Polytheism Warning: You are not logged in. Your IP address will be publicly visible if you make any edits. If you log in or create an account, your edits will be attributed to your username, along with other benefits.Anti-spam check. Do not fill this in! ==Modern religions== {{Further|Theology|Pantheon (gods)|Euhemerism|Interpretatio graeca|Demigod|Apotheosis}} ===Buddhism=== {{Further|God in Buddhism|Deva (Buddhism)|Nontheism#Buddhism}} [[Buddhism]] is typically classified as [[non-theistic]],<ref name="O'Brien">{{cite web |url=https://www.learnreligions.com/gods-in-buddhism-449762 |title=The Role of Gods and Deities in Buddhism |last=O'Brien |first=Barbara |date= |website=Learn Religions |access-date=2021-03-31}}</ref> but depending on the type of Buddhism practiced, it may be seen as polytheistic as it at least acknowledges the existence of multiple gods. The Buddha is a leader figure but is not meant to be worshipped as a god. [[Deva (Buddhism)|Devas]], a Sanskrit word for ''gods'', are also not meant to be worshipped. They are not immortal and have limited powers. They may have been humans who had positive [[karma]] in their life and were reborn as a deva.<ref>{{cite book |last=Trainor |first=Kevin |date=2004 |title=Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=62}}</ref> A common Buddhist practice is [[tantra]], which is the use of rituals to achieve enlightenment. Tantra focuses on seeing yourself as a deity, and the use of deities as symbols rather than supernatural agents.<ref name="O'Brien"/> Buddhism is most closely aligned with polytheism when it is linked with other religions, often folk religions. For example, the Japanese [[Shinto]] religion, in which deities called [[kami]] are worshipped, is sometimes mixed with Buddhism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://japanology.org/2016/06/buddhism-and-shinto-the-two-pillars-of-japanese-culture |title=Buddhism and Shinto: The Two Pillars of Japanese Culture |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2016-06-20 |website=Japanology |access-date=2021-04-14 |archive-date=2021-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415203649/https://japanology.org/2016/06/buddhism-and-shinto-the-two-pillars-of-japanese-culture/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Christianity=== {{See also|God in Christianity|Trinity}} Although Christianity is usually described as a monotheistic religion,<ref>{{cite book |title= Christianity: A Very Short Introduction|last= Woodhead|first= Linda |year= 2004|publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford|pages= n.p}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/monotheism#ref38222 |title = Monotheism | Definition, Types, Examples, & Facts| date=24 May 2023 }}</ref> it is sometimes claimed that Christianity is not truly monotheistic because of its idea of the [[Trinity]].<ref>''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (1974) art. "Monotheism"</ref> The Trinity believes that God consists of [[God the Father|the Father]], [[God the Son|the Son]] and the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]]. Because the deity is three persons, some people believe Christianity should be considered a form of [[Tritheism]] or Polytheism.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/educational-and-liturgical-materials/classic-articles/966-fisher2010/./|title= Typical Jewish Misunderstandings of Christianity|website= Council of Centers on Jewish-Christian Relations|access-date= June 8, 2018|archive-date= June 12, 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180612135846/http://www.ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/educational-and-liturgical-materials/classic-articles/966-fisher2010/|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://thedebateinitiative.com/2014/12/08/muslims-reject-the-trinity-because-they-do-understand-it/./|title=Muslims reject the Trinity because they do understand it|website=thedebateinitiative|access-date= June 8, 2018}}</ref> Christians contend that "one God exists in Three Persons and One Substance,"<ref name="odcc-trin">''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (1974) art. "Trinity, Doctrine of the"</ref> but that a deity cannot be a person, who has one individual identity. Christianity inherited the idea of one God from Judaism, and maintains that its monotheistic doctrine is central to the faith. [[File:Llanbeblig_Hours_(f._4v.)_God,_The_Holy_Spirit,_and_Christ_Crucified.jpg|thumb|It is sometimes claimed that Christianity is not truly monotheistic because of its idea of the [[Trinity]]]] Jordan Paper, a Western scholar and self-described polytheist, considers polytheism to be the normal state in human culture. He argues that "Even the Catholic Church shows polytheistic aspects with the 'veneration' of the saints." On the other hand, he complains, monotheistic missionaries and scholars were eager to see a proto-monotheism or at least [[henotheism]] in polytheistic religions, for example, when taking from the Chinese pair of Sky and Earth only one part and calling it the ''King of Heaven'', as [[Matteo Ricci]] did.<ref>Jordan Paper: The Deities are Many. A Polytheistic Theology. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005, pp. 112 and 133.</ref> In 1508, a London [[Lollard]] named William Pottier was accused of believing in six gods.<ref name="Royal Milton 2020 p. 44">{{cite book | last1=Royal | first1=S. | last2=Milton | first2=A. | title=Lollards in the English Reformation: History, radicalism, and John Foxe | publisher=Manchester University Press | series=Politics, Culture and Society in Early Modern Britain | year=2020 | isbn=978-1-5261-2882-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNDKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44 | access-date=2023-02-23 | page=44}}</ref> ====Mormonism==== <!-- Do not cite religious texts as sources for theological statements; reliable secondary sources are required. See [[WP:PRIMARY]] for more details --> {{Further|God in Mormonism}} [[Joseph Smith]], the founder of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], believed in "the plurality of Gods", saying "I have always declared God to be a distinct personage, Jesus Christ a separate and distinct personage from God the Father, and that the Holy Ghost was a distinct personage and a Spirit: and these three constitute three distinct personages and three Gods".<ref>{{citation |contribution-url= http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Godhead |contribution= Godhead |last= Dahl |first= Paul E. |pages= 552–553 |editor-last= Ludlow |editor-first= Daniel H |editor-link= Daniel H. Ludlow |year= 1992 |title= Encyclopedia of Mormonism |location= New York |publisher= [[Macmillan Publishing]] |isbn= 0-02-879602-0 |oclc= 24502140 |title-link= Encyclopedia of Mormonism }}</ref> Mormonism, which emerged from Protestantism, <ref name="Bowen 2005 p. 26">{{cite book | last=Bowen | first=K. | title=Christians in a Secular World: The Canadian Experience | publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press | series=McGill-Queen's Studies in the History of Religion | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-7735-2712-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__38sGZLrvYC&pg=PA26 | access-date=2022-11-13 | page=26}}</ref> teaches [[Exaltation (Mormonism)|exaltation]] defined as the idea that people can become like god in the afterlife.<ref>{{citation |contribution-url= http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Exaltation |contribution= Exaltation |last= Pope |first= Margaret McConkie |page= 479 |title= Encyclopedia of Mormonism |title-link= Encyclopedia of Mormonism |access-date= 2014-11-12 |archive-date= 2017-10-19 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171019112135/http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Exaltation |url-status= dead }}</ref> Mormonism also affirms the existence of a [[Heavenly Mother (Mormonism)|Heavenly Mother]],<ref>{{citation |contribution-url= http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Heavenly_Mother |contribution= Mother in Heaven |last= Cannon |first= Elaine Anderson |author-link= Elaine A. Cannon |page= 961 |title= Encyclopedia of Mormonism |title-link= Encyclopedia of Mormonism |access-date= 2014-03-26 |archive-date= 2017-10-19 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171019111714/http://eom.byu.edu/index.php/Heavenly_Mother |url-status= dead }}</ref> and the prevailing view among Mormons is that [[God the Father]] was once a man who lived on a planet with his own higher God, and who became perfect after following this higher God.<ref>{{citation |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/mormon/beliefs/god_1.shtml |title= Religions: An explanation of Mormon beliefs about God |work= [[BBC]] |date= October 2, 2009 |access-date= 2014-10-28 }}.</ref><ref>{{citation |last1= Riess |first1= Jana |author1-link= Jana Riess |first2= Christopher Kimball |last2= Bigelow |title= Mormonism for Dummies |publisher= John Wiley & Sons |year= 2005 |isbn= 978-0-7645-7195-4 |chapter= Chapter 3: Heavenly Parents, Savior, and Holy Ghost }}</ref> Some critics of Mormonism argue that statements in the [[Book of Mormon]] describe a trinitarian conception of God (e.g. {{Mormonverse|2 Nephi|31:21}}; {{Mormonverse|Alma|11:44}}), but were superseded by later [[Revelation (Latter Day Saints)|revelations]].<ref>{{citation |last= Hoekema |first= Anthony |author-link= Anthony A. Hoekema |title= The Four Major Cults: Christian Science, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormonism, Seventh-Day Adventism |publisher= [[Paternoster Press]] |place= Exeter, England |year= 1969 |orig-year= 1963 |page= 34 |isbn= 0853640947 |oclc= 12735425 }}{{unreliable source?|date=November 2014}}<!-- Polemic source perhaps not the best reference here, or at least using it exclusivly --></ref> Due to teachings within [[Mormon cosmology]], some theologians claim that it allows for an infinite number of gods.<ref name="Crane 2010 p. 63">{{cite book | last=Crane | first=S.A. | title=Is Mormonism Now Christian? | publisher=Wipf & Stock Pub. | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-60899-251-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ym5MAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 | access-date=2023-02-23 | page=63}}</ref><ref name="Haddad Groothuis 2011 p. 57">{{cite book | last1=Haddad | first1=J.F. | last2=Groothuis | first2=D. | title=Leaving Dirt Place: Love as an Apologetic for Christianity | publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers | year=2011 | isbn=978-1-61097-217-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2PhMAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 | access-date=2023-02-23 | page=57}}</ref><ref name="Parrish 2019 p. 65">{{cite book | last=Parrish | first=S.E. | title=Atheism?: A Critical Analysis | publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-5326-7266-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_CaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 | access-date=2023-02-23 | page=65}}</ref><ref name="Morley 2015 p. 277">{{cite book | last=Morley | first=B.K. | title=Mapping Apologetics: Comparing Contemporary Approaches | publisher=InterVarsity Press | year=2015 | isbn=978-0-8308-9704-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jz-jBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA277 | access-date=2023-02-23 | page=277}}</ref><ref name="Ankerberg Weldon 2019 p. 122">{{cite book | last1=Ankerberg | first1=J. | last2=Weldon | first2=J. | title=Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Mormonism | publisher=ATRI | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-937136-51-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r21HEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT122 | access-date=2023-02-23 | page=122}}</ref><ref name="Tsoukalas 2022 p. 37">{{cite book | last=Tsoukalas | first=S. | title=Knowing Christ in the Challenge of Heresy: A Christology of the Cults, A Christology of the Bible | publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers | year=2022 | isbn=978-1-6667-3786-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sn9zEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 | access-date=2023-02-23 | page=37}}</ref> Mormons teach that scriptural statements on the unity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost represent a oneness of purpose, not of substance.<ref>{{citation |url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/2007/11/the-only-true-god-and-jesus-christ-whom-he-hath-sent?lang=eng |title= The Only True God and Jesus Christ Whom He Hath Sent |last= Holland |first= Jeffrey R. |author-link= Jeffrey R. Holland |date= November 2007 |journal= [[Ensign (LDS magazine)|Ensign]] }}</ref> They believe that the early Christian church did not characterize divinity in terms of an immaterial, formless shared substance until post-apostolic theologians began to incorporate Greek metaphysical philosophies (such as [[Neoplatonism]]) into Christian doctrine.<ref>{{citation |last= Bickmore |first= Barry R. |author-link= Barry R. Bickmore |year= 2001 |title= Does God Have a Body In Human Form? |url= http://www.fairmormon.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/bickmore-GodHaveBody.pdf |publisher= [[FairMormon|Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research]] }}</ref><ref>{{citation |url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1994/04/the-reality-of-the-resurrection?lang=eng |title= The Reality of the Resurrection |last= Draper |first= Richard R. |date= April 1994 |journal= [[Ensign (LDS magazine)|Ensign]] }}</ref> Mormons believe that the truth about God's nature was restored through modern day revelation, which reinstated the original Judeo-Christian concept of a natural, corporeal, immortal God,<ref>{{citation |last= Webb |first= Steven H. |author-link= Stephen H. Webb |title= Jesus Christ, Eternal God: Heavenly Flesh and the Metaphysics of Matter |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2012 |url= https://byustudies.byu.edu/content/byu-studies-volume-50-issue-3 |access-date= 2016-10-24 |archive-date= 2020-02-14 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200214141716/https://byustudies.byu.edu/content/byu-studies-volume-50-issue-3 |url-status= dead }}</ref> who is the literal Father of the spirits of humans.<ref>{{citation |journal= [[Liahona (magazine)|Liahona]] |date= January 2010 |title= God Is Truly Our Father |url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/liahona/2010/01/god-is-truly-our-father?lang=eng }}</ref> It is to this personage alone that Mormons pray, as He is and always will be their Heavenly Father, the supreme "God of gods" (Deuteronomy 10:17). In the sense that Mormons worship only God the Father, they consider themselves monotheists. Nevertheless, Mormons adhere to Christ's teaching that those who receive God's word can obtain the title of "gods" (John 10:33–36), because as literal children of God they can take upon themselves His divine attributes.<ref>{{cite web|editor-last= Lindsay|editor-first= Jeff|work= LDS FAQ: Mormon Answers|at= [http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/FQ_Relationships.shtml#poly If you believe the Father and the Son are separate beings, doesn't that make you polytheistic?]|url= http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/FQ_Relationships.shtml|title= Relationships Between Man, Christ, and God|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141112173311/http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/FQ_Relationships.shtml |archive-date= 2014-11-12 |url-status= live }}</ref> Mormons teach that "The glory of God is intelligence" (Doctrine and Covenants 93:36), and that it is by sharing the Father's perfect comprehension of all things that both Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit are also divine.<ref>{{citation |title= Doctrine and Covenants Instructor's Guide: Religion 324–325 |year= 1981 |chapter= 'The Glory of God is Intelligence' – Lesson 37: Section 93 |publisher= [[Institute of Religion|Institutes of Religion]], [[Church Educational System]] |chapter-url= https://www.lds.org/manual/doctrine-and-covenants-instructors-guide-religion-324-325/the-glory-of-god-is-intelligence-lesson-37-section-93?lang=eng |url= https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/bc/content/shared/content/english/pdf/language-materials/32494_eng.pdf }}</ref> ===Hinduism=== {{Further|Hindu views on monotheism}} Hinduism is not a monolithic religion: a wide variety of religious traditions and practices are grouped together under this umbrella term and some modern scholars have questioned the legitimacy of unifying them artificially and suggest that one should speak of "Hinduisms" in the plural.<ref>Smith, Brian. "Hinduism." New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 2005. Retrieved May 22, 2013 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3424300342.html</ref> Theistic [[Hinduism]] encompasses both monotheistic and polytheistic tendencies and variations on or mixes of both structures. Hindus venerate deities in the form of the ''[[prathima]]'', or idol. The ''[[Puja (Hinduism)|Puja]]'' (worship) of the [[prathima]] is like a way to communicate with the formless, abstract divinity ([[Brahman]] in Hinduism) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation. However, there are sects who have advocated that there is no need of giving a shape to God and that it is omnipresent and beyond the things which human can see or feel tangibly. Especially the [[Arya Samaj]] founded by [[Dayananda Saraswati|Swami Dayananda Saraswati]] and [[Brahmo Samaj]] founded by [[Ram Mohan Roy]] (there are others also) do not worship deities. Arya Samaj favours [[Mantra|Vedic chants]] and [[Havan]], while Brahmo Samaj stresses simple prayers.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} Some Hindu philosophers and theologians argue for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} This divine essence is usually referred to as [[Brahman]] or [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such as [[Vedanta]]. Among lay Hindus, some believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, while others practice more traditional polytheism and henotheism, focusing their worship on one or more personal deities, while granting the existence of others. Academically speaking, the ancient Vedic scriptures, upon which Hinduism is derived, describe four authorized disciplic lines of teaching coming down over thousands of years. (Padma Purana). Four of them propound that the Absolute Truth is Fully Personal, as in Judeo-Christian theology. They say that the Primal Original God is Personal, both transcendent and immanent throughout creation. He can be, and is often approached through worship of Prathimas, called "Archa-Vigraha", which are described in the Vedas as identical with His various dynamic, spiritual Forms. This is the Vaisnava theology. The fifth disciplic line of Vedic spirituality, founded by [[Adi Shankaracharya]], promotes the concept that the Absolute is Brahman, without clear differentiations, without will, without thought, without intelligence. In the [[Smarta]] denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy of [[Advaita]] expounded by [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] allows veneration of numerous deities {{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, [[Brahman]]. Therefore, according to various schools of Vedanta including Shankara, which is the most influential and important Hindu theological tradition, there are a great number of deities in Hinduism, such as [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], [[Ganesha]], [[Hanuman]], [[Lakshmi]], and [[Kali]], but they are essentially different forms of the same "Being".{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} However, many Vedantic philosophers also argue that all individuals were united by the same impersonal, divine power in the form of the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]]. Many other Hindus, however, view polytheism as far preferable to monotheism. [[Ram Swarup]], for example, points to the [[Vedas]] as being specifically polytheistic,<ref>{{cite book|last=Goel|first=Sita Ram|title=Defence of Hindu Society|year=1987|publisher=Voice of India|location=New Delhi, India|url=http://voi.org/books/hindusoc/ch5.htm|quote="In the Vedic approach, there is no single God. This is bad enough. But the Hindus do not have even a supreme God, a fuhrer-God who presides over a multiplicity of Gods." – Ram Swarup|access-date=2011-08-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181337/http://voi.org/books/hindusoc/ch5.htm|archive-date=2016-03-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> and states that, "only some form of polytheism alone can do justice to this variety and richness."<ref>{{cite book|last=Goel|first=Sita Ram|title=Defence of Hindu Society|year=1987|publisher=Voice of India|location=New Delhi, India|url=http://voi.org/books/hindusoc/ch5.htm|access-date=2011-08-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181337/http://voi.org/books/hindusoc/ch5.htm|archive-date=2016-03-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Sita Ram Goel]], another 20th-century Hindu historian, wrote: {{Blockquote|"I had an occasion to read the typescript of a book [Ram Swarup] had finished writing in 1973. It was a profound study of Monotheism, the central dogma of both Islam and Christianity, as well as a powerful presentation of what the monotheists denounce as Hindu Polytheism. I had never read anything like it. It was a revelation to me that Monotheism was not a religious concept but an imperialist idea. I must confess that I myself had been inclined towards Monotheism till this time. I had never thought that a multiplicity of Gods was the natural and spontaneous expression of an evolved consciousness."<ref>{{cite book|last=Goel|first=Sita Ram|title=How I became a Hindu|year=1982|publisher=Voice of India|location=New Delhi, India|page=92}}</ref>}} Some Hindus construe this notion of polytheism in the sense of polymorphism—one God with many forms or names. The [[Rig Veda]], the primary Hindu scripture, elucidates this as follows: <blockquote> They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. ''To what is One'', sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan. '''Book I, Hymn 164, Verse 46 Rigveda'''<ref>{{cite web|title=RigVeda|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv01164.htm|work=The Sacred Books|access-date=22 May 2013}}</ref> </blockquote> ===Zoroastrianism=== {{See also|Criticism of Zoroastrianism#Polytheism}} [[Ahura Mazda]] is the supreme god, but Zoroastrianism does not deny other deities. Ahura Mazda has [[yazatas]] ("good agents") some of which include [[Anahita]], [[Sraosha]], [[Mithra]], [[Rashnu]], and [[Tishtrya]]. [[Richard Foltz]] has put forth evidence that [[History of Iran|Iranians of Pre-Islamic era]] worshiped all these figures, especially Mithra and Anahita.<ref>[[Richard Foltz]], "Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present", Oneworld Publications, 2013, p. xiv</ref> [[Prods Oktor Skjærvø]] states [[Zoroastrianism]] is henotheistic, and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos".<ref>Prods Oktor Skjærvø (2006), ''[http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Zoroastrianism/Zoroastrianism1_Intro.pdf Introduction to Zoroastrianism]'', 2005, Harvard University Archives, p. 15 with footnote 1</ref> Other scholars state that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism".<ref>{{cite book|author=Brian Arthur Brown|title=Four Testaments: Tao Te Ching, Analects, Dhammapada, Bhagavad Gita: Sacred Scriptures of Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_MsvDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA347|year=2016|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-6578-3|pages=347–349}}</ref> ===Tengrism=== {{See also|Turkic mythology|Mongol mythology|Mongolian shamanism}} The nature of [[Tengrism]] remains debatable. According to many scholars, Tengrism was originally [[polytheistic]], but a [[monotheistic]] branch with the sky god Kök-Tengri as the [[God|supreme being]] evolved as a dynastical legitimation. It is at least agreed that Tengrism formed from the diverse folk religions of the local people and may have had diverse branches.<ref>{{cite book |surname=Schmidt |given=Wilhelm |author-link=Wilhelm Schmidt (linguist) |year=1949–52 |title=Der Ursprung der Gottes |trans-title=The Origin of the Idea of God |volume=9–10 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |surname=Doerfer |given=Gerhard |author-link=Gerhard Doerfer |year=1965 |title=Turkische und Mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen |volume=2 |place=Wiesbaden |language=de |page=580}}</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Pettazzoni|1y=1956|1p=261f|2a1=Gumilyov|2y=1967|2loc=ch. 7|3a1=Tanyu|3y=1980|3p=|4a1=Alici|4y=2011|4p=}} It is suggested that Tengrism was a monotheistic religion only at the imperial level in aristocratic circles, {{sfnm|1a1=Roux|1y=1956|1p=|2a1=Roux|2y=1984|2p=|3a1=Róna-Tas|3y=1987|3pp=33–45|4a1=Kodar|4y=2009|4p=}}<ref>Meserve, R., ''Religions in the central Asian environment''. In: [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001204/120455e.pdf History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221846/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001204/120455e.pdf |date=2016-03-03}}, The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century, Part Two: The achievements, p. 68: * "The 'imperial' religion was more monotheistic, centred around the all-powerful god Tengri, the sky god."</ref><ref name="PolyMono">Fergus, Michael; Jandosova, Janar. [{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=jAu9ttUqiJoC |page=91}} Kazakhstan: Coming of Age], Stacey International, 2003, p. 91: * "... a profound combination of monotheism and polytheism that has come to be known as Tengrism."</ref> and, perhaps, only by the 12th–13th centuries (a late form of development of ancient animistic shamanism in the era of the Mongol empire).{{sfn|Bira|2011|p=14}} According to [[Jean-Paul Roux]], the monotheistic concept evolved later out of a polytheistic system and was not the original form of Tengrism. The monotheistic concept helped to legitimate the rule of the dynasty: "As there is only one God in Heaven, there can only be one ruler on the earth ...".{{sfn|Roux|1956|p=242}} Others point out that Tengri itself was never an Absolute, but only one of many gods of the upper world, the [[sky deity]], of polytheistic shamanism, later known as Tengrism.{{sfnm|1a1=Stebleva|1y=1971|1p=|2a1=Klyashtornyj|2y=2008|2p=}} The term also describes several contemporary Turko-Mongolic native [[List of Tengrist movements|religious movements]] and teachings. All modern adherents of "political" Tengrism are monotheists.{{sfn|Laruelle|2006|pp=3–4}} ===Modern Paganism=== '''[[Modern Paganism]]''', also known as '''neopaganism''' and '''contemporary paganism''',{{Sfn|Adler|2006|p=xiii}} is a group of contemporary [[religious movement]]s influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various [[historical pagan]] beliefs of pre-modern Europe.{{Sfn|Lewis|2004|p=13}}{{Sfn|Hanegraaff|1996|p=84}} Although they have commonalities, contemporary pagan religious movements are diverse and no single set of beliefs, practices, or [[Religious text|text]]s are shared by them all.{{Sfn|Carpenter|1996|p=40}} Founder of Wicca Gerald Gardner helped to revive ancient polytheism.<ref name="BBC News 2014">{{cite web | title=Gerald Gardner: Blue plaque for 'father of witchcraft' – BBC News | website=BBC News | date=2014-06-13 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-dorset-27819164 | access-date=2023-02-22}}</ref><ref name="Hodge 2016 p. 183">{{cite book | last=Hodge | first=B. | title=World Religions and Cults Volume 2: Moralistic, Mythical and Mysticism Religions | publisher=New Leaf Publishing Group, Incorporated | series=World of Religions and Cults | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-61458-504-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mmAzDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA183 | access-date=2023-02-22 | page=183}}</ref> [[English people|English]] [[occultist]] [[Dion Fortune]] was a major populiser of ''soft polytheism''. In her novel ''[[The Sea Priestess]]'', she wrote, "All gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess, and there is one initiator."<ref name="FortuneKnight2003">{{cite book|last1=Fortune |first1=Dion |author-link1=Dion Fortune |last2=Knight |first2=Gareth |title=The Sea Priestess |date=30 June 2003 |publisher=Weiser |isbn=978-1-57863-290-9 |page=169 |quote=All gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess, and there is one initiator.}}</ref> ====Reconstructionism==== {{main|Polytheistic reconstructionism}} Reconstructionist polytheists apply scholarly disciplines such as [[history]], [[archaeology]] and [[linguistics|language study]] to revive ancient, traditional religions that have been fragmented, damaged or even destroyed, such as [[Norse Paganism]], [[Reconstructionist Roman religion|Roman]] and [[Celtic reconstructionism|Celtic]]. A reconstructionist endeavors to revive and reconstruct an authentic practice, based on the ways of the ancestors but workable in contemporary life. These polytheists sharply differ from neopagans in that they consider their religion not only as inspired by historical religions but in many cases as a continuation or revival of those religions.<ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Hellenismos Today|author=Alexander, T.J.|date=2007|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781430314271|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie-aHv8rzHoC&pg=PA14|page=14|access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref>{{sps|date=February 2020}} ====Wicca==== {{main|Wicca}} [[Wicca]] is a [[Duotheism|duotheistic]] faith created by [[Gerald Gardner]] that allows for polytheism.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gardner|first=Gerald|title=The Meaning of Witchcraft|year=1982|publisher=Llewellyn Pubns|isbn=0939708027|pages=165–166}}</ref><ref name="Hutton 2003">{{cite book|last=Hutton|first=Ronald|title=The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft|year=2003|publisher=Oxford Paperbacks|isbn=0192854496}}</ref><ref name="Lamond 2005">{{cite book|last=Lamond|first=Frederic|title=Fifty Years of Wicca|year=2005|publisher=Green Magic|isbn=0954723015}}</ref> Wiccans specifically worship the Lord and Lady of the Isles (their names are oathbound).<ref name="Hutton 2003"/><ref name="Lamond 2005"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Bracelin|first=J|title=Gerald Gardner: Witch|year=1999|publisher=Pentacle Enterprises|isbn=1872189083|page=199}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Gardner|first=Gerald|title=The Meaning of Witchcraft|year=1982|publisher=Llewellyn Pubns|isbn=0939708027|pages=260–261}}</ref> It is an [[Orthopraxy|orthopraxic]] mystery religion that requires initiation to the priesthood in order to consider oneself Wiccan.<ref name="Hutton 2003"/><ref name="Lamond 2005"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Gardner|first=Gerald|title=The Meaning of Witchcraft|year=1982|publisher=Llewellyn Pubns|isbn=0939708027|pages=21–22, 28–29, 69, 116}}</ref> Wicca emphasizes duality and the cycle of nature.<ref name="Hutton 2003"/><ref name="Lamond 2005"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Gardner|first=Gerald|title=The Meaning of Witchcraft|year=1982|publisher=Llewellyn Pubns|isbn=0939708027}}</ref> ===Serer=== {{main|Serer religion|Timeline of Serer history|States headed by ancient Serer Lamanes}} In [[Africa]], polytheism in [[Serer religion]] dates to the [[Neolithic|Neolithic Era]] or possibly earlier, when the [[Timeline of Serer history|ancient ancestors of the Serer people]] represented their ''[[Pangool]]'' on the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]].<ref name="Serer religion">{{in lang|fr}} [[Henry Gravrand|Gravrand, Henry]], ''"La civilisation Sereer'' – ''Pangool"'', Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Senegal, (1990), {{ISBN|2-7236-1055-1}}. pp 9, 20, 77</ref> The supreme creator deity in Serer religion is [[Roog]]. However, there are [[Serer religion#Beliefs|many deities]]<ref name="Serer deities">{{in lang|en}} Kellog, Day Otis, and Smith, William Robertson, "The Encyclopædia Britannica: latest edition. A dictionary of arts, sciences and general literature", Volume 25, p 64, Werner (1902)</ref> and [[Pangool]] (singular : ''Fangool'', the interceders with the divine) in Serer religion.<ref name="Serer religion"/> Each one has its own purpose and serves as Roog's agent on Earth.<ref name="Serer deities"/> Amongst the [[Cangin languages|Cangin speakers]], a sub-group of the [[Serer people|Serers]], Roog is known as [[Koox]].<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Ndiaye, Ousmane Sémou, "Diversité et unicité sérères : l'exemple de la région de Thiès", Éthiopiques, no. 54, vol. 7, 2e semestre 1991 [http://ethiopiques.refer.sn/spip.php?page=imprimer-article&id_article=1253] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630093306/http://ethiopiques.refer.sn/spip.php?page=imprimer-article&id_article=1253|date=2020-06-30}}</ref> Summary: Please note that all contributions to Christianpedia may be edited, altered, or removed by other contributors. 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