Philosophy

=== Chinese ===
{{main|Chinese philosophy}}

[[File:Half Portraits of the Great Sage and Virtuous Men of Old - Confucius.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Confucius|The teachings of [[Confucius]] on ethics and society shaped subsequent Chinese philosophy.]]

Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and [[self-cultivation]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=3, 70–71}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023}} |4={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |5={{harvnb|Cua|2009|pp=43–45}} |6={{harvnb|Wei-Ming|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> Many [[Hundred Schools of Thought|schools of thought]] emerged in the 6th century BCE in competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them were [[Confucianism]] and [[Daoism]].<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perkins|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KMQeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA486 486–487]}} |2={{harvnb|Ma|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kFoGCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14 xiv]}} |3={{harvnb|Botz-Bornstein|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_-rMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT61 61]}} }}</ref> Confucianism was founded by [[Confucius]] (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral [[virtue]]s and explored how they lead to harmony in society.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=70–76}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=1b. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) of the Analects}} |4={{harvnb|Boyd|Timpe|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OIskEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64–66]}} |5={{harvnb|Marshev|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DPQTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 100–101]}} }}</ref> Daoism was founded by [[Laozi]] (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the [[Dao]] or the natural order of the universe.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Slingerland|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PA77 77–78]}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} }}</ref> Other influential early schools of thought were [[Mohism]], which developed an early form of altruistic [[consequentialism]],<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=1c. Mozi (c. 470–391 B.C.E.) and Mohism}} |3={{harvnb|Defoort|Standaert|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdl0smlDVtEC&pg=PA35 35]}} }}</ref> and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Kim|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ckG8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=2a. Syncretic Philosophies in the Qin and Han Periods}} }}</ref>

Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into [[Chinese Buddhism|new forms of Buddhism]].<ref name="auto">{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=§ Early Buddhism in China}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=§ Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} }}</ref> Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of [[Xuanxue]] emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations.<ref name="auto"/> [[Neo-Confucianism]] developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=4b. Neo-Confucianism: The Original Way of Confucius for a New Era}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=§ Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} }}</ref> The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of [[Chinese Marxism]]—which focused on [[class struggle]], [[socialism]], and [[communism]]—resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Jiang|2009|pp=473–480}} |3={{harvnb|Qi|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nxWkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 99–100]}} |4={{harvnb|Tian|2009|pp=512–513}} }}</ref> Another development was the emergence of [[New Confucianism]], which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science.<ref>{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Van Norden|2022|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wang-yangming/#Infl § 6. Influence]}} |2={{harvnb|Redse|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Dqq8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21–22]}} |3={{harvnb|Makeham|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6TCBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 94–95]}} }}</ref>