Nelson Mandela

=== MK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62 ===
[[File:liliesleaf hut1.jpg|thumb|right|Thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where Mandela hid]]
Disguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled around the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press—a reference to [[Emma Orczy]]'s 1905 novel ''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]''—a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=99|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=283–287|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=192–193|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=186–188, 193|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=144–146, 154}} Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's [[Azanian People's Liberation Army|Poqo]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=289–291|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=188–189|3a1=Sampson|3y=2011|3pp=147–149}} He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader [[Albert Luthuli]]—who was morally opposed to violence—and allied activist groups of its necessity.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=393–396|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2pp=199–200|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=206–210|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=150–151}}

Inspired by the actions of [[Fidel Castro]]'s [[26th of July Movement]] in the [[Cuban Revolution]], in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu and Slovo co-founded [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]] ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from literature on guerrilla warfare by Marxist militants Mao and [[Che Guevara]] as well as from the military theorist [[Carl von Clausewitz]].{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–398|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=197–198, 200–201|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=209–214|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=151–154}} Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, MK was later widely recognised as the party's armed wing.{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2010|1pp=209–210|2a1=Sampson|2y=2011|2p=151}} Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in [[Berea, Gauteng|Berea]], Mandela moved to the communist-owned [[Liliesleaf Farm]] in [[Rivonia]], there joined by [[Raymond Mhlaba]], Slovo and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=107|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=397–409|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3pp=92–93|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=201–204|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=191, 222–229|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=154–156}} Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s.{{sfn|Ellis|2011|pp=667–668}} This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.{{sfn|Ellis|2016|p=1}}<ref name="Mandela'sCommunism">{{cite web |url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |title=SACP statement on the passing away of Madiba |website=South African Communist Party |date=6 December 2013 |access-date=29 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223354/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4151%20 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}; {{cite news |last=Marrian |first=Natasha |title=SACP confirms Nelson Mandela was a member |url=http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |access-date=7 December 2013 |newspaper=Business Day|location=South Africa|date=6 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306232040/http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/politics/2013/12/06/sacp-confirms-nelson-mandela-was-a-member |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=left|quote=We of Umkhonto have always sought to achieve liberation without bloodshed and civil clash. Even at this late hour, we hope that our first actions will awaken everyone to a realization of the dangerous situation to which Nationalist policy is leading. We hope that we will bring the Government and its supporters to their senses before it is too late so that both government and its policies can be changed before matters reach the desperate stage of civil war.|salign=right |source=—&thinsp;Statement released by MK to announce the start of their sabotage campaign{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1p=171|2a1=Meredith|2y=2010|2p=207}}}}

Operating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=108|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=171|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=411–412|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=90|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=204}} Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on [[Day of the Vow|Dingane's Day]] (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=110|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2p=170|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=413–415|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5p=206|6a1=Smith|6y=2010|6pp=239–246|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=158–159}}

The ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the [[Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa]] (PAFMECSA) in [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopia.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=111|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=171–172, 176|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=418–425|4a1=Lodge|4y=2006|4p=95|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=251–254|6a1=Benneyworth|6y=2011|6p=81|7a1=Sampson|7y=2011|7pp=160–162}} Leaving South Africa in secret via [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]], on his way Mandela visited [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] and met with its president, [[Julius Nyerere]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=173–175|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=97|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=209|4a1=Benneyworth|4y=2011|4pp=81, 84}} Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor [[Haile Selassie I]], and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference.{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=176–177, 180|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=427–432|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=255–256|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=163–165}} After the symposium, he travelled to [[Cairo]], Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and in April 1962 he went to Morocco where asked El Khatib to meet the king to ask him to give him £5,000. The next day he got the £5,000 along with some weapons and training to Mandela's soldier, and then went to [[Tunis]], Tunisia, where President [[Habib Bourguiba]] gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian president [[William Tubman]] and Guinean president [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]].{{sfnm|1a1=Meer|1y=1988|1pp=185–194|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=432–440|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=210|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=256–259|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=165–167}} He left Africa for London, England, where he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters and prominent politicians.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=114|2a1=Meer|2y=1988|2pp=196–197|3a1=Mandela|3y=1994|3pp=441–443|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=210–211|5a1=Smith|5y=2010|5pp=259–261|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=167–169}} Upon returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa by the ANC's leadership.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=443–445|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=100|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=211|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=261–262|5a1=Benneyworth|5y=2011|5pp=91–93|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6pp=169–170}}