Rome

===Middle Ages===
{{Further|Fall of the Western Roman Empire}}
[[File:Genseric sacking rome 456.jpg|thumb|The [[Vandals]] [[Sack of Rome (455)|sacking Rome in 455]], by [[Karl Briullov]] (1830s)]]

After the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in 476 AD, Rome was first under the control of [[Odoacer]] and then became part of the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]] before returning to [[Byzantine Empire|East Roman]] control after the [[Gothic War (535–554)|Gothic War]], which devastated the city [[Sack of Rome (546)|in 546]] and [[Siege of Rome (549–550)|550]]. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to 500,000 in 273<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |url=http://www.mandatory.com/2013/01/24/the-16-greatest-cities-in-human-history/9 |title=travel, history, civilizations, greatest cities, largest cities, Rome |publisher=Mandatory |date=24 January 2013 |access-date=12 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130130090938/http://www.mandatory.com/2013/01/24/the-16-greatest-cities-in-human-history/9 |archive-date=30 January 2013}}</ref> to 35,000 after the Gothic War (535–554),<ref>{{cite book |last=Tellier |first=Luc-Normand |title=Urban World History: An Economic and Geographical Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=PA185 |year=2009 |publisher=PUQ |isbn=978-2-7605-2209-1 |page=185 |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=13 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513083650/https://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=PA185 |url-status=live}}</ref> reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins, vegetation, vineyards and market gardens.<ref>Norman John Greville Pounds. ''An Historical Geography of Europe 450 B.C.–A.D. 1330''. p. 192.</ref> It is generally thought the population of the city until 300 AD was 1 million (estimates range from 2 million to 750,000) declining to 750–800,000 in 400 AD, 450–500,000 in 450 AD and down to 80–100,000 in 500 AD (though it may have been twice this).<ref>''Rome in Late Antiquity'', Bernard Lancon, 2001, pp.&nbsp;14, pp. 115–119 {{ISBN|0-415-92976-8}}; ''Rome Profile of a City'', Richard Krautheimer, 2000, pp.&nbsp;4, 65 {{ISBN|0-691-04961-0}}; ''Ancient Rome, The Archaeology of the Eternal City'', Editors Jon Coulston and Hazel Dodge, pp. 142–165 {{ISBN|978-0-947816-55-1}}</ref>

The Bishop of Rome, called the [[Pope]], was important since the early days of Christianity because of the martyrdom of both the apostles [[Simon Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] there. The Bishops of Rome were also seen (and still are seen by Catholics) as the successors of Peter, who is considered the first Bishop of Rome. The city thus became of increasing importance as the centre of the [[Catholic Church]].

After the [[Lombard invasion of Italy#Invasion and conquest of the Italian peninsula|Lombard invasion of Italy]] (569–572), the city remained nominally Byzantine, but in reality, the popes pursued a policy of equilibrium between [[Byzantine Empire|the Byzantines]], the [[Franks]], and the [[Lombards]].{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=19}} In 729, the Lombard king [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards|Liutprand]] donated the north Latium town of [[Sutri]] to the Church, starting its temporal power.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=19}} In 756, [[Pepin the Short]], after having defeated the Lombards, gave the Pope temporal jurisdiction over the Roman Duchy and the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]], thus creating the [[Papal States]].{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=19}} Since this period, three powers tried to rule the city: the pope, the nobility (together with the chiefs of militias, the judges, the Senate and the populace), and the Frankish king, as king of the Lombards, patricius, and Emperor.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=19}} These three parties (theocratic, republican, and imperial) were a characteristic of Roman life during the entire Middle Ages.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=19}} On Christmas night of 800, [[Charlemagne]] was crowned in Rome as emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] by [[Pope Leo III]]: on that occasion, the city hosted for the first time the two powers whose struggle for control was to be a constant of the Middle Ages.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=19}}

[[File:Detail coronation Charles the Great (Francis 1st of France) by Pope Leo III (Leo X) Vatican 11.jpg|left|thumb|Detail from an illustration by [[Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino|Raphael]], portraying the crowning of [[Charlemagne]] in [[Old Saint Peter's Basilica]], on 25 December 800]]
In 846, Muslim Arabs [[Arab raid against Rome|unsuccessfully stormed the city's walls]], but managed to loot [[Old St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter]]'s and St. Paul's basilica, both outside the city wall.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/06/eust/ht06eust.htm |title=Italian Peninsula, 500–1000 A.D. |date=5 December 2008 |website=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art|The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205030647/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/06/eust/ht06eust.htm |archive-date=5 December 2008 |url-status=dead |access-date=22 August 2019}}</ref> After the decay of [[Carolingian Empire|Carolingian power]], Rome fell prey to feudal chaos: several noble families fought against the pope, the emperor, and each other. These were the times of [[Theodora (senatrix)|Theodora]] and her daughter [[Marozia]], concubines and mothers of several popes, and of [[Crescentius the Younger|Crescentius]], a powerful feudal lord, who fought against the Emperors [[Otto II]] and [[Otto III]].{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=20}} The scandals of this period forced the papacy to reform itself: the election of the pope was reserved to the cardinals, and reform of the clergy was attempted. The driving force behind this renewal was the monk [[Ildebrando da Soana]], who once elected pope under the name of [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]] became involved into the [[Investiture Controversy]] against Emperor [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]].{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=20}} Subsequently, Rome [[Sack of Rome (1084)|was sacked and burned]] by the [[Normans]] under [[Robert Guiscard]] who had entered the city in support of the Pope, then besieged in [[Castel Sant'Angelo]].{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=20}}

During this period, the city was autonomously ruled by a ''senatore'' or ''patrizio''. In the 12th century, this administration, like other European cities, evolved into the [[Medieval commune|commune]], a new form of social organisation controlled by the new wealthy classes.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=20}} Pope [[Lucius II]] fought against the Roman commune, and the struggle was continued by his successor [[Pope Eugenius III]]: by this stage, the commune, allied with the aristocracy, was supported by [[Arnaldo da Brescia]], a monk who was a religious and social reformer.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=21}} After the pope's death, Arnaldo was taken prisoner by [[Adrianus IV]], which marked the end of the commune's autonomy.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=21}} Under [[Pope Innocent III]], whose reign marked the apogee of the papacy, the commune liquidated the senate, and replaced it with a ''Senatore'', who was subject to the pope.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=21}}

In this period, the papacy played a role of secular importance in [[Western Europe]], often acting as arbitrators between Christian [[monarch]]s and exercising additional political powers.<ref name="Faus">Faus, José Ignacio Gonzáles. "''Autoridade da Verdade – Momentos Obscuros do Magistério Eclesiástico''". Capítulo VIII: Os papas repartem terras – Pág.: 64–65 e Capítulo VI: O papa tem poder temporal absoluto – Pág.: 49–55. Edições Loyola. {{ISBN|85-15-01750-4}}. Embora Faus critique profundamente o poder temporal dos papas ("''Mais uma vez isso salienta um dos maiores inconvenientes do status político dos sucessores de Pedro''" – pág.: 64), ele também admite um papel secular positivo por parte dos papas ("''Não podemos negar que intervenções papais desse gênero evitaram mais de uma guerra na Europa''" – pág.: 65).</ref><ref name="Papal Arbitration">{{cathEncy|wstitle=Papal Arbitration |author=Jarrett, Bede}}</ref><ref>Such as regulating the [[colonization]] of the [[New World]]. See [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] and [[Inter caetera]].</ref>

In 1266, [[Charles of Anjou]], who was heading south to fight the [[Hohenstaufen]] on behalf of the pope, was appointed Senator. Charles founded the [[Sapienza University of Rome|Sapienza]], the university of Rome.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=21}} In that period the pope died, and the cardinals, summoned in [[Viterbo]], could not agree on his successor. This angered the people of the city, who then unroofed the building where they met and imprisoned them until they had nominated the new pope; this marked the birth of the [[conclave]].{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=21}} In this period the city was also shattered by continuous fights between the aristocratic families: [[Annibaldi family|Annibaldi]], [[Caetani]], [[Colonna family|Colonna]], [[Orsini family|Orsini]], [[Conti di Segni|Conti]], nested in their fortresses built above ancient Roman edifices, fought each other to control the papacy.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=21}}
[[File:Giorgio Vasar retour idéalisé de Grégoire XI à Rome.jpg|thumb|Pope [[Gregory XI]] returned to Rome in 1376 and ended the [[Avignon Papacy]].]]

[[Pope Boniface VIII]], born Caetani, was the last pope to fight for the church's [[universal domain]]; he proclaimed a crusade against the [[Colonna family]] and, in 1300, called for the first [[Jubilee (Christianity)|Jubilee of Christianity]], which brought millions of [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrims]] to Rome.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=21}} However, his hopes were crushed by the French king [[Philip IV of France|Philip the Fair]], who took him prisoner and killed him in [[Anagni]].{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=21}} Afterwards, a new pope faithful to the French was elected, and the papacy was [[Avignon papacy|briefly relocated]] to [[Avignon]] (1309–1377).{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=22}} During this period Rome was neglected, until a plebeian man, [[Cola di Rienzo]], came to power.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=22}} An idealist and a lover of ancient Rome, Cola dreamed about a rebirth of the Roman Empire: after assuming power with the title of ''[[Tribune|Tribuno]]'', his reforms were rejected by the populace.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=22}} Forced to flee, Cola returned as part of the entourage of Cardinal [[Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz|Albornoz]], who was charged with restoring the Church's power in Italy.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=22}} Back in power for a short time, Cola was soon lynched by the populace, and Albornoz took possession of the city. In 1377, Rome became the seat of the papacy again under [[Gregory XI]].{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=22}} The return of the pope to Rome in that year unleashed the [[Western Schism]] (1377–1418), and for the next forty years, the city was affected by the divisions which rocked the Church.{{sfn | Bertarelli | 1925 | p=22}}