Abrahamic religions Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! {{Short description|Category in comparative religion}} {{Use dmy dates |date=August 2022}} [[File:Three Main Abrahamic Religions.svg |thumb |upright |From top to bottom: the [[star and crescent]] ([[Islam]]), the [[Christian cross|cross]] ([[Christianity]]), and the [[Star of David]] ([[Judaism]]) are the symbols commonly used to represent the three largest Abrahamic religions.]] The term '''Abrahamic religion''' groups three of the [[World religions|major religions]] ([[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]) together due to their historical coexistence and competition;<ref>Brague, Rémi, 'The Concept of the Abrahamic Religions, Problems and Pitfalls', in Adam J. Silverstein, and Guy G. Stroumsa (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions (2015; online edn, Oxford Academic, 12 Nov. 2015), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.5, accessed 12 Feb. 2024</ref><ref>Goshen-Gottstein, Alon. "Abraham and ‘Abrahamic Religions’ in Contemporary Interreligious Discourse." Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 12.2 (2002): 165-183.</ref> it refers to [[Abraham]], a figure mentioned in the [[Hebrew Bible]], the [[Bible|Christian Bible]], and the [[Quran]], and is used to show similarities between these religions and put them in contrast to [[Indian religions]], [[Iranian religions]], and the [[East Asian religions]] (though other religions and belief systems may refer to [[Abraham]] as well).<ref>Kiel, Yishai. "The contours of Abrahamic identity: a Zoroastrian perspective." Geneses: A Comparative Study of the Historiographies of the Rise of [[Christianity]], [[Rabbinic Judaism]], and [[Islam]] (2019): 19-34.</ref><ref>GhaneaBassiri, Kambiz, and Paul Robertson, eds. All religion is inter-religion: engaging the work of Steven M. Wasserstrom. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019.</ref> Furthermore, some religions categorized as "Abrahamic" also share elements from other categories, such as Indian religions, or for example, Islam with [[Eastern religions]].<ref>Schubel, Vernon James. "Teaching Islam as an Asian Religion." EDUCATION ABOUT ASIA 10.1 (2005).</ref> Abrahamic religions make up the largest major division in [[comparative religion|the study of comparative religion]].{{sfn|Adams|2007}} By total number of adherents, Christianity and Islam comprise the largest and second-largest religious movements in the world, respectively.{{sfn|Wormald|2015}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}} Judaism is the smallest of the three major Abrahamic religions. [[Samaritanism]] is the smallest Abrahamic religion. [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Bábism]], and [[Druze|Druzism]] are offshoots of Abrahamic religions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/druze-syria|title=Druze in Syria|date=|publisher=Harvard University|quote=The Druze are an ethnoreligious group concentrated in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel with around one million adherents worldwide. The Druze follow a millenarian offshoot of Isma’ili Shi'ism. Followers emphasize Abrahamic monotheism but consider the religion as separate from Islam.}}</ref> == Usage == The term ''Abrahamic religions'' (and its variations) is a collective religious descriptor for elements shared by [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]].<ref>Gaston, K. Healan. "The Judeo-Christian and Abrahamic Traditions in America." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. 2018.</ref> It features prominently in [[interfaith dialogue]] and political discourse, but also has entered [[Academic discourse socialization|Academic discourse]].<ref name="Bakhos, Carol 2014">Bakhos, Carol. The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Harvard University Press, 2014.</ref><ref>Dodds, Adam. "The Abrahamic faiths? Continuity and discontinuity in Christian and Islamic doctrine." Evangelical Quarterly: An International Review of Bible and Theology 81.3 (2009): 230-253.</ref> However, the term has also been criticized to be uncritically adapted.<ref name="Bakhos, Carol 2014"/> Although historically the term ''Abrahamic religions'' was limited to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam,<ref name="British Library">{{cite web |last=Abulafia |first=Anna Sapir |author-link=Anna Abulafia |date=23 September 2019 |title=The Abrahamic religions |url=https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712150432/https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions |archive-date=12 July 2020 |access-date=9 March 2021 |publisher=[[British Library]] |location=[[London]]}}</ref> restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism.<ref name="Trialogue Intl"> *{{cite web |last=Micksch |first=Jürgen |title=Trialog International – Die jährliche Konferenz |publisher=Herbert Quandt Stiftung |year=2009 |url=http://www.herbert-quandt-stiftung.de/root/index.php?lang=de&page_id=885 |access-date=19 September 2009 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160523192258/http://www.herbert-quandt-stiftung.de/root/index.php?lang=de&page_id=885 |archive-date=23 May 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{sfn |Collins |2004 |pp=157, 160}} The late 19th century Baháʼí Faith has been listed as ''Abrahamic'' by scholarly sources in various fields,{{sfn |Lubar Institute |2016}}{{sfn |Beit-Hallahmi |1992 |pp=48–49}} since it is a monotheistic religion, which recognizes Abraham.{{sfn |Smith |2008 |p=106}}{{sfn |Cole |2012 |pp=438–446}} === Theological discourse === The figure [[Abraham]] is suggested as a common ground for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and the chance of a future reconciliation of these three faiths.<ref name="Krista N. Dalton 2014">Krista N. Dalton (2014) Abrahamic Religions: On Uses and Abuses of History by Aaron W. Hughes, Oxford University Press: New York, 2012, 191 pp. ISBN 978 0 19 993463 5, US$55.00 (hardback), Religion, 44:4, 684-686, DOI: 10.1080/0048721X.2013.862421</ref><ref name="Hughes, Aaron W 2012. p. 17">Hughes, Aaron W. Abrahamic religions: On the uses and abuses of history. Oxford University Press, 2012. p. 17</ref> Commonalities may include, creation, revelation, and redemption, although such shared concepts may vary significantly within each Abrahamic religion respectively.<ref name="Hughes, Aaron W 2012. p. 17"/> Proponents of the term argue that all three religions are united through the deity worshipped by Abraham.<ref name="Krista N. Dalton 2014"/> The Catholic scholar of Islam [[Louis Massignon]] stated that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source.{{sfn |Massignon |1949 |pp=20–23}} The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference to ''[[millat Ibrahim|dīn Ibrāhīm]]'', 'religion of Ibrahim', Arabic form of Abraham's name.{{sfn |Stroumsa |2017 |p=7}} According to Christianity, [[Paul the Apostle]], in [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans 4:11–12]], refers to Abraham as "father of all", including those "who have faith, circumcised or uncircumcised". Islam likewise conceived itself as the religion of Abraham.{{sfn |Levenson |2012 |pp=178–179}} The [[Baháʼí Faith|Bahá'í Faith]] states in its scripture that Bahá'ullah descended from Abraham through his wife [[Keturah|Keturah's]] sons.{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19-20}}{{sfn |Able |2011 |p=219}}{{sfn |Hatcher |Martin |1998 |pp=130–31}} === Criticism === The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam by the terms "Abrahamic religions" or "Abrahamic traditions" has been challenged.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Boyd |first=Samuel L. |title=Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: The problem of 'Abrahamic religions' and the possibilities of comparison |journal=Religion Compass |date=October 2019 |volume=13 |issue=10 |doi=10.1111/rec3.12339 |s2cid=203090839 |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12339}}</ref> Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and [[Theology|theological]] commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is a commonality among the religions, in large measure their shared ancestry is peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences.{{sfn |Dodds |2009 |pp=230–253}} [[Alan L. Berger]], professor of Judaic Studies at [[Florida Atlantic University]], wrote that "while Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam, the three monotheistic faiths went their separate ways" and "each tradition views the patriarchal figure differently as seen in the theological claims they make about him".<ref name="Berger">Berger, Alan L., ed. Trialogue and Terror: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam after 9/11. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2012.</ref>[[Aaron W. Hughes]], meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theological neologism".{{sfn |Hughes |2012 |pp=3–4, 7–8, 17, 32}} The common Christian beliefs of [[Incarnation]], [[Trinity]], and the [[resurrection of Jesus]], for example, are not accepted by Judaism or Islam. There are key beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are not shared by most of Christianity (such as [[Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork|abstinence from pork]]), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith not shared by Judaism (such as the [[prophet]]ic and [[Messiah|Messianic]] position of [[Jesus and Messianic prophecy|Jesus]], respectively).{{sfn|Greenstreet|2006|p=95}} == Historical development == === Judaism === {{Main |Jewish history}} [[File:Skverer Rebbe With Torah.jpg |thumb |A Jewish [[Rebbe]] holds a [[Torah scroll]].]] Jewish tradition claims that the [[Twelve Tribes of Israel]] are descended from Abraham through his son [[Isaac]] and grandson [[Jacob]], whose sons formed the nation of the [[Israelites]] in [[Canaan]]; Islamic tradition claims that twelve Arab tribes known as the [[Ishmaelites]] are descended from Abraham through his son [[Ishmael]] in the Arabian Peninsula.<ref>{{harvp|Hatcher|Martin|1998|pp=130–31}}; {{harvp|Bremer|2015|p=19–20}}; {{harvp|Able|2011|p=219}}; {{harvp|Dever|2001|pp=97–102}}</ref> In its early stages, the Israelite religion was derived from the [[Canaanite religion]]s of the [[Bronze Age]]; by the [[Iron Age]], it had become distinct from other Canaanite religions as it shed polytheism for [[monolatry]]. [[Yahwism|Ancient Israelite monolatry]] fused at least two [[Canaanite religion|Canaanite deities]]; the supreme god of the pantheon [[El (deity)|El]] and the warrior-god [[Yahweh]].<ref name="Cohen, Charles L 2020. p. 9">Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 9</ref> They understood their relationship with that deity as a covenant and that the deity promised Abraham a permanent homeland.<ref name="Cohen, Charles L 2020. p. 9"/> Recognizing one supreme deity, however, did not transform it to a [[universal religion|universal one]].<ref name="Cohen, Charles L 2020. p. 9"/> While the [[Book of Genesis]] speaks of [[Elohim|multiple gods]] (''ʾĔlōhīm''), comparable to the [[Enūma Eliš]] speaking of various gods of the Canaanite pantheon to create the earth, at the time of the [[Babylonian captivity]], Jewish theologians attributed the six-day narrative all to Yahweh, reflecting an early conception of Yahweh as a universal deity.<ref>Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 14-15</ref> The monolatrist nature of [[Yahwism]] was further developed in the period following the [[Babylonian captivity]], eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism.<ref>{{harvp|Edelman|1995|p=19}}; {{harvp|Gnuse|2016|p=5}}; {{harvp|Carraway|2013|p=66|ps=: "Second, it was probably not until the exile that monotheism proper was clearly formulated."}}; {{harvp|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=234|ps=: "The idolatry of the people of Judah was not a departure from their earlier monotheism. It was, instead, the way the people of Judah had worshiped for hundreds of years."}}</ref><ref name="BBC Did God Have a Wife">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00zw3fl |title=BBC Two – Bible's Buried Secrets, Did God Have a Wife? |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=21 December 2011 |access-date=4 July 2012 |archive-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115173447/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00zw3fl |url-status=live}} Quote from the BBC documentary (prof. Herbert Niehr): "Between the 10th century and the beginning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would say it [the sentence "Jews were monotheists" – n.n.] is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true, but for the time before it, it is not true."</ref><ref name="Center for Online Judaic Studies 2008">{{cite web |first=Christine |last=Hayes |title=Moses and the Beginning of Yahwism: (Genesis 37- Exodus 4), Christine Hayes, Open Yale Courses (Transcription), 2006. |website=Center for Online Judaic Studies |date=3 July 2008 |url=http://cojs.org/moses_and_the_beginning_of_yahwism-_-genesis_37-_exodus_4-_christine_hayes-_open_yale_courses_-transcription-_2006/ |access-date=17 August 2022 |quote="Only later would a Yahweh-only party polemicize against and seek to suppress certain… what came to be seen as undesirable elements of Israelite-Judean religion, and these elements would be labeled Canaanite, as a part of a process of Israelite differentiation. But what appears in the Bible as a battle between Israelites, pure Yahwists, and Canaanites, pure polytheists, is indeed better understood as a civil war between Yahweh-only Israelites, and Israelites who are participating in the cult of their ancestors." |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817010524/http://cojs.org/moses_and_the_beginning_of_yahwism-_-genesis_37-_exodus_4-_christine_hayes-_open_yale_courses_-transcription-_2006/ |url-status=live}}</ref> With the [[Fall of Babylon]], under influence of the [[First Persian Empire|Persian]] religion [[Zoroastrianism]], Judaism adopted many later prominent concepts, such as messianism, belief in free will and judgement after death, conception of heaven and hell, angels and demons, among others, into their belief-system.<ref name="TJE1906">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/15283-zoroastrianism|title=Zoroastrianism ("Resemblances Between Zoroastrianism and Judaism" and "Causes of Analogies Uncertain")|date=1906|author1=[[Kaufmann Kohler]]|author2=[[A. V. Williams Jackson]]|encyclopedia=The Jewish Encyclopaedia|access-date=3 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="SecondPersian">{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |author-link=Lester L. Grabbe |date=2006 |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (vol. 1): The Persian Period (539-331BCE) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cPeBAAAQBAJ |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |pages=361–364 |isbn=9780567216175}}"there is general agreement that Persian religion and tradition had its influence on [[Second Temple Judaism|Judaism]] over the centuries" and the "question is where this influence was and which of the developments in Judaism can be ascribed to the Iranian side as opposed to the effect of the Greek or other cultures".</ref><ref name="BlackRowley_1982_607b">{{harvnb|Black|Rowley|1982|p=607b}}.</ref> === Christianity === {{Main |History of Christianity}} [[File:Gutenberg Bible, Lenox Copy, New York Public Library, 2009. Pic 01.jpg |thumb |Christianity is based on the teachings of the [[Bible]]]] [[File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg |thumb |250px |A Bible handwritten in [[Latin]], on display in [[Malmesbury Abbey]], Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.]] [[Christianity]] traces back their origin to the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led by [[Jesus]]. His followers viewed him as the [[Messiah]], as in the [[Confession of Peter]]; after his [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]] and death they came to view him as [[Incarnation|God incarnate]],<ref>Pavlac, Brian A (2010). ''A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities''. Chapter 6.</ref> who was [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrected]] and will [[Second Coming|return]] at the end of time to [[Last Judgment|judge the living and the dead]] and create an eternal [[Kingdom of God]]. In the 1st century AD, under the [[Apostles]] of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]];{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19-20}}[[Christianity]] spread widely after it was adopted by the [[Roman Empire]] as a state religion in the 4th century AD. [[Paul the Apostle]] interpreted the role of Abraham differently than the Jews of his time.<ref>Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 516.</ref> While for the Jews, Abraham was considered a loyal monotheist in a polytheistic environment, Paul celebrates Abraham as a man who found faith in God before adhering to [[Religious law|religious]] law. In contrast to Judaism, adherence to religious law becomes associated with idolatry.<ref>Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 517.</ref> While Christians fashioned their religion around [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]], the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege of Jerusalem]] (70 CE), forced Jews to reconcile their belief-system with the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] and associated rituals.<ref>Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41</ref> At this time, both Judaism and Christianity had to systematize their scriptures and beliefs, resulting in competing theologies both claiming Abrahamic heritage.<ref>Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41-57</ref> Christians could hardly dismiss the Hebrew scriptures as Jesus himself refers to them according to Christian reports, and parallels between Jesus and the Biblical stories of ''creation'' and ''redemption'' starting with Abraham in the ''Book of Genesis''.<ref>Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41</ref> The distant God asserted by Jesus according to the Christians, created a form of dualism between Creator and creation and the doctrine of ''[[Creatio ex nihilo]]'', which later heavily influenced Jewish and Islamic theology.<ref>Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 25-39</ref> By that, Christians established their own identity, distinct from both Greeks and Jews, as those who venerate the deity of Jesus.<ref>Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 40</ref> After several periods of alternating [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution]] and relative peace ''vis-à-vis'' the Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became the [[state church of the Roman Empire]] in 380, but has been [[Early centers of Christianity|split into various churches from its beginning]]. An attempt was made by the [[Byzantine Empire]] to unify [[Christendom]], but this formally failed with the [[East–West Schism]] of 1054. In the 16th century, the birth and growth of [[Protestantism]] during the [[Reformation]] further split Christianity into many [[List of Christian denominations|denominations]]. === Islam === {{Main |History of Islam}} [[File:Abraham tomb.JPG |thumb |upright |A [[cenotaph]] above the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] traditionally considered to be the burial place of Abraham.]] [[Islam]] is based on the teachings of the [[Quran]]. Although it considers [[Muhammad]] to be the [[Seal of the prophets]], Islam teaches that every [[Prophets in Islam|prophet]] preached Islam, as the word ''Islam'' literally means submission, the main concept preached by all prophets. Although the [[Quran]] is the central [[religious text]] of Islam, which [[Muslim]]s believe to be a [[revelation]] from God,<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |title=Qurʼān |year=2007 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=4 November 2007 |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran |archive-date=16 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016200056/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran |url-status=live}}</ref> other Islamic books considered to be revealed by God before the Quran, mentioned by name in the Quran are the [[Tawrat]] ([[Torah]]) revealed to the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophets and messengers]] amongst the [[Children of Israel]] (Bani Israil), the [[Zabur]] ([[Psalms]]) revealed to [[David in Islam|Dawud]] ([[David]]) and the [[Injil]] (the [[Gospel]]) revealed to [[Jesus in Islam|Isa]] ([[Jesus]]). The Quran also mentions God having revealed the [[Scrolls of Abraham]] and the [[Scrolls of Moses]]. The relationship between Islamic and Hebrew scriptures and New Testament differs significantly from the relationship between the New Testament and the Tanakh.<ref name="Cohen, Charles L 2020. p. 62">Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 62</ref> Whereas the New Testament draws heavily on the Tanakh and interprets its text in light of the foundations of the new religion, the Quran only alludes to various stories of the Tanakh and Biblical writings, but remains independent of both, focusing on establishing a monotheistic message by utilizing the stories of the prophets in a religious decentralized environment.<ref name="Cohen, Charles L 2020. p. 62"/> In the 7th century AD, Islam was founded by [[Muhammad]] in the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through the [[early Muslim conquests]], shortly after his death.{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19-20}} Islam understands its form of "Abrahamic monotheism" as preceding both Judaism and Christianity, and in contrast with Arabian [[Henotheism]].<ref>Athamina, Khalil. "Abraham in Islamic perspective reflections on the development of monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia." (2004): 184-205.</ref> The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of [[God]]. Islam, like Christianity, is a [[Religion#Morphological classification|universal religion]] (i.e. membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called ''[[tawhid]]'' or "strict monotheism".<ref name="BBC Islam">[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ataglance/glance.shtml Religions » Islam » Islam at a glance] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521230250/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ataglance/glance.shtml |date=21 May 2009}}, BBC, 5 August 2009.</ref> The story of the creation of the world in the Quran is elaborated less extensively than in the Hebrew scripture, emphasizing the transcendence and universality of God, instead. According to the Quran, God says ''[[Be, and it is|kun fa-yakūnu]]''.<ref name="Burrell, David B. 2010. p. 41">Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41.</ref> The Quran describes God as the creator of "heavens and earth", to emphasize that it is a universal God and not a local Arabian deity here.<ref name="Burrell, David B. 2010. p. 41"/> == Common aspects == {{Synthesis|section|date=February 2024}} All Abrahamic religions accept the tradition that [[God in Abrahamic religions|God]] revealed himself to the patriarch Abraham.{{sfn |Peters |2018 |p=}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}} All of them are [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], and all of them conceive God to be a [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] [[Creator deity|creator]] and the source of [[Morality|moral law]].<ref>{{cite web |year=2002 |title=Religion: Three Religions – One God |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html |work=Global Connections of the Middle East |publisher=[[WGBH-TV|WGBH]] Educational Foundation |access-date=20 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917070320/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html |archive-date=17 September 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> Their [[religious texts]] feature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings.{{sfn |Kunst |Thomsen |2014 |pp=1–14}} Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups.{{sfn |Kunst |Thomsen |Sam |2014 |pp=337–348}} In the three main Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), the individual, God, and the universe are highly separate from each other. The Abrahamic religions believe in a judging, paternal, fully external god to which the individual and nature are both subordinate. One seeks [[salvation]] or transcendence not by contemplating the natural world or via philosophical speculation, but by seeking to please God (such as obedience with God's wishes or his law) and see [[divine revelation]] as outside of self, nature, and custom. === Monotheism === {{Main |God in Abrahamic religions}} All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, although one who is known by different names.{{sfn |Peters |2018 |p=}}{{page needed |date=August 2022}} Each of these religions preaches that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives.{{sfn |Dodds |2009 |pp=230–253}} However, although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods—but rather in three [[Hypostasis (philosophy)|persons]], or hypostases, united in one [[Ousia|essence]]—the [[Trinity|Trinitarian doctrine]], a fundamental of faith for the vast majority of Christian denominations,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/trinity_1.shtml |title=The Trinity |date=July 2011 |publisher=[[BBC]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920170829/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/trinity_1.shtml |archive-date=20 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/what-is-the-doctrine-of-the-trinity |title=What Is the Doctrine of the Trinity? |last=Perman |first=Matt |date=January 2006 |website=desiring God |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030035506/https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/what-is-the-doctrine-of-the-trinity |archive-date=30 October 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> conflicts with Jewish and Muslim concepts of monotheism. Since the conception of a divine Trinity is not amenable to ''[[tawhid]]'', the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islam regards Christianity as variously [[polytheism|polytheistic]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://uwaterloo.ca/grebel/sites/ca.grebel/files/uploads/files/IslamicMonotheismandtheTrinity.pdf |title=Islamic Monotheism and the Trinity |last=Hoover |first=Jon |publisher=[[University of Waterloo]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105155238/https://uwaterloo.ca/grebel/sites/ca.grebel/files/uploads/files/IslamicMonotheismandtheTrinity.pdf |archive-date=5 January 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Christianity and Islam both revere Jesus ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''[[Jesus in Islam|Isa]]'' or ''Yasu'' among Muslims and [[Arab Christians]] respectively) but with vastly differing conceptions: * Christians view Jesus as the [[Redeemer (Christianity)|saviour]] and regard him as [[Incarnation|God incarnate]]. * Muslims see Isa as a [[Prophet of Islam]]{{sfn|Rubin|2001}}{{page needed|date=September 2022}} and Messiah. Isa (Jesus) is also believed by Muslims to return to Earth before the doomsday to defeat the [[Al-Masih ad-Dajjal|Dajjal]] (the Anti-Christ) and restore peace for a period of time.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} However, the worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known as ''[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]'' in Islam and as ''[[shituf]]'' in Judaism), is typically viewed as the [[heresy]] of [[idolatry]] by Islam and Judaism.{{citation needed |date=January 2021}} === Importance of Jerusalem === {{main |Religious significance of Jerusalem}} {{further |Jerusalem in Judaism |Jerusalem in Christianity |Jerusalem in Islam}} Jerusalem is considered Judaism's holiest city. Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE,{{sfn |Tucker |Roberts |2008 |p=541}} when according to Biblical tradition [[David]] established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son [[Solomon]] built the [[First Temple]] on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]].{{sfn |pp=302–303 |Fine |2011}} Since the [[Hebrew Bible]] relates that [[Binding of Isaac|Isaac's sacrifice]] took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews predates even these prominent events. Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding of the [[Holy Temple]] (the [[Third Temple]]) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the only capital for the five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE (the [[United Kingdom of Israel]], the [[Kingdom of Judah]], [[Yehud Medinata]], the [[Hasmonean Kingdom]], and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today.{{sfn |Morgenstern |2006 |p=201 }}{{sfn |Lapidoth |Hirsch |1994 |p=384}} [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity]]. There has been a continuous Christian presence there since.{{sfn |Wilken |1986 |p=678}} William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the history of Christianity at the [[University of Virginia]], Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to the [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquest]] in the middle of the 7th century, the [[Syria Palaestina|Roman province of Palestine]] was a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city.{{sfn |Wilken |1986 |p=678}} According to the [[New Testament]], Jerusalem was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the temple<ref>{{bibleverse |Luke |2:22}}</ref> and for the feast of the [[Passover]].<ref>{{bibleverse |Luke |2:41}}</ref> He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove the [[Jesus and the money changers|money changers]] in disarray from the temple there, held the [[Last Supper]] in an "upper room" (traditionally the [[Cenacle]]) there the night before he was crucified on the cross and was arrested in [[Gethsemane]]. The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. His [[crucifixion]] at [[Calvary|Golgotha]], his burial nearby (traditionally the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]), and his resurrection and ascension and [[Second Coming|prophecy to return]] all are said to have occurred or will occur there. Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third after [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. The [[Al-Aqsa]], which translates to "farthest mosque" in [[sura]] [[Al-Isra]] in the Quran and its surroundings are addressed in the Quran as "the holy land". Muslim tradition as recorded in the [[ahadith]] identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem. The first Muslims did not pray toward [[Kaaba]], but toward Jerusalem. The qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill the order of Allah of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144–150). Another reason for its significance is its connection with the [[Isra and Mi'raj|Miʿrāj]],<ref name="Miraj">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384897/Miraj, |title=Mi'raj – Islam |access-date=26 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629074204/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/384897/Miraj, |archive-date=29 June 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> where, according to traditional Muslim belief, Muhammad ascended through the [[Seven heavens]] on a horse like winged beast named [[Buraq]], guided by the [[Archangel Gabriel]], beginning from the [[Foundation Stone]] on the [[Temple Mount]], in modern times under the [[Dome of the Rock]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Perowne |first1=Stewart Henry |last2=Gordon |first2=Buzzy |last3=Prawer |first3=Joshua |last4=Dumper |first4=Michael |last5=Wasserstein |first5=Bernard |title=Jerusalem |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Jerusalem |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=14 September 2022 |date=13 August 2022 |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509065546/https://www.britannica.com/place/Jerusalem |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Britannica Al Aqsa">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30995/Al-Aqsa-Mosque |title=Al-Aqsa Mosque – mosque, Jerusalem |access-date=26 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110118012709/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30995/Al-Aqsa-Mosque |archive-date=18 January 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> === Significance of Abraham === {{Main |Covenant of the pieces |Abraham#Christianity |Abraham in Islam}} [[File:Greater Israel map.jpg |thumb |upright=1.1 |An interpretation of the borders (in red) of the [[Promised Land]], based on God's promise to Abraham (Genesis 15:18)<ref>{{bibleverse |Genesis |15 |HE}}</ref>]] Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs.{{sfn |Lubar Institute |2016}} For [[Jews]], Abraham is the founding [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarch]] of the children of Israel. God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you."<ref>{{bibleverse |Gen. |12:2}}</ref> With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come".<ref>{{bibleverse |Gen. |17:7}}</ref> It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant. Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham.<ref>{{cite book |last= Kolatch|first= Alfred J.|author-link= Alfred J. Kolatch|date= 1985|title= The second Jewish book of why |url= https://archive.org/details/secondjewishbook00kola|location= Middle Village, N.Y|publisher= J. David Publishers|page= 127|isbn=0824603052}}</ref> Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or [[patriarch]] (referred to as ''Avraham Avinu'' (אברהם אבינו in [[Hebrew]]) "Abraham our father") to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberless descendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the "[[Promised Land]]"). According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was the first post-[[Genesis flood narrative|Flood]] prophet to reject [[idolatry]] through rational analysis, although [[Shem]] and [[Eber]] carried on the tradition from [[Noah]].{{sfn |Schultz |1975 |pp=51–52}}{{sfn |Kaplan |1973 |p=161}} [[Abraham#Christianity|Christians view Abraham]] as an important exemplar of [[Faith in Christianity|faith]], and a spiritual, as well as physical, ancestor of Jesus. For Christians, Abraham is a spiritual forebear as well as/rather than a direct ancestor depending on the [[Paul the Apostle and Judaism|individual's interpretation of Paul the Apostle]],<ref>{{bibleverse |Rom. |4:9–12}}</ref> with the [[Abrahamic covenant]] "reinterpreted so as to be defined by faith in Christ rather than biological descent" or both by faith as well as a direct ancestor; in any case, the emphasis is placed on faith being the only requirement for the Abrahamic Covenant to apply<ref>Blasi, Turcotte, Duhaime, p. 592.</ref> (see also [[New Covenant]] and [[supersessionism]]). In Christian belief, Abraham is a [[role model]] of faith,<ref>{{bibleverse |Heb. |11:8–10}}</ref>{{primary source inline |date=August 2017}} and his obedience to God by [[Binding of Isaac|offering Isaac]] is seen as a [[foreshadowing]] of God's offering of his son Jesus.<ref>{{bibleverse |Rom. |8:32}}</ref>{{sfn |MacArthur |1996 |}} Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity subsequent to, and sometimes rather than (as in supersessionism), being applied to Judaism, whose adherents [[Rejection of Jesus|rejected Jesus]].{{POV statement |date=August 2022}} They argue this on the basis that just as Abraham as a [[Gentile]] (before he was [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|circumcised]]) "believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness"<ref>{{bibleverse |Gen. |15:6}}</ref> (cf. Rom. 4:3, James 2:23), "those who have faith are children of Abraham"<ref>{{bibleverse |Gal. |3:7}}</ref> (see also John 8:39). This is most fully developed in [[Pauline Christianity|Paul's theology]] where all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham.<ref>{{bibleverse |Rom. |4:20}}, {{bibleverse |Gal. |4:9}}</ref>{{efn |"So those who have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith."{{citation needed |date=August 2022}} "In other words, it is not the children by physical descent who are God's children, but it is the children of the promise who are regarded as Abraham's offspring."{{bibleverse | |Romans |9:8 |HE}}}} However, with regards to Rom. 4:20<ref>{{bibleverse|Romans|4:20|KJV}} King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769)</ref> and Gal. 4:9,<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|4:9|KJV}} King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769)</ref> in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the "[[sons of God]]"<ref>{{bibleverse |Gal. |4:26}}</ref> rather than "children of Abraham".<ref>Bickerman, p. 188cf.</ref> For Muslims, Abraham is a [[Prophet of Islam|prophet]], the "[[apostle (Islam)|messenger]] of God" who stands in the line from Adam to Muhammad, to whom God gave revelations,{{cite quran |4 |163}}, who "raised the foundations of the House" (i.e., the [[Kaaba]]){{cite quran |2 |127}} with his first son, [[Isma'il]], a symbol of which is every mosque.{{sfn |Leeming |2005 |p=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000leem/page/209 209]}} Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in a [[genealogy]] for Muhammad. Islam considers Abraham to be "one of the first Muslims" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism was lost, and the community of those faithful to God,{{sfn |Fischer |Abedi |1990 |pp=[https://archive.org/details/debatingmuslimsc0000fisc/page/163 163]–166}} thus being referred to as ابونا ابراهيم or "Our Father Abraham", as well as ''Ibrahim [[Hanif|al-Hanif]]'' or "Abraham the Monotheist". Also, the same as Judaism, Islam believes that Abraham rejected idolatry through logical reasoning. Abraham is also recalled in certain details of the annual [[Hajj]] pilgrimage.{{sfn |Hawting |2006 |pp=xviii, xix, xx, xxiii}} == Differences == {{Synthesis|section|date=February 2024}} === God === {{Main |God in Abrahamic religions |God in Judaism |God in Christianity |God in Islam |God in the Baháʼí Faith}} {{Further |Yahweh |Tetragrammaton |El (deity) |Elohim |Names of God in Judaism |Names of God in Christianity |Names of God in Islam}} The [[conception of God]] as universal remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions.{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} The Abrahamic God is conceived of as [[Eternity#God and eternity|eternal]], [[omnipotent]], [[omniscient]] and as the [[Creator deity|creator of the universe]].{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} God is further held to have the properties of holiness, justice, [[omnibenevolence]], and [[omnipresence]].{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]], but at the same time [[personal God|personal]] and involved, listening to [[prayer]] and reacting to the actions of his creatures. God in Abrahamic religions is always referred to as [[Masculine (grammar)|masculine]] only.{{sfn |Christiano |Kivisto |Swatos |2015 |pp=254–255}} [[File:JudaismSymbol.PNG |thumb |right |The [[Star of David]] (or ''Magen David'') is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism.]] [[Jewish theology]] is unitarian. God is an absolute one, indivisible and incomparable [[being]] who is the ultimate cause of all existence. Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable and that it is only God's revealed aspect that brought the universe into existence, and interacts with mankind and the world. In Judaism, the one God of Israel is the God of Abraham, [[Isaac]], and [[Jacob]], who is the guide of the world, delivered [[Israelites|Israel]] from [[The Exodus|slavery in Egypt]], and gave them the [[613 Mitzvot]] at [[Mount Sinai]] as described in the [[Torah]]. The [[national god]] of the [[Israelite]]s has a [[Theonym|proper name]], written ''[[YHWH|Y-H-W-H]]'' ({{lang-he|יהוה|}}) in the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]]. The etymology of the name is unknown.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoffman |first=Joel |title=In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language |publisher=[[NYU Press]] |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5TShBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |isbn=978-0-8147-3706-4 |page=236 |access-date=12 March 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051853/https://books.google.com/books?id=5TShBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |url-status=live}}</ref> An explanation of the name is given to Moses when YHWH calls himself "[[I Am that I Am]]", ({{lang-he |אהיה אשר אהיה}} ''’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye''), seemingly connecting it to the verb ''hayah'' (הָיָה), meaning 'to be', but this is likely not a genuine etymology. Jewish tradition accords many names to God, including [[Elohim]], [[El Shaddai|Shaddai]], and [[Sabaoth]]. [[File:Christianity Symbol.png |thumb |right |The [[Christian cross]] (or crux) is the best-known religious symbol of Christianity; this version is known as a Latin Cross.]] In [[Christian theology]], God is the [[Eternity#God and eternity|eternal being]] who [[Genesis creation narrative|created]] and [[Divine providence|preserves]] the world. Christians believe God to be both transcendent and [[immanent]] (involved in the world).{{sfn |Leith |1993 |pp=55–56}}{{sfn |Erickson |2001 |pp=87–88}} [[Early Christianity|Early Christian]] views of God were expressed in the [[Pauline Epistles]] and the early{{efn |Perhaps even pre-Pauline creeds.{{citation needed |date=August 2022}}}} [[creed]]s, which proclaimed one God and the [[Son of God|divinity of Jesus]]. Around the year 200, [[Tertullian]] formulated a version of the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by the [[First Council of Constantinople|Ecumenical Council of 381]].{{sfn|Prestige|1963|p=29}}{{sfn|Kelly |2017 |p=119}} Trinitarians, who form the large majority of [[Christians]], hold it as a core tenet of their faith.{{sfn |Mills |Bullard |2001 |p=935}}{{sfn|Kelly |2017 |p=23}} [[Nontrinitarianism|Nontrinitarian]] denominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways.{{sfn |McGrath |2012 |pp=117–120}} The theology of the [[Attributes of God in Christianity|attributes and nature of God]] has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with [[Irenaeus]] writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things."{{sfn |Osborn |2001 |pp=27–29}} In the 8th century, [[John of Damascus]] listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted.{{sfn |Dyrness |Kärkkäinen |Martinez |Chan |2008 |pp=352–353}} As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the [[Lord's Prayer]], stating that the [[God the Father|Father]] is in [[Heaven (Christianity)|Heaven]]), others based on theological reasoning.{{sfn |Guthrie |1994 |pp=100, 111}}<ref name="Hirschberger">Hirschberger, Johannes. ''Historia de la Filosofía I, Barcelona'': Herder 1977, p. 403</ref> [[File:IslamSymbolAllahComp.PNG |thumb |right |The word [[God]] written in [[Arabic]]]] In [[Islamic theology]], God ({{lang-ar |{{large |الله}}}} ''[[Allāh|{{transliteration |ar |ALA |Allāh}}]]'') is the [[Omnipotence|all-powerful]] and [[Omniscience|all-knowing]] creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Böwering |first1=Gerhard |title=God and his Attributes |website=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_eqcom_00075}}</ref> In contrast to the Judeo-Christian tradition, which depicts God usually as anthropomorph, the Islamic conception of God is less personal, but rather of a conscious force behind all aspects of the universe only known through signs of nature, metaphorical stories, and revelation by the prophets and angels.<ref name="ReferenceB">David Leeming ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'' Oxford University Press 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-195-15669-0}} page 209</ref> Islam emphasizes that God is singular (''[[tawhid|{{transliteration |ar |ALA |tawḥīd}}]]''){{sfn |Esposito |1999 |p=88}} unique (''{{transliteration |ar |ALA |wāḥid}}'') and inherently One (''{{transliteration |ar |ALA |aḥad}}''), all-merciful and omnipotent.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Allah |volume=01 |pages=686–687}}</ref> According to Islamic teachings, God exists without place<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Islam |volume=14 |page=873}}</ref> and according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things."<ref>{{cite quran |6 |103 |style=ns}}</ref> God, as referenced in the Quran, is the only God.<ref>{{cite quran |29 |46 |style=ns}}</ref>{{sfn |Peters |2003 |p=4}} Islamic tradition also describes the [[Names of God in the Qur'an|99 names of God]]. These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian. A distinct feature between the concept of God in Islam compared to Christianity is that God has no progeny. This belief is summed up in [[Sura|chapter]] 112 of the Quran titled [[Al-Ikhlas]], which states "Say, he is Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does not beget nor was he begotten. Nor is there to Him any equivalent."{{cite quran |112 |1 |4}} === Salvation === Christianity teaches [[Original Sin]], the doctrine that humanity is inherently sinful since the [[fall of Adam]].<ref>Vawter, Bruce (1983). "Original Sin". In Richardson, Alan; Bowden, John (eds.). The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 9780664227487.</ref> Accordingly, [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation from death, suffering, and evil, the consequence of mankind's sinful nature]], can only be brought by [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Death]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus]]<ref>Murray, Michael J.; Rea, Michael (2012), "Philosophy and Christian Theology", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> Since humans obeyed the Devil by comitting sin, according to Christian teachings of salvation, the [[Devil in Christianity|Devil]] has authority over humans.<ref>Russell, Jeffrey Burton (1986). Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9429-1.</ref> Only the crucifixion of Jesus could save humans from the grasps of the Devil. Accordingly, Christianity rejects that actions and repentance alone could achieve salvation. The notion that only through the sacrifice of Jesus, salvation could be achieved is emphasized in the Bible: <blockquote>"I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." (John 14:6).<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021">Абдрасилов, Турганбай, Жахангир Нурматов, and Кайнар Калдыбай. "AN ANALYSIS OF SALVATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM." Аль-Фараби 76.4 (2021).</ref></blockquote> Salvation is thus, a grace bestowed by God, not an individual's work, and passages from the Bible are used in Christian theology to underline that message: <blockquote>"surely God is my salvation; I will trust and not be afraid"<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/>(Isaiah 12:2)</blockquote> Christianity understands acceptance of Jesus' sacrifice as a transformation of the individual, by that the person sheds off its former sinful nature and dissolves in the will of Jesus, an idea attributed to Paul in the Bible:<blockquote>"If anyone is in Christ, he is a new cre-ation: the old has gone; the new has come."<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/></blockquote> In Christianity, repentance is an external process; attained through faith. Islam does neither acknowledge nor aspire salvation from evil in the world.<ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 8-9">Eichler, Paul Arno. "Die Dschinn, Teufel und Engel im Koran." (1928). p. 8-9</ref> Instead, Islam teaches individual salvation from earthly and otherworldly sufferings through repentance (''tawbah'').<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/> There is no concept of original sin in Islam. The Fall of [[Adam in Islam|Adam]] is interpreted as an [[allegory]] for mankind's behavior; they sin, become aware of their sin, then repent.<ref>Stieglecker, H. (1962). Die Glaubenslehren des Islam. Deutschland: F. Schöningh. p. 194 (German)</ref> Accordingly, Islam neither acknowledges nor aspires salvation from evil in the world.<ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 8-9"/> Salvation is achieved by purifying one's soul, to go to paradise after death.<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/> The importance of repentance is highlighted throughout Islamic scripture: <blockquote>"Indeed, Allah loves those who are constantly repentant and loves those who purify themselves" (Surah 2:22)</blockquote> Sometimes compared to the concept of original sin, the devils (''shayāṭīn'') are said to "touch" humans at the moment of birth and a devil is said to move through humans like blood in the veins, causing an urge to sin.<ref>Jabbour, Nabeel (2014), The Crescent through the Eyes of the Cross: Insights from an Arab Christian, London: Omnibus Press, ISBN 978-1-61521-512-6</ref> Thus, humans are expected to have a sinful nature, but it could be overcome through repentance:<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/> <blockquote>"Every son of Adam commits sin and the best for those who commit sin are those who repent." (Sunan Ibn Ma-jah)<ref name="THE PERSPECTIVE OF CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 2021"/></blockquote> The devils as conceptualized in the New Testament are in odds with the Islamic idea of monotheism, thus closer to the Jewish understanding of Satan; not as an accuser, but a tempter.<ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 41">Eichler, Paul Arno. "Die Dschinn, Teufel und Engel im Koran." (1928). p. 41</ref> According to the Islamic monotheism, the devils are dependent on God.<ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 41"/> According to Islamic teachings, evil is not traced back to devils, but to God, precisely to God's will: <blockquote>"For indeed, Allāh sends astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills." (Surah 35:8).<ref>translation by Saheeh International</ref><ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 41"/></blockquote> The origin of good and evil do not depend on a person's will, the devils, or universal laws, but solely on God's judgement.<ref name="Eichler, Paul Arno 1928 p. 41"/> === Circumcision === {{See also |Religious male circumcision |Brit milah |Khitan (circumcision) |Circumcision controversy in early Christianity |History of circumcision}} [[File:Brit mila.jpg |thumb |Preparing for a Jewish [[Brit milah|ritual circumcision]].]] Judaism and [[Samaritanism]] commands that [[brit milah|males be circumcised]] when they are eight days old,{{sfn |Mark |2003 |pp=94–95}} as does the [[Sunnah]] in [[Khitan (Circumcision)|Islam]]. Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be ''[[sunnah]]'' (tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Šakūrzāda |author1-first=Ebrāhīm |author2-last=Omidsalar |author2-first=Mahmoud |date=October 2011 |title=Circumcision |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/circumcision |url-status=live |volume=V/6 |pages=596–600 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |location=[[New York City|New York]] |doi=10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7731 |doi-access=free |issn=2330-4804 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119024047/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/circumcision |archive-date=19 January 2020 |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref> Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called ''khitan'') is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males. Today, many [[Christian denominations]] are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons.{{sfn|Pitts-Taylor |2008 |p=394}} [[Western Christianity]] replaced the custom of male circumcision with the ritual of [[baptism]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kohler |first1=Kaufmann |last2=Krauss |first2=Samuel |title=Baptism |url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2456-baptism |website=Jewish Encyclopedia |access-date=31 August 2022 |quote="According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a [[proselyte]] to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the [[Laying on of hands|imposition of hands]], which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. [[Anointing]] with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition." |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831120817/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2456-baptism |url-status=live }}</ref> a ceremony which varies according to the doctrine of the denomination, but it generally includes [[Baptism by immersion|immersion]], [[aspersion]], or [[anointment]] with water. The [[Early Church]] (Acts 15, the [[Council of Jerusalem]]) decided that [[Gentile Christians]] are not required to undergo circumcision. The [[Council of Florence]] in the 15th century<ref>[http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/ "Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445)"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060816052624/http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/ |date=16 August 2006 }}. The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref> prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral.<ref>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS Catechism of the Catholic Church: Article 5—The Fifth commandment] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629225324/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS |date=29 June 2007 }}. Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref><ref>Dietzen, John. [http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/ "The Morality of Circumcision"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810070559/http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/ |date=10 August 2006 }}, The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref> By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it is not practised as an initiation ritual. Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm |title=Frequently Asked Questions: The Catholic Church and Circumcision. |website=catholicdoors.com |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051854/https://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons |title=Should Catholics circumcise their sons? – Catholic Answers |website=Catholic.com |access-date=21 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110835/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Arnold |first1=Michelle |url=https://www.catholic.com/qa/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-allowed |title=The Catechism forbids deliberate mutilation, so why is non-therapeutic circumcision allowed? |access-date=21 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110402/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-al |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> The [[New Testament]] chapter [[Council of Jerusalem|Acts 15]] records that Christianity did not require circumcision. The [[Catholic Church]] currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non-religious circumcision,{{sfn |Slosar |O'Brien |2003 |pp=62–64}} and in 1442 it banned the practice of religious circumcision in the 11th [[Council of Florence]].{{sfn|Eugenius IV|1990}} [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Christians]] practice circumcision as a rite of passage.<ref name="Columbia encyc 2011 circumcision">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Circumcision |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html |access-date=28 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924051012/http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Eritrean Orthodox Church]] and the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia.{{sfn|Adams |Adams |2012 |pp=291–298}} [[Image:Coptic Children wearing traditional circumcision costumes.jpg |thumb |right |[[Copts|Coptic]] Children wearing traditional circumcision costumes]] Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents in [[Europe]] and [[Latin America]] have low circumcision rates, while both religious and non-religious circumcision is widely practiced in many predominantly Christian countries and among [[Christians|Christian communities]] in the [[Anglosphere |Anglosphere countries]], [[Oceania]], [[South Korea]], the [[Philippines]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]].<ref>{{harvp|Gruenbaum|2015|p=61|ps=: "Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians."}}; {{harvp|Peteet|2017|pp=97–101|ps=: "male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US."}}; {{harvp|Ellwood|2008|p=95|ps=: "It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America."}}</ref><ref name="Associated Press">{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba |title=Circumcision protest brought to Florence |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |date=30 March 2008 |quote="However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage." |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928020456/https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba |url-status=live}}</ref> Countries such as the United States,<ref>Ray, Mary G. [https://archive.today/20140916071531/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:8IQnea2UK-UJ:http://www.mothersagainstcirc.org/majority.htm&prmd=ivns&strip=1 "82% of the World's Men are Intact"], Mothers Against Circumcision, 1997.</ref> the [[Philippines]], [[Australia]] (albeit primarily in the older generations),<ref name="Richters 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Richters |first1=J. |last2=Smith |first2=A. M. |last3=de Visser |first3=R. O. |last4=Grulich |first4=A. E. |last5=Rissel |first5=C. E. |title=Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=547–54 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16925903 |doi=10.1258/095646206778145730 |s2cid=24396989 }}</ref> [[Canada]], [[Cameroon]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]], [[Kenya]], and many other African Christian countries have high circumcision rates.<ref name="Williams">{{cite journal |title=The potential impact of male circumcision on HIV in sub-Saharan Africa |last=Williams |first=B. G. |journal=PLOS Med |year=2006 |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e262 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030262 |pmid=16822094 |pmc=1489185 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers: NIAID-sponsored adult male circumcision trials in Kenya and Uganda |publisher=National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases |date=December 2006 |url=http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309060025/https://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |archive-date=9 March 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84 |title=Circumcision amongst the Dogon |access-date=3 September 2006 |year=2006 |publisher=The Non-European Components of European Patrimony (NECEP) Database |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116174702/http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84 |archive-date=16 January 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Circumcision is near universal in the Christian countries of [[Oceania]].<ref name="Associated Press" /> In some [[Christianity in Africa|African]] and [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian denominations]] male circumcision is an integral or established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision.{{sfn|Pitts-Taylor |2008 |p=394 |loc="For most part, Christianity does not require circumcision of its followers. Yet, some Orthodox and African Christian groups do require circumcision. These circumcisions take place at any point between birth and puberty."}} [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Christianity]] and [[Ethiopian Orthodoxy]] and [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritrean Orthodoxy]] still observe male circumcision and practice circumcision as a [[rite of passage]].<ref name="Columbia encyc 2011 circumcision" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Doorn-Harder |first1=Nelly |title=Christianity: Coptic Christianity |journal=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices |date=2006 |volume=1 |url=http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120244/http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> Male circumcision is also widely practiced among [[Christians]] from [[South Korea]], [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Israel]], and [[North Africa]]. (See also [[aposthia]].) Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the ''fitrah'', or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html |title=Male Circumcision in Islam |first=Muslim Information Service of |last=Australia |access-date=16 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131129055454/http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html |archive-date=29 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Circumcision is widely practiced by the [[Druze]], the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition,{{sfn|Ubayd |2006 |p=150}} and has no religious significance in the [[Druze]] faith.{{sfn|Jacobs |1998 |p=147 }}{{sfn|Silver |2022 |p=97 }} Some Druses do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".{{sfn|Betts |2013 |p=56 }} Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision up to the parents.{{sfn|Hassall |2022 |pp=591–602 }} === Proselytism === Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit [[missionary|missionaries]] since the end of the [[Second Temple Judaism|Second Temple era]]. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following [[Noahide Laws]], a set of moral imperatives that, according to the [[Talmud]], were given by God{{efn |According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry ''Ben Noah'', page 349), most [[Rishonim|medieval authorities]] consider that all seven commandments were given to [[Adam]], although [[Maimonides]] ([[Mishneh Torah]], Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.}} as a binding set of laws for the "children of [[Noah]]"—that is, all of humanity.<ref>Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry ''Ben Noah'', introduction) states that after the giving of the [[Torah]], the Jewish people were no longer in the category of the sons of Noah; however, Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicates that the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud (Bavli, [[Sanhedrin]] 59a, see also Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles are obligated in, albeit with some differences in the details.</ref>{{efn |Compare {{bibleverse | |Genesis |9:4–6 |HE}}.}} It is believed that as much as ten percent of the Roman Empire followed Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith.<ref name="Times Atlas">{{cite book |trans-title=[[The Times Atlas of World History]] |title=Spectrum–Times Atlas van de Wereldgeschiedenis |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor-last=Barraclough |editor-link=Geoffrey Barraclough |year=1981 |orig-year=1978 |publisher=Het Spectrum |pages=102–103 |language=nl}}</ref> [[Moses Maimonides]], one of the major Jewish teachers, commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator." Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than [[Noahide]] laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews.{{sfn|Kornbluth|2003|p=}}{{page needed|date=September 2022}} ''See also [[Conversion to Judaism]].'' [[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg |thumb |''The [[Sermon on the Mount]]'' by [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]] (1877)]] Christianity encourages [[evangelism]]. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send [[missionary|missionaries]] to non-Christian communities throughout the world. ''See also [[Great Commission]]''. [[Forced conversion]]s to Catholicism have been alleged at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are the [[Constantine I turn against Paganism|conversions of the pagans after Constantine]]; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the [[Crusades]]; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by [[Hernán Cortés]]. Forced conversions to Protestantism may have occurred as well, notably during the [[Reformation]], especially in England and Ireland (see [[recusancy]] and [[Popish plot]]). Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to [[Pope Paul VI]], "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."<ref>Pope Paul VI. [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html "Declaration on Religious Freedom"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211202206/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html |date=11 February 2012 }}, 7 December 1965.</ref> The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitism]].<ref name="Pullella 2015-12-10">{{cite news |last1=Pullella |first1=Philip |title=Vatican says Catholics should not try to convert Jews, should fight anti-semitism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |access-date=13 January 2016 |publisher=Reuters |date=10 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112060659/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |archive-date=12 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Dawah]] is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life. Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah. [[Mosques]] and other Islamic centers sometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches. Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah. In [[Islamic theology]], the purpose of Da'wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad. Da'wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim [[Ummah]], or community of Muslims. == Demographics == {{See also|Abrahamic world}}{{Pie chart |thumb=right |caption=Worldwide percentage of adherents by Abrahamic religion, {{as of |2015 |lc=y}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Mcclendon |first2=David |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |year=2015 |title=Christians remain world's largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/ |access-date=25 October 2020 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301011315/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/ |url-status=live}}</ref> |label1=[[Christianity]] |color1=Purple |value1=31.2 |label2=[[Islam]] |color2=Green |value2=24.1 |label3=[[Judaism]] |color3=Blue |value3=0.18 |label4=[[Baháʼí Faith]] |color4=Gold |value4=0.07 |label5=Other (non-Abrahamic) |color5=White |value5=45.45 }}Christianity is the largest Abrahamic religion with about 2.3 billion adherents, constituting about 31.1% of the world's population.<ref name="Pew Relig by country">{{cite web |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=4 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404142344/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Islam is the second largest Abrahamic religion, as well as the fastest-growing Abrahamic religion in recent decades.<ref name="Pew Relig by country" /><ref name="PewIslam2011">[http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx "The Future of Global Muslim Population: Projections from 2010 to 2013"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |date=9 February 2011 }} Accessed July 2013.</ref> It has about 1.9 billion adherents, called Muslims, which constitute about 24.1% of the world's population. The third largest Abrahamic religion is Judaism with about 14.1 million adherents, called Jews.<ref name="Pew Relig by country" /> The Baháʼí Faith has over 8 million adherents, making it the fourth largest Abrahamic religion,{{sfn |Smith |2022b}}<ref name="WRD 2020 Bahais">{{cite web |title=Baha'is by Country |website=World Religion Database |publisher=Institute on Culture, Religion, and World Affairs |date=2020 |url=https://worldreligiondatabase.org/ |access-date=21 December 2020 |archive-date=9 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209190545/https://worldreligiondatabase.org/ |url-status=live }}{{subscription required}}</ref> and the fastest growing religion across the 20th century usually at least twice the rate of population growth.{{sfn |Johnson |Grim |2013 |pp=59–62}} The Druze Faith has between one million and nearly two millions adherents.{{sfn |Held |2008 |p=109 |loc="Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora."}}{{sfn |Swayd |2015 |p=3 |loc="The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million; ..."}} {| class="wikitable" |+Adherents of minor Abrahamic faiths !Religion !Adherents |- |[[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]] |~8 million{{sfn |Smith |2022b}}<ref name="WRD 2020 Bahais" /> |- |[[Druze]] |1–2 million{{sfn |Held |2008 |p=109 |loc="Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora."}}{{sfn |Swayd |2015 |p=3 |loc="The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million; ..."}} |- |[[Rastafari]] |700,000-1 million<ref name="BBC Did God Have a Wife" /> |- |[[Mandaeism]] |60,000–100,000<ref name="Saheeh al-Bukharee">Saheeh al-Bukharee, Book 55, hadith no. 584; Book 56, hadith no. 710</ref><ref name="WMP">{{Cite web |title=The Mandaeans – Who are the Mandaeans? |url=http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/the-mandaeans |access-date=5 November 2021 |website=The Worlds of Mandaean Priests |archive-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202154541/http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/the-mandaeans |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |[[Azali Bábism]] |~1,000–2,000<ref name="Berger" />{{sfn |Lev |2010}} |- |[[Samaritanism]] |~840<ref name="The Samaritan Update">[http://www.thesamaritanupdate.com/ The Samaritan Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914114057/http://thesamaritanupdate.com/ |date=14 September 2017 }} Retrieved 28 October 2021 "Total [sic] in 2021 – 840 souls Total in 2018 – 810 souls Total number on 1.1.2017 – 796 persons, 381 souls on Mount Gerizim and 415 in the State of Israel, of the 414 males and 382 females."</ref> |} == See also == {{Portal |Judaism |Christianity |Islam |Religion}} * [[Abraham's family tree]] * [[Abrahamic Family House]], a complex in [[Abu Dhabi]] built in the spirit of Abrahamic unity * [[Abrahamites]] * [[Ancient Semitic religion]] * [[Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement]] * [[Christianity and Islam]] * [[Christianity and Judaism]] * [[Christianity and other religions]] * [[Gnosticism]] * [[Interfaith dialogue]] * [[Islamic–Jewish relations]] * [[Islam and other religions]] * [[Jewish views on religious pluralism]] * [[Judeo-Christian ethics]] * [[List of burial places of Abrahamic figures]] * [[Yazidism]] * [[Milah Abraham]] * [[Nigerian Chrislam]] * [[People of the Book]] * [[Sabians]] * [[Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions]] == Notes == {{notelist}} == References == === Citations === {{reflist}} === Works cited === {{Refbegin|30em}} <!-- AAA --> * {{cite book |last1=Able |first1=John |title=Apocalypse Secrets: Baha'i Interpretation of the Book of Revelation |date=2011 |publisher=John Able Books Limited |isbn=978-0-9702847-7-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T0dhewAACAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164804/https://books.google.com/books?id=T0dhewAACAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite web |last=Adams |first=C.J. |date=14 December 2007 |title=Classification of religions: Geographical |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38030/classification-of-religions |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=15 May 2015 |archive-date=14 December 2007 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book |last1=Benjamin |first1=Don C. |title=Deuteronomy and City Life: A Form Criticism of Texts with the Word City ('îr) in Deuteronomy 4:41–26:19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qwOlMdN3FSkC |series=Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series |year=1983 |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=[[University Press of America]] |publication-date=1983 |isbn=9780819131393 |access-date=18 July 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405054610/https://books.google.com/books?id=qwOlMdN3FSkC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Berger |editor-first1=Alan L. |title=Trialogue and Terror: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam after 9/11 |date=2 November 2012 |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock Publishers]] |isbn=978-1-60899-546-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hJ5MAwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=hJ5MAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Bertman |first1=Stephen |title=Handbook to life in ancient Mesopotamia |date=2005 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford [u.a.] |isbn=978-0195183641 |edition=Paperback}} * {{cite book |last=Betts |first=Robert Brenton |title=The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences |year=2013 |isbn=9781612345239 |publisher=Potomac Books, Inc.}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Black |editor-first=Matthew |editor2-last=Rowley |editor2-first=H. H. |title=Peake's Commentary on the Bible |year=1982 |publisher=Nelson |location=New York |isbn=978-0-415-05147-7 |title-link=Peake's Commentary on the Bible}} * {{cite book |last1=Blasi |first1=Anthony J. |last2=Turcotte |first2=Paul-André |last3=Duhaime |first3=Jean |isbn=978-0-7591-0015-2 |title=Handbook of early Christianity: social science approaches |publisher=Rowman Altamira |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vgG8TVZVpYAC |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051856/https://books.google.com/books?id=vgG8TVZVpYAC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Blumberg |first=Arnold |title=Zion Before Zionism: 1838–1880 |year=1985 |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |location=Syracuse, NY |isbn=978-0-8156-2336-6}} * {{cite book |last=Bremer |first=Thomas S. |year=2015 |title=Formed From This Soil: An Introduction to the Diverse History of Religion in America |chapter=Abrahamic religions |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GE3YBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |location=[[Chichester |Chichester, West Sussex]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |doi=10.1002/9781394260959 |isbn=978-1-4051-8927-9 |lccn=2014030507 |s2cid=127980793 |access-date=9 March 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051856/https://books.google.com/books?id=GE3YBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |url-status=live}} * {{cite EB1911 |last=Browne |first=Edward Granville |wstitle=Bábíism |volume=03 |author-link=Edward Granville Browne}} * {{cite book |last1=Buckley |first1=Jorunn J. |author1-link=Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley |date=2002 |title=The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} <!-- CCC --> * {{cite book |last=Carraway |first=George |title=Christ is God Over All: Romans 9:5 in the context of Romans 9-11 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |series=The Library of New Testament Studies |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-567-26701-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=je7UAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 |access-date=1 September 2022 |quote="Second, it was probably not until the exile that monotheism proper was clearly formulated." |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052427/https://books.google.com/books?id=je7UAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Christiano |editor1-first=Kevin J. |editor2-last=Kivisto |editor2-first=Peter |editor3-last=Swatos |editor3-first=William H. Jr. |year=2015 |orig-year=2002 |title=Sociology of Religion: Contemporary Developments |chapter=Excursus on the History of Religions |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYtjY7GJav4C&pg=PA254 |location=[[Walnut Creek, California]] |publisher=[[AltaMira Press]] |edition=3rd |pages=254–255 |doi=10.2307/3512222 |jstor=3512222 |isbn=978-1-4422-1691-4 |lccn=2001035412 |s2cid=154932078 |access-date=16 May 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052417/https://books.google.com/books?id=EYtjY7GJav4C&pg=PA254 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Chryssides |first=George D. |author-link=George Chryssides |year=2001 |origyear=1999 |title=Exploring New Religions |chapter=Independent New Religions: Rastafarianism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S4_rodMYMygC&pg=PA269 |location=[[London]] and [[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group|Continuum International]] |series=Issues in Contemporary Religion |doi=10.2307/3712544 |jstor=3712544 |isbn=9780826459596 |oclc=436090427 |s2cid=143265918 |access-date=15 May 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052415/https://books.google.com/books?id=S4_rodMYMygC&pg=PA269 |url-status=live}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Cole |first=Juan |author-link=Juan Cole |title=BAHAISM i. The Faith |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bahaism-i |volume=III/4 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |location=[[New York City|New York]] |date=30 December 2012 |orig-year=15 December 1988 |issn=2330-4804 |access-date=11 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123112620/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/bahaism-i |archive-date=23 January 2013 |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last=Collins |first=William P. |title=Review of: The Children of Abraham : Judaism, Christianity, Islam / F. E. Peters. – New ed. – Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 2004 |journal=Library Journal |volume=129 |issue=14 |date=1 September 2004 |url=http://www.hclib.org/pub/bookspace/discuss/?bib=1061320&theTab=Reviews |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927174736/http://www.hclib.org/pub/bookspace/discuss/?bib=1061320&theTab=Reviews |archive-date=27 September 2013 |access-date=13 September 2013}} * {{cite book |last1=Corduan |first1=Winfried |title=Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions |date=4 February 2013 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-7197-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=loxLBAAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=loxLBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} <!-- DDD --> * {{cite book |last=Daftary |first=Farhad |title=A History of Shi'i Islam |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |isbn=978-0-85773-524-9 |date=2 December 2013}} * {{cite book |last=Dana |first=Léo-Paul |title=Entrepreneurship and Religion |date=1 January 2010 |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-84980-632-9}} <!-- |access-date=6 January 2015--> * {{cite book |last1=Dana |first1=Nissim |title=The Druze in the Middle East: their faith, leadership, identity and status |date=2003 |publisher=[[Sussex Academic Press]] |location=Brighton [England] |isbn=9781903900369}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=De Blois |first1=F.C. |year=1960–2007 |title=Ṣābiʾ |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0952}} * {{cite book |last=Derrida |first=Jacques |author-link=Jacques Derrida |editor-first=Gil |editor-last=Anidjar |title=Acts of Religion |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |location=New York & London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_kgAmFbvP0C |isbn=978-0-415-92401-6 |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051912/https://books.google.com/books?id=c_kgAmFbvP0C |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |author-link=William G. Dever |year=2001 |chapter=Getting at the "History behind the History" |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&pg=PA97 |title=[[What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? |What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel]] |location=[[Grand Rapids, Michigan]] and [[Cambridge |Cambridge, U.K.]] |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans]] |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3 |oclc=46394298 |access-date=7 August 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051857/https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&pg=PA97 |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last=Dodds |first=Adam |date=July 2009 |title=The Abrahamic Faiths? Continuity and Discontinuity in Christian and Islamic Doctrine |journal=[[Evangelical Quarterly]] |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=230–253 |doi=10.1163/27725472-08103003}} * {{cite book |last=Drower |first=Ethel Stefana |author-link=E. S. Drower |title=The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |year=1937 |location=Oxford |url=https://archive.org/details/MN41560ucmf_1}} * {{cite book |last1=Dyrness |first1=William A. |last2=Kärkkäinen |first2=Veli-Matti |last3=Martinez |first3=Juan F. |last4=Chan |first4=Simon |title=Global Dictionary of Theology: A Resource for the Worldwide Church |date=2008 |publisher=Inter-Varsity Press |isbn=978-1-84474-350-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esr3ngEACAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=esr3ngEACAAJ |url-status=live}} <!-- EEE --> * {{Cite book |last=Ellwood |first=Robert S. |title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |year=2008 |isbn=9781438110387}} * {{cite book |last=Edelman |first=Diana V. |title=The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms |publisher=Kok Pharos |series=Contributions to biblical exegesis and theology |year=1995 |isbn=978-90-390-0124-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bua2dMa9fJ4C&pg=PA19 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052431/https://books.google.com/books?id=bua2dMa9fJ4C&pg=PA19 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Erickson |first1=Millard J. |title=Introducing Christian doctrine |date=2001 |publisher=Baker Academic |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |isbn=0801022509 |edition=2nd}} * {{cite book |last1=Esposito |first1=John L |title=The Oxford history of Islam |date=1999 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=9780195107999}} * {{cite book |last=Eugenius IV |author-link=Pope Eugene IV |editor=Norman P. Tanner |title=Decrees of the ecumenical councils |orig-year=1442 |access-date=25 April 2007 |series=2 volumes |year=1990 |publisher=[[Georgetown University Press]] |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |isbn=978-0-87840-490-2 |language=el, la |chapter=Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445): Session 11—4 February 1442; Bull of union with the Copts |chapter-url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/FLORENCE.HTM#5 |quote="It denounces all who after that time observe circumcision." |lccn=90003209 |archive-date=25 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425150516/http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/FLORENCE.HTM#5 |url-status=dead}} <!-- FFF --> * {{cite book |last1=Fine |first1=Steven |title=The Temple of Jerusalem: From Moses to the Messiah: In Honor of Professor Louis H. Feldman |date=17 January 2011 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-21471-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ueN5DwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=ueN5DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |title=The Bible Unearthed. Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts. |edition=First Touchstone Edition 2002 |year=2002 |origyear=2001 |publisher=Touchstone |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-86913-1 |chapter=9. The Transformation of Judah (c. 930-705 BCE) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&dq=The+idolatry+of+the+people+of+Judah+was+not+a+departure+from+their+earlier+monotheism.+It+was,+instead,+the+way+the+people+of+Judah+had+worshiped+for+hundreds+of+years.&pg=PA234 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051854/https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&dq=The+idolatry+of+the+people+of+Judah+was+not+a+departure+from+their+earlier+monotheism.+It+was,+instead,+the+way+the+people+of+Judah+had+worshiped+for+hundreds+of+years.&pg=PA234 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Firestone |first=Reuven |title=Children of Abraham: an introduction to Judaism for Muslims |year=2001 |publisher=Ktav Publishing House |url=https://archive.org/details/childrenofabraha00fire |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-88125-720-5 |location=Hoboken, NJ}} * {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Michael M. J. |first2=Mehdi |last2=Abedi |title=Debating Muslims: cultural dialogues in postmodernity and tradition |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |year=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/debatingmuslimsc0000fisc |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-299-12434-2}} * {{cite book |last=Florentin |first=Moshe |year=2005 |title=Late Samaritan Hebrew: A Linguistic Analysis Of Its Different Types |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dNk_b1uDzUC |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics |volume=43 |isbn=978-90-04-13841-4 |issn=0081-8461}} <!-- GGG --> * {{cite book |last=Greenstreet |first=Wendy |location=Oxford; Seattle, WA |title=Integrating spirituality in health and social care |publisher=Radcliffe |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTdcT9-fqLQC&pg=PA95 |isbn=978-1-85775-646-3 |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051856/https://books.google.com/books?id=TTdcT9-fqLQC&pg=PA95 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Gnuse |first=Robert Karl |title=Trajectories of Justice: What the Bible Says about Slaves, Women, and Homosexuality |publisher=Lutterworth Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-7188-4456-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdTYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052451/https://books.google.com/books?id=gdTYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Gruenbaum |first=Ellen |title=The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective |year=2015 |isbn=9780812292510 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]]}} * {{cite book |last1=Guthrie |first1=Shirley C. |title=Christian doctrine |date=1994 |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |location=Louisville, Ken. |isbn=0664253687 |edition=Rev.}} <!-- HHH --> * {{citation |last=Häberl |first=Charles G. |title=The neo-Mandaic dialect of Khorramshahr |year=2009 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-05874-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBjwrJY6-sYC}} *{{cite book |last1=Hatcher |first1=W.S. |last2=Martin |first2=J.D. |year=1998 |title=The Baháʼí Faith: The Emerging Global Religion |publisher=Harper & Row |location=New York |isbn=0-06-065441-4 |url=https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_martin_global_religion |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331090255/https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_martin_global_religion |url-status=live}} * {{Cite book |last=Hassall |first=Graham |date=2022 |chapter=Ch. 48: Oceania |pages=591–602 |title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Oxfordshire, UK |isbn=978-1-138-36772-2 |editor-last=Stockman |editor-first=Robert H. |editor-link=Robert Stockman |doi=10.4324/9780429027772-55 |s2cid=244697166}} * {{cite book |last=Hawting |first=Gerald R. |title=The development of Islamic ritual; Volume 26 of The formation of the classical Islamic world |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]], Ltd. |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&pg=PR18 |isbn=978-0-86078-712-9 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052421/https://books.google.com/books?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&pg=PR18 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Held |first=Colbert C. |title=Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics |year=2008 |isbn=9780429962004 |publisher=[[Routledge]]}} * {{cite book |last1=Heft |first1=James L. |last2=Firestone |first2=Reuven |last3=Safi |first3=Omid |title=Learned Ignorance: Intellectual Humility Among Jews, Christians and Muslims |date=August 2011 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], USA |isbn=978-0-19-976930-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hb6Bs2UrDBoC |access-date=24 August 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hb6Bs2UrDBoC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Hendrix |editor1-first=Scott |editor2-last=Okeja |editor2-first=Uchenna |title=The World's Greatest Religious Leaders: How Religious Figures Helped Shape World History [2 volumes] |date=2018 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1440841385}} * {{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip K. |title=The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings |year=1928 |isbn=9781465546623 |publisher=Library of Alexandria}} * {{cite book |last=Hughes |first=Aaron W. |author-link=Aaron W. Hughes |year=2012 |title=Abrahamic Religions: On the Uses and Abuses of History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3Ia1rQCZEC |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199934645.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-993464-5 |s2cid=157815976 |access-date=16 May 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051900/https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3Ia1rQCZEC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Huntington |first1=Samuel |translator-last=Müller |translator-first=Francis |title=Kampf der Kulturen |date=2007 |publisher=GRIN Verlag |isbn=978-3-638-66418-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtYRpF_n9Q4C |language=de |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164804/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtYRpF_n9Q4C |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last1=Hussain |first1=Amir |editor1-last=Safi |editor1-first=Omid |title=Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue |journal=Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism |date=1 April 2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Thq9DwAAQBAJ |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9781780740454 |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Thq9DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} <!-- III --> * {{cite book |last=Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ |translator-first=Eerik |translator-last=Dickinson |title=An Introduction to the Science of Hadith: Kitab Ma'rifat Anwa' 'ilm Al-hadith |publisher=Garnet & Ithaca Press |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&pg=PA5 |isbn=978-1-85964-158-3 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052417/https://books.google.com/books?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Izzeddin |first=Nejla M. Abu |title=The Druzes: a new study of their history, faith, and society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BprjrZzee5EC&pg=PA108 |year=1993 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|BRILL]] |isbn=978-90-04-09705-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707072331/http://books.google.com/books?id=BprjrZzee5EC&pg=PA108 |archive-date=7 July 2014 |url-status=live}} <!-- JJJ --> * {{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Daniel |title=Israel and the Palestinian Territories: The Rough Guide |year=1998 |isbn=9781858282480 |publisher=[[Rough Guides]]}} * {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Todd M. |last2=Grim |first2=Brian J. |date=26 March 2013 |title=The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography |chapter=Global Religious Populations, 1910–2010 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkFVF8nFiqkC |doi=10.1002/9781118555767.ch1 |isbn=9781118555767 |quote="The Baha'i Faith is the only religion to have grown faster in every United Nations region over the past 100 years than the general population; Bahaʼi (sic) was thus the fastest-growing religion between 1910 and 2010, growing at least twice as fast as the population of almost every UN region." |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051912/https://books.google.com/books?id=CkFVF8nFiqkC |url-status=live}} <!-- KKK --> * {{cite book |last1=Kaplan |first1=Aryeh |chapter=The Jew |title=The Aryeh Kaplan Reader the Gift He Left Behind: Collected Essays on Jewish Themes from the Noted Writer and Thinker |date=1973 |publisher=Mesorah Publications |location=Brooklyn, N.Y. |isbn=9780899061733 |edition=1st}} * {{cite book |last=Kapur |first=Kamlesh |title=History of Ancient India |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-4910-8 |year=2010}} * {{cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=J. N. D. |title=Early Christian Creeds |date=2 March 2017 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-1-138-15710-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9wavgAACAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9wavgAACAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Köchler |editor-first=Hans |editor-link=Hans Köchler |year=1982 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMuipwd5MTEC |title=Concept of Monotheism in Islam & Christianity |publisher=International Progress Organization |isbn=3-7003-0339-4 |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051855/https://books.google.com/books?id=zMuipwd5MTEC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Kornbluth |first1=Doron |title=Why Marry Jewish?: Surprising Reasons for Jews to Marry Jews |date=2003 |publisher=Targum Press |isbn=978-1-56871-250-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l9OTocap-NMC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=l9OTocap-NMC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Kreyenbroek |first=Philip G. |title=Yezidism—its background, observances, and textual tradition |date=1995 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=9780773490048 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpbXAAAAMAAJ&q=9780773490048 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051855/https://books.google.com/books?id=XpbXAAAAMAAJ&q=9780773490048 |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last1=Kunst |first1=J. R. |last2=Thomsen |first2=L. |year=2014 |title=Prodigal sons: Dual Abrahamic categorization mediates the detrimental effects of religious fundamentalism on Christian-Muslim relations |journal=[[The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion]] |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=293–306 |doi=10.1080/10508619.2014.937965 |url=https://www.academia.edu/7455300 |hdl=10852/43723 |s2cid=53625066 |hdl-access=free |access-date=8 July 2014 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223064744/https://www.academia.edu/7455300 |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last1=Kunst |first1=J. |last2=Thomsen |first2=L. |last3=Sam |first3=D. |year=2014 |title=Late Abrahamic reunion? Religious fundamentalism negatively predicts dual Abrahamic group categorization among Muslims and Christians |journal=[[European Journal of Social Psychology]] |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=337–348 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6436421 |doi=10.1002/ejsp.2014 |access-date=8 July 2014 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223030705/https://www.academia.edu/6436421 |url-status=live}} <!-- LLL --> * {{cite book |last1=Lapidoth |first1=Ruth |first2=Moshe |last2=Hirsch |title=The Jerusalem question and its resolution: selected documents |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&pg=PA384 |isbn=978-0-7923-2893-3 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052415/https://books.google.com/books?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&pg=PA384 |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last=Lawson |first=Todd |editor-last=Cusack |editor-first=Carole M. |editor2-last=Hartney |editor2-first=Christopher |title=Baha'i (sic) Religious History |journal=Journal of Religious History |volume=36 |issue=4 |date=13 December 2012 |pages=463–470 |url=http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history |issn=1467-9809 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9809.2012.01224.x |access-date=5 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927190116/http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url-status=live |via=Baháʼí Library Online}} * {{cite book |last=Leeming |first=David Adams |title=The Oxford companion to world mythology |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2005 |location=US |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000leem |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-19-515669-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Leith |first1=John H. |title=Basic Christian Doctrine |date=1 January 1993 |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |isbn=978-0-664-25192-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e913KYTEaDsC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=e913KYTEaDsC |url-status=live}} * {{cite web |last=Lev |first=David |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140251 |title=MK Kara: Druze are Descended from Jews |date=25 October 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |access-date=13 April 2011 |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423223638/https://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140251 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Levenson |first1=Jon Douglas |title=Inheriting Abraham: the legacy of the patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam |date=2012 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-16355-0}} * {{cite web |author=Lubar Institute |year=2016 |title=Why 'Abrahamic'? |publisher=Lubar Institute for Religious Studies at [[University of Wisconsin - Madison]] |url=https://lubar.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html |access-date=5 April 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220853/http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html |url-status=live}} <!-- MMM --> * {{cite book |last=MacArthur |first=John |author-link=John F. MacArthur |chapter=The Hymn of Security |title=The MacArthur New Testament Commentary: Romans |publisher=[[Moody Press]] |year=1996 |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-8254-1522-7}} * {{cite book |last=Mackey |first=Sandra |title=Mirror of the Arab World: Lebanon in Conflict |year=2009 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-33374-9}} * {{Cite book |last=Mark |first=Elizabeth |title=The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite |publisher=[[University Press of New England]] |year=2003 |isbn=9781584653073}} * {{cite journal |last=Massignon |first=Louis |author-link=Louis Massignon |title=Les trois prières d'Abraham, père de tous les croyants |trans-title=The three prayers of Abraham, father of all believers |language=fr |journal=Dieu Vivant |volume=13 |year=1949}} * {{cite book |last1=McGrath |first1=Alister E. |title=Theology: the basics |date=2012 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0470656754 |edition=3rd}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Mills |editor1-first=Watson E |editor2-last=Bullard |editor2-first=Roger Aubrey |title=Mercer dictionary of the Bible |date=2001 |publisher=[[Mercer University Press]] |location=Macon, Ga. |isbn=0865543739}} * {{cite book |last=Mindell |first=David P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kA6eaz7hsC&pg=PA224 |title=The Evolving World |date=31 October 2007 |author-link=David Mindell |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-02191-4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530222524/https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kA6eaz7hsC&pg=PA224 |archive-date=30 May 2016 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Momen |first=Moojan |title=An introduction to Shiʻi Islam: the history and doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=1985 |pages=173–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zot5IK1csp0C |isbn=978-0-300-03531-5 |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531015036/https://books.google.com/books?id=zot5IK1csp0C |archive-date=31 May 2016 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Morgenstern |first=Arie |translator-first=Joel A. |translator-last=Linsider |title=Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |location=US |chapter=Epilogue: Emergence of a Jewish Majority in Jerusalem |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N4q25b69yQ8C&pg=PA201 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N4q25b69yQ8C |isbn=978-0-19-530578-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Morrison |first1=Terri |title=Kiss, bow, or shake hands: the bestselling guide to doing business in more than 60 countries |date=2006 |publisher=Adams Media |location=Avon, Mass. |isbn=978-1-59337-368-9 |edition=2nd}}<!-- |access-date=6 January 2015--> <!-- NNN --> * {{cite book |last=Nisan |first=Mordechai |title=Minorities in the Middle East: a history of struggle and self-expression |edition=2nd, illustrated |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7864-1375-1 |access-date=4 April 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=keD9z1XWuNwC&q=druze+china&pg=PA96 |publisher=McFarland |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051855/https://books.google.com/books?id=keD9z1XWuNwC&q=druze+china&pg=PA96 |url-status=live}} <!-- OOO --> * {{cite book |last=Obeid |first=Anis |title=The Druze & Their Faith in Tawhid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FejqBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT1 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8156-5257-1}} * {{cite book |last1=Osborn |first1=Eric |title=Irenaeus of Lyons |date=4 October 2001 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-139-43040-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVCVlyG0ldIC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=rVCVlyG0ldIC |url-status=live}} <!-- PPP --> * {{cite book |last=Peteet |first=John R. |title=Spirituality and Religion Within the Culture of Medicine: From Evidence to Practice |year=2017 |isbn=9780190272432 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} * {{cite book |last1=Peters |first1=F. E. |title=The Children of Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam |date=22 May 2018 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4008-8970-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SwI_DwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=SwI_DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Pitts-Taylor |first1=Victoria |title=Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body |date=30 September 2008 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=978-1-56720-691-3 |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTdzBwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052435/https://books.google.com/books?id=YTdzBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Prestige |first1=G. L. |title=Fathers and Heretics. Six Studies in Dogmatic Faith, with Prologue and Epilogue. |date=1963 |publisher=SPCK |location=London |isbn=978-0281004539}} <!-- QQQ --> * {{cite book |last=Quilliam |first=Neil |title=Syria and the New World Order |year=1999 |isbn=9780863722493 |publisher=[[Michigan University Press]]}} <!-- RRR --> * {{cite book |last1=Rosenfeld |first1=Judy Shepard |title=Ticket to Israel: An Informative Guide |date=1952 |publisher=Rinehart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbMbAAAAMAAJ&q=Ticket%20to%20Israel:%20An%20Informative%20Guide |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404105109/https://books.google.com/books?id=nbMbAAAAMAAJ&q=Ticket%20to%20Israel:%20An%20Informative%20Guide |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Rosenthal |first=Donna |title=The Israelis: Ordinary People in an Extraordinary Land |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b-w6GfokajcC&pg=PA296 |year=2003 |publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-684-86972-8 |access-date=7 December 2017 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052435/https://books.google.com/books?id=b-w6GfokajcC&pg=PA296 |url-status=live}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rubin |first=Uri |chapter=Prophets and Prophethood |editor-last1=McAuliffe |editor-first1=Jane Dammen |title=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān: A-D |date=2001 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-11465-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq1ZAAAAYAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq1ZAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{Cite book |last1=Rudolph |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Rudolph |date=1977 |chapter=Mandaeism |editor1-last=Moore |editor1-first=Albert C. |title=Iconography of Religions: An Introduction |publisher=Chris Robertson |isbn=9780800604882 |volume=21 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/iconographyofrel0000moor |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=chWcZcYcyeQC}}}} <!-- SSS --> * {{cite book |first=Samy |last=Swayd |title=Historical Dictionary of the Druzes |date=10 March 2015 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-1-4422-4617-1 |edition=2}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Scherman |editor1-first=Nosson |title=Tanakh=Tanach: Torah, Neviʼim, Ketuvim: the Torah, Prophets, Writings: the twenty-four books of the Bible, newly translated and annotated |date=2001 |publisher=Mesorah Publications |location=Brooklyn, N.Y. |isbn=9781578191123 |edition=1st student size, Stone}} * {{cite book |last1=Schultz |first1=Joseph P. |editor-last1=Fishbane |editor-first1=Michael A. |editor-last2=Mendes-Flohr |editor-first2=Paul R. |title=Texts and Responses: Studies Presented to Nahum N. Glatzer on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday by His Students |date=1975 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill Archive]] |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-03980-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsYUAAAAIAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=gsYUAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Silver |first=M. M. |title=The History of Galilee, 1538–1949: Mysticism, Modernization, and War |year=2022 |isbn=9781793649430 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]]}} * {{cite journal |last1=Slosar |first1=J. P. |first2=D. |last2=O'Brien |year=2003 |title=The Ethics of Neonatal Male Circumcision: A Catholic Perspective |journal=[[American Journal of Bioethics]] |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=62–64 |pmid=12859824 |doi=10.1162/152651603766436306 |s2cid=38064474}} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |year=2008 |title=An Introduction to the Baha'i (sic) Faith |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-86251-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Smith (historian) |date=2022 |chapter=Ch. 50: Southeast Asia |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722 |title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Oxfordshire, UK |isbn=978-1-138-36772-2 |editor-last=Stockman |editor-first=Robert H. |editor-link=Robert Stockman |ref={{sfnRef |Smith |2022b}} |access-date=18 August 2022 |archive-date=13 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213122623/https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Stroumsa |first1=Guy G. |title=The making of the Abrahamic religions in late antiquity |date=2017 |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-191-05913-1}} * {{cite book |last1=Swidler |first1=Leonard |last2=Duran |first2=Khalid |last3=Firestone |first3=Reuven |title=Trialogue: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Dialogue |date=2007 |publisher=Twenty-Third Publications |isbn=9781585955879 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvB5WUrMK8gC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=RvB5WUrMK8gC |url-status=live}} <!-- TTT --> * {{cite book |last=Tsedaka |first=Benyamim |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-wn8ABo-Fz0C&q=samaritans+gerizim&pg=PR7 |title=The Israelite Samaritan Version of the Torah |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=9780802865199 |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051914/https://books.google.com/books?id=-wn8ABo-Fz0C&q=samaritans+gerizim&pg=PR7 |url-status=live}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |last2=Roberts |first2=Priscilla |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History A Political, Social, and Military History |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC |isbn=9781851098422 |date=12 May 2008 |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530225737/https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC |archive-date=30 May 2016 |url-status=live}} <!-- UUU --> * {{Cite book |last=Ubayd |first=Anis |title=The Druze and Their Faith in Tawhid |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=9780815630975 |pages=150}} <!-- VVV --> * {{cite book |last1=Van Bladel |first1=Kevin |year=2017 |title=From Sasanian Mandaeans to Ṣābians of the Marshes |location=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |doi=10.1163/9789004339460 |isbn=978-90-04-33943-9 |url=https://brill.com/view/title/34389}} <!-- WWW --> * {{cite journal |last1=Wilken |first1=Robert L. |title=From Time Immemorial? Dwellers in the Holy Land |journal=Christian Century |date=30 July – 6 August 1986 |url=https://www.religion-online.org/article/from-time-immemorial-dwellers-in-the-holy-land/ |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908133734/https://www.religion-online.org/article/from-time-immemorial-dwellers-in-the-holy-land/ |url-status=live}} * {{cite web |last=Wormald |first=Benjamin |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405110137/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The New Encyclopaedia Britannica |year=1992 |isbn=9780852295533 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica |quote="Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism." |ref={{harvid |New Encyclopaedia Britannica |1992}}}} {{Refend}} == Further reading == {{Library resources box}} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Religion: Year In Review 2010 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion-Year-In-Review-2010/Worldwide-Adherents-of-All-Religions |ref={{sfnRef |Britannica |2010}} }} * {{cite book |last=Assmann |first=Jan |title=Moses the Egyptian: the memory of Egypt in western monotheism |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-674-58739-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJv0oyQ-9_AC}} * {{cite book |last=Bakhos |first=Carol |year=2014 |title=The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-05083-9}} * {{cite book |last=Barnett |first=Paul |publisher=InterVarsity Press |title=Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC |isbn=978-0-8308-2699-5}} * Freedman H. (trans.), and Simon, Maurice (ed.), [[Genesis Rabba]]h, Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis'', Volume II, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. {{ISBN |0-900689-38-2}}. * Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., ''Seder Olam: The rabbinic view of Biblical chronology'', (trans., & ed.), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1998 * {{cite book |last=Johansson |first=Warren |author-link=Warren Johansson |year=1990 |contribution=Abrahamic Religions |url=http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Abrahamic.pdf |editor-last=Dynes |editor-first=Wayne R. |title=Encyclopedia of Homosexuality |location=New York |publisher=Garland |isbn=978-0-8240-6544-7 |access-date=26 July 2006 |archive-date=28 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528085741/http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Abrahamic.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last=Kritzeck |first=James |author-link=James Kritzeck |title=Sons of Abraham: Jews, Christians, and Moslems |publisher=Helicon |year=1965 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7MOAAAAIAAJ}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Longton |first=Joseph |title=Fils d'Abraham: Panorama des communautés juives, chrétiennes et musulmanes |trans-title=Sons of Abraham: Overview of Jewish, Christian and Muslim Communities |language=fr |editor-last=Longton |editor-first=Joseph |encyclopedia=Fils d'Abraham |publisher=S.A. Brepols I. G. P. and CIB Maredsous |date=1987–2009 |isbn=978-2-503-82344-7 |url=http://www.cibmaredsous.be/cibf4.htm}} * {{cite book |title=Life After Death: A study of the afterlife in world religions |last=Masumian |first=Farnaz |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |location=Oxford |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-85168-074-0}} * {{cite book |last=de Perceval |first=Armand-Pierre Caussin |title=Calcutta review – Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane |trans-title=Calcutta review – Essay on the history of the Arabs before Islamism, during the time of Muhammad, and up to the reduction of all the tribes under Muslim rule |publisher=Didot |location=Paris |year=1847 |language=fr |oclc=431247004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQg2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1}} * {{cite book |last=Reid |first=Barbara E. |title=Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1996}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Silverstein |editor1-first=Adam J. |editor2-last=Stroumsa |editor2-first=Guy G. |year=2015 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-969776-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Peters |first1=F. E. |title=Islam, a guide for Jews and Christians |date=2003 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=9780691122335}} * {{cite book |first=Jonathan Z. |last=Smith |author-link=Jonathan Z. Smith |year=1998 |chapter=Religion, Religions, Religious |editor-first=Mark C. |editor-last=Taylor |editor-link=Mark C. Taylor (philosopher) |title=Critical Terms for Religious Studies |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-79156-2 |pages=269–284}} * {{cite book |last1=Lupieri |first1=Edmundo |author1-link=Edmondo Lupieri |title=The Mandaeans: The Last Gnostics |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan & Cambridge, UK |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJ73YfrZ2T4C&q=Abraham |isbn=978-0802833501 |pages=65–66, 116, 164}} == External links == *{{Wikiquote-inline}} {{Religion topics}} {{Angels in Abrahamic religions}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Abrahamic religions| ]] [[Category:Comparative religion]] [[Category:Monotheistic religions]] [[Category:Western culture]] Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. If you do not want your writing to be edited mercilessly, then do not submit it here. 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