Free will

====Hard incompatibilism====
Hard incompatibilism is the idea that free will cannot exist, whether the world is deterministic or not. [[Derk Pereboom (philosopher)|Derk Pereboom]] has defended hard incompatibilism, identifying a variety of positions where free will is irrelevant to indeterminism/determinism, among them the following:
:#Determinism (D) is true, D does not imply we lack free will (F), but in fact we do lack F.
:#D is true, D does not imply we lack F, but in fact we don't know if we have F.
:#D is true, and we do have F.
:#D is true, we have F, and F implies D.
:#D is unproven, but we have F.
:#D isn't true, we do have F, and would have F even if D were true.
:#D isn't true, we don't have F, but F is compatible with D.
::::::Derk Pereboom, ''Living without Free Will'',<ref name="Derk1"/> p. xvi.
Pereboom calls positions 3 and 4 ''soft determinism'', position 1 a form of ''hard determinism'', position 6 a form of ''classical libertarianism'', and any position that includes having F as ''compatibilism''.

[[John Locke]] denied that the phrase "free will" made any sense (compare with [[theological noncognitivism]], a similar stance on the [[existence of God]]). He also took the view that the truth of determinism was irrelevant. He believed that the defining feature of voluntary behavior was that individuals have the ability to ''postpone'' a decision long enough to reflect or deliberate upon the consequences of a choice: "...the will in truth, signifies nothing but a power, or ability, to prefer or choose".<ref>Locke, J. (1689). ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (1998, ed). Book II, Chap. XXI, Sec. 17. Penguin Classics, Toronto.</ref>

The contemporary philosopher [[Galen Strawson]] agrees with Locke that the truth or falsity of determinism is irrelevant to the
problem.<ref name="GStraw">Strawson, G. (1998, 2004). "Free will". In E. Craig (ed.), ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. London: Routledge. Retrieved August 17, 2006, [http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/V014 ((online))] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070825055350/http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/V014 |date=2007-08-25 }}</ref> He argues that the notion of free will leads to an infinite regress and is therefore senseless.
According to Strawson, if one is responsible for what one does in a given situation, then one must be responsible for the way one is in certain mental respects. But it is impossible for one to be responsible for the way one is in any respect. This is because to be responsible in some situation ''S'', one must have been responsible for the way one was at ''S<sup>−1</sup>''. To be responsible for the way one was at ''S<sup>−1</sup>'', one must have been responsible for the way one was at ''S<sup>−2</sup>'', and so on. At some point in the chain, there must have been an act of origination of a new causal chain. But this is impossible. Man cannot create himself or his mental states ''[[ex nihilo]]''. This argument entails that free will itself is absurd, but not that it is incompatible with determinism. Strawson calls his own view "pessimism" but it can be classified as [[hard incompatibilism]].<ref name="GStraw"/>

===== Causal determinism =====
{{Main|Determinism}}

Causal determinism is the concept that [[Event (philosophy)|events]] within a given [[paradigm]] are bound by [[causality]] in such a way that any state (of an object or event) is completely determined by prior states. Causal determinism proposes that there is an unbroken chain of prior occurrences stretching back to the origin of the universe. Causal determinists believe that there is nothing uncaused or [[Causa sui|self-caused]]. The most common form of causal determinism is nomological determinism (or scientific determinism), the notion that the past and the present dictate the future entirely and necessarily by rigid natural laws, that every occurrence results inevitably from prior events. [[Quantum mechanics]] poses a serious challenge to this view.

Fundamental debate continues over whether the physical universe is likely to be [[causal determinism|deterministic]]. Although the scientific method cannot be used to rule out [[indeterminism]] with respect to violations of [[causal closure]], it can be used to identify indeterminism in natural law. [[Interpretations of quantum mechanics]] at present are both [[deterministic system|deterministic]] and [[indeterminism|indeterministic]], and are being constrained by ongoing experimentation.<ref name=GroblacherPaterek2007>{{cite journal|last1=Groblacher|first1=Simon|last2=Paterek|first2=Tomasz|last3=Kaltenbaek|first3=Rainer|last4=Brukner|first4=Caslav|last5=Zukowski|first5=Marek|last6=Aspelmeyer|first6=Markus|last7=Zeilinger|first7=Anton|title=An experimental test of non-local realism|journal=Nature|volume=446|issue=7138|year=2007|pages=871–75|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/nature05677|pmid=17443179|arxiv=0704.2529|bibcode=2007Natur.446..871G|s2cid=4412358}}</ref>

===== Destiny and fate =====
{{Main|Destiny}}

Destiny or fate is a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual. It is a concept based on the belief that there is a fixed natural order to the cosmos.

Although often used interchangeably, the words "fate" and "destiny" have distinct connotations.

[[Fate]] generally implies there is a set course that cannot be deviated from, and over which one has no control. Fate is related to [[determinism]], but makes no specific claim of physical determinism. Even with physical indeterminism an event could still be fated externally (see for instance [[theological determinism]]). Destiny likewise is related to determinism, but makes no specific claim of physical determinism. Even with physical indeterminism an event could still be destined to occur.

[[Destiny]] implies there is a set course that cannot be deviated from, but does not of itself make any claim with respect to the setting of that course (i.e., it does not necessarily conflict with [[incompatibilist]] free will). Free will if existent could be the mechanism by which that destined outcome is chosen (determined to represent destiny).<ref name="Blackwell2011">{{cite book|author=Ben C. Blackwell|title=Christosis: Pauline Soteriology in Light of Deification in Irenaeus and Cyril of Alexandria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDZxSq9nx4IC|access-date=8 December 2012|year=2011|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=978-3-16-151672-6|page=50}}</ref>

===== Logical determinism =====
{{See also|B-theory of time}}
Discussion regarding destiny does not necessitate the existence of supernatural powers. Logical [[determinism]] or determinateness is the notion that all propositions, whether about the past, present, or future, are either true or false. This creates a unique problem for free will given that propositions about the future already have a truth value in the present (that is it is already determined as either true or false), and is referred to as the [[problem of future contingents]].

===== Omniscience =====
{{Main|Omniscience}}

[[Omniscience]] is the capacity to know everything that there is to know (included in which are all future events), and is a property often attributed to a creator deity. Omniscience implies the existence of destiny. Some authors have claimed that free will cannot coexist with omniscience. One argument asserts that an omniscient creator not only implies destiny but a form of high level [[predeterminism]] such as hard [[theological determinism]] or [[predestination]]&nbsp;– that they have independently fixed all events and outcomes in the universe in advance. In such a case, even if an individual could have influence over their lower level physical system, their choices in regard to this cannot be their own, as is the case with libertarian free will. Omniscience features as an [[incompatible-properties argument]] for the existence of [[God]], known as the [[argument from free will]], and is closely related to other such arguments, for example the incompatibility of [[omnipotence]] with a good creator deity (i.e. if a deity knew what they were going to choose, then they are responsible for letting them choose it).

=====Predeterminism=====
{{Main|Predeterminism}}
{{See also|Predestination}}

[[Predeterminism]] is the idea that all events are determined in advance.<ref name="McKewan">{{cite encyclopedia |last=McKewan |first=Jaclyn |editor=H. James Birx"|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Time: Science, Philosophy, Theology, & Culture |title=Predeterminism |year=2009 |publisher=SAGE Publications|doi=10.4135/9781412963961.n191 |pages=1035–36|chapter=Evolution, Chemical |isbn=978-1-4129-4164-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionaries |title=Predeterminism |url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/predeterminism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904051839/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/predeterminism |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 4, 2012 |access-date=20 December 2012 |date=2010 }}. See also {{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Collins English Dictionary |title=Predeterminism |url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/predeterminism |access-date=20 December 2012 |publisher=Collins}}</ref> Predeterminism is the [[philosophy]] that all events of [[history]], past, present and future, have been decided or are known (by [[God]], [[fate]], or some other force), including human actions. Predeterminism is frequently taken to mean that human actions cannot interfere with (or have no bearing on) the outcomes of a pre-determined course of events, and that one's destiny was established externally (for example, exclusively by a creator deity). The concept of predeterminism is often argued by invoking [[causal determinism]], implying that there is an unbroken [[chain of prior occurrences]] stretching back to the origin of the universe. In the case of predeterminism, this chain of events has been pre-established, and human actions cannot interfere with the outcomes of this pre-established chain. Predeterminism can be used to mean such pre-established causal determinism, in which case it is categorised as a specific type of [[determinism]].<ref name="McKewan" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://philosophy.lander.edu/ethics/notes-determinism.html |title=Some Varieties of Free Will and Determinism |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 September 2009 <!-- date found by checking page's source code where format of date given as m.d.y -->|work=Philosophy 302: Ethics |publisher=philosophy.lander.edu |access-date=19 December 2012| quote=Predeterminism: the philosophical and theological view that combines God with determinism. On this doctrine events throughout eternity have been foreordained by some supernatural power in a causal sequence.}}</ref> It can also be used interchangeably with causal determinism&nbsp;– in the context of its capacity to determine future events.<ref name="McKewan" /><ref>See for example {{cite journal |author=Hooft, G. |title=How does god play dice? (Pre-)determinism at the Planck scale |quote=Predeterminism is here defined by the assumption that the experimenter's 'free will' in deciding what to measure (such as his choice to measure the x- or the y-component of an electron's spin), is in fact limited by deterministic laws, hence not free at all |arxiv=hep-th/0104219 |year=2001|bibcode=2001hep.th....4219T}}, and {{cite journal |author=Sukumar, CV |title=A new paradigm for science and architecture |quote=Quantum Theory provided a beautiful description of the behaviour of isolated atoms and nuclei and small aggregates of elementary particles. Modern science recognized that predisposition rather than predeterminism is what is widely prevalent in nature. |journal=City |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=181–83 |year=1996|doi=10.1080/13604819608900044|bibcode=1996City....1..181S }}</ref> Despite this, predeterminism is often considered as independent of causal determinism.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Borst, C. |title=Leibniz and the compatibilist account of free will |quote=Leibniz presents a clear case of a philosopher who does not think that predeterminism requires universal causal determinism |journal=Studia Leibnitiana |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=49–58 |year=1992 |jstor=40694201}}</ref><ref name=Society1971>{{cite book|author=Far Western Philosophy of Education Society|title=Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Far Western Philosophy of Education Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=spkpAQAAMAAJ|access-date=20 December 2012|year=1971|publisher=Far Western Philosophy of Education Society.|page=12|quote="Determinism" is, in essence, the position holding that all behavior is caused by prior behavior. "Predeterminism" is the position holding that all behavior is caused by conditions predating behavior altogether (such impersonal boundaries as "the human conditions", instincts, the will of God, inherent knowledge, fate, and such).}}</ref> The term predeterminism is also frequently used in the context of biology and heredity, in which case it represents a form of [[biological determinism]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |title=Predeterminism |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/predeterminism |access-date=20 December 2012 |publisher=Merriam-Webster, Incorporated}} See for example {{cite journal |author=Ormond, A.T. |title=Freedom and psycho-genesis |quote=The problem of predeterminism is one that involves the factors of heredity and environment, and the point to be debated here is the relation of the present self that chooses to these predetermining agencies |journal=Psychological Review |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=217–29 |year=1894 |doi=10.1037/h0065249|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1429090 }}, and {{cite journal |author=Garris, M.D. |title=A Platform for Evolving Genetic Automata for Text Segmentation (GNATS) |quote=However, predeterminism is not completely avoided. If the codes within the genotype are not designed properly, then the organisms being evolved will be fundamentally handicapped. |journal=Science of Artificial Neural Networks |volume=1710 |pages=714–24 |year=1992|doi=10.1117/12.140132|display-authors=etal|bibcode=1992SPIE.1710..714G |s2cid=62639035 }}</ref>

The term predeterminism suggests not just a determining of all events, but the prior and deliberately conscious determining of all events (therefore done, presumably, by a conscious being). While determinism usually refers to a naturalistically explainable causality of events, predeterminism seems by definition to suggest a person or a "someone" who is controlling or planning the causality of events before they occur and who then perhaps resides beyond the natural, causal universe. [[Predestination]] asserts that a supremely powerful being has indeed fixed all events and outcomes in the universe in advance, and is a famous doctrine of the [[Calvinists]] in [[Christian theology]]. Predestination is often considered a form of hard [[theological determinism]].

Predeterminism has therefore been compared to [[fatalism]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sherman, H. |title=Marx and determinism |quote=Many religions of the world have considered that the path of history is predetermined by God or Fate. On this basis, many believe that what will happen will happen, and they accept their destiny with fatalism. |journal=Journal of Economic Issues |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=61–71 |year=1981 |jstor=4224996|doi=10.1080/00213624.1981.11503814 }}</ref> Fatalism is the idea that everything is fated to happen, so that humans have no control over their future.