.{{sfn|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}}

Advaita Vedānta, like all orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, accepts as an [[epistemic]] premise that [[Śruti]] (Vedic literature) is a reliable source of knowledge.{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|p=26}}{{sfn|Coburn|1984|p=439}}{{sfn|Deutsch|2000|p=245–248}} The Śruti includes the four Vedas including its four layers of embedded texts – the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads.<ref>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, {{ISBN|0-7190-1867-6}}, pp. 2–3</ref> Of these, the Upanishads are the most referred to texts in the Advaita school.

The possibility of different interpretations of the Vedic literature, states Arvind Sharma, was recognized by ancient Indian scholars.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p=17–19, 22–34}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36, 77, 210–212}} The [[Brahmasutra]] (also called Vedānta Sutra, composed in 1st millennium BCE) accepted this in verse 1.1.4 and asserts the need for the Upanishadic teachings to be understood not in piecemeal cherrypicked basis, rather in a unified way wherein the ideas in the Vedic texts are harmonized with other means of knowledge such as perception, inference and remaining [[pramana]]s.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p=17–19, 22–34}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36}} This theme has been central to the Advaita school, making the [[Brahmasutra]] as a common reference and a consolidated textual authority for Advaita.{{sfn|Sharma|2007|p=17–19, 22–34}}{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=6–7}}

The Bhagavad Gitā, similarly in parts can be interpreted to be a monist Advaita text, and in other parts as theistic Dvaita text. It too has been widely studied by Advaita scholars, including a commentary by Adi Shankara.{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=35–36, 77, 210–212}}

===Other texts===
A large number of texts are attributed to Shankara; of these texts, the Brahma Sutra Bhasya (commentary on the Brahma Sutras), the commentaries on the principal Upanishads, and the [[Upadesasahasri]] are considered genuine and stand out. 

Post-Shankara Advaita saw the composition of both scholarly commentaries and treatises, as well as, from late medieaval times (14th century) on, popular works and compositions which incorporate Yoga ideas. These include notable texts mistakenly attributed to Shankara, such as the [[Vivekachudamani]], [[Atma bodha]], and Aparokshanubhuti; and other texts like [[Advaita Bodha Deepika]] and [[Dŗg-Dŗśya-Viveka]]. Texts which influenced the Advaita tradition include the [[Avadhuta Gita]], the [[Yoga Vasistha]], and the [[Yoga Yajnavalkya]].

==Sampradaya and Smarta tradition==

===Monastic order - Mathas===
{{See also|Dashanami Sampradaya}}
[[File:Vidyashankara Temple at Shringeri.jpg|thumb|(Vidyashankara temple) at [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham]], [[Shringeri]]]]

Advaita Vedānta is not just a philosophical system, but also a tradition of [[Sannyasa|renunciation]]. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" />

{{blockquote|Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the same values, attitudes and metaphysics.<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" />}}

According to tradition, around 740 AD Gaudapada founded [[Shri Gaudapadacharya Math]]{{refn|group=note|{{lang-sa|श्री संस्थान गौडपदाचार्य मठ}}, {{IAST|Śrī Sansthāna Gauḍapadācārya Maṭha}}}}, also known as {{IAST|Kavaḷē maṭha}}. It is located in [[Kavale]], [[Ponda taluk|Ponda]], Goa,<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://www.vidya-ashramvidyaorder.org/index.V.html |title=Asram Vidya Order, ''Biographical Notes About Sankara And Gaudapada'' |access-date=14 July 2011 |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809145405/http://vidya-ashramvidyaorder.org/index.V.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and is the oldest [[matha]] of the [[South India]]n [[Saraswat Brahmin]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|title=Shri Gowdapadacharya & Shri Kavale Math (A Commemoration volume)| page=10}}</ref><ref group=web>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150924101459/http://www.shrikavalemath.org.in/default.htm Kavale Math Official Website]</ref>

Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of [[Shiva]],<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" /> is credited with establishing the Dashanami Sampradaya, organizing a section of the [[Dashanami Sampradaya|Ekadandi monks]] under an umbrella grouping of ten names.<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition">[http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Shankara/shankar4.html Sankara Acarya Biography – Monastic Tradition] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508091224/http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Shankara/shankar4.html |date=8 May 2012}}</ref> Several Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions, however, remained outside the organisation of the Dasanāmis.<ref>Karigoudar Ishwaran, ''Ascetic Culture''</ref><ref>Wendy Sinclair-Brull, ''Female Ascetics''</ref><ref>H.A. Rose, Ibbetson, Denzil Ibbetson Sir, and Maclagan, ''Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province'', p. 857</ref>

Sankara is said to have organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four {{IAST|[[Matha|Maṭhas]]}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|मठ}}) (monasteries), called the ''Amnaya Mathas'', with the headquarters at [[Dvārakā]] in the West, [[Jagannatha Puri]] in the East, [[Sringeri]] in the South and [[Badrikashrama]] in the North.<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition"/> According to tradition, each math was first headed by one of his four main disciples, and the tradition continues since then. Yet, according to Paul Hacker, no mention of the ''mathas'' can be found before the 14th century CE.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=28}} Until the 15th century, the timespan of the directors of Sringeri Math are unrealistically long, spanning 60+ and even 105 years. After 1386, the timespans become much shorter.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=28-29}} According to Hacker, these mathas may have originated as late as the 14th century, to propagate Shankara's view of Advaita.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{refn|group=note|Nakamura also recognized the influence of these mathas, which he argues contributed to the influence of Shankara, which was "due to institutional factors". The mathas which he established remain active today, and preserve the teachings and influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars before him came to be forgotten with the passage of time".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=680–681}}}}{{refn|group=note|According to Pandey, these Mathas were not established by Shankara himself, but were originally ashrams established by [[Vibhandak Rishi|Vibhāņdaka]] and his son [[Rishyasringa|Ŗșyaśŗnga]].{{sfn|Pandey|2000|pp=4–5}} Shankara inherited the ashrams at Dvārakā and Sringeri, and shifted the ashram at Śŗngaverapura to Badarikāśrama, and the ashram at Angadeśa to Jagannātha Purī.{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=5}}}} According to another tradition in Kerala, after Sankara's [[samadhi]] at Vadakkunnathan Temple, his disciples founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely [[Naduvil Madhom, Thrissur|Naduvil Madhom]], Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom.

Monks of these ten orders differ in part in their beliefs and practices, and a section of them is not considered to be restricted to specific changes attributed to Shankara. While the dasanāmis associated with the Sankara maths follow the procedures attributed to Adi Śankara, some of these orders remained partly or fully independent in their belief and practices; and outside the official control of the Sankara maths. The advaita sampradaya is not a [[Saiva]] sect,<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" />{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=782–783}} despite the historical links with Shaivism.{{refn|group=note|Sanskrit.org: "Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Siva and Visnu equally with that of the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and others."<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" />}} Nevertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more influence among Saiva communities than among Vaisnava communities.<ref group=web name="MonasticTradition" />

===Smarta Tradition===
{{Main|Smarta Tradition}}

The [[Smarta Tradition|Smarta]] tradition of [[Hinduism]] is a synthesis of various strands of Indian religious thought and practice, which developed with the [[Hindu synthesis]], dating back to the early first century CE.{{refn|group=note|Archeological evidence suggest that the Smarta tradition in India dates back to at least 3rd-century CE.<ref name="Williams1981p2">{{cite book|author=Frederick Asher|editor=Joanna Gottfried Williams|title=Kalādarśana: American Studies in the Art of India|year=1981|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-06498-2|pages=1–4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ|access-date=9 February 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175658/https://books.google.com/books?id=-qoeAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Harle1994p141"/>}} It is particularly found in south and west India, and revers all Hindu divinities as a step in their spiritual pursuit.<ref name="Harle1994p141"/><ref name="Flood1996p17"/>{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=1017}} Their [[Puja (Hinduism)|worship]] practice is called ''Panchayatana puja''.<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60">{{cite book|author=Gudrun Bühnemann|title=Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60|year=2003|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-9004129023|pages=60–61|access-date=9 February 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175701/https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Harle1994p141">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-06217-5| url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl|url-access=registration|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/140 140]–142, 191, 201–203}}</ref> The worship symbolically consists of five deities: [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]], [[Devi]] or [[Durga]], [[Surya]] and an [[Ishta Devata]] or any personal god of devotee's preference.<ref name="Flood1996p17">{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/17 17]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Diana L. Eck|title=Darśan: Seeing the Divine Image in India|year=1998|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-11265-9|page=49|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWqaD9Hz1bMC|access-date=9 February 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175659/https://books.google.com/books?id=wWqaD9Hz1bMC|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the Smarta tradition, Advaita Vedānta ideas combined with [[bhakti]] are its foundation. Adi Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=1017}} and reformer of the Smarta.{{sfn|Rosen|2006|p=166}} According to [[Alf Hiltebeitel]], Shankara's Advaita Vedānta and practices became the doctrinal unifier of previously conflicting practices with the ''smarta'' tradition.{{refn|group=note|Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and ''smarta'' orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend the ''varnasramadharma'' theory as defining the path of ''karman'', but had developed the practice of ''pancayatanapuja'' ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's ''istadevata'' ("deity of choice").{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2013}}}}

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all images and statues ([[murti]]), or just five marks or any anicons on the ground, are visibly convenient icons of spirituality ''saguna Brahman''.<ref name="lexicon"/><ref name="Bühnemann2003p60"/> The multiple icons are seen as multiple representations of the same idea, rather than as distinct beings. These serve as a step and means to realizing the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman (Self) and Brahman – as "That art Thou".<ref name="lexicon">[https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects The Four Denominations of Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618033816/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects |date=18 June 2018 }}, Basics of Hinduism, Kauai Hindu Monastery</ref><ref>Falk Reitz (1997), [http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/76/1/Pancayatana_1.pdf Pancayatana-Komplexe in Nordindien: Entstehung, Entwicklung und regionale Besonderheiten einer indischen Architekturform] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009000103/http://crossasia-repository.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/76/1/Pancayatana_1.pdf |date=9 October 2016 }}, PhD Thesis (in German), Awarded by [[Free University of Berlin|Freie Universität Berlin]]</ref>

==Buddhist influences==
{{Main|Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta}}

===Similarities===
Advaita Vedānta and various other schools of Hindu philosophy share numerous terminology, doctrines and dialectical techniques with Buddhism.{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=172}}{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=126, 157}} According to a 1918 paper by the Buddhism scholar O. Rozenberg, "a precise differentiation between Brahmanism and Buddhism is impossible to draw."{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=172}} Murti notices that "the ultimate goal" of Vedanta, Samkhya and Mahayana Buddhism is "remarkably similar"; while Advaita Vedanta postulates a "foundational self," "Mahayana Buddhism implicitly affirms the existence of a deep underlying reality behind all empirical manifestations in its conception of ''[[sunyata]]'' (the indeterminate, the void), or ''[[Yogachara#The doctrine of Vijñapti-mātra|vijnapti-matrata]]'' (consciousness only), or ''[[tathata]]'' (thatness), or ''[[dharmata]]'' (noumenal reality)."{{sfn|Murti|1983|p=339}} According to Frank Whaling, the similarities between Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism are not limited to the terminology and some doctrines, but also includes practice. The monastic practices and monk tradition in Advaita are similar to those found in Buddhism.{{sfn|Whaling|1979|pp=1–42}}

===Mahayana influences===
The influence of [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]] on Advaita Vedānta has been significant.{{sfn|Whaling|1979|pp=1–42}}{{sfn|Grimes|1998|pp=684–686}} Sharma points out that the early commentators on the Brahma Sutras were all [[Philosophical realism|realists]], or [[Pantheism|pantheist]] realists. He states that they were influenced by Buddhism, particularly during the 5th-6th centuries CE when Buddhist thought developing in the [[Yogacara]] school.{{sfn|Sharma, B.N.|2000|p=60–63}}

Von Glasenap states that there was a mutual influence between Vedanta and Buddhism.<ref group=note name=helmithglasenapp2>Helmuth Von Glasenapp (1995), Vedanta & Buddhism: A comparative study, Buddhist Publication Society, pages 2-3, '''Quote:''' "Vedanta and Buddhism have lived side by side for such a long time that obviously they must have influenced each other. The strong predilection of the Indian mind for a doctrine of universal unity has led the representatives of Mahayana to conceive Samsara and Nirvana as two aspects of the same and single true reality; for [[Nagarjuna]] the '''empirical world is a mere appearance''', as all dharmas, manifest in it, are perishable and conditioned by other dharmas, without having any independent existence of their own. Only the indefinable "Voidness" (''Sunyata'') to be grasped in meditation, and realized in Nirvana, has '''true reality''' [in Buddhism]".</ref> Dasgupta and Mohanta suggest that Buddhism and Shankara's Advaita Vedānta represent "different phases of development of the same non-dualistic metaphysics from the Upanishadic period to the time of Sankara."{{sfn|Dasgupta|Mohanta|1998|p=362}}{{refn|group=note|This development did not end with Advaita Vedanta, but continued in Tantrism and various schools of Shaivism. Non-dual [[Kashmir Shaivism]], for example, was influenced by, and took over doctrines from, several orthodox and heterodox Indian religious and philosophical traditions.{{sfn|Muller-Ortega|2010|p=25}} These include Vedanta, Samkhya, Patanjali Yoga and Nyayas, and various Buddhist schools, including Yogacara and Madhyamika,{{sfn|Muller-Ortega|2010|p=25}} but also Tantra and the Nath-tradition.{{sfn|Muller-Ortega|2010|p=26}}}}

The influence of Buddhist doctrines on [[Gauḍapāda]] has been a vexed question.{{sfn|Potter|1981|p=105}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=2}} Modern scholarship generally accepts that Gauḍapāda was influenced by Buddhism, at least in terms of using Buddhist terminology to explain his ideas, but adds that Gauḍapāda was a Vedantin and not a Buddhist.{{sfn|Potter|1981|p=105}}

Adi Shankara, states Natalia Isaeva, incorporated "into his own system a Buddhist notion of ''[[Maya (illusion)|maya]]'' which had not been minutely elaborated in the Upanishads".{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=172}} According to Mudgal, Shankara's Advaita and the Buddhist Madhyamaka view of ultimate reality are compatible because they are both transcendental, indescribable, non-dual and only arrived at through a ''[[via negativa]]'' ([[neti neti]]). Mudgal concludes therefore that "the difference between [[Shunyata|Sunyavada]] (Mahayana) philosophy of Buddhism and [[Advaita]] philosophy of Hinduism may be a matter of emphasis, not of kind.{{sfn|Mudgal|1975|p=4}} Similarly, there are many points of contact between Buddhism's [[Vijnanavada]] and Shankara's Advaita.{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=174}} According to S.N. Dasgupta,
{{blockquote|Shankara and his followers borrowed much of their dialectic form of criticism from the Buddhists. His [[Brahman]] was very much like the [[Śūnyatā|sunya]] of Nagarjuna [...] The debts of Shankara to the [[Svasaṃvedana|self-luminosity]]{{refn|group=note|name=self-luminous}} of the Vijnanavada Buddhism can hardly be overestimated. There seems to be much truth in the accusations against Shankara by [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijnana Bhiksu]] and others that he was a hidden Buddhist himself. I am led to think that Shankara's philosophy is largely a compound of [[Yogacara|Vijnanavada]] and [[Madhyamaka|Sunyavada]] Buddhism with the Upanisad notion of the permanence of self superadded.{{sfn|Dasgupta|1997|page=494}}}}

===Differences from Buddhism===
The Advaita Vedānta tradition has historically rejected accusations of [[crypto-Buddhism]] highlighting their respective views on ''Atman'', ''Anatta'' and ''Brahman''.{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|pp=60, 145–154}} Yet, some Buddhist texts chronologically placed in the 1st millennium of common era, such as the Mahayana tradition's ''Tathāgatagarbha sūtras'' suggest self-like concepts, variously called ''Tathāgatagarbha'' or ''[[Buddha nature]]''.{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=104, 125–127}}{{sfn|Hookham|1991|pp=100–104}} In modern era studies, scholars such as Wayman and Wayman state that these "self-like" concepts are neither self nor sentient being, nor soul, nor personality.{{sfn|Williams|2008|pp=107, 112}}{{sfn|Hookham|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JqLa4xWot-YC&pg=PA96 96]}} Some scholars posit that the ''Tathāgatagarbha Sutras'' were written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|2008|pp=104–105, 108–109}}: "(...) it refers to the Buddha using the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics."</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Merv Fowler|title=Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7UKjtA0QDwC|year=1999|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-66-0|pages=101–102}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=John W. Pettit|title=Mipham's Beacon of Certainty: Illuminating the View of Dzogchen, the Great Perfection|year=1999|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-86171-157-4|pages=48–49|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Kz4ox1vp5IC|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175559/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Kz4ox1vp5IC|url-status=live}}</ref>

The epistemological foundations of Buddhism and Advaita Vedānta are different. Buddhism accepts two valid means to reliable and correct knowledge – perception and inference, while Advaita Vedānta accepts six (described elsewhere in this article).{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=238}}<ref name=ds>{{cite journal| author= D Sharma |year= 1966| title= Epistemological negative dialectics of Indian logic — Abhāva versus Anupalabdhi| journal= [[Indo-Iranian Journal]]| volume= 9| number= 4| pages= 291–300|doi= 10.1163/000000066790086530}}</ref><ref>John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521126274}}, p. 54</ref> However, some Buddhists in history, have argued that Buddhist scriptures are a reliable source of spiritual knowledge, corresponding to Advaita's ''Śabda'' pramana, however Buddhists have treated their scriptures as a form of inference method.<ref>Alex Wayman (1999), A Millennium of Buddhist Logic, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816466}}, pp. xix–xx</ref>

Advaita Vedānta posits a [[Substance theory|substance ontology]], an ontology which holds that underlying the change and impermanence of empirical reality is an unchanging and permanent absolute reality, like an eternal substance it calls Atman-Brahman.{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=49–50, 60–62}} In its substance ontology, as like other philosophies, there exist a universal, particulars and specific properties and it is the interaction of particulars that create events and processes.<ref name="Bartley2011p91"/> In contrast, [[Buddhism]] posits a [[Process philosophy|process ontology]], also called as "event ontology".{{sfn|Williams|Tribe|Wynne|2000|p=92}}<ref name="Bartley2011p91">{{cite book|author=Christopher Bartley|title=An Introduction to Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PlupnDEr5iAC|year=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-84706-449-3|pages=90–91}}</ref> According to the Buddhist thought, particularly after the rise of ancient Mahayana Buddhism scholarship, there is neither empirical nor absolute permanent reality and ontology can be explained as a process.{{sfn|Williams|Tribe|Wynne|2000|p=92}}{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|pp=40–50, 60–62, 97}}{{refn|group=note|Kalupahana describes how in Buddhism there is also a current which favours substance ontology. Kalupahanan sees [[Madhyamaka]] and [[Yogacara]] as reactions against developments toward substance ontology in Buddhism.{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994}}}} There is a system of relations and interdependent phenomena (''pratitya samutpada'') in Buddhist ontology, but no stable persistent identities, no eternal universals nor particulars. Thought and memories are mental constructions and fluid processes without a real observer, personal agency or cognizer in Buddhism. In contrast, in Advaita Vedānta, like other schools of Hinduism, the concept of self (atman) is the real on-looker, personal agent and cognizer.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christopher Bartley|title=An Introduction to Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PlupnDEr5iAC|year=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-84706-449-3|pages=90–91, 96, 204–208}}</ref>

===Criticisms of concurring Hindu schools===
Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its ''Maya'' and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism.<ref>[[Julius Lipner]] (1986), The Face of Truth: A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Rāmānuja, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0887060397}}, pp. 120–123</ref>{{sfn|Whaling|1979|pp=1–42}} sometimes referring to the Advaita-tradition as ''Māyāvāda''.{{refn|{{harvnb|Hacker|1995|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Lorenzen|2015}}; {{harvnb|Baird|1986}}; {{harvnb|Goswami Abhay Charan Bhaktivedanta|1956}}}}

[[Ramanuja]], the founder of [[Vishishtadvaita|Vishishtadvaita Vedānta]], accused Adi Shankara of being a ''Prachanna Bauddha'', that is, a "crypto-Buddhist",{{sfn|Biderman|1978|pp=405–413}} and someone who was undermining theistic [[Bhakti]] devotionalism.{{sfn|Whaling|1979|pp=1–42}} The non-Advaita scholar [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhaskara]] of the Bhedabheda Vedānta tradition, similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankara's Advaita as "this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists", and a school that is undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy.{{sfn|Whaling|1979|pp=1–42}}

==Relationship with other forms of Vedānta==
The Advaita Vedānta ideas, particularly of 8th century Adi Shankara, were challenged by theistic Vedānta philosophies that emerged centuries later, such as the 11th-century [[Vishishtadvaita]] (qualified [[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualism]]) of [[Ramanuja]], and the 14th-century [[Dvaita]] (theistic dualism) of [[Madhvacharya]].{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=238–243, 288–294, 340–342}} Their application of Vedanta philosophy to ground their faith turned Vedanta into a major factor in India's religious landscape.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=691-693}}

===Vishishtadvaita===
{{main|Vishishtadvaita}}

[[Ramanuja|Ramanuja's]] Vishishtadvaita school and [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]'s Advaita school are both nondualism Vedānta schools,<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp>J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008), [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja Ramanuja – Hindu theologian and Philosopher] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621165517/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja |date=21 June 2022 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica</ref><ref name=cetternonplu/> both are premised on the assumption that all Selfs can hope for and achieve the state of blissful liberation; in contrast, Madhvacharya and his Dvaita subschool of Vedānta believed that some Selfs are eternally doomed and damned.{{sfn|Sarma|1994|pp=374–375}}<ref>{{Cite book|first=Edwin |last= Bryant| title=Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma)| publisher= Oxford University Press| year= 2007| isbn= 978-0195148923|pages=361–362}}</ref> Shankara's theory posits that only Brahman and causes are metaphysical unchanging reality, while the empirical world ([[Maya (illusion)|Maya]]) and observed effects are changing, illusive and of relative existence.<ref name="Sydnor2012p87">{{cite book|author=Jon Paul Sydnor|title=Ramanuja and Schleiermacher: Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-0227680247|pages=84–87|access-date=21 September 2016|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175559/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae4FBAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=joeschultz81>{{cite book|author=Joseph P. Schultz|title=Judaism and the Gentile Faiths: Comparative Studies in Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dchpiP-9YQAC|year=1981|publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|isbn=978-0-8386-1707-6|pages=81–84|access-date=21 September 2016|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175615/https://books.google.com/books?id=dchpiP-9YQAC|url-status=live}}</ref> Spiritual liberation to Shankara is the full comprehension and realization of oneness of one's unchanging Atman (Self) as the same as Atman in everyone else as well as being identical to the ''nirguna'' Brahman.<ref name=cetternonplu>{{cite book|author=Christopher Etter|title=A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW2pcWpXY8wC| year=2006| publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-39312-1|pages=57–60, 63–65}}</ref>{{sfn|Indich|2000|pp=1–2, 97–102}}{{sfn|Deutsch|2013|p=247–248}} In contrast, Ramanuja's theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are two different absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither should be called false or illusive, and ''saguna'' Brahman with attributes is also real.<ref name=joeschultz81/> God, like man, states Ramanuja, has both soul and body, and all of the world of matter is the glory of God's body.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/> The path to Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god (''saguna'' Brahman, Vishnu), one which ultimately leads one to the oneness with ''nirguna'' Brahman.<ref name=jabvanbuirhtp/><ref name="Sydnor2012p87"/><ref name=joeschultz81/>

===Shuddhadvaita===
{{main|Shuddhadvaita}}

[[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE), the proponent of the philosophy of [[Shuddhadvaita]] Brahmvad enunciates that Ishvara has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Maya (which itself is his power) and manifests Himself through the world.<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, "Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)", Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is why shuddhadvaita is known as 'Unmodified transformation' or 'Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'. Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual Selfs and the world. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a 'part' (but devoid of bliss).<ref>"Brahmavād Saṅgraha", Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref>

===Dvaita===
{{main|Dvaita}}

Madhvacharya was also a critic of [[Advaita]] Vedānta. Advaita's nondualism asserted that Atman (Self) and Brahman are identical (both in bondage and liberation<ref name=":1">Tapasyananda, Swami. ''Bhakti Schools of Vedanta'' pg. 180-181</ref>), there is interconnected oneness of all Selfs and Brahman, and there are no pluralities.<ref name=stoker2011mc/><ref name=staffordbetty215/> Madhva in contrast asserted that Atman (Self) and Brahman are different (both in bondage and liberation<ref name=":1" />), only [[Vishnu]] is the Lord (Brahman), individual Selfs are also different and depend on Vishnu, and there are pluralities.<ref name=stoker2011mc>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Madhva (1238–1317) |first=Valerie |last=Stoker |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2011 |access-date=2 February 2016 |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/ |archive-date=12 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012131604/http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=staffordbetty215>Stafford Betty (2010), Dvaita, Advaita, and Viśiṣṭādvaita: Contrasting Views of Mokṣa, Asian Philosophy: An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East, Volume 20, Issue 2, pp. 215–224</ref> Madhvacharya stated that both Advaita Vedānta and [[Mahayana Buddhism]] were a [[nihilism|nihilistic]] school of thought.<ref name=smschari6/> Madhvacharya wrote four major texts, including ''Upadhikhandana'' and ''Tattvadyota'', primarily dedicated to criticizing Advaita.<ref name=smschari6>SMS Chari (1999), Advaita and Visistadvaita, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120815353}}, pp. 5–7</ref>

Followers of [[ISKCON]] are highly critical of Advaita Vedānta, regarding it as ''māyāvāda'', identical to Mahayana Buddhism.<ref group=web>Gaura Gopala Dasa, [https://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada ''The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183434/https://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada |date=9 July 2021 }}</ref><ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://www.harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html |title=''Mayavada Philosophy'' |access-date=3 January 2019 |archive-date=14 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214115618/http://www.harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Influence on other traditions===
Within the ancient and medieval texts of Hindu traditions, such as [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]] and [[Shaktism]], the ideas of Advaita Vedānta have had a major influence.{{refn|group=note|name=Influence}} Advaita Vedānta influenced Krishna Vaishnavism in the different parts of India.{{sfn|Neog|1980|pp=243–244}} One of its most popular text, the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'', adopts and integrates in Advaita Vedānta philosophy.{{sfn|Kumar Das|2006|pp=172–173}}{{sfn|Brown|1983|pp=553–557}}{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|pp=1–2, 17–25}} The ''Bhagavata Purana'' is generally accepted by scholars to have been composed in the second half of 1st millennium CE.{{sfn|Sheridan|1986|p=6}}<ref name="Archaism">{{Cite book | year=1966 | last=van Buitenen | first=J. A. B | chapter=The Archaism of the Bhagavata Purana| editor=Milton Singer | title=Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes | pages=23–40}}</ref>

In the ancient and medieval literature of [[Shaivism]], called the ''[[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgamas]]'', the influence of Advaita Vedānta is once again prominent.{{sfn|Smith|2003|pp=126–128}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–167}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|1984|pp=177–178}} Of the 92 ''Āgamas'', ten are ''[[Dvaita]]'' texts, eighteen are ''[[Bhedabheda]]'', and sixty-four are ''[[Advaita]]'' texts.{{sfn|Davis|2014|p=167 note 21}}{{sfn|Dyczkowski|1989|pp=43–44}} According to Natalia Isaeva, there is an evident and natural link between 6th-century Gaudapada's Advaita Vedānta ideas and [[Kashmir Shaivism]].{{sfn|Isaeva|1995|pp=134–135}}

[[Shaktism]], the Hindu tradition where a goddess is considered identical to Brahman, has similarly flowered from a syncretism of the monist premises of Advaita Vedānta and dualism premises of Samkhya–Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, sometimes referred to as ''Shaktadavaitavada'' (literally, the path of nondualistic ''Shakti'').{{sfn|McDaniel|2004|pp=89–91}}{{sfn|Brooks|1990|pp=35–39}}{{sfn|Mahony|1997|p=274 with note 73}}

Other influential ancient and medieval classical texts of Hinduism such as the ''[[Yoga Yajnavalkya]]'', ''[[Yoga Vashishta]]'', ''[[Avadhuta Gita|Avadhuta Gitā]]'', ''[[Markandeya Purana]]'' and ''[[Sannyasa Upanishads]]'' predominantly incorporate premises and ideas of Advaita Vedānta.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chapple|1984|pp=ix–x with footnote 3}};<br/>{{harvnb|Rosen|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AeoDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA149 149]}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= White |first=David Gordon |title=The "Yoga Sutra of Patanjali": A Biography| year=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691143774|pages=xvi–xvii, 50–52}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Rigopoulos|1998|pp=37, 57, 62–63, 195–207}};<br/>{{Harvnb|Sahasrabudhe|1968|pp=113–114}};<br/>{{Harvnb|Olivelle|1992|pp=17–18}}</ref>

==History of Advaita Vedānta==
[[File:Shri Gaudapadacharya Statue.jpg|[[Gaudapada]], one of the most important pre-Śaṅkara philosophers in Advaita tradition|thumb|upright]]
{{Main|History of Advaita Vedanta}}

===Historiography===
The historiography of Advaita Vedanta is coloured by Orientalist notions,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=24-25}}{{refn|group=note|name=Orientalist|In the Orientalist view, the medieval Muslim period was a time of stagnation and cultural degeneration, in which the original purity of the Upanisadic teachings, systematized by philosophers like Shankara, was lost. In this view, "the genuine achievements of Indian civilization" were recovered during the British colonial rule of India, due to the efforts of western Indologists, who viewed Advaita Vedanta as the authentic philosophy of the Upanishads, and Shankara as its greatest exponent.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=24-25}}<ref group=note>See also Devdutt Pattanaik (August 30, 2020), [https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/who-is-a-hindu-what-they-dont-tell-you-about-advaita/articleshow/77829600.cms ''Who is a Hindu? - What they don't tell you about Advaita''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219134850/https://mumbaimirror.indiatimes.com/others/sunday-read/who-is-a-hindu-what-they-dont-tell-you-about-advaita/articleshow/77829600.cms |date=19 December 2021 }}, Mumbai Mirror.</ref> While this view has been criticised by postcolonial studies and critiques of Orientalism, "in some corners of the academy, the Orientalists' understanding of premodern Indian history has so far escaped thorough reexamination."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=24}}}} while [[Neo-Vedanta|modern formulations of Advaita Vedānta]], which developed as a reaction to western [[Orientalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]]{{sfn|King|2002|pp=136–138, 141–142}} have "become a dominant force in Indian intellectual thought."{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} According to Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan, "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedānta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period."{{sfn|Allen|Venkatkrishnan|2017}}

===Early Vedānta===
The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedānta gives an interpretation.{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|pp=95–96}} The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments".{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx}}{{refn|group=note|Nevertheless, Balasubramanian argues that since the basic ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas, the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}}}} This philosophical inquiry was performed by the [[darsanas]], the various philosophical schools.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|pp=xxx–xxxi}}{{refn|group=note|Deutsch and Dalvi point out that, in the Indian context, texts "are only part of a tradition which is preserved in its purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going on."{{sfn|Deutsch|Dalvi|2004|p=95}}}}

The [[Brahma Sutras]] of Bādarāyana, also called the ''Vedānta Sutra'',{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}} were compiled in its present form around 400–450 CE,{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}} but "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that".{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}} Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE and 200 CE.{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=4}} The Brahma Sutra is a critical study of the teachings of the Upanishads, possibly "written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint."<ref group="web" name="IEP_Bheda" /> Bādarāyana was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}} He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}

===Early Advaita Vedānta===
Two Advaita writings predating Maṇḍana Miśra and Shankara were known to scholars such as Nakamura in the first half of 20th-century, namely the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada|Gauḍapāda]] (7th century).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Later scholarship added the [[Sannyasa Upanishads]] (first centuries CE{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|p=10}}) to the earliest known corpus, some of which are of a sectarian nature,{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=3–4}} and have a strong Advaita Vedānta outlook.{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp=17–18}}<ref>Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0812692983}}, p. 332 with note 68</ref><ref>Antonio Rigopoulos (1998), Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791436967}}, pp. 62–63</ref>

According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period [between the Brahma Sutras and Shankara], but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down to us today".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.<ref group=web>{{Cite web |url=http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html |title=advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya'' |access-date=25 January 2013 |archive-date=3 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303094318/http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedānta philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}

==== Gauḍapāda and ''{{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}'' ====
{{Main|Gaudapada}}

According to tradition, Gauḍapāda (6th century){{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} was the teacher of [[Govinda Bhagavatpada]] and the grandteacher of Shankara. Gauḍapāda wrote or compiled{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}} the ''{{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}'', also known as the ''{{IAST|Gauḍapāda Kārikā}}'' or the ''{{IAST|Āgama Śāstra}}''.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=280}} The ''{{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}'' is a commentary in verse form on the ''[[Mandukya Upanishad|Māṇḍūkya Upanishad]]'', one of the shortest [[Upanishads]] consisting of just 13 prose sentences. Of the ancient literature related to Advaita Vedānta, the oldest surviving complete text is the ''Māṇḍukya Kārikā''.{{sfn|Sarma|1997|p=239}} The ''Māṇḍūkya Upanishad'' was considered to be a [[Śruti]] before the era of Adi Shankara, but not treated as particularly important.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=280}} In later post-Shankara period its value became far more important, and regarded as expressing the essence of the Upanishad philosophy. The entire ''Karika'' became a key text for the Advaita school in this later era.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=280–281}}{{refn|group=note|Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four chapters.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}}}}

Gaudapada took over the Yogachara teaching of ''[[Yogacara#Representation-only|vijñapti-mātra]]'', "representation-only," which states that the empirical reality that we experience is a fabrication of the mind, experienced by consciousness-an-sich,{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177}}{{refn|group=note|It is often used interchangeably with the term ''citta-mātra'', but they have different meanings. The standard translation of both terms is "consciousness-only" or "mind-only." Several modern researchers object this translation, and the accompanying label of "absolute idealism" or "idealistic monism".{{sfn|Kochumuttom|1999|p=1}} A better translation for ''vijñapti-mātra'' is ''representation-only''.{{sfn|Kochumuttom|1999|p=5}}}} and the four-cornered negation, which negates any positive predicates of 'the Absolute'.{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177}}{{Sfn|Sarma|2007|pp=126, 143-144}}{{refn|group=note|1. Something is. 2. It is not. 3. It both is and is not. 4. It neither is nor is not.{{sfn|Garfield|Priest|2003}}{{page needed|date=August 2016}} The 'four-cornered negation' is an English gloss of the Sanskrit, [[Catuṣkoṭi|Chatushkoti]].{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}}} Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into the philosophy of ''Mandukaya Upanisad'', which was further developed by Shankara".{{sfn|Raju|1971|p=177-178}}{{refn|group=note|The influence of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] on other religions and philosophies was not limited to Vedanta. Kalupahana notes that the [[Visuddhimagga]] – a Theravada Buddhist tradition, contains "some metaphysical speculations, such as those of the Sarvastivadins, the Sautrantikas, and even the [[Yogacara|Yogacarins]]".{{sfn|Kalupahana|1994|p=206}}}} In this view,
{{blockquote|the ultimate ontological reality is the pure consciousness, which is bereft of attributes and intentionality. The world of duality is nothing but a vibration of the mind (manodṛśya or manaspandita). The pluralistic world is imagined by the mind (saṁkalpa) and this false projection is sponsored by the illusory factor called māyā.<ref group=web name=iepgauda>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/gauḍapad/ Gaudapada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615104440/https://www.iep.utm.edu/gau%e1%b8%8dapad/ |date=15 June 2020 }}, Devanathan Jagannathan, University of Toronto, IEP</ref>}}

[[Gaudapada|Gauḍapāda]] uses the concepts of [[Ajativada|Ajātivāda]] to explain that 'the Absolute' is not subject to [[Saṃsāra|birth, change and death]]. The Absolute is ''aja'', the unborn eternal.{{sfn|Sarma|1996|p=127}} The [[Empiricism|empirical world]] of [[phenomenon|appearances]] is considered [[Maya (illusion)|unreal]], and not [[Philosophical realism|absolutely existent]].{{sfn|Sarma|1996|p=127}}

===Early medieval period - Maṇḍana Miśra and Adi Shankara ===

====Maṇḍana Miśra====
[[Maṇḍana Miśra]], an older contemporary of Shankara,{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=29}} was a Mimamsa scholar and a follower of [[Kumarila]], but also wrote a seminal text on Advaita that has survived into the modern era, the ''Brahma-siddhi''.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=31}}{{sfn|Thrasher|1993|p=vii–x}} According to Fiordalis, he was influenced by the Yoga-tradition, and with that indirectly by Buddhism, given the strong influence of Buddhism on the Yoga-tradition.{{sfn|Fiordalis|2021|p=24, note 12}} For a couple of centuries he seems to have been regarded as "the most important representative of the Advaita position,"{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33-34}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|King|2002|p=128}}: "Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence."{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}}} and the "theory of error" set forth in the ''Brahma-siddhi'' became the normative Advaita Vedanta theory of error.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=32}}

====Adi Shankara====
{{Main|Adi Shankara}}
{{See also|History of India#Late Middle Kingdoms – The Late-Classical Age|l1=Late-Classical Age|History of Hinduism#Middle Ages|l2=Hinduism in the Middle Ages}}

Very little is known about Shankara. According to Dalal, "Hagiographical accounts of his life, the ''[[Digvijaya (conquest)|Śaṅkaravijayas]]'' ("Conquests of Śaṅkara"), were composed several centuries after his death,"<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021/> in the 14th to 17th century, and established Shankara as a rallying symbol of valuesin a time when most of India was conquered by Muslims.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}} He is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedānta school, but was actually a systematizer, not a founder.<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021/>{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}}

=====Systematizer of Advaita thought=====
Shankara was a scholar who synthesized and systematized ''Advaita-vāda'' thought which already existed at his lifetime.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} According to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} According to Nakamura, after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedānta, culminating in the works of Gauḍapāda, Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|p=13}} synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] in the 8th century, reforming [[Badarayana]]'s Vedānta tradition.<ref name=johnkoller/> According to Mayeda, Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vedānta,{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|p=13}} yet he also notices that it is only since Deussens's praise that Shankara "has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=XV}} Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with ''moksha'', "and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology,"{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=XV}} following Potter, who qualifies Shankara as a "speculative philosopher."{{sfn|Mayeda|1992|p=XVIII, note 3}} Lipner notes that Shankara's "main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic [...] though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara's thought."{{sfn|Lipner|2000|p=56, incl. note 12}}

=====Writings=====
{{Main|Adi Shankara bibliography}}

Adi Shankara is best known for his reviews and commentaries (''Bhasyas'') on ancient Indian texts. His ''Brahmasutrabhasya'' (literally, commentary on [[Brahma Sutra]]) is a fundamental text of the Vedānta school of Hinduism.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=6–7}} His commentaries on ten [[Mukhya Upanishads|Mukhya]] (principal) Upanishads are also considered authentic by scholars.{{sfn|Mayeda|2006|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=30–31}} Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gitā (part of his [[Prasthana Trayi]] Bhasya).{{sfn|Rambachan|1991|pp=xii–xiii}} He also authored [[Upadesasahasri]], his most important original philosophical work.<ref name=johnkoller>John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): ''The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1-134-18001-1}}, pp. 98–106</ref><ref name=halbfassyoga>Wilhelm Halbfass (1990), ''Tradition and Reflection: Explorations in Indian Thought'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-0362-4}}, pp. 205–208</ref> The authenticity of Shankara being the author of {{IAST|[[Viveka Chudamani|Vivekacūḍāmaṇi]]}}<ref>Adi Shankaracharya, [https://archive.org/stream/vivekachudamanio00sankrich#page/n3/mode/2up Vivekacūḍāmaṇi] S Madhavananda (Translator), Advaita Ashrama (1921)</ref> has been questioned, and "modern scholars tend to reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara."<ref>John Grimes (2004), ''The Vivekacudamani of Sankaracarya Bhagavatpada: An Introduction and Translation'', Ashgate, {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3395-2}}, p.23</ref>

=====Influence of Shankara=====
While Shankara has an unparalleled status in the history of Advaita Vedanta, scholars have questioned the traditional narrative of Shankara's early influence in India.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}} Until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary [[Maṇḍana Miśra]], who was considered to be the major representative of Advaita.{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}} Only when Vacaspati Misra, an influential student of Maṇḍana Miśra, harmonised the teachings of Shankara with those of Maṇḍana Miśra, Shankara's teachings gained prominence.{{sfn|King|1999|p=55}} Some modern Advaitins argue that most of post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, and that only his student Suresvara, who's had little influence, represents Shankara correctly.{{sfn|Potter|2006|p=6-7}} In this view, Shankara's influential student Padmapada misunderstood Shankara, while his views were manitained by the Suresvara school.{{sfn|Potter|2006|p=6-7}} According to [[Satchidanandendra Sarasvati]], "almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and [[Bhāskara (Bhedabheda Vedanta)|Bhaskara]]."{{sfn|Satchidanandendra Sarasvati|1997|p=6}}{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"}} Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought;{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=157; 229 note 57}} Vedanta became a major influence when Vedanta philosophy was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|pp=691-693}} such as [[Ramanuja]] (11th c.), who aligned [[bhakti]], "the major force in the religions of Hinduism," with philosophical thought, meanwhile rejecting Shankara's views.<ref group=web name=EB_Ramanuja>Encyclopædia Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja Ramanajua] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621165517/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ramanuja |date=21 June 2022 }}</ref>

The cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta started only centuries later, in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] in the 14th century,{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}} when Sringeri ''matha'' started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire and became a powerful institution.{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}} [[Vidyaranya]], also known as Madhava, who was the Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from ca. 1374–1380 to 1386{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}} played a central role in this growing influence of Advaita Vedanta, and the [[deification]] of Shankara as a [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|ruler]]-[[Sannyasin|renunciate]].{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nowicka|2016|p=147}}{{sfn|Bader|2001|p=vii}} From 1346 onwards Sringeri ''matha'' received patronage from the Vijayanagara kings, and its importance and influence grew rapidly in the second half of the 14th century.{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}}{{refn|group=note|The insignificance of Srineri ''matha'' before this time was such, that Hacker and Kulke & Rothermund have argued that Sringeri ''matha'' may have been founded by Vidyaranya himself, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}}}} Vidyaranya and the Sringeri matha competed for royal patronage and converts with Srivaisnava ''Visistadvaita'', which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire,{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55-56}}  and Madhava (the pre-ordination name of Vidyaranya) presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all ''darsanas'', portraying the other ''darsanas'' as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}} The subsequent ''[[Digvijaya (conquest)|Shankara Digvijayam]]'' genre, following the example of the earlier ''Madhva Digvijayam'',{{sfn|Clark|2006|p=157}} presented Shankara as a [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|ruler]]-[[Sannyasin|renunciate]], conquering the four quarters of India and bringing harmony.{{sfn|Nowicka|2016|p=147}}{{sfn|Bader|2001|p=vii}} The genre created legends to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his ''digvijaya'' ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}}

Shankara's position was further established in the 19th and 20th century, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists, following Vidyaranya, elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition."{{sfn|King|2002|p=129}} Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=129-130}}

====Advaita Vedanta sub-schools====
Two defunct schools are the ''Pancapadika'' and ''Istasiddhi'', which were replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana school.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} The still existing [[Bhāmatī]] and [[Vivarana]] developed in the 11th-14th century.<ref group=web name =BhamatiVivarana/>{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p={{page needed|date=February 2022}}}} These schools worked out the logical implications of various Advaita doctrines. Two of the problems they encountered were the further interpretations of the concepts of [[Maya (illusion)|māyā]] and [[Avidya (Hinduism)|avidya]].<ref group=web name =BhamatiVivarana />

[[Padmapada]] (c. 800 CE),{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=38}} the founder of the defunct Pancapadika school, was a direct disciple of Shankara. He wrote the ''Pancapadika'', a commentary on the ''Sankara-bhaya''.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=38}} Padmapada diverged from Shankara in his description of ''avidya'', designating ''prakrti'' as ''avidya'' or ''ajnana''.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=39}}

Sureśvara (fl. 800–900 CE){{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=30}} was a contemporary of Shankara,{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=29}} and often (incorrectly) identified with Maṇḍana Miśra.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=29}}{{refn|group=note|name=karlpottermms|{{harvnb|Potter|2008|pp=346–347, 420–423}}: "There is little firm historical information about Suresvara; tradition holds Suresvara is same as Mandanamisra."}} Sureśvara has also been credited as the founder of a pre-Shankara branch of Advaita Vedānta.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=30}}

Mandana Mishra's student [[Vachaspati Miśra]] (9th/10th century CE),{{sfn|Fowler|2002|p=129}}{{sfn|Isaeva|1993|p=85-86}}{{sfn|Larson|Bhattacharya|1987|p=301-312}} who is believed to have been an incarnation of Shankara to popularize the Advaita view,{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=34}} wrote the ''[[Bhamati]]'', a commentary on Shankara's ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'', and the ''Brahmatattva-samiksa'', a commentary on Mandana Mishra's ''Brahma-siddhi''. His thought was mainly inspired by Mandana Miśra, and harmonises Shankara's thought with that of Mandana Miśra.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=35}}<ref group=web name=BhamatiVivarana>{{Cite web |url=http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/bhavir.html |title=The Bhamati and Vivarana Schools |access-date=11 September 2012 |archive-date=7 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407053224/http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/bhavir.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Bhamati school takes an ontological approach. It sees the [[Jiva]] as the source of avidya.<ref group=web name=BhamatiVivarana /> It sees contemplation as the main factor in the acquirement of liberation, while the study of the Vedas and reflection are additional factors.{{sfn|King|1999|p=56}}{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=37}}

Vimuktatman (c. 1200 CE){{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=198}} wrote the ''Ista-siddhi''.{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=198}} It is one of the four traditional ''siddhi'', together with Mandana's ''Brahma-siddhi'', Suresvara's ''Naiskarmya-siddhi'', and Madusudana's ''Advaita-siddhi''.{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|pp=198–199}} According to Vimuktatman, absolute Reality is "pure intuitive consciousness".{{sfn|Dasgupta|1955|p=199}} His school of thought was eventually replaced by Prakasatman's Vivarana school.{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}}

Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300){{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} wrote the ''Pancapadika-Vivarana'', a commentary on the ''Pancapadika'' by [[Padmapadacharya]].{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} The ''Vivarana'' lends its name to the subsequent school. According to Roodurmun, "[H]is line of thought [...] became the leitmotif of all subsequent developments in the evolution of the Advaita tradition."{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=40}} The Vivarana school takes an epistemological approach. It is distinguished from the ''Bhamati'' school by its rejection of action and favouring Vedic study and "a direct apprehension of Brahma."{{sfn|King|1999|p=56}} Prakasatman was the first to propound the theory of ''mulavidya'' or ''maya'' as being of "positive beginningless nature",{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|p=41}} and sees Brahman as the source of avidya. Critics object that Brahman is pure consciousness, so it cannot be the source of avidya. Another problem is that contradictory qualities, namely knowledge and ignorance, are attributed to Brahman.<ref group=web name=BhamatiVivarana />

Another late figure which is widely associated with Advaita and was influential on late Advaita thought was [[Shriharsha|Śrīharṣa]].

===Late medieval India===
Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan note that Shankara is very well-studied, but "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedānta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period."{{sfn|Allen|Venkatkrishnan|2017}}

While indologists like Paul Hacker and Wilhelm Halbfass took Shankara's system as the measure for an "orthodox" Advaita Vedānta, the living Advaita Vedānta tradition in medieval times was influenced by, and incorporated elements from, the yogic tradition and texts like the ''[[Yoga Vasistha]]'' and the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]''.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|pp=4–5}} Yoga and samkhya had become minor schools of thought since the time of Shankara, and no longer posed a thread for the sectarian identity of Advaita, in contrast to the Vaishnava traditions.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}} 

The ''Yoga Vasistha'' became an authoritative source text in the Advaita vedānta tradition in the 14th century, and the "yogic Advaita"{{sfn|Fort|1996|p=136}}{{sfn|Fort|1998|p=97}} of Vidyāraņya's ''Jivanmuktiviveka'' (14th century) was influenced by the ''(Laghu-)Yoga-Vasistha'', which in turn was influenced by [[Kashmir Shaivism]].{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=4}} Vivekananda's 19th century emphasis on ''nirvikalpa samadhi'' was preceded by medieval yogic influences on Advaita Vedānta. In the 16th and 17th centuries, some [[Nath]] and [[hatha yoga]] texts also came within the scope of the developing Advaita Vedānta tradition.{{sfn|Madaio|2017|p=5}}

According to [[Andrew J. Nicholson|Andrew Nicholson]], it was with the arrival of Islamic rule, first in the form of [[Delhi Sultanate]] and later the [[Mughal Empire]], and the subsequent persecution of Indian religions, that Hindu scholars began a self-conscious attempts to define an [[Unifying Hinduism|identity and unity]].{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=190–194, 200–201}}<ref name="gaborieau7">{{cite journal |last=Gaborieau |first=Marc |date=June 1985 |title=From Al-Beruni to Jinnah: Idiom, Ritual and Ideology of the Hindu-Muslim Confrontation in South Asia |journal=Anthropology Today |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.2307/3033123 |jstor=3033123}}</ref> Between the twelfth and the fourteenth century, this effort emerged with the "astika and nastika" schema of classifying Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=190–194, 200–201}} 

==== Vidyāraṇya ====
It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}} Advaita Vedanta's position as most influential Hindu ''darsana'' took shape as Advaitins in the [[Vijayanagara Empire]] competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect.{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55-56}} Sringeri ''matha'' started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire{{sfn|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}}{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=89}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}} who shifted their allegiance from ''Advaitic'' [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] Shaivism to Brahmanical Advaita orthodoxy.{{sfn|Clark|2006|p=215, 221-222}}

Central in this repositioning was [[Vidyaranya|Vidyāraṇya]],{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}} also known as Madhava, who was the Jagadguru of the [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham|Śringeri Śarada Pītham]] from 1380 to 1386<ref name="Chisholm, Hugh 1911">Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Mādhava Āchārya". Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=185–187, 199–201}} He inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India, in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic [[Delhi Sultanate]],{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}{{sfn|Blake Michael|1992|p=60–62 with notes 6, 7 and 8}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=178–183}}{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=185–187, 199–201}} but his efforts were also targeted at Srivaisnava groups, especially ''[[Vishishtadvaita|Visistadvaita]]'', which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55}} Sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system, and Vidyaranya efforts were aimed at promoting Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Stoker|2016|p=55-56}} Most of Shankara's biographies were created and published from the 14th to the 17th century, such as the widely cited ''Śankara-vijaya'', in which legends were created to turn Shankara into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his ''digvijaya'' ("universal conquest") all over India like a victorious conqueror."{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}}{{sfn|Goodding|2013|p=90}}

Vidyaranya and his brothers wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}} In his [[doxography]] ''[[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha|Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha]]'' ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all ''darsanas'', presenting the other ''darsanas'' as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160-162}}{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}} The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visitadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160}} [[Bhedabheda]] wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=161}} Vidyaranya became head of Sringeri ''matha'', proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=177}} Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,{{sfn|Talbot|2001|p=185–187, 199–201}} and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (''mathas'') to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.{{sfn|Hacker|1995|p=29–30}}

=== Modern Advaita ===

==== Niścaldās and "Greater" Advaita ====
Michael S. Allen has written on the influence and popularity of Advaita Vedanta in early modern north India, especially on the work of the Advaita [[Dadu Dayal|Dādū-panthī]] monk [[Niścaldās]] (ca. 1791–1863), author of ''The Ocean of Inquiry'' (Hindi: Vicār-sāgar), a vernacular compendium of Advaita.{{sfn|Allen|2017}} According to Allen, the work of Niścaldās "was quite popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: it was translated into over eight languages and was once referred to by Vivekananda as having 'more influence in India than any [book] that has been written in any language within the last three centuries.'"{{sfn|Allen|2017}} 

Allen highlights the widespread prominence in early modern India of what he calls "Greater Advaita Vedānta" which refers to popular Advaita works, including "narratives and dramas, “eclectic” works blending Vedānta with other traditions, and vernacular works such as ''The Ocean of Inquiry''."{{sfn|Allen|2017}} Allen refers to several popular late figures and texts which draw on Advaita Vedanta, such as the Maharashtrian sant [[Eknath|Eknāth]] (16th c.), the popular ''[[Adhyatma Ramayana|Adhyātma-rāmāyaṇa]]'' (ca. late 15th c.), which synthesizes Rama bhakti and advaita metaphysics and the ''[[Tripura Rahasya|Tripurā-rahasya]]'' (a tantric text that adopts an advaita metaphysics).{{sfn|Allen|2017}} Other important vernacular Advaita figures include the Hindu authors Manohardās and Māṇakdās (who wrote the  Ātma-bodh). Advaita literature was also written in Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, and Oriya.{{sfn|Allen|2017}}

====Neo-Vedanta====
[[File:MKGandhi.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mahatma Gandhi]] stated "I am an advaitist".<ref name=jordens116>{{cite book|author=J. Jordens|title=Gandhi's Religion: A Homespun Shawl|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELODDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA116|year=1998|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-37389-1|page=116}}</ref><ref name=long194>{{cite book|author=Jeffrey D. Long|editor=Rita Sherma and Arvind Sharma|title=Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC&pg=PA194|year=2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-8192-7|page=194|access-date=1 June 2017|archive-date=21 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721073153/https://books.google.com/books?id=x4eXRvwyvtMC&pg=PA194|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
{{Main|Neo-Vedanta|Hindu nationalism}}

According to King, with the consolidation of the British imperialist rule the new rulers started to view Indians through the "colonially crafted lenses" of [[Orientalism]]. In response Hindu nationalism emerged, striving for socio-political independence and countering the influence of Christian missionaries.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=107–109}} Among the colonial era intelligentsia the monistic Advaita Vedānta has been a major ideological force for Hindu nationalism,<ref>{{cite book|author=Anshuman A Mondal|title=Nationalism and Post-Colonial Identity: Culture and Ideology in India and Egypt|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw2CAgAAQBAJ |year= 2004|publisher= Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-49417-0|pages=85, 256}}</ref> with Hindu intellectuals formulating a "humanistic, inclusivist" response, now called Neo-Vedānta, attempting to respond to this colonial stereotyping of "Indian culture [as] backward, superstitious and inferior to the West."{{sfn|King|2002|pp=136–138}}

Due to the influence of Vidyaranya's [[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha|''Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha'']], early Indologists regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=160}} Vedānta came to be regarded, both by westerners as by Indian nationalists, as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedānta came to be regarded as "then paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion" and umbrella of "inclusivism".{{sfn|King|2002|pp=107–109, 128}} Colonial era Indian thinkers, such as [[Vivekananda]], presented Advaita Vedānta as an inclusive universal religion, a spirituality that in part helped organize a religiously infused identity. It also aided the rise of Hindu nationalism as a counter weight to Islam-infused Muslim communitarian organizations such as the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]], to Christianity-infused colonial orientalism and to religious persecution of those belonging to Indian religions.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brian Morris|title=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA142|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85241-8|pages=112, 141–144|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116180154/https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA142#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=gaborieau7/><ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas Blom Hansen|title=The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|year=1999|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691006710|pages=76–77, 91–92, 179–181, 44–47, 69–70|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116180224/https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqn3OIGE54C|url-status=live}}</ref> Neo-Vedānta subsumed and incorporated Buddhist ideas thereby making the [[Buddha]] a part of the Vedānta tradition, all in an attempt to reposition the history of Indian culture.{{sfn|King|2002|pp=136–138, 141–142}} This view on Advaita Vedānta, according to King, "provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial oppression".{{sfn|King|2002|pp=132–133, 172}}

Vivekananda discerned a [[Universalism|universal religion]], regarding all the apparent differences between various traditions as various manifestations of one truth.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994|pp=91–92}} Vivekananda emphasised ''nirvikalpa'' [[samadhi]] as the spiritual goal of Vedānta, he equated it to the liberation in [[Yoga]] and encouraged Yoga practice which he called ''Raja yoga''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Rabindra Kumar Dasgupta|title=Swami Vivekananda on Indian philosophy and literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U4LXAAAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture|isbn=978-81-85843-81-0|pages=145–146, 284–285|access-date=29 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116190113/https://books.google.com/books?id=U4LXAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|According to Comans, this approach is missing in historic Advaita texts.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Comans | first=Michael | s2cid=170870115 | title=The Question of the Importance of Samadhi in Modern and Classical Advaita Vedanta | journal=Philosophy East and West | publisher=University of Hawai'i Press | volume=43 | issue=1 | year=1993 | pages=19–38 | doi=10.2307/1399467 | jstor=1399467 }}</ref>}} With the efforts of [[Swami Vivekananda|Vivekananda]], modern formulations of Advaita Vedānta have "become a dominant force in Indian intellectual thought", though Hindu beliefs and practices are diverse.{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}}

[[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], first a professor at Oxford University and later a President of India, further popularized Advaita Vedānta, presenting it as the essence of Hinduism.<ref group=web name="IEP" /> According to Michael Hawley, Radhakrishnan saw other religions, as well as "what Radhakrishnan understands as lower forms of Hinduism," as interpretations of Advaita Vedānta, thereby "in a sense Hindusizing all religions".<ref group=web name="IEP" /> Radhakrishnan metaphysics was grounded in Advaita Vedānta, but he reinterpreted Advaita Vedānta for contemporary needs and context.<ref group=web name="IEP">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/radhakri/#H2 |title=Michael Hawley, ''Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888—1975)'', Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=9 June 2014 |archive-date=12 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712171420/https://www.iep.utm.edu/radhakri/#H2 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name=bhedabheda|Neo-Vedanta seems to be closer to [[Bhedabheda|Bhedabheda-Vedanta]] than to Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, with the acknowledgement of the reality of the world. Nicholas F. Gier: "Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been labeled "neo-Vedantists," a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins' claim that the world is illusory. Aurobindo, in his ''The Life Divine'', declares that he has moved from Sankara's "universal illusionism" to his own "universal realism" (2005: 432), defined as metaphysical realism in the European philosophical sense of the term."<ref>{{Cite journal |first =Nicholas F. |last =Gier |year=2012 |title=Overreaching to be different: A critique of Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different |journal=[[International Journal of Hindu Studies]] |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=259–285 | doi =10.1007/s11407-012-9127-x|s2cid =144711827}}</ref>}}

Mahatma Gandhi declared his allegiance to Advaita Vedānta, and was another popularizing force for its ideas.<ref>{{cite book|first=Nicholas F.|last=Gier|year=2004|title=The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA40|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-7914-5949-2|pages=40–42|access-date=1 June 2017|archive-date=21 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230721073707/https://books.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA40|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Contemporary Advaita Vedānta====
Contemporary teachers are the orthodox [[Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham]]; the more traditional teachers [[Sivananda Saraswati]] (1887–1963), [[Chinmayananda Saraswati]] (1916-1993),<ref group=web name="AV_Teachers" /> [[Dayananda Saraswati (Arsha Vidya)]] (1930-2015), Swami Paramarthananda, Swami Tattvavidananda Sarasvati, Carol Whitfield (Radha), Sri Vasudevacharya (previously Michael Comans) <ref group=web name="AV_Teachers" /> and less traditional teachers such as [[Narayana Guru]].<ref group=web name="AV_Teachers">{{Cite web |url=http://www.advaita.org.uk/teachers/teachers.htm |title=Advaita Vision, ''teachers'' |access-date=6 April 2015 |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129032833/http://www.advaita.org.uk/teachers/teachers.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Sangeetha Menon, prominent names in 20th century Advaita tradition are [[Chandrashekhara Bharati III|Shri Chandrashekhara Bharati Mahaswami]], [[Chandrashekarendra Saraswati|Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Swamigal]], [[Satchidanandendra Saraswati|Sacchidānandendra Saraswati]].<ref group=web name="Menon">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ |title=Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta'', Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-date=26 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626101653/http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Influence on new religious movements====
Advaita Vedānta has gained attention in western [[spirituality]] and [[New Age]] as [[Nonduality (spirituality)|nondualism]], where [[Perennial philosophy|various traditions]] are seen as driven by the same non-dual experience.{{sfn|Katz|2007}} Nonduality points to "a primordial, natural awareness without subject or object".<ref group=web name="Undivided">{{Cite web |url=http://undividedjournal.com/about-the-journal/ |title=Undivided Journal, ''About the Journal'' |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823200254/http://undividedjournal.com/about-the-journal/ |archive-date=23 August 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It is also used to refer to interconnectedness, "the sense that all things are interconnected and not separate, while at the same time all things retain their individuality".<ref group=web name="whatisnond">{{Cite web |url=http://nonduality.org/what-is-nonduality/ |title=Jerry Katz on Nonduality, "What is Nonduality?" |access-date=30 January 2013 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106211636/https://nonduality.org/what-is-nonduality/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Neo-Advaita]] is a [[new religious movement]] based on a popularised, western interpretation of Advaita Vedānta and the teachings of [[Ramana Maharshi]].{{sfn|Lucas|2011}} Notable neo-advaita teachers are [[H. W. L. Poonja]],{{sfn|Caplan|2009|pp=16–17}}{{sfn|Lucas|2011}} his students [[Gangaji]]{{sfn|Lucas|2011|pp=102–105}} [[Andrew Cohen (spiritual teacher)|Andrew Cohen]]{{refn|group=note|Presently Cohen has distanced himself from Poonja, and calls his teachings "Evolutionary Enlightenment".{{sfn|Gleig|2011|p=10}} ''What Is Enlightenment'', the magazine published by Choen's organisation, has been critical of neo-Advaita several times, as early as 2001. See.<ref group=web>[https://archive.today/20130414172435/http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j22/stacey.asp?page=1 What is Enlightenment? 1 September 2006]</ref><ref group=web>[http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j20/editorial.asp What is Enlightenment? 31 December 2001] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310124030/http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j20/editorial.asp |date=10 March 2013}}</ref><ref group=web>[https://archive.today/20130414151819/http://www.enlightennext.org/magazine/j31/translucent.asp?page=1 What is Enlightenment? 1 December 2005]</ref>}}, and [[Eckhart Tolle]].{{sfn|Lucas|2011}}

==See also==
* [[Cause and effect in Advaita Vedanta|Cause and effect in Advaita Vedānta]]
* [[Kashmir Shaivism]]
* [[Pandeism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Sufi metaphysics]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[Al-Hallaj]]
* [[Anal Haq]]
* [[Aham Brahmasmi]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|2|refs=
<!-- B -->
<!-- Brahman -->
{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman|Highest self:
* Shankara, ''Upadesasahasri'' I.18.3: "I am ever-free, the existent" (''[[Sat (Sanskrit)|Sat]]''). I.18.6: "The two [contradictory] notions "I am the Existent-''Brahman''" and "I act," have ''Atman'' as their witness. It is considered more reasonable to give up only [that one] of the two [notions] which arises from ignorance. I.18.7: "The notion, "I am the Existent," arises from right means of knowledge [while] the other notion has its origin in fallacious means of knowledge." ({{harvnb|Mayeda|1992|p=172}})
* ''Brahmajnanavalimala'' Verse 20: "Brahman is real, the universe is mithya (it cannot be categorized as either real or unreal). The jiva is Brahman itself and not different." Translation by S. N. Sastri [https://sanskritdocuments.org/sites/snsastri/brahmajnaanaavalimaalaa.pdf]
* {{harvnb|Sivananda|1993|p=219}}: "Brahman (the Absolute) is alone real; this world is unreal; and the Jiva or individual soul is non-different from Brahman."
* {{harvnb|Menon|2012}}: "The experiencing self (jīva) and the transcendental self of the Universe (ātman) are in reality identical (both are Brahman), though the individual self seems different as space within a container seems different from space as such. These cardinal doctrines are represented in the anonymous verse "brahma satyam jagan mithya; jīvo brahmaiva na aparah" (Brahman is alone True, and this world of plurality is an error; the individual self is not different from Brahman)."
* {{harvnb|Deutsch|1973|p=54}}: "[the] essential status [of the individual human person] is that of unqualified reality, of identity with the Absolute [...] the self (''jiva'') is only misperceived: the self is really Brahman."
* {{harvnb|Koller|2013|pp=100–101}}: "Atman, which is identical to Brahman, is ultimately the only reality and [...] the appearance of plurality is entirely the work of ignorance [...] the self is ultimately of the nature of Atman/Brahman [...] Brahman alone is ultimately real."
* {{harvnb|Bowker|2000a|loc="Advaita Vedanta"}}: "There is only Brahman, which is necessarily undifferentiated. It follows that there cannot even be a difference, or duality, between the human subject, or self, and Brahman, for Brahman must be that very self (since Brahman is the reality underlying all appearance). The goal of human life and wisdom must, therefore, be the realization that the self (ātman) is Brahman."
* {{harvtxt|Hacker|1995|p=88}} notes that Shankara uses two groups of words to denote 'atman': "One group - principally ''jiva'', ''vijnanatman'', and ''sarira'' - expresses the illusory aspect of the soul [...] But in addition there are the two expressions ''atman'' and ''pratyagatman''. These also designate the individual soul, but in its real aspect." {{Harvtxt|Mayeda|1992|pp=11, 14}} uses the word ''pratyagatman''; {{harvtxt|Sivananda1993|p=219}}, {{harvtxt|Deutsch|1973|p=54}}, and {{harvtxt|Menon|2012}} use the term ''jiva'' when referring to the identity of ''atman'' and ''Brahman''.}}
<!-- Brahman_definitions -->
{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman_definitions|Brahman is also defined as:
* The unchanging, [[Infinity|infinite]], [[Immanence|immanent]], and [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] [[reality]] which is all [[matter]], [[energy]], [[time]], [[space]], [[being]], and everything beyond in this [[Universe]]; that is the one supreme, universal spirit without a second.({{harvtxt|Brodd|2003}}; {{harvtxt|Vachatimanont|2005|pp=47–48}})
* {{harvnb|Bowker|2003|loc="Brahman"}}: "(Skt., literally, 'growth' or 'expansion'). The one supreme, all pervading Spirit that is the origin and support of the [[Phenomenon|phenomenal]] universe."
* {{harvnb|Puligandla|1997|p=222}} The supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world."
* The Self-existent, the Absolute and the Imperishable. Brahman is indescribable.{{harvnb|Fowler|2005|p=30}}: "''Upanisadic'' thought is anything but consistent; nevertheless, there is a common focus on the acceptance of a totally transcendent Absolute, a trend which arose in the ''Vedic'' period. This indescribable Absolute is called Brahman [...]."}}
<!-- Brahman_immortal -->
{{refn|group=note|name=Brahman_immortal|{{harvtxt|Potter|2008|p=136}}; see [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] 2.51-14; [[Chandogya Upanishad]] 8.3.4.}}
<!-- C -->
<!-- Consciousness -->
{{refn|group=note|name=Consciousness|For pure Consciousness, also included in the phrase [[sat-cit-ananda]], see {{harvnb|Mayeda|1992|p=103 (verse 1), p.105 (note 1); p.126, verse 7}}; {{harvnb|Deutsch|1973|pp=48–51}}; {{harvnb|Davis|2010|pp=34–35}}; {{harvnb|Rambachan|2006|pp=7, 99–103}}; {{harvnb|Menon|2012}}; {{harvnb|Fasching|2021}}; {{harvnb|Sinha|2016|p=42}}.
* Shankara, Upadeśasāhasrī I.1.1, translated in {{harvnb|Mayeda|1992|p=103}}: "Salutation to the all-knowing Pure Consciousness [note 1] which pervades all, is all, abides in the hearts of all beings, and is beyond all objects [of knowledge]. [Note 1 by Mayeda: "The Sanskrit term caitanya translated here as "Pure Consciousness" is used as a synonym for Brahman-Atman, indicating the nature of It."]
* Shankara, Upadeśasāhasrī I.11.7, translated in {{harvnb|Mayeda|1992|p=126}}: "Being different from name, form, and action and by nature constantly free, I am ''Atman'', ie. the highest ''Brahman''; I am Pure Consciousness only and always non-dual."
* {{harvnb|Deutsch|1973|p=48}}: "Atman (or ''paramatman'', the highest Self), for Advaita vedanta, is that pure, undifferentiated, self-shining consciousness, timeless, spaceless, and unthinkable, that is non-different from Brahman and that underlies and supports the individual human person."
* {{harvnb|Menon|2012}}: "For classical Advaita Vedānta, Brahman is the fundamental reality underlying all objects and experiences. Brahman is explained as [[Satcitananda|pure existence, pure consciousness and pure bliss]]. All forms of existence presuppose a knowing self. Brahman or pure consciousness underlies the knowing self. Consciousness according to the Advaita School, unlike the positions held by other Vedānta schools, is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. Brahman is also one without a second, all-pervading and the immediate awareness."
* {{harvnb|Fasching|2021}}: "According to Advaita Vedānta, the absolute is pure, qualityless and unchanging consciousness. Our consciousness (the consciousness of individual conscious entities) is not distinct from it, but is nothing other than this absolute itself, (seemingly) modified by the mental states of respective individual minds."
* {{harvnb|Sinha|2016|p=42}}: "According to the Advaita Vedānta, the Atman is pure, eternal, undifferenced consciousness, while the jīva is the pure consciousness limited or determined by the internal organ (antahkarana)."}}
<!-- D -->
<!-- spiritual experience -->
{{refn|group=note|name=spiritual experience|Philosophy and spiritual experience:
* {{harvnb|Deutsch|1988|p=4}}: "Advaita Vedanta is more than a philosophical system, as we understand these terms in the West today; it is also a practical guide to spiritual experience and is intimately bound up with spiritual experience."
* {{harvnb|Puligandla|1997|p=11}}: "Any philosophy worthy of its title should not be a mere intellectual exercise but should have practical application in enabling man to live an enlightened life. A philosophy which makes no difference to the quality and style of our life is no philosophy, but an empty intellectual construction."}}
<!-- F -->
<!-- "Fowler2002_monism" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Fowler2002_monism"|{{harvnb|Fowler|2002|pp=30–31, 260–264}}: "As a philosophical and metaphysical term it [monism] refers to the acceptance of one single, ultimate, principle as the basis of the cosmos, the unity and oneness of all reality (...) [monism] has a model par excellence in that put forward by the eighth-century Indian philosopher Shankara, who is associated with the school of thought of Advaita Vedanta. (p. 263) – "In Shankara's words: 'the notions oneself and one's own are indeed falsely constructed (upon Atman) through nescience. When there is (the knowledge of) the oneness of Atman, these notions certainly do not exist. If the seed does not exist, whence shall the fruit arise?".}}
<!-- I -->
<!-- Influence -->
{{refn|group=note|name=Influence|Scholars are divided on the historical influence of Advaita Vedānta. Some Indologists state that it is one of the most studied Hindu philosophy and the most influential schools of classical Indian thought:
* {{harvnb|Indich|2000|pp=57–60}}
* {{harvnb|Brannigan|2009|p=19}}: "''Advaita Vedanta'' is the most influential philosophical system in Hindu thought."
* {{harvnb|Deutsch|1969|p=3}}: "[Advaita Vedānta] has been and continues to be the most widely accepted system of thought among philosophers in India, and it is, we believe, one of the greatest philosophical achievements to be found in the East or the West."}}
<!-- "Influence_of_Shankara" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Influence_of_Shankara"|{{harvnb|King|2002|p=128}}: "Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence."<br>Critical scholarship has identified a number of key concepts used in contemporary Advaita Vedānta which differ from Shankara's views, revealing a discrepancy between the nominal adherence to Shankara and the actual alliance with his views.({{harvnb|Suthren Hirst|2005|p=4}}, {{harvnb|Potter|2006|p=6-7}})<br>Some modern Advaitins, specifically [[Satchidanandendra Sarasvati]], argue that most of post-Shankara Advaita Vedanta actually deviates from Shankara, an argument deemed correct by Potter.({{harvnb|Potter|2006|p=6-7}}, {{harvnb|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}})<br>{{harvtxt|Potter|2006|pp=6–7}}: "...these modern interpreters are implying that most Advaitins after Samkara's time are confused and basically mistaken, and that 99% of the extant classical interpretive literature on Samkara's philosophy is off the mark. This is clearly a remarkably radical conclusion. Yet, there is good reason to think that it may well be true."<br>{{harvnb|Satchidanandendra Sarasvati|1997|p=6}}: "almost all the later Advaitins were influenced by Mandana Misra and [[Bhāskara (Bhedabheda Vedanta)|Bhaskara]]."}}
<!-- M -->
<!-- Madaio2017_umbrella -->
{{refn|group=note|name=Madaio2017_umbrella|Many of these traditions, which were influential among Neo-Vedantins, did not derive from Vedantic lineages, i.e., the "Advaita Vedanta" of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]. As {{harvtxt|Madaio|2017|p=4}} points out "...it is possible to speak of sanskritic and vernacular advaitic texts (which are either explicitly non-dualistic or permit a non-dualistic reading) and 'Advaita Vedanta' texts which originate within sampradayas that claim an Advaita Vedantic lineage. This, then, avoids the obfuscating tendency to subsume advaitic but non-vedantic works under a 'Vedanta' or 'Advaita Vedanta' umbrella."}}
<!-- Monism -->
{{refn|group=note|name=Monism|Form of monism: 
* {{harvnb|Malkovsky|2000|p=71}}: "The interpretation of advaita that is the most common equates non-duality with monism and acosmic illusionism. Only the Absolute, or the paraa brahma, is said to exist; everything else is but an illusory appearance." 
* {{harvnb|Menon|2012}}: "The essential philosophy of Advaita is an idealist monism, and is considered to be presented first in the Upaniṣads and consolidated in the Brahma Sūtra by this tradition."
* {{harvnb|King|1995|p=65}}: "The prevailing monism of the Upanishads was developed by the Advaita Vedanta to its ultimate extreme."
* {{harvnb|Mohanty|1980|p=205}}: "Nyaya-Vaiseshika is realistic; Advaita Vedanta is idealistic. The former is pluralistic, the latter monistic."}}
<!-- P -->
<!-- "Payne2005p200" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Payne2005p200"|{{harvnb|Payne|2005|pp=199–200 with p. 215 notes 5, 6}}: "A fourth metaphor is the monistic equation of the true or absolute self (atman) with absolute being (Brahman). In general, then, the conception of the self that emerges is one in which the self is in some way permanent, eternal, absolute or unchanging. It is also simultaneously universal and individual. The view is that there is an essence and that it can be known."}}
<!-- S -->
<!-- self-evident -->
{{refn|group=note|name=self-evident|According to Shankara, in ''Adhyasa-bhasya'' (pre-amble to ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'' I.1.1), it is self-evident that ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]]'', pure awareness or the [[Sakshi (Witness)|witness-consciousness]], is completely different from non-Atman, the thinking and acting self and the material world.}}
<!-- self-luminous -->
<ref group=note name=self-luminous>Self-luminosity; see {{harvnb|Deutsch|1973|p=48}}; {{harvnb|Dasgupta|1975|pp=148–149}}; {{harvnb|Indich|2000|pp=24, 28}}; {{harvnb|Menon|2012}}; {{harvnb|Ganeri|2019|p=103}}; {{harvnb|Murti|1983|p=339}}; {{harvnb|Isaeva|1993|p=102}}.<br/>For the translation and meaning of ''svayam prakāśa'':
* ''svayam'': "himself, autonomous, in person" (Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit, [https://www.learnsanskrit.cc/index.php?mode=3&direct=au&script=hk&tran_input=svayam svayam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207215520/https://www.learnsanskrit.cc/index.php?mode=3&direct=au&script=hk&tran_input=svayam |date=7 December 2021 }})
* ''[[prakāśa]]'': "manifestation," literally "light" or "illumination"; "the capacity to disclose, present, or make manifest" ({{harvnb|Fasching|2021}} note 1, referring to "MacKenzie 2017, 335; cf. also Ram-Prasad 2007, 53")
''Svayam prakāśa'' can be translated as:
* "self-luminous" ({{harvnb|Ganeri|2019}}; {{harvnb|Menon|2012}})
* "self-revealing" {{harv|Dasgupta|1975}})
* "self-manifesting" ({{harvnb|Chatterjea|2003|p=1}})
* "Self-aware" {{harv|Wood|1992|p=102}}
* "Immediate" {{harv|Murti|1983|p=339}}
On the meaning of ''svayam prakāśa'':
* {{harvnb|Menezes|2017|p=198}}: "Self-luminosity (svayam prakāśa) means self is pure awareness by nature"; idem {{harvnb|Ganeri|2019}}: "self is pure awareness by nature."
* {{harvnb|Murti|1983|p=339}}: "a foundational consciousness [...] to which everything is presented, but is itself no presentation, that which knows all, but is itself no object."
For a detailed treatment, see {{harvnb|Mackenzie|2012}}; {{harvnb|Fasching|2011}}.</ref>
<!-- "Soul" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Soul"|Soul:
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210157/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/atman Atman], Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), '''Quote''': "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul"
* David Lorenzen (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415215277}}, pp. 208–209, '''Quote''': "Advaita and nirguni movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of being (brahman) or to find god within himself";
* Richard King (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791425138}}, p. 64, '''Quote:''' "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman".
* Chad Meister (2010), The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195340136}}, p. 63; '''Quote''': "Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of ''Atman'' (soul) and Brahman, Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu."}}
<!-- "Sringeri_14th_c" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Sringeri_14th_c"|Sringeri matha received patronage from the kings of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]],({{harvnb|Goodding|2013|p=89}}) competing with Srivaisnava ''Visistadvaita'' groups for royal patronage and converts.({{harvnb|Stoker|2016|p=55-56}}) The works of the influential Advaitin [[Vidyaranya]] (Madhava, 14th cent.), ''jagadguru'' of Sringeri ''matha'' from ca. 1374–1380 to 1386, presented Advaita teachings as the summit of the Indian ''[[Darśana#In Hinduism|darśanam]]'',({{harvnb|Hacker|1995|pp=29–30}}, {{harvnb|Blake Michael|1992|pp=60–62 with notes 6, 7, and 8}}, {{harvnb|King|2002|p=128}}, {{harvnb|Roodurmun|2002|pp=33–34}}) while the subsequent [[Shankara Digvijayam]] genre [[Deification|deified]] him as a [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|ruler]]-[[Sannyasin|renunciate]] who conquered the four quarters.({{harvnb|Nowicka|2016|p=147}}, {{harvnb|Bader|2001|p=vii}}) Shankara's prominence was further established in the 19th and 20th century, gaining worldwide fame, in a "confluence of interests" of Western Christian missionaries, the [[British Raj]], and [[Indian nationalism|Indian nationalists]].({{harvnb|King|2002|pp=129-135}})}}
<!-- Subitism -->
{{refn|group=note|name=subitism|Compare, in Buddhism: [[Subitism]], [[Hongaku]] ("original enlightenment"), [[Post-satori practice]]. See also Nisargadatta Maharaj on 'the bird's way and the ant's way'.}} 
<!-- T -->
<!-- transformation -->
{{refn|group=note|name=transformation|Jivanmukti is a state that transforms the nature, attributes and behaviors of an individual.After this transformation, the liberated individual shows attributes such as:{{harv|Aiyar|1914|pp=140–147}};{{harv|Nikhilananda|1958|pp=53–79}}; {{harv|Fort|1998}}
* he is not bothered by disrespect and endures cruel words, treats others with respect regardless of how others treat him;
* when confronted by an angry person he does not return anger, instead replies with soft and kind words;
* even if tortured, he speaks and trusts the truth;
* he does not crave for blessings or expect praise from others;
* he never injures or harms any life or being (ahimsa), he is intent in the welfare of all beings;
* he is as comfortable being alone as in the presence of others;
* he is as comfortable with a bowl, at the foot of a tree in tattered robe without help, as when he is in a mithuna (union of mendicants), grama (village) and nagara (city);
* he does not care about or wear sikha (tuft of hair on the back of head for religious reasons), nor the holy thread across his body. To him, knowledge is sikha, knowledge is the holy thread, knowledge alone is supreme. Outer appearances and rituals do not matter to him, only knowledge matters;
* for him there is no invocation nor dismissal of deities, no mantra nor non-mantra, no prostrations nor worship of gods, goddess or ancestors, nothing other than knowledge of Self;
* he is humble, high spirited, of clear and steady mind, straightforward, compassionate, patient, indifferent, courageous, speaks firmly and with sweet words.}}
<!-- V -->
<!-- "Vedanta_meaning" -->
{{refn|group=note|name="Vedanta_meaning"|Literally: ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', referring to the [[Upanishads]] and their interpretation; it is a tradition of interpretation of the [[Upanishads]],({{harvnb|Nakamura|1990|p=112}}) the [[Brahma Sutras]], and the [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagavad Gitā]].({{harvnb|Grimes|1990|pp=6–7}}, {{harvnb|Menon|2012}})}}
}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em|refs=
<!-- S -->
<!-- "ShankaraBSBpreamble" -->
<ref name="ShankaraBSBpreamble">Shankara, ''Adhyasa-bhasya'' (pre-amble to ''Brahma Sutra Bhashya'' I.1.1)</ref>
}}

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* {{cite book | last =Vivekananda | first =Swami | year =1947 | title =The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Volume 7 | url =https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.47041}}
* {{cite book | last =Vroom | first =H.M. | year =1989 | title =Religions and the Truth: Philosophical Reflections and Perspectives | publisher =Eerdmans Publishing | isbn =978-0802805027}}
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* {{Citation|last=Werner|first=Karel|year=1994|title=The Yogi and the Mystic|publisher=Routledge}}
* {{cite journal|last=Whaling|first=Frank|year=1979|title=Shankara and Buddhism|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|volume=7 |issue=1|pages=1–42|doi=10.1007/BF02561251|s2cid=170613052}}
* {{Citation|last=Wilber|first=Ken|year=2000|title=Integral Psychology|publisher=Shambhala Publications}}
* {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Paul |last2=Tribe |first2=Anthony |last3=Wynne |first3=Alexander |year=2000 |title=Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-20701-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BVvFBQAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book|last=Williams|first=Paul|year=2008|title=Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-25056-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GMN-AgAAQBAJ|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=11 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111060834/https://books.google.com/books?id=GMN-AgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Citation | last =Wood | first =Thomas E.  | year =1992 | title =The Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad and the Āgama Śāstra: An Investigation Into the Meaning of the Vedānta}}
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* {{cite book | last =Yao | first =Zhihua | year =2005 | title =The Buddhist Theory of Self-Cognition}} 
* {{Citation|last=Yogani|year=2011|title=Advanced Yoga Practices Support Forum Posts of Yogani, 2005–2010|publisher=AYP Publishing}}
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;Web-sources
{{Reflist|group=web|refs=
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<ref group=web name="EB_Dvaita">Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Dvaita". Encyclopedia Britannica, 19 Feb. 2015, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dvaita {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309060051/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dvaita |date=9 March 2021 }}. Accessed 13 March 2022.</ref>
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<ref group=web name="EB_Maya">Encyclopædia Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/topic/maya-Indian-philosophy ''Maya''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104163819/https://www.britannica.com/topic/maya-Indian-philosophy |date=4 November 2021 }}</ref>
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<ref group=web name=Stanford_Dalal2021>Neil Dalal (2021), [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/ Shankara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127111736/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/ |date=27 January 2022 }}, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>
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}}

==Further reading==
;Primary texts
* Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n7/mode/2up Thirteen Principal Upanishads], Oxford University Press
* Shankara, "A thousand teachings: the Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara", Translator Sengaku Mayeda
* Shankara, [http://www.holybooks.com/wp-content/uploads/Vedanta-Sutras-With-the-Commentary-by-Sankaracharya.pdf Brahma Sutras with Shankara's commentary], translator George Thibaut
* Maṇḍana Miśra, translated by Allen W. Thrasher (1993), ''[[iarchive:TheAdvaitaVedantaOfBrahmaSiddhiAllenWrightThrasher|The Advaita Vedānta of Brahmasiddhi]]'', Delhi: Motilal Barnasidass
* [[Eliot Deutsch]] and J. A. B. van Buitenen (1971), ''A Source Book of Advaita Vedānta'', Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, {{ISBN|978-0870221897}}

;Introductions
* {{Cite book | last =Deutsch | first =Eliot | year =1969 | title =Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction | place =Honolulu | publisher =East-West Center Press}}
* {{Citation | last =Mayeda | first =Sengaku | year =1992 | chapter =An Introduction to the Life and Thought of Sankara | editor-first =Sengaku | editor-last =Mayeda | title =A Thousand Teachings: The Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara | publisher =State University of New York City Press | isbn =0-7914-0944-9 | chapter-url =https://archive.org/details/thousandteaching00sank |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Comans | first =Michael | year =2000 | title =The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book | last =Rambachan | first =A. | year =2006 | title =The Advaita Worldview: God, World, and Humanity | publisher =State University of New York Press | isbn =978-0791468524 |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Sarma | first =Candradhara | year =2007 |isbn= 978-8120813120 | title =The Advaita Tradition in Indian Philosophy | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass |ref=none}}

;History
* {{citation|last=Nakamura|first=Hajime|year=1950|title=A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part One (1990 Reprint)|place=Delhi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |ref=none}}
* {{citation|last=Nakamura|first=Hajime|year=1950|title=A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part Two (2004 Reprint)|place=Delhi|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |ref=none}}
* {{Citation|last=Potter | first =Karl H.| year =1981 | title =Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, vol. 3: Advaita Vedanta up to Sankara and his Pupils | place =Princeton | publisher = Princeton University Press|ref=none}}
* {{Citation|last=Potter | first =Karl H.| year =2006 | title =Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies vol. 11: Advaita Vedānta from 800 to 1200 | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |ref=none}}
* {{Citation|last=Isaeva | first =N.V. | year =1995 | title =From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism: Gaudapada, Bhartrhari, and Abhinavagupta | publisher =SUNY Press |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Clark | first =Matthew | year =2006 | title =The Daśanāmī-saṃnyāsīs. The Integration Of Ascetic Lineages Into An Order | publisher =BRILL | ref=none}}

;Topical studies
* [[Arvind Sharma]] (1995), ''The Philosophy of Religion and Advaita Vedānta: A Comparative Study in Religion and Reason'', Pennsylvania State University Press
* Satyapal Verma (1992), ''Role of Reason in Sankara Vedānta'', Parimal Publication, Delhi
* Sangam Lal Pandey (1989), ''The Advaita view of God'', Darshana Peeth, Allahabad
* Kapil N. Tiwari (1977), ''Dimensions of renunciation in Advaita Vedānta'', Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi
* Jacqueline G. Suthren Hirst (2005), Samkara's Advaita Vedānta: A Way of Teaching, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415406017}}
* Leesa Davis (2010), Advaita Vedānta and Zen Buddhism: Deconstructive Modes of Spiritual Inquiry, Bloomsbury Academic
* {{cite journal |last=Dalal |first=Neil |date=March 2019 |title=Embodying Texts and Tradition: Ethnographic Film in a South Indian Advaita Vedānta ''Gurukulam'' |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Andrea R. |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]] |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=81–121 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfy027 |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] on behalf of the [[American Academy of Religion]] |eissn=1477-4585 |issn=0002-7189 |lccn=sc76000837 |oclc=1479270}}

;Gaudapada
* {{Citation | last =King | first =Richard | year =1995 | title =Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā | publisher =State University of New York Press | isbn =9780791425138 | ref=none}}

;Shankara
* Natalia V. Isayeva (1993), ''Shankara and Indian philosophy'', SUNY, New York
* Elayath. K. N. Neelakantan (1990), ''The Ethics of Sankara'', University of Calicut
* Raghunath D. Karmarkar (1966), ''Sankara's Advaita'', Karnatak University, Dharwar
* Paul Deussen (Translated by Charles Johnston), {{Google books|DI7cCgAAQBAJ|The System of the Vedanta with Shankara commentaries}}, Open Court
* Charles Johnston, {{Google books|sM2wBAAAQBAJ|The Vedanta Philosophy of Sankaracharya}}, Theosophical Society

;Neo-Vedānta
* {{Citation | last =King | first =Richard | year =2002 | title =Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East" | publisher =Routledge |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |author=Rambachan, Anantanand |title=The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |location=[Honolulu] |year=1994 |isbn=0-8248-1542-4}}

;Neo-Advaita
* {{Citation | last =Jacobs | first =Alan | year =2004 | title =Advaita and Western Neo-Advaita. | journal =The Mountain Path Journal | pages =81–88 | publisher =Ramanasramam | url =http://www.sriramanamaharshi.org/mpath/2004/october/mp.swf | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20150518100046/http://www.sriramanamaharshi.org/mpath/2004/october/mp.swf | archive-date =18 May 2015 | df =dmy-all |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Lucas | first =Phillip Charles | year =2011 | title =When a Movement Is Not a Movement. Ramana Maharshi and Neo-Advaita in North America | journal =Nova Religio |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=93–114 | jstor =10.1525/nr.2011.15.2.93| doi =10.1525/nr.2011.15.2.93 |ref=none}}
* {{Citation | last =Sharf | first =Robert H. | year =2000 | title =The Rhetoric of Experience and the Study of Religion | journal =Journal of Consciousness Studies | volume =7 | issue =11–12 | pages =267–87 | url =http://buddhiststudies.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/sharf/documents/Sharf1998,%20Religious%20Experience.pdf | access-date =17 January 2017 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130513104227/http://buddhiststudies.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/sharf/documents/Sharf1998,%20Religious%20Experience.pdf | archive-date =13 May 2013 | url-status =dead }}

;Indian languages
* Mishra, M., ''Bhāratīya Darshan'' (भारतीय दर्शन), Kalā Prakāshan.
* Sinha, H. P., ''Bharatiya Darshan ki ruparekha'' (Features of Indian Philosophy), 1993, Motilal Benarasidas, Delhi–Varanasi.
* Swāmi Paramānanda Bhārati, ''Vedānta Prabodha'' (in [[Kannada language|Kannada]]), Jnānasamvardhini Granthakusuma, 2004

==External links==
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{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ ''Advaita Vedānta''] by Sangeetha Menon, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/biblio.html Bibliography of Advaita Vedānta] Ancient to 9th-century literature
* [http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/biblio2.html Bibliography of Advaita Vedānta] 9th-century to 20th-century literature
* {{curlie|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Advaita_Vedanta|Advaita Vedanta}}
* [http://vedantahub.org Vedānta Hub] – Resources to help with the Study and Practice of Advaita Vedānta
* [http://www.sankaracharya.org/spiritual_library.php sankaracharya.org Spiritual Library]
* [https://www.celextel.org/ Vedanta Spiritual Library]

{{Reflist|group=note}}
{{Hindudharma}}

{{Indian Philosophy}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Advaita Vedanta| ]]
[[Category:Advaita|Vedanta]]
[[Category:Schools and traditions in ancient Indian philosophy]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Monism]]
[[Category:Hindu mysticism]]
[[Category:Nonduality]]
[[Category:Transtheism]]
[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Sufism]]