Dwight D. Eisenhower

=== Operations Torch and Avalanche ===
[[File:Major General Dwight Eisenhower, 1942 TR207.jpg|thumb|Eisenhower as a [[Major general (United States)|major general]], 1942]]

In November 1942, Eisenhower was also appointed [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force]] of the [[Mediterranean Theater of Operations|North African Theater of Operations]] (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters [[Allied Force Headquarters|Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters]] (A(E)FHQ). The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons.{{Failed verification|date=July 2016}} The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned [[Admiralty Tunnel|in the underground headquarters]] within the [[Rock of Gibraltar]]. Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command [[Gibraltar]] in 200 years.<ref name=gibraltar>{{cite news|last=Gallagher|first=Wes|title=Eisenhower Commanded Gibraltar|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19421222&id=h5c0AAAAIBAJ&pg=3799,6270005|access-date=April 29, 2013|newspaper=The Lewiston Daily Sun|date=December 1942|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920042406/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1928&dat=19421222&id=h5c0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=rGgFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3799,6270005|archive-date=September 20, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Military history of France during World War II|French cooperation]] was deemed necessary to the campaign and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation"{{according to whom|date=March 2019}} with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully into [[French protectorate of Tunisia|Tunisia]] and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to [[François Darlan]] as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices in [[Vichy France]] and his continued role as commander-in-chief of the [[French Armed Forces|French armed forces]]. The [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] leaders were "thunderstruck"{{according to whom|date=March 2019}} by this from a political standpoint, though none had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized{{by whom|date=March 2019}} for the move. Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by [[Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle]], a French antifascist monarchist.<ref>Atkinson, ''An Army at Dawn'', pp. 251–252.</ref> Eisenhower later appointed as High Commissioner General [[Henri Giraud]], who had been installed by the Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=204–210}}</ref>

Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of ''[[Generalfeldmarschall]]'' [[Erwin Rommel]]'s move into the [[Battle of Kasserine Pass|Kasserine Pass]], Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of [[Lloyd Fredendall]], commanding [[II Corps (United States)|II Corps]]. He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=230–233}}</ref> In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean basin]] to include the [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|British Eighth Army]], commanded by [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] Sir Bernard Montgomery. The Eighth Army had [[Western Desert Campaign|advanced across the Western Desert]] from the east and was ready for the start of the [[Tunisia Campaign]].

After the capitulation of [[Axis powers|Axis]] forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the [[Allied invasion of Sicily|invasion of Sicily]]. Once [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], the [[Duce|Italian leader]], had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with [[Allied invasion of Italy#Salerno landings|Operation Avalanche]]. But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country. The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 [[Division (military)|divisions]] and initially outnumbering the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces 2 to 1.<ref>{{harvnb|Ambrose|1983|pp=254–255}}</ref>