Communication

=== Communicative competence ===
{{Main|Communicative competence}}
Communicative competence is the ability to communicate effectively or to choose the appropriate communicative behavior in a given situation.<ref>{{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|pp=20–21}}</ref> It concerns what to say, when to say it, and how to say it.<ref>{{harvnb|McArthur|McArthur|McArthur|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC&pg=PT232 232–233]}}</ref> It further includes the ability to receive and understand messages.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=25}}</ref> [[Competence (human resources)|Competence]] is often contrasted with [[Linguistic performance|performance]] since competence can be present even if it is not exercised, while performance consists in the realization of this competence.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Genesee|1984|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=U-05JSBtZF8C&pg=PA139 139]}} | {{harvnb|Peterwagner|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=87BOMKSj1kcC&pg=PA9 9]}} | {{harvnb|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3029]|loc=Models of communication}} }}</ref> However, some theorists reject a stark contrast and hold that performance is the observable part and is used to infer competence in relation to future performances.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|pp=17–18}}</ref>

Two central components of communicative competence are [[effectiveness]] and appropriateness.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|pp=20–21}} | {{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=241}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|pp=18, 25}} }}</ref> Effectiveness is the degree to which the speaker achieves their desired outcomes or the degree to which preferred alternatives are realized.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|p=23}} | {{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=241}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=25}} }}</ref> This means that whether a communicative behavior is effective does not just depend on the actual outcome but also on the speaker's intention, i.e. whether this outcome was what they intended to achieve. Because of this, some theorists additionally require that the speaker be able to give an explanation of why they engaged in one behavior rather than another.<ref>{{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|p=23}}</ref> Effectiveness is closely related to [[efficiency]], the difference being that effectiveness is about achieving goals while efficiency is about using few resources (such as time, effort, and money) in the process.<ref>{{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=241}}</ref>

Appropriateness means that the communicative behavior meets social standards and expectations.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|p=23}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|pp=18, 25}} }}</ref> Communication theorist Brian H. Spitzberg defines it as "the perceived legitimacy or acceptability of behavior or enactments in a given context".<ref>{{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=241}}</ref> This means that the speaker is aware of the social and cultural context in order to adapt and express the message in a way that is considered acceptable in the given situation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|p=23}} | {{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=238}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=18}} | {{harvnb|Danesi|2009|p=70}} }}</ref> For example, to bid farewell to their teacher, a student may use the expression "Goodbye, sir" but not the expression "I gotta split, man", which they may use when talking to a peer.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Danesi|2000|pp=59–60}} | {{harvnb|McArthur|McArthur|McArthur|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC&pg=PT232 232–233]}} }}</ref> To be both effective and appropriate means to achieve one's preferred outcomes in a way that follows social standards and expectations.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=26}}</ref> Some definitions of communicative competence put their main emphasis on either effectiveness or appropriateness while others combine both features.<ref>{{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|pp=20–22}}</ref>

Many additional components of communicative competence have been suggested, such as [[empathy]], control, flexibility, sensitivity, and knowledge.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Backlund|Morreale|2015|p=24}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|pp=19, 24}} }}</ref> It is often discussed in terms of the individual skills employed in the process, i.e. the specific behavioral components that make up communicative competence.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=24}} | {{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|p=242}} }}</ref> Message production skills include reading and writing. They are correlated with the reception skills of listening and reading.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=25}} | {{harvnb|Berlo|1960|pp=41–42}} }}</ref> There are both verbal and non-verbal communication skills.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=25}}</ref> For example, verbal communication skills involve the proper understanding of a language, including its [[phonology]], [[orthography]], syntax, [[lexicon]], and semantics.<ref>{{harvnb|McArthur|McArthur|McArthur|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC&pg=PT232 232–233]}}</ref>

Many aspects of human life depend on successful communication, from ensuring basic necessities of survival to building and maintaining relationships.<ref>{{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|pp=238–239}}</ref> Communicative competence is a key factor regarding whether a person is able to reach their goals in social life, like having a successful career and finding a suitable spouse.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=15}}</ref> Because of this, it can have a large impact on the individual's [[well-being]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Spitzberg|2015|pp=238–239}} | {{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=24}} }}</ref> The lack of communicative competence can cause problems both on the individual and the societal level, including professional, academic, and health problems.<ref>{{harvnb|Rickheit|Strohner|Vorwerg|2008|p=24}}</ref>

Barriers to effective communication can distort the message. They may result in failed communication and cause undesirable effects. This can happen if the message is poorly expressed because it uses terms with which the receiver is not familiar, or because it is not relevant to the receiver's needs, or because it contains too little or too much information. Distraction, [[selective perception]], and lack of attention to feedback may also be responsible.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Buchanan|Huczynski|2017|pp=218–219}} | {{harvnb|Fielding|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z_vIcp9gaEC&pg=PA20 20–21]}} }}</ref> Noise is another negative factor. It concerns influences that interfere with the message on its way to the receiver and distort it.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|UMN staff|2016a|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}} | {{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 296]|loc=noise}} }}</ref> Crackling sounds during a telephone call are one form of noise. [[Ambiguity|Ambiguous expressions]] can also inhibit effective communication and make it necessary to [[disambiguate]] between possible interpretations to discern the sender's intention.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|van Trijp|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oqhJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA289 289–290]}} | {{harvnb|Winner|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YBw0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29 29]}} }}</ref> These interpretations depend also on the [[Cross-cultural communication|cultural background of the participants]]. Significant cultural differences constitute an additional obstacle and make it more likely that messages are misinterpreted.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blythe|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rPgQRbBLdYgC&pg=188 188]}} | {{harvnb|Meng|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b0HWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120]}} | {{harvnb|Rao|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fBHi4hEuDgYC 48]}} }}</ref>