Mosaic

====Byzantine mosaics====
{{main|Byzantine mosaics}}
{{see also|Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East}}
[[File:Greatpalacemosaic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15<!--size for low image-->|The so-called Gothic chieftain, from the Mosaic Peristyle of the Great Palace of Constantinople]]

Mosaics were more central to Byzantine culture than to that of Western Europe. Byzantine church interiors were generally covered with golden mosaics. Mosaic art flourished in the [[Byzantine Empire]] from the 6th to the 15th centuries. The majority of Byzantine mosaics were destroyed without trace during wars and conquests, but the surviving remains still form a fine collection.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lowden |first=John |title=Early Christian and Byzantine art |publisher=Phaidon |year=1997 |at=(whole book)}}</ref>

The great buildings of [[Justinian I|Emperor Justinian]] like the [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]], the [[Nea Ekklesia of the Theotokos|Nea Church]] in [[Jerusalem]] and the rebuilt [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]] were certainly embellished with mosaics but none of these survived.

[[File:St George as patron of two children. Mosaic, church of St Demetrios in Thessaloniki.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A pre-[[Iconoclastic]] depiction of St. Demetrios at the Hagios Demetrios Basilica in Thessaloniki.]]
Important fragments survived from the mosaic floor of the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]] which was commissioned during [[Justinian]]'s reign. The figures, animals, plants all are entirely classical but they are scattered before a plain background. The portrait of a moustached man, probably a Gothic chieftain, is considered the most important surviving mosaic of the Justinianian age. The so-called ''small sekreton'' of the palace was built during [[Justin II]]'s reign around 565–577. Some fragments survive from the mosaics of this vaulted room. The vine scroll motifs are very similar to those in the Santa Constanza and they still closely follow the Classical tradition. There are remains of floral decoration in the [[Church of the Acheiropoietos]] in [[Thessaloniki]] (5th–6th centuries).

[[File:Eufrazijeva bazilika - ulazni natpis.jpg|thumb|Byzantine mosaic above the entrance portal of the [[Euphrasian Basilica]] in [[Poreč]], [[Croatia]] (6th century)]]
In the 6th century, [[Ravenna]], the capital of Byzantine Italy, became the center of mosaic making. [[Istria]] also boasts some important examples from this era. The [[Euphrasian Basilica]] in [[Poreč|Parentium]] was built in the middle of the 6th century and decorated with mosaics depicting the [[Theotokos]] flanked by angels and saints.

Fragments remain from the mosaics of the [[Church of Santa Maria Formosa]] in [[Pula|Pola]]. These pieces were made during the 6th century by artists from Constantinople. Their pure Byzantine style is different from the contemporary Ravennate mosaics.

Very few early Byzantine mosaics survived the [[Iconoclasm|Iconoclastic]] destruction of the 8th century. Among the rare examples are the 6th-century ''Christ in majesty'' (or ''Ezekiel's Vision'') mosaic in the apse of the [[Church of Hosios David]] in [[Thessaloniki]] that was hidden behind mortar during those dangerous times. Nine mosaic panels in the [[Hagios Demetrios|Hagios Demetrios Church]], which were made between 634 and 730, also escaped destruction. Unusually almost all represent [[Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki]], often with suppliants before him. This iconoclasm was almost certainly because of nearby Muslims' beliefs.

[[File:Peter in Chora.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Saint Peter]] mosaic from the [[Chora Church]]]]
In the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|Iconoclastic era]], figural mosaics were also condemned as idolatry. The Iconoclastic churches were embellished with plain gold mosaics with only one great cross in the apse like the [[Hagia Irene]] in Constantinople (after 740). There were similar crosses in the apses of the [[Hagia Sophia (Thessaloniki)|Hagia Sophia Church]] in Thessaloniki and in the [[Church of the Dormition, Nicaea|Church of the Dormition]] in [[Iznik|Nicaea]]. The crosses were substituted with the image of the [[Theotokos]] in both churches after the victory of the [[Iconodules]] (787–797 and in 8th–9th centuries respectively, the Dormition church was totally destroyed in 1922).

A similar Theotokos image flanked by two archangels were made for the [[Hagia Sophia]] in Constantinople in 867. The dedication inscription says: "The images which the impostors had cast down here pious emperors have again set up." In the 870s the so-called ''large sekreton'' of the [[Great Palace of Constantinople]] was decorated with the images of the four great iconodule patriarchs.

The post-Iconoclastic era was the heyday of Byzantine art with the most beautiful mosaics executed. The mosaics of the [[Macedonian Renaissance]] (867–1056) carefully mingled traditionalism with innovation. Constantinopolitan mosaics of this age followed the decoration scheme first used in Emperor [[Basil I]]'s [[Nea Ekklesia]]. Not only this prototype was later totally destroyed but each surviving composition is battered so it is necessary to move from church to church to reconstruct the system.

An interesting set of Macedonian-era mosaics make up the decoration of the [[Hosios Loukas]] Monastery. In the narthex there is the Crucifixion, the Pantokrator and the Anastasis above the doors, while in the church the Theotokos (apse), Pentecost, scenes from Christ's life and ermit St Loukas (all executed before 1048). The scenes are treated with a minimum of detail and the panels are dominated with the gold setting.

[[File:Meister der Nea-Moni-Kirche in Chios 002.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Detail of mosaic from [[Nea Moni]] Monastery]]
The [[Nea Moni]] Monastery on [[Chios]] was established by [[Constantine IX Monomachos|Constantine Monomachos]] in 1043–1056. The exceptional mosaic decoration of the dome showing probably the nine orders of the angels was destroyed in 1822 but other panels survived (Theotokos with raised hands, four evangelists with seraphim, scenes from Christ's life and an interesting Anastasis where King Salomon bears resemblance to Constantine Monomachos). In comparison with Osios Loukas Nea Moni mosaics contain more figures, detail, landscape and setting.

Another great undertaking by Constantine Monomachos was the restoration of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in [[Jerusalem]] between 1042 and 1048. Nothing survived of the mosaics which covered the walls and the dome of the edifice but the Russian abbot Daniel, who visited Jerusalem in 1106–1107 left a description: "Lively mosaics of the holy prophets are under the ceiling, over the tribune. The altar is surmounted by a mosaic image of Christ. In the main altar one can see the mosaic of the Exaltation of Adam. In the apse the Ascension of Christ. The Annunciation occupies the two pillars next to the altar."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.christusrex.com/www1/jhs/TSspdest.html |title=The Holy Sepulchre – The great destruction of 1009<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=19 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019105514/http://www.christusrex.com/www1/jhs/TSspdest.html |archive-date=19 October 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The [[Daphni Monastery]] houses the best preserved complex of mosaics from the early Comnenan period (ca. 1100) when the austere and hieratic manner typical for the [[Macedonian dynasty|Macedonian epoch]] and represented by the awesome [[Christ Pantocrator]] image inside the dome, was metamorphosing into a more intimate and delicate style, of which ''The Angel before St Joachim'' — with its pastoral backdrop, harmonious gestures and pensive lyricism – is considered a superb example.

The 9th- and 10th-century mosaics of the [[Hagia Sophia]] in Constantinople are truly classical Byzantine artworks. The north and south tympana beneath the dome was decorated with figures of prophets, saints and patriarchs. Above the principal door from the narthex we can see an ''Emperor kneeling before Christ'' (late 9th or early 10th century). Above the door from the southwest vestibule to the narthex another mosaic shows the ''Theotokos with Justinian and Constantine''. [[Justinian I]] is offering the model of the church to Mary while [[Constantine I|Constantine]] is holding a model of the city in his hand. Both emperors are beardless – this is an example for conscious archaization as contemporary Byzantine rulers were bearded. A mosaic panel on the gallery shows ''Christ with [[Constantine IX Monomachos|Constantine Monomachos]] and [[Zoe (empress)|Empress Zoe]]'' (1042–1055). The emperor gives a bulging [[money sack]] to Christ as a donation for the church.

The dome of the [[Hagia Sophia (Thessaloniki)|Hagia Sophia Church]] in Thessaloniki is decorated with an ''Ascension'' mosaic (c. 885). The composition resembles the great baptistries in [[Ravenna]], with apostles standing between palms and Christ in the middle. The scheme is somewhat unusual as the standard post-Iconoclastic formula for domes contained only the image of the [[Christ Pantocrator|Pantokrator]].

[[File:Christ Pantocrator mosaic from Hagia Sophia 2240 x 3109 pixels 2.5 MB.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Mosaic of [[Christ Pantocrator]] from [[Hagia Sophia]] from the ''Deesis'' mosaic.]]
There are very few existing mosaics from the [[Komnenos|Komnenian period]] but this paucity must be due to accidents of survival and gives a misleading impression. The only surviving 12th-century mosaic work in [[Constantinople]] is a panel in Hagia Sophia depicting Emperor [[John II Komnenos|John II]] and Empress [[Piroska of Hungary|Eirene]] with the [[Theotokos]] (1122–34). The empress with her long braided hair and rosy cheeks is especially capturing. It must be a lifelike portrayal because Eirene was really a redhead as her original Hungarian name, ''Piroska'' shows. The adjacent portrait of Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] on a pier (from 1122) is similarly personal. The imperial mausoleum of the [[Komnenos]] dynasty, the [[Zeyrek Camii|Pantokrator Monastery]] was certainly decorated with great mosaics but these were later destroyed. The lack of Komnenian mosaics outside the capital is even more apparent. There is only a "Communion of the Apostles" in the apse of the cathedral of [[Serres, Greece|Serres]].

A striking technical innovation of the Komnenian period was the production of very precious, miniature mosaic icons. In these icons the small tesserae (with sides of 1&nbsp;mm or less) were set on wax or resin on a wooden panel. These products of extraordinary craftmanship were intended for private devotion. The [[Louvre Transfiguration]] is a very fine example from the late 12th century. The miniature mosaic of Christ in the Museo Nazionale at [[Florence]] illustrates the more gentle, humanistic conception of Christ which appeared in the 12th century.

[[File:Santa Sofia - Mosaic de Joan II Comnè i la seva esposa, Irene.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|left|A mosaic from the [[Hagia Sophia]] of [[Constantinople]] (modern Istanbul), depicting [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and [[Jesus]], flanked by [[John II Komnenos]] (left) and his wife [[Irene of Hungary]] (right), c. 1118 AD]]
The sack of Constantinople in 1204 caused the decline of mosaic art for the next five decades. After the reconquest of the city by [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]] in 1261 the Hagia Sophia was restored and a beautiful new ''[[Deesis]]'' was made on the south gallery. This huge mosaic panel with figures two and a half times lifesize is really overwhelming due to its grand scale and superlative craftsmanship. The Hagia Sophia ''Deesis'' is probably the most famous Byzantine mosaic in Constantinople.

The [[Pammakaristos Church|Pammakaristos Monastery]] was restored by [[Michael Doukas Glabas Tarchaneiotes|Michael Glabas]], an imperial official, in the late 13th century. Only the mosaic decoration of the small burial chapel ([[parekklesion]]) of Glabas survived. This domed chapel was built by his widow, Martha around 1304–08. In the miniature dome the traditional Pantokrator can be seen with twelve prophets beneath. Unusually the apse is decorated with a ''[[Deesis]]'', probably due to the funerary function of the chapel.

The [[Church of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki)|Church of the Holy Apostles]] in [[Thessaloniki]] was built in 1310–14. Although some vandal systematically removed the gold tesserae of the background it can be seen that the Pantokrator and the prophets in the dome follow the traditional Byzantine pattern. Many details are similar to the Pammakaristos mosaics so it is supposed that the same team of mosaicists worked in both buildings. Another building with a related mosaic decoration is the [[Theotokos Paregoritissa Church]] in [[Arta, Greece|Arta]]. The church was established by the Despot of [[Epirus]] in 1294–96. In the dome is the traditional stern Pantokrator, with prophets and cherubim below.

[[File:Chora Church interior March 2008.JPG|thumb|right|Mosaic of Theodore Metochites offering the Chora Church to Christ]]
The greatest mosaic work of the [[Palaeologan renaissance in art]] is the decoration of the [[Chora Church]] in Constantinople. Although the mosaics of the naos have not survived except three panels, the decoration of the exonarthex and the esonarthex constitute the most important full-scale mosaic cycle in Constantinople after the Hagia Sophia. They were executed around 1320 by the command of [[Theodore Metochites]]. The esonarthex has two fluted domes, specially created to provide the ideal setting for the mosaic images of the ancestors of Christ. The southern one is called the Dome of the Pantokrator while the northern one is the Dome of the Theotokos. The most important panel of the esonarthex depicts Theodore Metochites wearing a huge [[turban]], offering the model of the church to Christ. The walls of both narthexes are decorated with mosaic cycles from the life of the Virgin and the life of Christ. These panels show the influence of the Italian [[trecento]] on Byzantine art especially the more natural settings, landscapes, figures.

The last Byzantine mosaic work was created for the Hagia Sophia, Constantinople in the middle of the 14th century. The great eastern arch of the cathedral collapsed in 1346, bringing down the third of the main dome. By 1355 not only the big Pantokrator image was restored but new mosaics were set on the eastern arch depicting the Theotokos, the Baptist and Emperor [[John V Palaiologos]] (discovered only in 1989).

In addition to the large-scale monuments several miniature mosaic icons of outstanding quality was produced for the Palaiologos court and nobles. The loveliest examples from the 14th century are ''Annunciation'' in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] and a mosaic diptych in the Cathedral Treasury of [[Florence]] representing the ''Twelve Feasts of the Church''.

In the troubled years of the 15th century the fatally weakened empire could not afford luxurious mosaics. Churches were decorated with wall-paintings in this era and after the [[Fall of Constantinople|Turkish conquest]].