Abraham

{{Short description|Hebrew patriarch according to the Hebrew Bible}}
{{Redirect-several|Abraham|Abram|Avraham|Avram}}
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{{Infobox religious person
| title              = 
| image              = [[File:Guercino Abramo ripudia Agar (cropped).jpg|247px]]
| caption            = {{nowrap|''[[Abraham Casting out Hagar and Ishmael]]'' (1657)}}<br />{{nowrap|by [[Guercino|Giovanni Francesco Barbieri]]}}
| header1            = 
| known_for          = Namesake of the [[Abrahamic religions]]: traditional founder of the [[Jewish nation]],{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=3}}{{sfn|Mendes-Flohr|2005}} spiritual ancestor of [[Christians]],{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=6}} major [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]],{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=8}} [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestation of God]] and originator of [[monotheistic]] faith in [[Baháʼí Faith]],{{Sfn|Smith|2000|p=22, 231}} third spokesman (''natiq'') prophet of [[Druze|Druzes]]{{sfn|Swayd|2009|p=3}}
| spouse             = [[Sarah]]<br />[[Hagar]] (concubine from [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]])<br />[[Keturah]] (also concubine)
| name               = Abraham
| native_name        = אַבְרָהָם
| native_name_lang   = Hbo
| birth_place        = [[Ur of the Chaldees]], [[Mesopotamia]]
| parents            = 
| father             = [[Terah]]
| mother             = [[Amathlai]], according to [[Talmud]]
| children           = {{Collapsible list
| title = {{nobold|Oldest to youngest:}}
| [[Ishmael]] (son, with Hagar)
| [[Isaac]] (son, with Sarah)
| [[Zimran]] (son, with Keturah)
| [[Jokshan]] (son, with Keturah)
| [[Medan (son of Abraham)|Medan]] (son, with Keturah)
| [[Midian (son of Abraham)|Midian]] (son, with Keturah)
| [[Ishbak]] (son, with Keturah)
| [[Shuah]] (son, with Keturah)
}}
| relatives          = {{Collapsible list
| title = {{nobold|Closest to furthest:}}
| [[Haran]] (brother)
| [[Nahor, son of Terah|Nahor]] (brother)
| [[Sarah]] (half-sister and wife)
| [[Jacob]] (grandson)
| [[Esau]] (grandson)
| [[Lot (biblical person)|Lot]] (nephew)
| [[Twelve Tribes of Israel]] (great-grandsons)
| [[Dinah]] (great-granddaughter)
| {{nbsp|3}}... ''[[Abraham's family tree]]''
 }}
| death_place        = [[Hebron]], [[Canaan]]<br />(present-day [[West Bank]])
| background         = 
| religion           = 
}}

'''Abraham'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|eɪ|b|r|ə|h|æ|m|,_|-|h|ə|m}}; {{Hebrew name|{{Script/Hebrew|אַבְרָהָם}}|ʾAvraham|ʾAḇrāhām}}; {{lang-grc-x-biblical|Ἀβραάμ}}, {{Transliteration|grc|Abraám}}; {{lang-ar|{{Script/Arabic|إبراهيم}}}}, {{Transliteration|ar|Ibrāhīm}}|name=|group=}} (originally '''Abram'''){{efn|{{Hebrew name|{{Script/Hebrew|אַבְרָם}}|ʾAvram|ʾAḇrām}}}} is the common [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarch]] of the [[Abrahamic religions]], including [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]].{{sfn|McCarter|2000|p=8}} In Judaism, he is the founding father of the [[Covenant (biblical)|special relationship]] between the [[Jews]] and [[God in Judaism|God]]; in Christianity, he is the spiritual progenitor of all believers, whether Jewish or [[gentile|non-Jewish]];{{efn|{{harvnb|Jeffrey|1992|p=10}} writes "In the NT Abraham is recognized as the father of Israel and of the Levitical priesthood (Heb. 7), as the "legal" forebear of Jesus (i.e. ancestor of Joseph according to Matt. 1), and spiritual progenitor of all Christians (Rom. 4; Gal. 3:16, 29; cf. also the ''Visio Pauli'')"}}{{sfn|Wright|2010|p=72}} and [[Abraham in Islam|in Islam]], he is a link in the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|chain of Islamic prophets]] that begins with [[Adam in Islam|Adam]] and culminates in [[Muhammad]].{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=8}}

The story of the life of Abraham as told in the narrative of the [[Book of Genesis]] in the [[Hebrew Bible]] revolves around the themes of posterity and land. He is said to have been called by God to leave the house of his father [[Terah]] and settle in the land of [[Canaan]], which God now promises to Abraham and his progeny. This promise is subsequently inherited by [[Isaac]], Abraham's son, by his wife [[Sarah]], while Isaac's half-brother [[Ishmael]] is also promised that he will be the founder of a great nation. Abraham purchases a tomb (the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]]) at [[Hebron]] to be Sarah's grave, thus establishing his right to the land; and, in the second generation, his heir Isaac is married to a woman from his own kin to earn his parents' approval. Abraham later marries [[Keturah]] and has six more sons; but, on his death, when he is buried beside Sarah, it is Isaac who receives "all Abraham's goods" while the other sons receive only "gifts".{{sfn|Ska|2009|pp=26–31}}

Most scholars view the [[patriarchal age]], along with [[the Exodus]] and the period of the [[biblical judges]], as a late literary construct that does not relate to any particular historical era,{{sfn|McNutt|1999|pp=41–42}} and after a century of exhaustive archaeological investigation, no evidence has been found for a historical Abraham.{{sfn|Dever|2001|p=98}} It is largely concluded that the [[Torah]], the series of books that includes Genesis, was composed during the [[Achaemenid Empire|early Persian period]], {{Circa|500 BC}}, as a result of tensions between Jewish landowners who had stayed in [[Yehud (Persian province)|Judah]] during the [[Babylonian captivity]] and traced their right to the land through their "father Abraham", and the returning exiles who based their counterclaim on [[Moses]] and the Exodus tradition of the [[Israelites]].{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp=227–228, 260}}

==The Abraham cycle in the Bible==

===Structure and narrative programs===
The Abraham cycle is not structured by a unified plot centered on a conflict and its resolution or a problem and its solution.{{sfn|Ska|2009|p=28}} The episodes are often only loosely linked, and the sequence is not always logical, but it is unified by the presence of Abraham himself, as either actor or witness, and by the themes of posterity and land.{{sfn|Ska|2009|pp=28–29}} These themes form "narrative programs" set out in Genesis 11:27–31 concerning the sterility of Sarah and 12:1–3 in which Abraham is ordered to leave the land of his birth for the land YHWH will show him.{{sfn|Ska|2009|pp=28–29}}

===Origins and calling===
[[File:Abraham's Journey (en).svg|thumb|Abraham's Journey to Canaan according to the Book of Genesis.]]
[[Terah]], the ninth in descent from [[Noah]], was the father of Abram, [[Nahor, son of Terah|Nahor]], [[Haran]] ({{lang-he|הָרָן}} ''Hārān'') and [[Sarah]].<ref>Freedman, Meyers & Beck. ''Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible'' {{ISBN|978-0-8028-2400-4}}, 2000, p. 551 and {{bibleverse|Genesis|20:12|niv}}</ref> Haran was the father of [[Lot (Bible)|Lot]], who was Abram's nephew; the [[Abraham's family tree|family]] lived in [[Ur of the Chaldees]]. Haran died there. Abram married [[Sarah|Sarah (Sarai)]]. Terah, Abram, Sarai, and Lot departed for [[Canaan]], but settled in a place named [[Haran (biblical place)|Haran]] ({{lang-he|חָרָן}} ''Ḥārān''), where Terah died at the age of 205.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3261014|title=The Chronology of the Pentateuch: A Comparison of the MT and LXX|author=Larsson, Gerhard|year=1983|journal=Journal of Biblical Literature|volume=102|issue=3|pages=401–409|via=JSTOR|doi=10.2307/3261014|jstor=3261014 }}</ref>

God had told Abram to leave his country and kindred and go to a land that he would show him, and promised to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless them that bless him, and curse them who may curse him. Abram was 75 years old when he left Haran with his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the substance and souls that they had acquired, and traveled to [[Shechem]] in Canaan.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|12:4–6|niv}}</ref>
Then he pitched his tent in the east of [[Bethel]], and built an altar which was between Bethel and [[Ai (Canaan)|Ai]].

===Sarai===
[[File:Tissot Abram's Counsel to Sarai.jpg|thumb|''Abraham's Counsel to Sarai'', watercolor by [[James Tissot]], {{circa|1900}} ([[Jewish Museum (Manhattan)|Jewish Museum]], New York)]]
There was a severe famine in the land of Canaan, so that Abram and Lot and their households traveled to [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. On the way Abram told Sarai to say that she was his sister, so that the Egyptians would not kill him. When they entered Egypt, the Pharaoh's officials praised Sarai's beauty to [[Pharaohs in the Bible|Pharaoh]], and they took her into the palace and gave Abram goods in exchange. God afflicted Pharaoh and his household with plagues, which led Pharaoh to try to find out what was wrong.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|12:14–17|niv}}</ref> Upon discovering that Sarai was a married woman, Pharaoh demanded that Abram and Sarai leave.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|12:18–20|niv}}</ref>

===Abram and Lot separate===
{{main|Abraham and Lot's conflict}}
When they lived for a while in the [[Negev]] after being banished from Egypt and came back to the [[Bethel]] and [[Ai (Canaan)|Ai]] area, Abram's and Lot's sizable herds occupied the same pastures. This became a problem for the herdsmen, who were assigned to each family's cattle. The conflicts between herdsmen had become so troublesome that Abram suggested that Lot choose a separate area, either on the left hand or on the right hand, that there be no conflict amongst brethren. Lot decided to go eastward to the plain of [[Jordan River|Jordan]], where the land was well watered everywhere as far as [[Zoara]], and he dwelled in the cities of the plain toward [[Sodom and Gomorrah|Sodom]].<ref>{{cite book|author=George W. Coats|title=Genesis, with an Introduction to Narrative Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OrrdUOovklIC&pg=PA113|year=1983|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-1954-3|pages=113–114}}</ref> Abram went south to [[Hebron]] and settled in the plain of [[Mamre]], where he built another altar to worship [[God in Abrahamic religions|God]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRolnGU5KvAC&pg=PA59|title=The Religion of the Patriarchs|first=Augustine|last=Pagolu|pages= 59–60|date=1 November 1998|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-85075-935-5 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

===Chedorlaomer===
{{Main|Battle of Siddim}}
[[File:Meeting of abraham and melchizadek.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|''Meeting of Abraham and Melchizedek'', canvas by [[Dieric Bouts|Dieric Bouts the Elder]], {{Circa|1464}}–1467]]

During the rebellion of the Jordan River cities, [[Sodom and Gomorrah]], against [[Elam]], Abram's nephew, Lot, was taken prisoner along with his entire household by the invading Elamite forces. The Elamite army came to collect the spoils of war, after having just defeated the king of Sodom's armies.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|14:8–12|niv}}</ref> Lot and his family, at the time, were settled on the outskirts of the Kingdom of Sodom which made them a visible target.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|13:12|niv}}</ref>

One person who escaped capture came and told Abram what happened. Once Abram received this news, he immediately assembled 318 trained servants. Abram's force headed north in pursuit of the Elamite army, who were already worn down from the [[Battle of the Vale of Siddim|Battle of Siddim]]. When they caught up with them at [[Dan (Bible)|Dan]], Abram devised a battle plan by splitting his group into more than one unit, and launched a night raid. Not only were they able to free the captives, Abram's unit chased and slaughtered the Elamite King [[Chedorlaomer]] at Hobah, just north of [[Damascus]]. They freed Lot, as well as his household and possessions, and recovered all of the goods from Sodom that had been taken.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|14:13–16|niv}}</ref>

Upon Abram's return, Sodom's king came out to meet with him in the [[King's dale|Valley of Shaveh]], the "king's dale". Also, [[Melchizedek]] king of Salem ([[Jerusalem]]), a priest of [[Elyon|El Elyon]], brought out bread and wine and blessed Abram and God.<ref>Noth, Martin. ''A History of Pentateuchal Traditions'' (Englewood Cliffs 1972) p. 28</ref> Abram then gave Melchizedek a [[tithe|tenth]] of everything. The king of Sodom then offered to let Abram keep all the possessions if he would merely return his people. Abram declined to accept anything other than the share to which his allies were entitled.

===Covenant of the pieces===
{{see also|Covenant of the pieces}}

The voice of the Lord came to Abram in a vision and repeated the promise of the land and descendants as numerous as the stars. Abram and God made a covenant ceremony, and God told of the future bondage of Israel in Egypt. God described to Abram the land that his offspring would claim: the land of the [[Kenites]], [[Kenizzite]]s, [[Kadmonites]], [[Biblical Hittites|Hittites]], [[Perizzites]], Rephaims, [[Amorites]], [[Canaanites]], [[Girgashites]], and [[Jebusite]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zeligs |first=Dorothy F. |date=1961 |title=Abraham and the Covenant of the Pieces: A Study in Ambivalence |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26301751 |journal=American Imago |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=173–186 |jstor=26301751 |issn=0065-860X}}</ref>

===Hagar===
{{see also|Hagar|Hagar in Islam}}
[[File:Foster Bible Pictures 0032-1.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|''Abraham, [[Sarah]] and [[Hagar]]'', Bible illustration from 1897]]

Abram and Sarai tried to make sense of how he would become a progenitor of nations, because after 10 years of living in Canaan, no child had been born. Sarai then offered her Egyptian slave, [[Hagar]], to Abram with the intention that she would bear him a son.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=53&letter=H |title=Jewish Encyclopedia, ''Hagar'' |publisher=Jewishencyclopedia.com}}</ref>

After Hagar found she was pregnant, she began to despise her mistress, Sarai. Sarai responded by mistreating Hagar, and Hagar fled into the wilderness. An angel spoke with Hagar at the fountain on the way to [[Shur (Bible)|Shur]]. He instructed her to return to Abram's camp and that her son would be "a wild ass of a man; his hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the face of all his brethren." She was told to call her son [[Ishmael]]. Hagar then called God who spoke to her "[[El Roi|El-roi]]", ("Thou God seest me:" KJV). From that day onward, the well was called Beer-lahai-roi, ("The well of him that liveth and seeth me." KJV margin), located between [[Kadesh (biblical)|Kadesh]] and Bered. She then did as she was instructed by returning to her mistress in order to have her child. Abram was 86 years of age when Ishmael was born.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|16:4–16|niv}}</ref>

===Sarah===
Thirteen years later, when Abram was 99 years of age, God declared Abram's new name: "Abraham"&nbsp;– "a father of many nations".<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:5|niv}}</ref> Abraham then received the instructions for the [[covenant of the pieces]], of which [[Religious male circumcision|circumcision]] was to be the sign.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:10–14|niv}}</ref>

God declared Sarai's new name: "[[Sarah]]", blessed her, and told Abraham, "I will give thee a son also of her".<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:15–16|niv}}</ref> Abraham laughed, and "said in his heart, 'Shall a ''child'' be born unto him that is a hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear [a child]?'"<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:17|niv}}</ref> Immediately after Abraham's encounter with God, he had his entire household of men, including himself (age 99) and Ishmael (age 13), circumcised.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:22–27|niv}}</ref>

==={{anchor|Three visitors}}Three visitors===
[[File:Tissot Abraham and the Three Angels.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''Abraham and the Three Angels'', watercolor by [[James Tissot]], {{circa|1896–1902|lk=no}}]]

Not long afterward, during the heat of the day, Abraham had been sitting at the entrance of his tent by the [[terebinth]]s of [[Mamre]]. He looked up and saw three men in the presence of God. Then he ran and bowed to the ground to welcome them. Abraham then offered to wash their feet and fetch them a morsel of bread, to which they assented. Abraham rushed to Sarah's tent to order [[ash cake]]s made from choice flour, then he ordered a servant-boy to prepare a choice calf. When all was prepared, he set curds, milk and the calf before them, waiting on them, under a tree, as they ate.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|18:1–8|niv}}</ref>

One of the visitors told Abraham that upon his return next year, Sarah would have a son. While at the tent entrance, Sarah overheard what was said and she laughed to herself about the prospect of having a child at their ages. The visitor inquired of Abraham why Sarah laughed at bearing a child at her age, as nothing is too hard for God. Frightened, Sarah denied laughing.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|18:15|niv}}</ref>

===Abraham's plea===
{{main|Sodom and Gomorrah|Lot (biblical person)}}
[[File:Tissot Abraham Sees Sodom in Flames.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''Abraham Sees Sodom in Flames'', watercolor by [[James Tissot]], {{circa|1896–1902|lk=no}}]]

After eating, Abraham and the three visitors got up. They walked over to the peak that overlooked the 'cities of the plain' to discuss the fate of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] for their detestable sins that were so great, it moved God to action. Because Abraham's nephew was living in Sodom, God revealed plans to confirm and judge these cities. At this point, the two other visitors left for Sodom. Then Abraham turned to God and pleaded decrementally with Him (from fifty persons to less) that "if there were at least ten righteous men found in the city, would not God spare the city?" For the sake of ten righteous people, God declared that he would not destroy the city.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|18:17–33|niv}}</ref>

When the two visitors arrived in Sodom to conduct their report, they planned on staying in the city square. However, Abraham's nephew, Lot, met with them and strongly insisted that these two "men" stay at his house for the night. A rally of men stood outside of Lot's home and demanded that Lot bring out his guests so that they may "know" ({{Abbr|v.|verse}} 5) them. However, Lot objected and offered his virgin daughters who had not "known" (v. 8) man to the rally of men instead. They rejected that notion and sought to break down Lot's door to get to his male guests,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|19:1–9|niv}}</ref> thus confirming the wickedness of the city and portending their imminent destruction.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|19:12–13|niv}}</ref>

Early the next morning, Abraham went to the place where he stood before God. He "looked out toward Sodom and Gomorrah" and saw what became of the cities of the plain, where not even "ten righteous" (v. 18:32) had been found, as "the smoke of the land went up as the smoke of a furnace."<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|19:27–29|niv}}</ref>

===Abimelech===
[[File:Tissot The Caravan of Abraham.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|''The Caravan of Abraham'', watercolor by [[James Tissot]], before 1903 ([[Jewish Museum (Manhattan)|Jewish Museum]], New York)]]

{{see also|Endogamy|Wife–sister narratives in the Book of Genesis}}
Abraham settled between [[Kadesh (South of Israel)|Kadesh]] and [[Shur (Bible)|Shur]] in what the Bible anachronistically calls "the land of the [[Philistine]]s". While he was living in [[Gerar]], Abraham openly claimed that Sarah was his sister. Upon discovering this news, King [[Abimelech]] had her brought to him. God then came to Abimelech in a dream and declared that taking her would result in death because she was a man's wife. Abimelech had not laid hands on her, so he inquired if he would also slay a righteous nation, especially since Abraham had claimed that he and Sarah were siblings. In response, God told Abimelech that he did indeed have a blameless heart and that is why he continued to exist. However, should he not return the wife of Abraham back to him, God would surely destroy Abimelech and his entire household. Abimelech was informed that Abraham was a prophet who would pray for him.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|20:1–7|niv}}</ref>

Early next morning, Abimelech informed his servants of his dream and approached Abraham inquiring as to why he had brought such great guilt upon his kingdom. Abraham stated that he thought there was no fear of God in that place, and that they might kill him for his wife. Then Abraham defended what he had said as not being a lie at all: "And yet indeed ''she is'' my sister; she ''is'' the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and she became my wife."<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|20:12||Genesis 20:12|niv}}</ref> Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham, and gave him gifts of sheep, oxen, and servants; and invited him to settle wherever he pleased in Abimelech's lands. Further, Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to serve as Sarah's vindication before all. Abraham then prayed for Abimelech and his household, since God had stricken the women with infertility because of the taking of Sarah.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|20:8–18|niv}}</ref>

After living for some time in the land of the Philistines, Abimelech and [[Phicol]], the chief of his troops, approached Abraham because of a dispute that resulted in a violent confrontation at a well. Abraham then reproached Abimelech due to his Philistine servant's aggressive attacks and the seizing of [[Abraham's Well]]. Abimelech claimed ignorance of the incident. Then Abraham offered a pact by providing sheep and oxen to Abimelech. Further, to attest that Abraham was the one who dug the well, he also gave Abimelech seven ewes for proof. Because of this sworn oath, they called the place of this well: [[Beersheba]]. After Abimelech and Phicol headed back to [[Philistia]], Abraham planted a [[List of plants in the Bible|tamarisk]] grove in Beersheba and called upon "the name of the {{LORD}}, the everlasting God."<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:22–34||Genesis 21:22–34|niv}}</ref>

===Isaac===
As had been prophesied in Mamre the previous year,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|17:21|niv}}</ref> Sarah became pregnant and bore a son to Abraham, on the first anniversary of the covenant of circumcision. Abraham was "an hundred years old", when his son whom he named [[Isaac]] was born; and he circumcised him when he was eight days old.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:1–5|niv}}</ref> For Sarah, the thought of giving birth and nursing a child, at such an old age, also brought her much laughter, as she declared, "God hath made me to laugh, so that all who hear will laugh with me."<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:6–7|niv}}</ref> Isaac continued to grow and on the day he was weaned, Abraham held a great feast to honor the occasion. During the celebration, however, Sarah found Ishmael mocking; an observation that would begin to clarify the birthright of Isaac.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:8–13|niv}}</ref>

===Ishmael===
{{See also|Ishmael in Islam#The sacrifice}}
[[File:Adriaen van der Werff - The Expulsion of Hagar and Ishmael - 59.063 - Rhode Island School of Design Museum.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|''The Expulsion of Hagar and Ishmael'', by [[Adriaen van der Werff]], {{circa|1699|lk=no}} ([[Rhode Island School of Design Museum]], Rhode Island)]]

Ishmael was fourteen years old when Abraham's son Isaac was born to Sarah. When she found Ishmael teasing Isaac, Sarah told Abraham to send both Ishmael and Hagar away. She declared that Ishmael would not share in Isaac's inheritance. Abraham was greatly distressed by his wife's words and sought the advice of his God. God told Abraham not to be distressed but to do as his wife commanded. God reassured Abraham that "in Isaac shall seed be called to thee."<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:12|niv}}</ref> He also said Ishmael would make a nation, "because he is thy seed".<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:9–13|niv}}</ref>

Early the next morning, Abraham brought Hagar and Ishmael out together. He gave her bread and water and sent them away. The two wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba until her bottle of water was completely consumed. In a moment of despair, she burst into tears. After God heard the boy's voice, an [[angel of the Lord]] confirmed to Hagar that he would become a great nation, and will be "living on his sword". A well of water then appeared so that it saved their lives. As the boy grew, he became a skilled [[Archery|archer]] living in the wilderness of [[Desert of Paran|Paran]]. Eventually his mother found a wife for Ishmael from her home country, the land of Egypt.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:14–21|niv}}</ref>

===Binding of Isaac===
{{main|Binding of Isaac}}
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 035.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|''The Angel Hinders the Offering of Isaac'', by [[Rembrandt]], 1635 ([[Hermitage Museum]], Saint Petersburg)]]

At some point in Isaac's youth, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of [[Moriah]]. The patriarch traveled three days until he came to the mount that God told him of. He then commanded the servants to remain while he and Isaac proceeded alone into the mount. Isaac carried the wood upon which he would be sacrificed. Along the way, Isaac asked his father where the animal for the burnt offering was, to which Abraham replied "God will provide himself a lamb for a burnt offering". Just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, he was interrupted by the angel of the Lord, and he saw behind him a "ram caught in a thicket by his horns", which he sacrificed instead of his son. The place was later named as [[Jehovah-jireh]]. For his obedience he received another promise of numerous descendants and abundant prosperity. After this event, Abraham went to Beersheba.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:1–19||Genesis 22:1–19|niv}}</ref>

===Later years===
{{see also|Abraham's family tree}}
Sarah died, and Abraham buried her in the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] (the "cave of Machpelah"), near Hebron which he had purchased along with the adjoining field from Ephron the [[Biblical Hittites|Hittite]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|23:1–20|niv}}</ref> After the death of Sarah, Abraham took another wife, a [[concubine]] named [[Keturah]], by whom he had six sons: [[Zimran]], [[Jokshan]], [[Medan (son of Abraham)|Medan]], [[Midian (son of Abraham)|Midian]], [[Ishbak]], and [[Shuah]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|25:1–6|niv}}</ref> According to the Bible, reflecting the change of his name to "Abraham" meaning "a father of many nations", Abraham is considered to be the progenitor of many nations mentioned in the Bible, among others the [[Israelites]], [[Ishmaelites]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|25:12–18|niv}}</ref> [[Edom]]ites,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|36:1–43}}</ref> [[Amalek#Amalekites in the Hebrew Bible|Amalekites]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|36:12–16|niv}}</ref> [[Kenizzite]]s,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|36:9–16|niv}}</ref> [[Midian]]ites and [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|25:1–5|niv}}</ref> and through his nephew Lot he was also related to the [[Moab]]ites and [[Ammon]]ites.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|19:35–38|niv}}</ref> Abraham lived to see Isaac marry [[Rebekah]], and to see the birth of his twin grandsons [[Jacob and Esau]]. He died at age 175, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael.<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|25:7–10|niv}}, {{bibleverse|1 Chronicles|1:32|niv}}</ref>

==Historicity and origins of the narrative==
===Historicity===
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 11347 Abrams well.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Abraham's Well]] at [[Beersheba]], Israel]]

In the early and middle 20th century, leading archaeologists such as [[William F. Albright]] and [[G. Ernest Wright]] and biblical scholars such as [[Albrecht Alt]] and [[John Bright (biblical scholar)|John Bright]] believed that the patriarchs and matriarchs were either real individuals or believable composites of people who lived in the "[[patriarchal age]]", the 2nd millennium BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bright|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0VG67yLs-LAC&q=Abraham|title=A History of Israel|date=1959|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22068-6|page=93|language=en}}</ref> But, in the 1970s, new arguments concerning Israel's past and the biblical texts challenged these views; these arguments can be found in [[Thomas L. Thompson]]'s ''[[The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives]]'' (1974),<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thompson|first=Thomas L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o91vmgEACAAJ&q=The+Historicity+of+the+Patriarchal+Narratives:+The+Quest+for+the+Historical+Abraham|title=The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham|date=1974|publisher=Gruyter, Walter de, & Company |isbn=9783110040968 |language=en}}</ref> and [[John Van Seters]]' ''[[Abraham in History and Tradition]]'' (1975).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Seters|first=John Van|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F3fboAEACAAJ&q=Abraham+in+history+and+tradition|title=Abraham in History and Tradition|date=1975|publisher=Echo Point Books and Media|isbn=978-1-62654-910-4|language=en}}</ref> Thompson, a literary scholar, based his argument on archaeology and ancient texts. His thesis centered on the lack of compelling evidence that the patriarchs lived in the 2nd millennium BCE, and noted how certain biblical texts reflected first millennium conditions and concerns. Van Seters examined the patriarchal stories and argued that their names, social milieu, and messages strongly suggested that they were [[Iron Age]] creations.{{sfn|Moore|Kelle|2011|pp=18–19}} Van Seters' and Thompson's works were a [[paradigm shift]] in biblical scholarship and archaeology, which gradually led scholars to no longer consider the patriarchal narratives as historical.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Moorey|first=Peter Roger Stuart|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e1x9Rs_zdG8C&q=A+Century+of+Biblical+Archaeology+by+Roger+Moorey&pg=PP1|title=A Century of Biblical Archaeology|date=1991|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-25392-9|language=en}}</ref> Some conservative scholars attempted to defend the Patriarchal narratives in the following years, but this has not found acceptance among scholars.<ref>{{harvnb|Dever|2001|p=98}}: "There are a few sporadic attempts by conservative scholars to "save" the patriarchal narratives as history, such as [[Kenneth Kitchen]] [...] By and large, however, the minimalist view of Thompson's pioneering work, ''The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives'', prevails."</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Grabbe|first=Lester L.|editor1-first=H. G. M|editor1-last=Williamson |title=Understanding the History of Ancient Israel |url=https://britishacademy.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5871/bacad/9780197264010.001.0001/upso-9780197264010-chapter-5|chapter=Some Recent Issues in the Study of the History of Israel|publisher=British Academy|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-173494-6|language=en-US|doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197264010.001.0001|quote=The fact is that we are all minimalists – at least, when it comes to the patriarchal period and the settlement. When I began my PhD studies more than three decades ago in the USA, the 'substantial historicity' of the patriarchs was widely accepted as was the unified conquest of the land. These days it is quite difficult to find anyone who takes this view.}}</ref> By the beginning of the 21st century, archaeologists had stopped trying to recover any context that would make Abraham, Isaac or Jacob credible historical figures.{{sfn|Dever|2001|p=98 and fn.2}}

==={{anchor|Renaming}} Origins of the narrative===
[[File:Abraham's Gate.jpg|thumb|[[Abraham's Gate|Abraham's Gate, Tel Dan, Israel]]]]
Abraham's story, like those of the other patriarchs, most likely had a substantial oral prehistory{{sfn|Pitard|2001|p=27}} (he is mentioned in the [[Book of Ezekiel]]<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ezekiel|33:24}}</ref> and the [[Book of Isaiah]]<ref>{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|63:16}}</ref>). As with [[Moses]], Abraham's name is apparently very ancient, as the tradition found in the [[Book of Genesis]] no longer understands its original meaning (probably "Father is exalted" – the meaning offered in Genesis 17:5, "Father of a multitude", is a [[folk etymology]]).{{sfn|Thompson|2016|pp=23–24}} At some stage the [[oral tradition]]s became part of the written tradition of the [[Pentateuch]]; a majority of scholars believe this stage belongs to the Persian period, roughly 520–320 BCE.{{sfn|Ska|2009|p=260}} The mechanisms by which this came about remain unknown,{{sfn|Enns|2012|p=26}} but there are currently at least two hypotheses.{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp=217, 227–28}} The first, called Persian Imperial authorisation, is that the post-Exilic community devised the Torah as a legal basis on which to function within the Persian Imperial system; the second is that the Pentateuch was written to provide the criteria for determining who would belong to the post-Exilic Jewish community and to establish the power structures and relative positions of its various groups, notably the priesthood and the lay "elders".{{sfn|Ska|2006|pp=217, 227–28}}

The completion of the Torah and its elevation to the centre of post-Exilic Judaism was as much or more about combining older texts as writing new ones – the final Pentateuch was based on existing traditions.{{sfn|Carr|Conway|2010|p=193}} In the [[Book of Ezekiel]],<ref>{{bibleverse-nb||Ezek|33:24|niv}}</ref> written during the Exile (i.e., in the first half of the 6th century BCE), [[Ezekiel]], an exile in Babylon, tells how those who remained in Judah are claiming ownership of the land based on inheritance from Abraham; but the prophet tells them they have no claim because they do not observe Torah.{{sfn|Ska|2009|p=43}} The [[Book of Isaiah]]<ref>{{bibleverse-nb||Isaiah|63:16|niv}}</ref> similarly testifies of tension between the people of Judah and the returning post-Exilic Jews (the "[[Golah|gôlâ]]"), stating that God is the father of Israel and that Israel's history begins with the Exodus and not with Abraham.{{sfn|Ska|2009|p=44}} The conclusion to be inferred from this and similar evidence (e.g., [[Ezra–Nehemiah]]), is that the figure of Abraham must have been preeminent among the great landowners of Judah at the time of the Exile and after, serving to support their claims to the land in opposition to those of the returning exiles.{{sfn|Ska|2009|p=44}}

===Palestine origin hypothesis===
The earliest possible reference to Abraham may be the name of a town in the [[Negev]] listed in a victory inscription of Pharaoh [[Sheshonq I]] (biblical [[Shishak]]), which is referred as “the Fortress of Abraham”, suggesting the possible existence of an Abraham tradition in the 10th century BCE.{{sfn|McCarter|2000|p=9}} The orientalist [[Mario Liverani]] proposed to see in the name Abraham the mythical eponym of a Palestinian tribe from the 13th century BCE, that of the Raham, of which mention was found in the stele of [[Seti I]] found in [[Beit She'an|Beth-She'an]] and dating back to 'around 1289 BCE.<ref>The stele reads: «The Apiru of Mount Yarumta, together with the Tayaru, attack the Raham tribe». J. B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament , p. 255. Princeton, 1955.</ref> The tribe probably lived in the area surrounding or close to [[Beit She'an|Beth-She'an]], in [[Galilee]] (the stele in fact refers to fights that took place in the area). The semi-nomadic and pastoral Semitic tribes of the time used to prefix their names with the term banū ("sons of"), so it is hypothesized that the Raham called themselves Banu Raham . Furthermore, many interpreted blood ties between tribe members as common descent from an eponymous ancestor (i.e., one who gave the tribe its name), rather than as the result of intra-tribal ties. The name of this eponymous mythical ancestor was constructed with the patronymic (prefix) Abū ("father"), followed by the name of the tribe; in the case of the Raham, it would have been Abu Raham, later to become Ab-raham, Abraham. Abraham's Journey from Ur to Harran could be explained as a retrospective reflection of the story of the return of the Jews from the Babylonian exile. Indeed, [[Israel Finkelstein]] suggested that the oldest Abraham traditions originated in the Iron Age (monarchic period) and that they contained an [[Autochthon|autochthonous]] hero story as the oldest mentions of Abraham outside the book of Genesis (Ezekiel 33 and Isaiah 51) do not depend on Genesis 12–26, do not have there indication of a Mesopotamian origin of Abraham, and present only two main themes of the Abraham narrative in Genesis: land and offspring.<ref name=":82">{{cite journal |title=Comments on the Historical Background of the Abraham Narrative: Between "Realia" and "Exegetica" |journal=Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel |url=https://www.academia.edu/29972948 |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |issue=1 |volume=3 |pages=3–23 |last2=Römer |first2=Thomas |year=2014 |doi=10.1628/219222714x13994465496820}}</ref> Yet, unlike Liverani, Finkelstein considered Abraham as ancestor who was worshiped in Hebron, which is too far from Beit She'an, and the oldest tradition of him might be about the altar he built in Hebron.<ref name=":82" />

== Religious traditions ==
{{Judaism|1=figures}}
Abraham is given a high position of respect in three major world faiths, [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the covenant, the special relationship between the Jewish people and God&nbsp;– leading to the belief that the [[Jews as the chosen people|Jews are the chosen people of God]]. In Christianity, [[Paul the Apostle]] taught that Abraham's faith in God – preceding the [[Mosaic law]] – made him the prototype of all believers, Jewish or [[gentile]]; and in Islam he is seen as a link in the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|chain of prophets]] that begins with [[Adam]] and culminates in [[Muhammad]].{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=8}}

===Judaism===
In Jewish tradition, Abraham is called ''Avraham Avinu'' (אברהם אבינו), "our father Abraham," signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews and the father of Judaism, the first Jew.{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=3}} His story is read in the weekly [[Torah]] reading portions, predominantly in the [[parashot]]: [[Lech-Lecha (parsha)|Lech-Lecha]] (לֶךְ-לְךָ), [[Vayeira (parsha)|Vayeira]] (וַיֵּרָא), [[Chayei Sarah (parsha)|Chayei Sarah]] (חַיֵּי שָׂרָה), and [[Toledot (parsha)|Toledot]] (תּוֹלְדֹת).

[[Hanan bar Rava]] taught in [[Abba Arikha]]'s name that Abraham's mother was named ʾĂmatlaʾy bat Karnebo.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bava Batra 91a|url=https://www.sefaria.org/Bava_Batra.91a|access-date=2021-03-08|website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref>{{Efn|MSS variants: ''bat Barnebo, bat bar-Nebo, bar-bar-Nebo, bat Karnebi, bat Kar Nebo''. Karnebo (''outpost of [[Nabu]]'') is attested as a [[Sumer]]ian theophoric place-name in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] inscriptions, including the [[Andre Michaux|Michaux stone]]. It referred to at least two separate cities in antiquity.<ref>Yamada, Shigeo. [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/orient/40/0/40_56/_pdf "Karus on the Frontiers of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Orient 40 (2005)]"</ref> Rabbinic tradition connects Karnebo to the [[Biblical Hebrew]] Kar (כר ''lamb''), translating it ''[[Tumah and taharah|pure]] lambs''.<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Rashbam_on_Bava_Batra.91a.14.2?lang=bi "Rashbam on Bava Batra 91a:14:2"]. http://www.sefaria.org. Retrieved 2021-03-08.</ref>}} [[Hiyya bar Abba]] taught that [[Abraham and the Idol Shop|Abraham worked in Teraḥ's idol shop]] in his youth.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bereishit Rabbah 38|url=https://www.sefaria.org/Bereishit_Rabbah.38|access-date=2021-03-11|website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref>

In ''[[Legends of the Jews]]'', God created heaven and earth for the sake of the merits of Abraham.{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909|loc=Vol I: The Wicked Generations}} After the [[Genesis flood narrative|biblical flood]], Abraham was the only one among the pious who solemnly swore never to forsake God,{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909|loc=Vol. I: In the Fiery Furnace}} studied in the house of [[Noah]] and [[Shem]] to learn about the "Ways of God,"{{sfn|Jasher|1840|p=22|loc =Ch9, vv 5–6}} continued the line of [[Kohanim|High Priest]] from Noah and Shem, and assigning the office to [[Levi]] and [[Tribe of Levi|his seed]] forever. Before leaving his father's land, Abraham was miraculously saved from the fiery furnace of [[Nimrod]] following his brave action of breaking the idols of the [[Chaldea]]ns into pieces.{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909}} During his sojourning in Canaan, Abraham was accustomed to extend hospitality to travelers and strangers and taught how to praise God also knowledge of God to those who had received his kindness.{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909|loc=Vol. I: The Covenant with Abimelech}}

Along with [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]], he is the one whose name would appear united with God, as [[God in Judaism]] was called ''Elohei Abraham, Elohei Yitzchaq ve Elohei Ya'aqob'' ("God of Abraham, God of Isaac, and God of Jacob") and never the God of anyone else.{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909|loc=Vol. I: Joy and Sorrow in the House of Jacob}} He was also mentioned as the father of thirty nations.{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909|loc=Vol. I: The Birth of Esau and Jacob}}

Abraham is generally credited as the author of the ''[[Sefer Yetzirah]]'', one of the earliest extant books on [[Jewish mysticism]].<ref>''Sefer Yetzirah Hashalem'' (with Rabbi Saadia Gaon's Commentary), [[Yosef Qafih]] (editor), Jerusalem 1972, p. 46 (Hebrew / Judeo-Arabic)</ref>

According to [[Pirkei Avot]], Abraham underwent ten tests at God's command.<ref>Pirkei Avot 5:3 – עֲשָׂרָה נִסְיוֹנוֹת נִתְנַסָּה אַבְרָהָם אָבִינוּ עָלָיו הַשָּׁלוֹם וְעָמַד בְּכֻלָּם, לְהוֹדִיעַ כַּמָּה חִבָּתוֹ שֶׁל אַבְרָהָם אָבִינוּ עָלָיו הַשָּׁלוֹם</ref> The [[Binding of Isaac]] is specified in the Bible as a test;<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:1|GNT}}</ref> the other nine are not specified, but later rabbinical sources give various enumerations.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

===Christianity===
{{Infobox saint
|name = Abraham
|feast_day = 9 October – [[Roman Catholicism]] and [[Lutheranism]]<ref name="LCMS">{{cite web |title=Commemorations |url=https://www.lcms.org/worship/church-year/commemorations |publisher=[[Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod]] |access-date=31 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
|venerated_in = {{hlist <!--chronological:-->|[[Judaism]] |[[Christianity]] |[[Islam]] |[[Druze faith]]<ref name="Hitti 1928 37" /><ref name="Dana 2008 17" /> |[[Baháʼí Faith]]}}
|image = Aert de Gelder 009.jpg
|imagesize = 240px
|caption = ''Abraham and the Angels'', by [[Aert de Gelder]], {{circa|1680–85}} ([[Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen]], Rotterdam)
|titles = First Patriarch
}}
In [[Christianity]], Abraham is revered as the [[Prophets of Christianity|prophet]] to whom God chose to reveal himself and with whom God initiated a [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]] (cf. ''[[Covenant Theology]]'').{{sfn|Wright|2010|p=72}}{{sfn|Waters|Reid|Muether|2020|p=}} [[Paul the Apostle]] declared that all who believe in Jesus ([[Christians]]) are "included in the seed of Abraham and are inheritors of the promise made to Abraham."{{sfn|Wright|2010|p=72}} In [[Letter to the Romans|Romans]] 4, Abraham is praised for his "unwavering faith" in God, which is tied into the concept of partakers of the covenant of grace being those "who demonstrate faith in the saving power of Christ".<ref>Firestone, Reuven. [http://cmje.usc.edu/articles/abraham.php "Abraham."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909233637/http://cmje.usc.edu/articles/abraham.php |date=9 September 2017 }} ''Encyclopedia of World History''.</ref>{{sfn|Waters|Reid|Muether|2020|p=}}

Throughout history, church leaders, following Paul, have emphasized Abraham as the spiritual father of all Christians.{{sfn|Jeffrey|1992|p=10}} [[Augustine of Hippo]] declared that Christians are "children (or "seed") of Abraham by faith", [[Ambrose]] stated that "by means of their faith Christians possess the promises made to Abraham", and [[Martin Luther]] recalled Abraham as "a paradigm of the man of faith."{{efn|{{harvnb|Jeffrey|1992|p=10}} states "St. Augustine, following Paul, regards all Christians as children (or "seed") of Abraham by faith, although "born of strangers" (e.g. In Joan. Ev. 108). St. Ambrose likewise says that by means of their faith Christians possess the promises made to Abraham. Abraham's initial departure from his homeland is understood by St. Caesarius of Arles as a type of Christian leaving the world of carnal habits to follow Christ. Later commentators as diverse as Luther and Kierkegaard recall Abraham as a paradigm of the man of faith. }}

The [[Roman Catholic Church]], the largest Christian denomination, calls Abraham "our father in Faith" in the [[Eucharistic prayer]] of the [[Roman Canon]], recited during the [[Mass in the Catholic Church|Mass]]. He is also commemorated in the [[calendar of saints|calendars of saints]] of several denominations: on 20 August by the [[Maronite Church]], 28 August in the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Church]] and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] (with the full [[daily office|office]] for the latter), and on 9 October by the Roman Catholic Church and the [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]].<ref name="LCMS"/> In the introduction to his 15th-century translation of the [[Golden Legend]]'s account of Abraham, [[William Caxton]] noted that this patriarch's life was read in church on [[Sunday before Lent|Quinquagesima Sunday]].<ref name="Caxton">{{cite web|last=Caxton|first=William|title=Abraham|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/goldenlegend/GoldenLegend-Volume1.asp#Abraham|website=The Golden Legend|publisher=Internet Medieval Source Book|access-date=3 April 2014}}</ref>
He is the [[patron saint]] of those in the hospitality industry.{{sfn|Holweck|1924|p=}}{{page needed|date=May 2017}} The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] commemorates him as the "Righteous Forefather Abraham", with two [[feast day]]s in its [[Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar|liturgical calendar]]. The first time is on 9 October (for those churches which follow the traditional [[Julian Calendar]], 9 October falls on 22 October of the modern [[Gregorian Calendar]]), where he is commemorated together with his nephew "Righteous Lot". The other is on the "Sunday of the Forefathers" (two Sundays before Christmas), when he is commemorated together with other [[Genealogy of Jesus|ancestors of Jesus]]. Abraham is also mentioned in the [[Divine Liturgy]] of [[Basil the Great]], just before the Anaphora, and Abraham and Sarah are invoked in the prayers said by the priest over a newly married couple.

Some Christian theologians equate the [[#Three visitors|"three visitors"]] with the Holy [[Trinity]], seeing in their apparition a [[theophany]] experienced by Abraham<ref name=Bucur>{{cite journal |last= Bucur |first= Bogdan G. |title= The Early Christian Reception of Genesis 18: From Theophany to Trinitarian Symbolism |year= 2015 |pages= 245–272 |journal=[[Journal of Early Christian Studies]] |volume= 23 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |location=[[Baltimore]], MD |number= 2 |doi= 10.1353/earl.2015.0020 |s2cid= 12888388 |url= https://www.duq.edu/assets/Documents/theology/_pdf/faculty-publications/Bucur%20publications/JECS%202015%20Genesis%2018.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.duq.edu/assets/Documents/theology/_pdf/faculty-publications/Bucur%20publications/JECS%202015%20Genesis%2018.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date= 1 June 2022}}</ref> (see also the articles on the [[Constantine the Great|Constantinian]] [[basilica]] at [[Mamre#Late Roman festival and Byzantine basilica|Mamre]] and the church at the so-called "[[Oak of Mamre]]").

Arie C. Leider considers Abraham's altars in Canaan in {{Bibleverse|Genesis|12:7-8}} to be a "declaration of YHWH's sovereignty and ownership of the land", even before Joshua distributed the land to the Israelite tribes. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Leder |first=Arie C. |date=2019 |title="There he built an altar to the Lord" (Gen 12:8): City and Altar Building in Genesis |url=http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1010-99192019000100004#:~:text=The%20altar%20constructions%20(Gen%2012,to%20salvation%20from%20the%20flood. |journal=Old Testament Essays |volume=32 |issue=1 |doi=10.17159/2312-3621/2019/v32n1a5 |via=SciELO|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Islam===
{{main|Abraham in Islam}}
[[File:Folios of a prophetic and heroic genealogy including an illustration of Abraham, from a manuscript of a Turkish translation of the 13th century cosmological text.jpg|thumb|Folios of a prophetic and heroic genealogy including an illustration of Abraham, from a manuscript of a Turkish translation of the 13th century cosmological text]]

Islam regards Ibrahim (Abraham) as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in [[Muhammad]] via Ismail (Ishmael).{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=8}}
''Ibrāhīm'' is mentioned in 35 [[chapters of the Quran]], more often than any other biblical personage apart from [[Moses in Islam|Moses]].{{sfn|Peters|2003|p=9}} He is called both a ''hanif'' ([[monotheist]]) and ''muslim'' (one who submits),{{sfn|Levenson|2012|p=200}} and Muslims regard him as a [[prophet]] and [[patriarch]], the archetype of the perfect [[Muslim]], and the revered reformer of the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]].{{sfn|Lings|2004|p=}} Islamic traditions consider Ibrāhīm the first Pioneer of Islam (which is also called ''millat Ibrahim'', the "religion of Abraham"), and that his purpose and mission throughout his life was to proclaim the [[Tawhid|Oneness of God]]. In Islam, Abraham holds an exalted position among the major prophets and he is referred to as "Ibrahim Khalilullah", meaning "Abraham the Friend of [[God in Islam|God]]".

Besides [[Islamic view of Isaac|Ishaq]] and [[Yaqub]], Ibrahim is among the most honorable and the most excellent men in sight of God.<ref>[[Quran 38:45–47]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.quranacademy.org/quran/38:45-47|title=Surah 38 Sad (The letter Saad). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy|website=en.quranacademy.org}}</ref>{{sfn|Maulana|2006|p=104}} Ibrahim was also mentioned in Quran as "Father of Muslims" and the role model for the community.<ref>[[Q22:78]] & [[Q60:4–6]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.quranacademy.org/quran/22:78|title=Surah 22 Al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy|website=en.quranacademy.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.quranacademy.org/quran/60:4-6|title=Surah 60 Al-Mumtahanah (She that is to be examined). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy|website=en.quranacademy.org}}</ref>

===Druze===
The [[Druze]] regard Abraham as the third spokesman (''natiq'') after [[Adam]] and [[Noah]], who helped transmit the foundational teachings of monotheism (''tawhid'') intended for the larger audience.{{sfn|Swayd|2009|p=3}} He is also among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history according to the Druze faith.<ref name="Hitti 1928 37">{{cite book|title=The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings| first= Philip K.|last= Hitti|year= 1928| isbn= 978-1465546623| page =37 |publisher=Library of Alexandria}}</ref><ref name="Dana 2008 17">{{cite book|title=The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status| first= Nissim |last= Dana|year= 2008| isbn= 9781903900369| page =17 |publisher=Michigan University press}}</ref>

===Mandaeism===
In [[Mandaeism]], Abraham ({{lang-myz|ࡀࡁࡓࡀࡄࡉࡌ|translit=Abrahim}}) is mentioned in [[s:Translation:Ginza Rabba/Right Ginza/Book 18|Book 18]] of the ''[[Right Ginza]]'' as the patriarch of the Jewish people. [[Mandaeans]] consider Abraham to have been originally a Mandaean priest, however they differ with Abraham and Jews regarding circumcision which they consider to be bodily mutilation and therefore forbidden.<ref name="GR Gelbert">{{cite book |url=https://livingwaterbooks.com.au/product/ginza-rba/ |last1=Gelbert |first1=Carlos |title=Ginza Rba |year=2011 |publisher=Living Water Books |location=Sydney |isbn=978-0958034630}}</ref><ref name="GR Lidzbarski">{{cite book|last=Lidzbarski|first=Mark|date=1925|title=Ginza: Der Schatz oder Das große Buch der Mandäer|location=Göttingen|publisher=Vandenhoek & Ruprecht|url=https://archive.org/details/MN41563ucmf_2}}</ref><ref name = DrowerHaranGawaita>{{cite book|last=Drower|first=Ethel Stefana|title=The Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa|publisher=Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana|year=1953}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite book|last=Drower|first=Ethel Stefana|title=The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran|publisher=Oxford At The Clarendon Press|year=1937}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Andrew Phillip|title=John the Baptist and the Last Gnostics: the Secret History of the Mandaeans|publisher=Watkins|year=2016}}</ref>{{rp|18,185}}

=== Baháʼí Faith ===
[[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]] consiered Abraham as a [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestation of God]], and as the originator of [[monotheistic]] religion.{{Sfn|Smith|2000|p=22, 231}} [[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]] states that Abraham was born in [[Mesopotamia]],{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|2014|p=10}} and [[Baháʼu'lláh|Bahá’u’lláh]] states that the language which Abraham spoke, when "he crossed the [[Jordan]]", is [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (''‘Ibrání''), so "the language of the crossing."{{Sfn|Baháʼu'lláh|1976|p=54}} To ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the Abraham was born to a family that was ignorant of the oneness of God.{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|2014|p=4}} Abraham opposed his own people and government, and even his own kin, he rejected all their gods, and, alone and single-handed, he withstood a powerful nation.{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|2014|p=4}} These people believed not in one God [[Polytheism|but in many gods]], to whom they ascribed miracles, and hence they all rose up against Abraham. No one supported him except his nephew [[Lot (biblical person)|Lot]] and "one or two other individuals of no consequence".{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|2014|p=4}} At last the intensity of his enemies' opposition obliged him, utterly wronged, to forsake his native land. Abraham then came to "these regions", that is, to the [[Holy Land]].{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|2014|p=4}} To Bahá’u’lláh, the "Voice of [[God in the Baháʼí Faith|God]]" commanded Abraham to offer up [[Ishmael]] as a sacrifice, so that his steadfastness in the faith of God and his detachment from all else but him may be demonstrated unto men. The purpose of God, moreover, was to sacrifice him as a ransom for the sins and iniquities of all the peoples of the earth.{{Sfn|Baháʼu'lláh|1976|p=23}} 

In the Baháʼí texts, like the Islamic texts, Abraham is often referred to as "the Friend of God".{{Sfn|Smith|2000|p=22}} ‘Abdu’l-Bahá described Abraham as the founder of monotheism.{{sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|1978|p=22}}

ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also suggested the "holy manifestations who have been the sources or founders of the various religious systems" were united and agreed in purpose and teaching, and the Abraham, [[Moses]], [[Zoroaster]], [[the Buddha]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]], the [[Báb]] and Bahá’u’lláh are one in "spirit and reality".{{Sfn|ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|1912|p=118}}

== In the arts ==

===Painting and sculpture===
[[File:Isaac sarcifice Pio Christiano Inv31648.jpg|thumb|left|16th-century plaster cast of a late-Roman-era [[Sacrifice of Isaac]]. The hand of God originally came down to restrain Abraham's knife (both are now missing).]]

Paintings on the life of Abraham tend to focus on only a few incidents: the sacrifice of Isaac; meeting Melchizedek; entertaining the three angels; Hagar in the desert; and a few others.{{efn|name=Abeart}} Additionally, Martin O'Kane, a professor of Biblical Studies, writes that the parable of [[Rich man and Lazarus|Lazarus]] resting in the "[[Bosom of Abraham]]", as described in the [[Gospel of Luke]], became an iconic image in Christian works.{{sfn|Exum|2007|p=135}} According to O'Kane, artists often chose to divert from the common literary portrayal of Lazarus sitting next to Abraham at a banquet in Heaven and instead focus on the "somewhat incongruous notion of Abraham, the most venerated of patriarchs, holding a naked and vulnerable child in his bosom".{{sfn|Exum|2007|p=135}} Several artists have been inspired by the life of Abraham, including [[Albrecht Dürer]] (1471–1528), [[Caravaggio]] (1573–1610), [[Donatello]], [[Raphael]], [[Anthony van Dyck|Philip van Dyck]] (Dutch painter, 1680–1753), and [[Claude Lorrain]] (French painter, 1600–1682). [[Rembrandt]] (Dutch, 1606–1669) created at least seven works on Abraham, [[Peter Paul Rubens]] (1577–1640) did several, [[Marc Chagall]] did at least five on Abraham, Gustave Doré (French illustrator, 1832–1883) did six, and [[James Tissot]] (French painter and illustrator, 1836–1902) did over twenty works on the subject.{{efn|name=Abeart}}

The [[Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus]] depicts a set of biblical stories, including Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac. These sculpted scenes are on the outside of a marble [[Early Christian art|Early Christian]] [[sarcophagus]] used for the burial of [[Junius Bassus Theotecnius|Junius Bassus]]. He died in 359. This sarcophagus has been described as "probably the single most famous piece of early Christian relief sculpture."{{sfn|Rutgers|1993|p=}} The sarcophagus was originally placed in or under [[Old St. Peter's Basilica]], was rediscovered in 1597, and is now below the modern basilica in the Museo Storico del Tesoro della Basilica di San Pietro (Museum of [[St. Peter's Basilica]]) in the [[Vatican City|Vatican]]. The base is approximately {{convert|4|x|8|x|4|ft|m|abbr=on}}. The [[Old Testament]] scenes depicted were chosen as precursors of Christ's sacrifice in the [[New Testament]], in an early form of [[Typology (theology)|typology]]. Just to the right of the middle is Daniel in the lion's den and on the left is Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac.

[[George Segal (artist)|George Segal]] created figural sculptures by molding plastered gauze strips over live models in his 1987 work ''Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael''. The human condition was central to his concerns, and Segal used the Old Testament as a source for his imagery. This sculpture depicts the dilemma faced by Abraham when Sarah demanded that he expel Hagar and Ishmael. In the sculpture, the father's tenderness, Sarah's rage, and Hagar's resigned acceptance portray a range of human emotions. The sculpture was donated to the Miami Art Museum after the artist's death in 2000.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110429085513/http://www.miamiartmuseum.org/collection-selected-segalgeorge.asp Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael. ''George Segal.'' Miami Art Museum. Collections: Recent Acquisitions.]. Retrieved 10 September 2014.</ref>

===Christian iconography===
[[File:Праведни Авраам и прaведни (покајани) разбојник у рају, живопис у светој обитељи Грачаница, Србија.jpg|thumb|Abraham in paradise, [[Gračanica Monastery]], [[Serbia]]]]
Abraham can sometimes be identified by the context of the image{{snd}} the meeting with [[Melchizedek]], [[:commons:Category:Abraham and three angels|the three visitors]], or [[:commons:Category:Sacrifice of Isaac|the sacrifice of Isaac]]. In solo portraits a sword or knife may be used as his accessory, as in [[:commons:File:AbrahamMorlaiterJRS.JPG|this statue]] by [[Giovanni Maria Morlaiter]] or [[:commons:File:AbrahamMonacoJRS.jpg|this painting]] by [[Lorenzo Monaco]]. The Bible describes him as an “older” person, and beardless.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theholyscript.com/what-did-abraham-look-like-in-the-bible/|title=What did abraham look like in the bible? - The holy script|date=24 March 2023}}</ref>

As early as the beginning of the 3rd century, Christian art followed Christian [[Typology (theology)#Offering of Isaac|typology]] in making the sacrifice of Isaac a foreshadowing of Christ's sacrifice on the cross, and its memorial in the sacrifice of the Mass. See for example [[:commons:File:AltarFuldaClunyJRS.jpg|this 11th-century Christian altar]] engraved with Abraham's and other sacrifices taken to prefigure that of Christ in the Eucharist.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.christianiconography.info/abraham.html |title=Abraham the Patriarch in Art – Iconography and Literature | publisher=Christian Iconography – a project of [[Georgia Regents University]]. |access-date=2014-04-18}}</ref>

Some early Christian writers interpreted the three visitors as the [[triune God]]. Thus in [[Santa Maria Maggiore]], Rome, [[:commons:File:HospitalityAbrahamSMMaggioreJRS.jpg|a 5th-century mosaic]] portrays only the visitors against a [[gold ground]] and puts semitransparent copies of them in the "heavenly" space above the scene. In Eastern Orthodox art, the visit is the chief means by which the Trinity is pictured ([[:commons:File:Russian - Hospitality of Abraham - Walters 371185.jpg|example]]). Some images do not include Abraham and Sarah, like Andrei Rublev's ''Trinity'', which shows only the three visitors as beardless youths at a table.<ref name=Boguslawski>{{cite web|last=Boguslawski|first=Alexander|title=The Holy Trinity|url=http://myweb.rollins.edu/aboguslawski/Ruspaint/trinity.html|publisher=Rollins.edu|access-date=3 April 2014}}</ref>

===Literature===
''[[Fear and Trembling]]'' (original [[Danish language|Danish]] title: ''Frygt og Bæven'') is an influential philosophical work by [[Søren Kierkegaard]], published in 1843 under the pseudonym ''Johannes de silentio'' (''John the Silent''). Kierkegaard wanted to understand the anxiety that must have been present in Abraham when God asked him to sacrifice his son.{{sfn|Kierkegaard|1980|pp=155–156}} [[W. G. Hardy]]'s novel ''Father Abraham'' (1935) tells the fictionalized life story of Abraham.<ref>{{cite news|title=Abraham's Quest For God|last=Allison|first=W. T.|date=26 January 1935|newspaper=Winnipeg Tribune|location=Winnipeg, Manitoba|page=39|url=https://newspaperarchive.com/sports-clipping-jan-26-1935-1458299/}}{{free access}}</ref> In her short story collection ''[[Sarah and After]]'', [[Lynne Reid Banks]] tells the story of Abraham and Sarah, with an emphasis on Sarah's view of events.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sutherland |first=Zena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UxgsBHor_LgC&dq=%22Sarah+and+After%22+Lynne+Reid+Banks&pg=PA28 |title=The Best in Children's Books: The University of Chicago Guide to Children's Literature, 1973–78 |date=1980 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-78059-7 |page=28 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Music ===
In 1681, [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]] released a Dramatic motet (Oratorio), ''Sacrificim Abrahae'' H.402 – 402 a – 402 b, for soloists, chorus, doubling instruments and continuo. [[Sébastien de Brossard]] composed a [[cantata]] ''Abraham ou le sacrifice d'Isaac.'' between 1703 and 1708.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.opera-scores.com/O/S%C3%A9bastien+de+Brossard/Abraham+ou+le+sacrifice+d'Isaac.html#:~:text=Composer:+Brossard+S%C3%A9bastien+de+Full,full+scores+in+pdf|title=Cantata: Abraham ou le sacrifice d'Isaac Sébastien de Brossard. Sheet music|website=en.opera-scores.com}}</ref>

In 1994, [[Steve Reich]] released an opera named ''[[The Cave (opera)|The Cave]]''. The title refers to the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]]. The narrative of the opera is based on the story of Abraham, and his immediate family, as it is recounted in religious texts, and understood by individuals from different cultures and religious traditions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reich |first=Steve |date=1990 |title=The Cave - Steve Reich Composer |url=https://stevereich.com/composition/the-cave/ |website=stevereich.com}}</ref>

[[Bob Dylan]]'s "[[Highway 61 Revisited (song)|Highway 61 Revisited]]"<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bobdylan.com/songs/highway-61-revisited/|title=Highway 61 Revisited &#124; The Official Bob Dylan Site|website=www.bobdylan.com}}</ref> is the title track for his 1965 album ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]''. In 2004, ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine ranked the song as number 364 in their [[Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time|500 Greatest Songs of All Time]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/news/coverstory/500songs/page/4|access-date=8 August 2008|url-status=dead| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080913125603/http://www.rollingstone.com/news/coverstory/500songs/page/4| archive-date= 13 September 2008}}</ref> The song has five stanzas. In each stanza, someone describes an unusual problem that is ultimately resolved on Highway 61. In Stanza 1, [[God in Abrahamic religions|God]] tells Abraham to "[[Binding of Isaac|kill me a son]]". God wants the killing done on Highway 61. Abram, the original name of the biblical Abraham, is also the name of Dylan's own father.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.duluthnewstribune.com/lifestyle/arts-and-entertainment/from-odessa-to-duluth-the-journey-of-bob-dylans-grandparents|title=From Odessa to Duluth: The journey of Bob Dylan's grandparents|date=28 March 2022|website=Duluth News Tribune}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Judaism|Christianity|Islam}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Abraham I (disambiguation)|Abraham I]], [[Abraham II (disambiguation)|II]], [[Abraham III (disambiguation)|III]] (disambiguations)
* [[Abraham Path]]
* [[Abraham's Gate]] at [[Tel Dan]]
* [[Apocalypse of Abraham]]
* [[Book of Abraham]]
* [[Nimrod#Nimrod vs. Abraham|Nimrod vs. Abraham]]
* [[Gathering of Israel]]
* [[Genealogies of Genesis]]
* [[Shu-Enlil|Ibarum]]
* [[Ibrium]]
* [[List of oldest fathers]]
* [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)]]
* [[Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions]]
}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist|30em|refs=

{{efn|name=Abeart|For a very thorough online collection of links to artwork about Abraham see: {{cite web|url=http://www.jesuswalk.com/abraham/abraham-artwork.htm |title=Artwork Depicting Scenes from Abraham's Life|access-date= 25 March 2011}} }}

}}

== References ==
{{reflist|20em}}

== Bibliography ==
<!--ALPHABETICAL Last Name Order - -->
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}<!-- this template needs {{refend}} at end of this section -->
* {{cite book |author=ʻAbdu'l-Bahá |author-link=ʻAbdu'l-Bahá |url=http://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/abdul-baha/some-answered-questions |title=Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu’l‑Bahá|publisher=Baháʼí World Centre|year=1978|editor-last=Barney |editor-first=Research Department of the Universal House of Justice|translator=Bahá’í World Centre and by Gail, Marzieh}}
* {{cite book |author=ʻAbdu'l-Bahá |author-link=ʻAbdu'l-Bahá |url=http://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/abdul-baha/some-answered-questions |title=Some Answered Questions |publisher=Baháʼí World Centre |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-87743-374-3 |editor-last=Barney |editor-first=Laura Clifford |edition=Newly revised |location=Haifa, Israel |orig-year=1908}}{{source-attribution}}
* {{cite book |author=ʻAbdu'l-Bahá |author-link=ʻAbdu'l-Bahá |url=https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/abdul-baha/promulgation-universal-peace/ |title=The Promulgation of Universal Peace |date=1912 |publisher= |isbn= |editor-last=MacNutt |editor-first=Howard |location= |translator= |translator-link=}}
* {{cite book |author=Baháʼu'lláh |author-link=Baháʼu'lláh |url=https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/bahaullah/gleanings-writings-bahaullah |title=Gleanings from the Writings of Baháʼu'lláh |date=1976 |publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust |isbn=0-87743-187-6 |editor-last=[[Shogi Effendi]] |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |translator=Shoghi Effendi |translator-link=}}
* {{cite book |last1= Carr |first1= David M. |author-link1= David M. Carr |last2= Conway |first2= Colleen M. |title= An Introduction to the Bible: Sacred Texts and Imperial Contexts |chapter= Introduction to the Pentateuch |publisher= John Wiley & Sons |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dJerjvlxCHsC |year= 2010 |isbn= 978-1405167383 }}
* {{cite book |last=Dever |first=William G. |author-link=William G. Dever |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and when Did They Know It?: What Archaeology Can Tell Us about the Reality of Ancient Israel |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC&q=%22respectable+archaeologists%22&pg=PA98 |year=2001 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2126-3 }}
* {{cite book |last= Enns |first= Peter | author-link= Peter Enns |title= The Evolution of Adam |year= 2012 |publisher= Baker Books |isbn=978-1-58743-315-3 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BNxeoqoTg-YC }}
* {{cite book |last=Exum |first=Jo Cheryl |author-link= J. Cheryl Exum|title=Retellings: The Bible in Literature, Music, Art and Film |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=4bTVrpXSXe8C&q=Biblical+Art+Abraham&pg=PA135 |year=2007 |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-16572-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Ginzberg |first=Louis| author-link=Louis Ginzberg |translator=Henrietta Szold|title=The Legends of the Jews|year=1909|url=http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends%20of%20the%20Jews.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends%20of%20the%20Jews.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|location=Philadelphia|publisher=[[Jewish Publication Society]] }}
* {{cite book |last1=Holweck |first1=Frederick George | author-link=Frederick George Holweck |title=A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints |year=1924 |publisher=B. Herder Book Co }}
* {{cite book|author=Jasher|date= 1840|title= The Book of Jasher|publisher=Noah and Gould|location=New York|editor=|url=https://archive.org/details/thebookofjasher1840/page/n55/mode/2up|display-authors=0}}
* {{cite book|last=Jeffrey|first=David Lyle |author-link=David Lyle Jeffrey|title=A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zD6xVr1CizIC&pg=PA10|year=1992|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-3634-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kierkegaard |first1=Søren |author-link1=Søren Kierkegaard |title=The Concept of Anxiety: A Simple Psychologically Orienting Deliberation on the Dogmatic Issue of Hereditary Sin |url= https://archive.org/details/conceptofanxiety0000kier |url-access=registration |year=1980 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02011-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Levenson |first=Jon Douglas | author-link= Jon D. Levenson |title=Inheriting Abraham: The Legacy of the Patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam |year=2012 |publisher=Princeton University Press |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=EUO2Mhd-drcC&q=Inheriting+Abraham |isbn=978-0691155692 }}
* {{cite book|last=Lings|first=Martin |title=Mecca: From Before Genesis Until Now|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1JAwAAAAYAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Archetype|isbn=978-1-901383-07-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Maulana|first=Mohammad |title=Encyclopaedia of Quranic Studies (Set of 26 Vols.)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vFskAQAAIAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Anmol Publications|isbn=978-81-261-2771-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=McCarter |first1=P. Kyle |author-link=P. Kyle McCarter Jr. |chapter=Abraham |editor1-last=Freedman |editor1-first=Noel David |editor-link1=David Noel Freedman |editor2-last=Myers |editor2-first=Allen C. |title=Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |year=2000 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&q=Abraham+Isaac+Ishmael&pg=PA8 |isbn=978-90-5356-503-2 |pages=8–10 }}
* {{cite book |last=McNutt |first=Paula M. |title=Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=hd28MdGNyTYC&q=Abraham+patriarchal+%22known+history%22&pg=PA41 |year=1999 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-22265-9 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Mendes-Flohr |given=Paul |author-link=Paul R. Mendes-Flohr |editor=Thomas Riggs |title=Judaism |year=2005 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/judaism/judaism/judaism |via=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |encyclopedia=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices |place=Farmington Hills, Mi |publisher=Thomson Gale |volume=1 |isbn=978-0787666118}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Megan Bishop |last2=Kelle |first2=Brad E. |year=2011 |title=Biblical History and Israel's Past |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&q=Thompson+%22Van+Seters%22&pg=PA19 |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Pub. Company |isbn=978-0-8028-6260-0 |oclc=693560718}}
* {{cite book |last=Peters |first=Francis Edward|author-link=Francis Edward Peters |title=Islam, a Guide for Jews and Christians |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HYJ2c9E9IM8C&pg=PA9|year=2003|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-1400825486 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pitard |first1=Wayne T. |chapter=Before Israel |editor1-last=Coogan |editor1-first=Michael D. |title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C&q=oral+tradition&pg=PA27 |isbn=978-0-19-513937-2 }}
* {{cite journal|last1=Rutgers|first1=Leonard Victor|title=''The Iconography of the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus'' (review)|journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies|volume=1|issue=1|year=1993|pages=94–96|issn=1086-3184|doi=10.1353/earl.0.0155|s2cid=170301601}}
* {{cite book|last=Ska |first=Jean Louis |title=Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch |year=2006 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=978-1-57506-122-1 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7cdy67ZvzdkC}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ska |first1=Jean Louis |title=The Exegesis of the Pentateuch: Exegetical Studies and Basic Questions |year=2009 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7g4yqsv0S0cC&pg=PA30 |isbn=978-3-16-149905-0 }}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Nq9lD5wnBMC&q=abraham+druze&pg=PA3|title=The a to Z of the Druzes|isbn=978-0810868366|last1=Swayd|first1=Samy S.|year=2009|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith | first=Peter |author-link=Peter Smith (historian) |date=2000 |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |isbn=978-1780744803|access-date=December 26, 2020|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYfrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT71}}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Thomas L. |title=The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG]] |author-link=Thomas L. Thompson |location=Berlin/Boston |year=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0iHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |isbn=978-3-11-084144-2 |orig-date=1974 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Waters|first1=Guy P.|last2=Reid|first2=J. Nicholas |last3=Muether|first3=John R. |title=Covenant Theology: Biblical, Theological, and Historical Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gAEAAAQBAJ|year=2020|publisher=Crossway|isbn=978-1-4335-6006-4|quote=Paul also shows us how the Abrahamic covenant relates to the covenantal administrations that precede and follow it. ... There is, then, covenantal continuity between the inaugural administration of God's one gracious covenant in the garden of Eden (Gen. 3:15) and the subsequent administration of that covenant to Abraham and his family (Gen. 12; 15; 17). The Abrahamic administration serves to reveal more of the person and work of Christ and, in this way, continue to administer Christ to human beings through faith."}}
* {{cite book|last=Wright|first=Christopher J. H. |author-link=Christopher J. H. Wright|title=The Mission of God's People: A Biblical Theology of the Church's Mission|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_2QnrMdwNQC&pg=PA72|year=2010|publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-310-32303-7}}
{{refend}}<!-- PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE THIS TEMPLATE -->

== External links ==
{{EBD poster|wstitle=Abraham}}
{{EB1911 poster|Abraham}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Abraham (Biblical figure)}}
* [http://www.azamra.org/Earth/mount-03.html Abraham smashes the idols] (accessed 24 March 2011).
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2890 "Journey and Life of the Patriarch Abraham"], a map dating back to 1590.
* [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KI/ki-1.html Kitáb-i-Íqán]

{{Legendary progenitors}}
{{Adam to Jesus}}
{{Prophets of the Tanakh}}
{{Book of Genesis}}
{{Catholic saints}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Abraham| ]]
[[Category:21st-century BC people]]
[[Category:Angelic visionaries]]
[[Category:Biblical patriarchs]]
[[Category:Book of Genesis people]]
[[Category:Christian saints from the Old Testament]]
[[Category:Converts to Judaism from paganism]]
[[Category:Founders of religions]]
[[Category:Lech-Lecha]]
[[Category:People from Harran]]
[[Category:People whose existence is disputed]]
[[Category:Prophets in the Druze faith]]
[[Category:Slave owners]]
[[Category:Ur of the Chaldees]]
[[Category:Vayeira]]