Metaphysics

=== Causality ===
{{main|Causality}}

Causality is the relation between cause and effect whereby one entity produces or affects another entity.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=20–22}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=218–219}} }}</ref> For instance, if a person bumps a glass and spills its contents then the bump is the cause and the spill is the effect.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|p=20}}</ref> Besides the single-case causation between particulars in this example, there is also general-case causation expressed in general statements such as "smoking causes cancer".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=21–22}} | {{harvnb|Williamson|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yWWEIvNgUQ4C&pg=PA186 186]}} }}</ref> The term [[agent causation]] is used if people and their actions cause something.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=219, 252–253}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=233–234}} }}</ref> Causation is usually interpreted deterministically, meaning that a cause always brings about its effect. This view is rejected by [[Probabilistic causation|probabilistic theories]], which claim that the cause merely increases the probability that the effect occurs. This view can be used to explain that smoking causes cancer even though this is not true in every single case.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=228–231}} | {{harvnb|Williamson|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yWWEIvNgUQ4C&pg=PA185 185–186]}} }}</ref>

The [[Humeanism#Causality and necessity|regularity theory of causation]], inspired by [[David Hume]]'s philosophy, states that causation is nothing but a [[constant conjunction]] in which the mind apprehends that one phenomenon, like putting one's hand in a fire, is always followed by another phenomenon, like a feeling of pain.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lorkowski|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Necessary Connections and Hume’s Two Definitions, § 4. Causal Reductionism}} | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|pp=24–25}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=220–221}} }}</ref> According to nomic regularity theories, the regularities take the forms of [[Scientific law|laws of nature]] studied by science.<ref>{{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=223–224}}</ref> [[Counterfactual conditional|Counterfactual]] theories focus not on regularities but on how effects depend on their causes. They state that effects owe their existence to the cause and would not be present without them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Carroll|Markosian|2010|p=26}} | {{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=221–222}} | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=224–225}} }}</ref> According to primitivism, causation is a basic concept that cannot be analyzed in terms of non-causal concepts, such as regularities or dependence relations. One form of primitivism identifies causal powers inherent in entities as the underlying mechanism.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ney|2014|pp=231–232}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|2009|pp=94–95}} | {{harvnb|Mumford|Anjum|2013}} | {{harvnb|Koons|Pickavance|2015|pp=63–64}} }}</ref> Eliminativists reject the above theories by holding that there is no causation.<ref>{{harvnb|Tallant|2017|pp=231–232}}</ref>