Christian theology

==Theology proper: God==
{{Main|God in Christianity}}
In [[Christianity]], God is the [[Creator God|creator and preserver of the universe]]. God is the [[Monotheism|sole]] [[The Ultimate (philosophy)|ultimate]] power in the universe but is distinct from it. The [[Bible]] never speaks of God as impersonal. Instead, it refers to him in [[Personal God|personal terms]]– who speaks, sees, hears, acts, and loves. God is understood to have a [[will (philosophy)|will]] and personality and is an [[Omnipotent|all powerful]], [[Divinity|divine]] and [[Omnibenevolence|benevolent]] being. He is represented in [[Scripture]] as being primarily concerned with people and their salvation.<ref name="Stagg"/>

===Attributes of God===
{{Main|Attributes of God in Christianity}}

====Classification====
Many [[Calvinism|Reformed]] theologians distinguish between the ''communicable'' attributes (those that human beings can also have) and the ''incommunicable'' attributes (those which belong to God alone).<ref>[[Herman Bavinck]], ''The Doctrine of God''. Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1979.</ref>

====Enumeration====
Some attributes ascribed to God in Christian theology<ref>The [[Westminster Shorter Catechism]]'s definition of God is merely an enumeration of his attributes: "God is a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness, and truth."[[Westminster Shorter Catechism]], Question and Answer 4. The [[Westminster Larger Catechism]] adds certain attributes to this description, such as "all-sufficient", "incomprehensible", "every where present" and "knowing all things". [[Westminster Larger Catechism]], Question and Answer 7. This answer has been criticised, however, as having "nothing specifically Christian about it."[[James B. Jordan]], "[http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/biblical-horizons/no-82-what-is-god/ What is God?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222000602/http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/biblical-horizons/no-82-what-is-god/ |date=22 December 2010 }}," ''Biblical Horizons Newsletter'', No. 82.</ref> are:
*[[Aseity]]—That "God is so independent that he does not need us."<ref>[[D. A. Carson]], ''The Gagging of God'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan), 1996.</ref> It is based on [[Book of Acts|Acts]] 17:25, where it says that God "is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything" ([[NIV]]). This is often related to God's ''self-existence'' and his ''self-sufficiency''.
*[[Eternity]]—That God exists beyond the [[time|temporal]] realm.
*[[Grace (Christianity)|Graciousness]]—That God extends His favor and gifts to human beings unconditionally as well as conditionally.
*[[Sacred|Holiness]]—That God is separate from sin and incorruptible. Noting the refrain of "[[Sanctus|Holy, holy, holy]]" in [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 6:3 and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8, 
*[[Immanence]]—That although God is [[transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] and holy, He is also accessible and can be dynamically experienced.
*[[Immutability (theology)|Immutability]]—That God's essential nature is unchangeable.
*[[Impassibility]]—That God does not experience emotion or suffering (a more controversial doctrine, disputed especially by [[open theism]]).
*[[Impeccability]]—That God is incapable of error ([[sin]]).
*[[Incorporeality]]—That God is without physical composition. A related concept is the ''[[spirituality]]'' of God, which is derived from [[Jesus]]' statement in [[Gospel of John|John]] 4:24, "God is spirit."
*[[Love]]—That God is care and compassion. [[1 John]] 4:16 says "God is love."
*[[Mission (Christianity)|Mission]]—That God is the supreme liberator. While the [[Missio dei|Mission of God]] is not traditionally included in this list, [[David Bosch]] has argued that "[[Mission (Christianity)|mission]] is not primarily an activity of the church, but an attribute of God."<ref>[[David Bosch|David J. Bosch]], ''Transforming Mission'' (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1991), 390.</ref>
*[[Omnibenevolence]]—That God is omnibenevolent. [[Omnibenevolence]] of God refers to him being "all good".
*[[Omnipotence]]—That God is supremely or all-powerful.
*[[Omnipresence]]—That God is the supreme being, existing everywhere and at all times; the all-perceiving or all-conceiving foundation of reality.
*[[Omniscience]]—That God is supremely or all-knowing.
*Oneness—That God is without peer, also that every divine attribute is instantiated in its entirety (the qualitative [[infinity]] of God). See also [[Monotheism]] and [[Divine simplicity]].
*[[Divine providence|Providence]]—That God watches over His creation with interest and dedication. While the [[Divine providence|Providence]] of God usually refers to his activity in the world, it also implies his care for the universe, and is thus an attribute. A distinction is usually made between "general providence" which refers to God's continuous upholding the existence and natural order of the universe, and "special providence" which refers to God's extraordinary intervention in the life of people.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Providence.aspx#1O101-Providence Providence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417135306/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Providence.aspx#1O101-Providence |date=17 April 2011 }} in ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions''.</ref> See also [[Sovereignty]].
*[[Righteousness]]—That God is the greatest or only measure of human conduct. The righteousness of God may refer to his holiness, to his [[justice]], or to his saving activity through Christ.
*[[Transcendence (religion)|Transcendence]]—That God exists beyond the natural realm of physical laws and thus is not bound by them;<ref>{{cite book |first=Machen, J. |last=Gresham |title=God Transcendent |publisher=Banner of Truth publishers |year=1998 |isbn=0-85151-355-7}}</ref> He is also wholly [[Other (philosophy)|Other]] and [[epistemology|incomprehensible]] apart from [[general revelation|general]] or [[special revelation|special self-revelation]].
*[[Trinity|Triune]]—The Christian God is understood (by trinitarian Christians) to be a "threeness" of [[God the Father|Father]], [[God the Son|Son]], and [[Holy Spirit]] that is fully consistent with His "oneness"; a single infinite being who is both within and beyond nature. Because the persons of the [[Trinity]] represent a personal relation even on the level of God to Himself, He is personal both in His relation toward us and in His relation toward Himself.
*[[Veracity (ethics)|Veracity]]—That God is the Truth all human beings strive for; He is also impeccably honest. [[Epistle to Titus|Titus]] 1:2 refers to "God, who does not lie."
*[[Wisdom]]—That God fully comprehends [[human nature]] and the world, and will see His will accomplished in heaven and on earth. [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 16:27 speaks about the "only wise God".

====Monotheism====
[[File:Christ in Gethsemane.jpg|thumb|upright|''Christ in Gethsemane'', [[Heinrich Hofmann (painter)|Heinrich Hofmann]], 1890]]
Some Christians believe that the God worshiped by the Hebrew people of the pre-Christian era had always revealed himself as he did through [[Jesus]]; but that this was never obvious until Jesus was born (see [[John 1]]). Also, though the [[Angel of the Lord]] spoke to the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, some believe it has always been only through the [[Holy Spirit|Spirit of God]] granting them understanding, that men have been able to perceive later that God himself had visited them.

This belief gradually developed into the modern formulation of the [[Trinity]], which is the doctrine that God is a single entity ([[Yahweh]]), but that there is a trinity in God's single being, the meaning of which has always been debated. This mysterious "Trinity" has been described as [[Hypostasis (religion)|hypostases]] in the [[Greek language]] ([[Consubstantial|subsistences]] in [[Latin]]), and "persons" in English. Nonetheless, Christians stress that they only believe in one God.

Most Christian churches teach the Trinity, as opposed to Unitarian monotheistic beliefs. Historically, most Christian churches have taught that the nature of God is a [[Sacred mysteries|mystery]], something that must be revealed by [[special revelation]] rather than deduced through [[general revelation]].

Christian orthodox traditions (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant) follow this idea, which was codified in 381 and reached its full development through the work of the [[Cappadocian Fathers]]. They consider God to be a [[Wiktionary:triune|triune]] entity, called the Trinity, comprising the three "Persons"; [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]], and [[God the Holy Spirit]], described as being "of the same substance" ({{lang|grc|[[ousia|ὁμοούσιος]]}}). The true nature of an infinite God, however, is commonly described as beyond definition, and the word 'person' is an imperfect expression of the idea.

Some critics contend that because of the adoption of a tripartite conception of deity, Christianity is a form of [[tritheism]] or [[polytheism]]. This concept dates from [[Arianism|Arian]] teachings which claimed that Jesus, having appeared later in the Bible than his Father, had to be a secondary, lesser, and therefore distinct god. For [[Jews]] and [[Muslims]], the idea of God as a trinity is [[heresy|heretical]]– it is considered akin to [[polytheism]]. Christians overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the very [[Nicene Creed]] (among others) which gives the orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity does begin with: "I believe in one God".

In the 3rd century, [[Tertullian]] claimed that God exists as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—the three personae of one and the same substance.<ref name=UCP>''Critical Terms for Religious Studies.'' Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998. ''Credo Reference''. 27 July 2009</ref> To trinitarian Christians God the Father is not at all a separate god from God the Son (of whom [[Jesus]] is the incarnation) and the Holy Spirit, the other ''[[Hypostasis (religion)|hypostases]]'' (Persons) of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]].<ref name=UCP/> According to the Nicene Creed, the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history.

In [[Christianity]], the [[doctrine]] of the Trinity states that God is one being who exists, simultaneously and [[eternity|eternally]], as a [[perichoresis|mutual indwelling]] of three Persons: the Father, the Son (incarnate as Jesus), and the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost). Since earliest Christianity, one's salvation has been very closely related to the concept of a triune God, although the Trinitarian doctrine was not formalized until the 4th century. At that time, the [[Constantine I and Christianity|Emperor Constantine]] convoked the [[First Council of Nicaea]], to which all bishops of the empire were invited to attend. [[Pope Sylvester I]] did not attend but sent his [[Papal legate|legate]]. The council, among other things, decreed the original Nicene Creed.

====Trinity====
{{Main|Trinity}}
[[File:Rublevtrinität ubt.gif|upright|thumb|"Holy Trinity" from the Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow, by [[Andrei Rublev]], c. 1400, but more properly known as the "Hospitality of Abraham." The three angels [[Christian symbolism|symbolize]] the Trinity.]]
For most Christians, beliefs about God are enshrined in the doctrine of [[Trinitarianism]], which holds that the three persons of God together form a single God. The Trinitarian view emphasizes that God has a will and that [[God the Son]] has two wills, divine and human, though these are never in conflict (see [[Hypostatic union]]). However, this point is disputed by Oriental Orthodox Christians, who hold that ''God the Son'' has only one will of unified divinity and humanity (see [[Miaphysitism]]).

The Christian doctrine of the Trinity teaches the unity of [[God the Father|Father]], [[God the Son|Son]], and [[Holy Spirit]] as three persons in [[monotheism|one Godhead]].<ref name="EB-purgatory">[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061946/purgatory Encyclopædia Britannica: Purgatory in world religions:] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820181124/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061946/purgatory |date=20 August 2008 }} "The idea of purification or temporary punishment after death has ancient roots and is well-attested in early Christian literature. The conception of purgatory as a geographically situated place is largely the achievement of medieval Christian piety and imagination."</ref> The doctrine states that [[God]] is the Triune God, existing as three ''persons'', or in the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] ''[[hypostasis (religion)|hypostases]]'',<ref>See discussion in {{CathEncy|wstitle=Person}}</ref> but one being.<ref>Grudem, Wayne A. 1994. ''Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine.'' Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press; Grand Rapids, MI: [[Zondervan]]. p. 226.</ref> Personhood in the Trinity does not match the common Western understanding of "person" as used in the English language—it does not imply an "individual, self-actualized center of free will and conscious activity."<ref name=Olsen>{{cite book |last=Olson |first=Roger E. |title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform. |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8308-1505-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian00olso }}</ref>{{rp|185–186.}} To the ancients, personhood "was in some sense individual, but always in community as well."<ref name=Olsen/>{{rp|p.186}} Each ''person'' is understood as having the one identical essence or nature, not merely similar natures. Since the beginning of the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|3rd century]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.ix.ii.html |title=Tertullian, Against Praxeas, chapter II |publisher=Ccel.org |date=1 June 2005 |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> the doctrine of the Trinity has been stated as "the one God exists in three Persons and [[homoousios|one substance]], Father, Son, and Holy Spirit."<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine" />

Trinitarianism, belief in the Trinity, is a mark of [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] as well as other prominent Christian sects arising from the [[Protestant Reformation]], such as [[Anglicanism]], [[Methodism]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Baptist]], and [[Presbyterianism]]. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' describes the Trinity as "the central dogma of Christian theology".<ref name="ODCC-Doctrine">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=he Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |title=Trinity, doctrine of the}}</ref> This doctrine contrasts with [[Nontrinitarian]] positions which include [[Unitarianism]], [[Oneness Pentecostalism (doctrine)|Oneness]] and [[Modalism]]. A small minority of Christians hold non-trinitarian views, largely coming under the heading of [[Unitarianism]].

Most, if not all, Christians believe that God is spirit,<ref>{{bibleverse|John|4:24}}</ref> an uncreated, [[Omnipotence|omnipotent]], and eternal being, the creator and sustainer of all things, who works the redemption of the world through his Son, Jesus Christ. With this background, belief in the [[Christology|divinity of Christ]] and the Holy Spirit is expressed as the doctrine of the [[Trinity]],<ref>J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines'' pp. 87–90; T. Desmond Alexander, ''New Dictionary of Biblical Theology'' pp. 514–515; Alister E. McGrath, ''Historical Theology'' p. 61.</ref> which describes the single divine ''[[ousia]]'' (substance) existing as three distinct and inseparable ''hypostases'' (persons): the [[God the Father|Father]], the Son ([[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] the [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]), and the [[Holy Spirit]].<ref>{{bibleverse|1John|5:7||1 Jn 5:7 }}</ref>

The Trinitarian doctrine is considered by most Christians to be a core tenet of their faith. [[Nontrinitarians]] typically hold that God, the Father, is supreme; that Jesus, although still divine Lord and Savior, is the [[Son of God]]; and that the Holy Spirit is a phenomenon akin to God's will on Earth. The holy three are separate, yet the Son and the Holy Spirit are still seen as originating from God the Father.

The [[New Testament]] does not have the term "Trinity" and nowhere discusses the Trinity as such. Some emphasize, however, that the New Testament does repeatedly speak of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit to "compel a trinitarian understanding of God."<ref name=Stagg-p38>{{cite book |last=Stagg |first=Frank |title=New Testament Theology |publisher=Broadman Press |year=1962 |isbn=978-0-8054-1613-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/newtestamenttheo0000stag/page/38 38 ff] |url=https://archive.org/details/newtestamenttheo0000stag/page/38 }}</ref> The doctrine developed from the biblical language used in New Testament passages such as the baptismal formula in {{bibleverse|Matthew|28:19}} and by the end of the [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th century]] it was widely held in its present form.

===God the Father===
{{Further|God the Father}}
In many [[monotheist]] religions, God is addressed as the father, in part because of his active interest in human affairs, in the way that a father would take an interest in his children who are dependent on him and as a father, he will respond to humanity, his children, acting in their best interests.<ref>Diana L. Eck (2003) Encountering God: A Spiritual Journey from Bozeman to Banaras. p. 98</ref> In Christianity, God is called "Father" in a more literal sense, besides being the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children.<ref>{{bibleverse|Heb|1:2–5}}, {{bibleverse|Gal|4:1–7}}</ref> The Father is said to be in unique relationship with his only begotten (''monogenes'') son, [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]], which implies an exclusive and intimate familiarity: "No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and any one to whom the Son chooses to reveal him."<ref>{{bibleverse|Mt.|11:27}}</ref>

In Christianity, God the Father's relationship with humanity is as a father to children—in a previously unheard-of sense—and not just as the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children, his people. Thus, humans, in general, are sometimes called ''children of God''. To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is that of Creator and created beings, and in that respect he is the father of all. The New Testament says, in this sense, that the very idea of family, wherever it appears, derives its name from God the Father,<ref>{{bibleverse|Eph|3:15}}</ref> and thus God himself is the model of the family.

However, there is a deeper "legal" sense in which Christians believe that they are made participants in the special relationship of Father and Son, through Jesus Christ as his spiritual [[bride of Christ|bride]]. Christians call themselves ''adopted'' children of God.<ref>"God sent forth His Son... that we might receive the adoption as sons. And because you are sons, God has sent forth the Spirit of His Son into your hearts crying out, "Abba, Father!" Therefore you are no longer a slave but a son, and if a son, then an heir of God through Christ."; {{bibleverse|Galatians|4:4–7}}</ref>

In the New Testament, God the Father has a special role in his relationship with the person of the Son, where Jesus is believed to be his Son and his heir.<ref>{{bibleverse|Heb.|1:2–5}}</ref> According to the [[Nicene Creed]], the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history. ''See'' [[Christology]]. The Bible refers to Christ, called "[[Logos (Christianity)|The Word]]" as present at the beginning of God's creation.,<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:1}}</ref> not a creation himself, but equal in the personhood of the Trinity.

In [[Eastern Orthodox]] theology, God the Father is the "principium" (''beginning''), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit, which gives intuitive emphasis to the threeness of persons; by comparison, Western theology explains the "origin" of all three ''hypostases'' or persons as being in the divine nature, which gives intuitive emphasis to the [[divine simplicity|oneness]] of God's being.{{Citation needed|reason=I think we need a reliable source for the contrasted "intuitive emphasises" in Eastern and Western theology|date=July 2019}}

===Christology and Christ===
{{Main|Christology|Jesus in Christianity|}}
Christology is the field of study within Christian theology which is primarily concerned with the nature, person, and works of [[Jesus Christ]], held by Christians to be the [[Son of God]]. Christology is concerned with the meeting of the human ([[Son of Man]]) and divine ([[God the Son]] or [[Logos (Christianity)|Word of God]]) in the person of [[Jesus]].

Primary considerations include the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]], the relationship of Jesus's nature and person with the nature and person of God, and the [[soteriology|salvific]] work of Jesus. As such, Christology is generally less concerned with the details of Jesus's life (what he did) or teaching than with who or what he is. There have been and are various perspectives by those who claim to be his followers since the church began after his ascension. The controversies ultimately focused on whether and how a [[Theological anthropology|human]] nature and a [[divinity|divine]] nature can co-exist in one person. The study of the inter-relationship of these two natures is one of the preoccupations of the majority tradition.

Teachings about Jesus and testimonies about what he accomplished during his three-year public ministry are found throughout the [[New Testament]]. Core biblical teachings about the person of Jesus Christ may be summarized that Jesus Christ was and forever is fully God (divine) and fully human in one sinless person at the same time,<ref name="Grudem">{{cite book |last=Grudem |first=Wayne A. |title=Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine |publisher=Zondervan |year=1994 |isbn=0-310-28670-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/systematictheolo00grud_0 }}</ref> and that through the death and [[resurrection of Jesus]], [[Christian views on sin|sinful]] humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of [[Heaven#Christianity|eternal life]] via his [[New Covenant]]. While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Christians believe that Jesus is [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] and "[[Hypostatic union|true God and true man]]" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. Scripture asserts that Jesus was conceived, by the Holy Spirit, and [[Nativity of Jesus|born]] of his [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|virgin mother Mary]] without a human father.<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|1:18–25}}, {{bibleverse|Luke|1:35}}, {{bibleverse|Luke|3:23}}</ref> The biblical accounts of Jesus's ministry include [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], [[Ministry of Jesus|preaching, teaching, healing]], [[Death of Christ|Death]], and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]. The apostle Peter, in what has become a famous proclamation of faith among Christians since the 1st century, said, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God."<ref>{{bibleverse|Matt|16:16}}</ref> Most Christians now wait for the [[Second Coming]] of Christ when they believe he will fulfill the remaining [[Messianic prophecy|Messianic prophecies]].

====Christ====
Christ is the English term for the [[Greek (language)|Greek]] {{lang|grc|Χριστός}} (''Khristós'') meaning "[[anointing|the anointed one]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Christ |title=Etymology Online: ''Christ'' |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> It is a translation of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{Script/Hebrew|מָשִׁיחַ}} (''Māšîaḥ''), usually [[transliteration|transliterated]] into English as ''[[Messiah]]''. The word is often misunderstood to be the [[surname]] of [[Jesus]] due to the numerous mentions of ''Jesus Christ'' in the Christian [[Bible]]. The word is in fact used as a [[title]], hence its common reciprocal use ''Christ Jesus'', meaning Jesus the Anointed One or Jesus the Messiah. Followers of Jesus became known as [[Christians]] because they believed that Jesus was the Christ, or Messiah, [[prophecy|prophesied]] about in the [[Old Testament]], or [[Tanakh]].

====Trinitarian ecumenical councils====
{{See also|Ecumenical council}}
The Christological controversies came to a head over the persons of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]] and their relationship with one another.
Christology was a fundamental concern from the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) until the [[Third Council of Constantinople]] (680). In this time period, the Christological views of various groups within the broader Christian community led to accusations of [[Christian heresy|heresy]], and, infrequently, subsequent [[religious persecution]]. In some cases, a sect's unique Christology is its chief distinctive feature, in these cases it is common for the sect to be known by the name given to its Christology.

The decisions made at [[First Council of Nicaea]] and re-ratified at the [[First Council of Constantinople]], after several decades of ongoing controversy during which the work of Athanasius and the [[Cappadocian Fathers]] were influential. The language used was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular it was affirmed that the Son was ''[[homoousios]]'' (of one substance) with the Father. The [[Nicene Creed|Creed of the Nicene Council]] made statements about the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus, thus preparing the way for discussion about how exactly the divine and human come together in the person of Christ (Christology).

Nicaea insisted that Jesus was fully divine and also human. What it did not do was make clear how one person could be both divine and human, and how the divine and human were related within that one person. This led to the Christological controversies of the [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th]] and [[Christianity in the 5th century|5th centuries]] of the Christian era.

The [[Chalcedonian Creed]] did not put an end to all Christological debate, but it did clarify the terms used and became a point of reference for all other Christologies. Most of the major branches of Christianity—[[Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Lutheranism]], and [[Calvinism|Reformed]]—subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Eastern Christianity—[[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syrian Orthodoxy]], [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian Church]], [[Coptic Orthodoxy]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox]]y, and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolicism]]—reject it.

====Attributes of Christ====

=====God as Son=====
{{Main|God the Son}}
According to the Bible, the second Person of the Trinity, because of his eternal relation to the first Person (God as Father), is the [[Son of God]]. He is considered (by Trinitarians) to be coequal with the Father and Holy Spirit. He is [[Hypostatic union|all God and all human]]: the Son of God as to his divine nature, while as to his human nature he is from the lineage of David.<ref>{{bibleverse|Rom|1:3–4}}</ref><ref>Compare.{{Bibleverse|Galatians|4:4}};{{Bibleverse|Jn|1:1–14}};{{Bibleref2-nb|Jn|5:18–25}};{{Bibleref2-nb||Jn|10:30–38}}</ref> The core of Jesus's self-interpretation was his "filial consciousness", his relationship to God as child to parent in some unique sense<ref name="Stagg">Stagg, Frank. ''New Testament Theology'', Nashville: Broadman, 1962.</ref> (see [[Filioque]] controversy). His [[Ministry of Jesus|mission on earth]] proved to be that of enabling people to know God as their Father, which Christians believe is the essence of [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn|17:3}}</ref>

God the Son is the second person of the [[Trinity]] in Christian theology. The [[doctrine]] of the Trinity identifies [[Jesus]] of [[Nazareth]] as [[God]] the Son, ''united in essence but distinct in person'' with regard to [[God the Father]] and God the [[Holy Spirit]] (the first and third persons of the Trinity). God the Son is co-eternal with God the Father (and the Holy Spirit), both before Creation and after the End (see [[Eschatology]]). So Jesus was always "God the Son", though not [[Revelation|revealed]] as such until he also became ''the'' "Son of God" through [[incarnation]]. "Son of God" draws attention to his humanity, whereas "God the Son" refers more generally to his divinity, including his pre-incarnate existence. So, in Christian theology, Jesus was always God the Son,<ref>"A brief account of the early Church councils and the Church fathers shows that they adopted the doctrine of the eternal subordination of the Son, and that this doctrine continues in the Church as orthodoxy to this day." Stephen D. Kovach and Peter R. Schemm Jr., "A Defense of the Doctrine of the Eternal Subordination of the Son", ''[[Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society]]'' '''42''' (1999): 461–476.</ref> though not [[Revelation|revealed]] as such until he also became the [[Son of God]] through [[incarnation]].

The exact phrase "God the Son" is not in the New Testament. Later theological use of this expression reflects what came to be standard interpretation of New Testament references, understood to imply Jesus's divinity, but the distinction of his person from that of the one God he called his Father. As such, the title is associated more with the development of the doctrine of the Trinity than with the [[Christology|Christological]] debates. There are over 40 places in the New Testament where Jesus is given the title "the Son of God", but scholars don't consider this to be an equivalent expression. "God the Son" is rejected by [[anti-trinitarians]], who view this reversal of the most common term for Christ as a doctrinal perversion and as tending towards [[tritheism]].

Matthew cites Jesus as saying, "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God (5:9)." The [[gospel]]s go on to document a great deal of controversy over Jesus being ''the'' Son of God, in a unique way. The book of the [[Acts of the Apostles]] and the letters of the New Testament, however, record the early teaching of the first Christians– those who believed Jesus to be ''both'' the Son of God, the Messiah, a man appointed by God, as well as God himself. This is evident in many places, however, the early part of the book of Hebrews addresses the issue in a deliberate, sustained argument, citing the scriptures of the Hebrew Bible as authorities. For example, the author quotes Psalm 45:6 as addressed by the God of Israel to Jesus.
*[[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 1:8. About the Son he says, "Your throne, O God, will last for ever and ever."
The author of Hebrews' description of Jesus as the exact representation of the divine Father has parallels in a passage in [[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]].
*Colossians 2:9–10. "in Christ all the fullness of the Deity lives in bodily form"
John's gospel quotes Jesus at length regarding his relationship with his heavenly Father. It also contains two famous attributions of divinity to Jesus.
*[[Gospel of John|John]] 1:1. "the Word was God" [in context, the ''Word'' is Jesus, see [[Christ the Logos]]]
*[[Gospel of John|John]] 20:28. "Thomas said to him, 'My Lord and my God!'"
The most direct references to Jesus as God are found in various letters.
*[[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 9:5. "Christ, who is God over all"
*[[Epistle to Titus|Titus]] 2:13. "our great God and Savior, Jesus Christ"
*[[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]] 1:1. "our God and Savior Jesus Christ"
The biblical basis for later trinitarian statements in creeds is the early baptism formula found in Matthew 28.
*[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 28:19. Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name ''[''note the singular'']'' of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. See also [[Great Commission]].

=====Person of Christ=====
{{Main|Person of Christ}}
[[File:Christology Flowchart.PNG|thumb|500px|The various Christological positions, and their names]]
;Only divine?
[[Docetism]] (from the Greek verb ''to seem'') taught that Jesus was fully divine, and his human body was only illusory. At a very early stage, various Docetic groups arose; in particular, the [[Gnosticism|gnostic]] sects which flourished in the 2nd century AD tended to have Docetic theologies. Docetic teachings were attacked by [[St. Ignatius of Antioch]] (early 2nd century), and appear to be targeted in the canonical [[Epistles of John]] (dates are disputed, but range from the late 1st century among traditionalist scholars to the late 2nd century among critical scholars).

The Council of Nicaea rejected theologies that entirely ruled out any humanity in Christ, affirming in the [[Nicene Creed]] the doctrine of the [[Incarnation]] as a part of the doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. That is, that the second person of the Trinity became incarnate in the person [[Jesus]] and was fully human.

;Only human?
{{See also|Jewish Christianity}}
The early centuries of Christian history also had groups at the other end of the spectrum, arguing that Jesus was an ordinary mortal. The [[Adoptionists]] taught that Jesus was born fully human, and was adopted as [[Son of God|God's Son]] when [[John the Baptist]] baptised him<ref>{{Bibleverse||Mark|1:10}}</ref> because of the [[Ministry of Jesus|life he lived]]. Another group, known as the [[Ebionites]], taught that Jesus was not God, but the human [[Moshiach]] (messiah, anointed) prophet promised in the [[Hebrew Bible]].

Some of these views could be described as [[Unitarianism]] (although that is a modern term) in their insistence on the oneness of God. These views, which directly affected how one understood the Godhead, were declared [[heresies]] by the Council of Nicaea. Throughout much of the rest of the ancient history of Christianity, Christologies that denied Christ's divinity ceased to have a major impact on the life of the church.

;How can he be both?
:;What sort of divinity?
{{Main|Arianism}}

[[Arianism]] affirmed that Jesus was divine, but taught that he was nevertheless a created being (''there was [a time] when he was not [in existence]''), and was therefore less divine than God the Father. The matter boiled down to one iota; Arianism taught ''[[Homoiousia|Homo'''i'''ousia]]''—the belief that Jesus's divinity is ''similar'' to that of God the Father—as opposed to ''[[Homoousia]]''—the belief that Jesus's divinity is the ''same'' as that of God the Father. [[Arius]]' opponents additionally included in the term ''Arianism'' the belief that Jesus's divinity is ''different'' from that of God the Father (''Heteroousia'').

Arianism was condemned by the Council of Nicea, but remained popular in the northern and western provinces of the empire, and continued to be the majority view of western Europe well into the 6th century. Indeed, even the Christian legend of Constantine's death-bed baptism involves a bishop who, in recorded history, was an Arian.

In the modern era, a number of denominations have rejected the Nicene doctrine of the Trinity, including the [[Christadelphians]] and the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Bruce Milne|title=Know the Truth|publisher=Inter-Varsity Press|pages=181–182|isbn=0-8308-1793-X|year=1999}}</ref>

;What sort of amalgamation?
The Christological debates following the Council of Nicaea sought to make sense of the interplay of the human and divine in the person of Christ while upholding the doctrine of the Trinity. [[Apollinaris of Laodicea]] (310–390) taught that in Jesus, the divine component took the place of the human ''[[nous]]'' (''thinking''– not to be confused with ''[[thelis]]'', meaning ''intent''). This however was seen as a denial of Jesus's true humanity, and the view was condemned at the [[First Council of Constantinople]].

Subsequently, [[Nestorius]] of Constantinople (386–451) initiated a view that effectively separated Jesus into two persons—one divine and one human; the mechanism of this combination is known as ''hypostas'''e'''s'', and contrasts with ''hypostas'''i'''s''—the view that there is no separation. Nestorius' theology was deemed heretical at the [[First Council of Ephesus]] (431). Though, as seen by the writings of [[Babai the Great]], the Christology of the [[Church of the East]] is highly similar to that of Chalcedon, many orthodox Christians (particularly in the West) consider this group to be the perpetuation of [[Nestorianism]]; the modern Assyrian Church of the East has at times shunned this term, as it implies acceptance of the entire theology of Nestorius.

Various forms of [[Monophysitism]] taught that Christ only had one nature: that the divine had either dissolved ([[Eutychianism]]), or that the divine joined with the human as one nature in the person of Christ ([[Miaphysitism]]). A notable monophysite theologian was [[Eutyches]] ({{circa|380}}–456). [[Monophysitism]] was rejected as [[Christian heresy|heresy]] at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451, which affirmed that Jesus Christ had two natures (divine and human) joined in one person, in [[hypostatic union]] (see [[Chalcedonian creed]]). While Eutychianism was suppressed into oblivion by the Chalcedonians and Miaphysites, the Miaphysite groups who dissented from the Chalcedonian formula have persisted as the [[Oriental Orthodox Church]].

As theologians continued to search for a compromise between the Chalcedonian definition and the [[Monophysites]], other Christologies developed that partially rejected the full humanity of Christ. [[Monothelitism]] taught that in the one person of Jesus there were two natures, but only a divine will. Closely related to this is [[Monoenergism]], which held to the same doctrine as the Monothelites, but with different terminology. These positions were declared [[Christian heresy|heresy]] by the [[Third Council of Constantinople]] (the Sixth [[Ecumenical Council]], 680–681).

=====Incarnation=====
{{Main|Incarnation (Christianity)}}
The Incarnation is the belief in [[Christianity]] that the second person in the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]], also known as [[God the Son]] or the [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]] (Word), "became flesh" when he was miraculously conceived in the womb of the [[Virgin Mary]]. The word Incarnate derives from [[Latin]] (in=in or into, caro, carnis=flesh) meaning "to make into flesh" or "to become flesh". The incarnation is a fundamental [[theology|theological]] teaching of [[Nicene Creed|orthodox (Nicene) Christianity]], based on its understanding of the [[New Testament]]. The incarnation represents the belief that Jesus, who is the non-created second [[hypostasis (philosophy)|hypostasis]] of the [[trinity|triune God]], took on a human body and nature and became [[Hypostatic union|both man and God]]. In the [[Bible]] its clearest teaching is in {{Bibleverse|John|1:14}}: "And the Word became flesh, and dwelt among us."<ref>McKim, Donald K. 1996. ''Westminster dictionary of theological terms''. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 140.</ref>

[[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|right|Jesus, believed to be both man and God, painting by [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]]]]
In the Incarnation, as traditionally defined, the divine nature of the Son was joined but not mixed with human nature<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/gc4_54.htm |title=Jacques Maritain Center: GC 4.54 |publisher=.nd.edu |access-date=2010-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622164244/http://www3.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/gc4_54.htm |archive-date=22 June 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> in one divine Person, [[Jesus]] Christ, who was both "truly God and truly man". The Incarnation is commemorated and celebrated each year at [[Christmas]], and also reference can be made to the Feast of the [[Annunciation]]; "different aspects of the mystery of the Incarnation" are celebrated at Christmas and the Annunciation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/Liturgy/zlitur109.htm |title=Advent Prayer and the Incarnation |publisher=Ewtn.com |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref>

This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians. Alternative views on the subject (See [[Ebionites]] and the [[Gospel of the Hebrews|Gospel according to the Hebrews]]) have been proposed throughout the centuries (see below), but all were rejected by [[Mainstream Christianity|mainstream Christian bodies]].

In recent decades, an alternative doctrine known as "[[Oneness Pentecostalism (doctrine)|Oneness]]" has been espoused among various [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] groups (see below), but has been rejected by the remainder of [[Christendom]].

;Description and development of the traditional doctrine
In the [[Early Christianity|early Christian era]], there was considerable disagreement amongst Christians regarding the nature of Christ's Incarnation. While all Christians believed that Jesus was indeed the [[Son of God]], the exact nature of his Sonship was contested, together with the precise relationship of the "[[God the Father|Father]]," "Son" and "[[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]]" referred to in the New Testament. Though Jesus was clearly the "Son," what exactly did this mean? Debate on this subject raged most especially during the first four centuries of Christianity, involving [[Jewish Christians]], [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]], followers of the Presbyter [[Arius]] of Alexandra, and adherents of [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius the Great]], among others.

Eventually, the Christian Church accepted the teaching of St. Athanasius and his allies, that Christ was the incarnation of the eternal second person of the [[Trinity]], who was fully God and fully a man simultaneously. All divergent beliefs were defined as [[heresy|heresies]]. This included [[Docetism]], which said that Jesus was a divine being that took on human appearance but not flesh; [[Arianism]], which held that Christ was a created being; and [[Nestorianism]], which maintained that the Son of God and the man, Jesus, shared the same body but retained [[Two Natures of Christ|two separate natures]]. The [[Oneness Pentecostalism|Oneness]] belief held by certain modern [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] churches is also seen as heretical by most mainstream Christian bodies.

The most widely accepted the early Christian Church made definitions of the Incarnation and the nature of Jesus at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, the [[First Council of Ephesus|Council of Ephesus]] in 431, and the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451. These councils declared that Jesus was both fully God: begotten from, but not created by the Father; and fully man: taking his flesh and human nature from the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]]. These two natures, human and divine, were [[hypostatic union|hypostatically]] united into the one personhood of Jesus Christ.<ref>* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.toc.html The Seven Ecumenical Councils] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429154903/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.toc.html |date=29 April 2019 }}, from the ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', vols. 2–14 (CCEL.org) Contains detailed statements from each of these councils. The First Council of Nicaea, Council of Ephesus and Council of Chalcedon are the "First," "Third" and "Fourth" Ecumenical Councils, respectively.</ref>

;Fortuitous and Necessary Incarnation
The link between the Incarnation and the [[Atonement in Christianity|Atonement]] within systematic theological thought is complex. Within traditional models of the Atonement, such as [[Penal substitution|Substitution]], [[Satisfaction theory of atonement|Satisfaction]] or [[Christus Victor]], Christ must be Divine in order for the Sacrifice of the Cross to be efficacious, for human sins to be "removed" or "conquered". In his work ''The Trinity and the Kingdom of God'', [[Jürgen Moltmann|Jurgen Moltmann]] differentiated between what he called a "fortuitous" and a "necessary" Incarnation. The latter gives a soteriological emphasis to the Incarnation: the Son of God became a man so that he could save us from our sins. The former, on the other hand, speaks of the Incarnation as a fulfilment of the [[Love of God]], of his desire to be present and living amidst humanity, to "walk in the garden" with us.

Moltmann favours "fortuitous" incarnation primarily because he feels that to speak of an incarnation of "necessity" is to do an injustice to the [[Ministry of Jesus|life of Christ]]. Moltmann's work, alongside other systematic theologians, opens up avenues of liberation [[Christology]].

=====Hypostatic union=====
{{Main|Hypostatic union|Chalcedonian}}
[[File:Vladimirskaya.jpg|thumb|upright|A depiction of Jesus and Mary, the [[Theotokos of Vladimir]] (12th century)]]
In short, this doctrine states that two natures, one human and one divine, are united in the one person of Christ. The Council further taught that each of these natures, the human and the divine, was distinct and complete. This view is sometimes called [[Dyophysite]] (meaning two natures) by those who rejected it.

Hypostatic union (from the Greek for substance) is a technical term in Christian theology employed in mainstream [[Christology]] to describe the union of two natures, humanity and divinity, in Jesus Christ. A brief definition of the doctrine of two natures can be given as: "Jesus Christ, who is identical with the Son, is one person and one hypostasis in two natures: a human and a divine."<ref>Martin Lembke, lecture in the course "Meetings with the World's Religions", Centre for Theology and Religious Studies, Lund University, Spring Term 2010.</ref>

The [[First Council of Ephesus]] recognised this doctrine and affirmed its importance, stating that the humanity and divinity of Christ are made one according to nature and hypostasis in the [[Logos]].

The [[First Council of Nicaea]] declared that the Father and the Son are of the same substance and are co-eternal. This belief was expressed in the Nicene Creed.

[[Apollinaris of Laodicea]] was the first to use the term hypostasis in trying to understand the [[Incarnation]].<ref>Gregory of Nyssa, ''Antirrheticus adversus Apollinarem''.</ref> Apollinaris described the union of the divine and human in Christ as being of a single nature and having a single essence– a single hypostasis.

The Nestorian [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]] went in the other direction, arguing that in Christ there were two natures ([[dyophysite]]) (human and divine) and two hypostases (in the sense of "essence" or "person") that co-existed.<ref>"Theodore" in ''The Westminster Dictionary of Christian History'', ed. J. Brauer. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1971.</ref>

The [[Chalcedonian Creed]] agreed with Theodore that there were two natures in the [[Incarnation]]. However, the [[Council of Chalcedon]] also insisted that hypostasis be used as it was in the Trinitarian definition: to indicate the person and not the nature as with Apollinarius.

Thus, the Council declared that in Christ there are two natures; each retaining its own properties, and together united in one subsistence and in one single person.<ref>[[Enchiridion symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum|Denzinger]], ed. Bannwart, 148</ref>

As the precise nature of this union is held to defy finite human comprehension, the hypostatic union is also referred to by the alternative term "mystical union."

The [[Oriental Orthodox Church]]es, having rejected the Chalcedonian Creed, were known as [[Monophysites]] because they would only accept a definition that characterized the incarnate Son as having one nature. The [[Chalcedonian]] "in two natures" formula was seen as derived from and akin to a [[Nestorian doctrine|Nestorian]] Christology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php |title=The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon |access-date=5 October 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619122112/http://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php |archive-date=19 June 2008 }}</ref> Contrariwise, the Chalcedonians saw the Oriental Orthodox as tending towards [[Eutychianism|Eutychian]] Monophysitism. However, the Oriental Orthodox have in modern ecumenical dialogue specified that they have never believed in the doctrines of Eutyches, that they have always affirmed that Christ's humanity is consubstantial with our own, and they thus prefer the term "Miaphysite" to refer to themselves (a reference to Cyrillian Christology, which used the phrase "mia physis tou theou logou sesarkomene").

In recent times, leaders from the [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodox]] Churches have signed joint statements in an attempt to work towards reunification.

=====Other Christological concerns=====
;The sinlessness of Christ
{{main|Impeccability}}
Although Christian orthodoxy holds that Jesus was fully human, the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], for example, states that Christ was 'holy and without evil' (7:26). The question concerning the sinlessness of Jesus Christ focuses on this seeming paradox. Does being fully human require that one participate in [[Fall of man|the "fall" of Adam]], or could Jesus exist in an "unfallen" status as [[Adam and Eve]] did before the "fall", according to Genesis 2–3?

;Kinds of sinlessness
Evangelical writer [[Donald Macleod (theologian)|Donald Macleod]] suggests that the sinless nature of Jesus Christ involves two elements. "First, Christ was free of actual sin."<ref name="macleod220">[[Donald Macleod (theologian)|Donald Macleod]], ''The Person of Christ'' ([[InterVarsity Press]], 1998), 220.</ref> Studying the gospels there is no reference to Jesus praying for the forgiveness of sin, nor confessing sin. The assertion is that Jesus did not commit sin, nor could he be proven guilty of sin; he had no vices. In fact, he is quoted as asking, "Can any of you prove me guilty of sin?" in John 8:46. "Secondly, he was free from inherent sin ("[[original sin]]" or "[[ancestral sin]]")."<ref name="macleod220" />

;Temptation of Christ
'''The temptation of Christ''' shown in the gospels affirms that he was tempted. Indeed, the temptations were genuine and of a greater intensity than normally experienced by human beings.<ref>NRSV; Matthew 4.1–11.</ref> He experienced all the frail weaknesses of humanity. Jesus was tempted through hunger and thirst, pain and the love of his friends. Thus, the human weaknesses could engender temptation.<ref name="macleod226">Macleod 1998, p. 226</ref> Nevertheless, MacLeod notes that "one crucial respect in which Christ was not like us is that he was not tempted by anything within himself."<ref name="macleod226" />

The temptations Christ faced focused upon his person and identity as the incarnate Son of God. MacLeod writes, "Christ could be tempted through his sonship." The temptation in the wilderness and again in Gethsemane exemplifies this '''arena of temptation'''. Regarding the temptation of performing a sign that would affirm his sonship by throwing himself from the pinnacle of the temple, MacLeod observes, "The sign was for himself: a temptation to seek reassurance, as if to say, 'the real question is my own sonship. I must forget all else and all others and all further service until that is clear.{{'"}}<ref name="macleod227">Macleod 1998, p. 227</ref> MacLeod places this struggle in the context of the incarnation, "...he has become a man and must accept not only the appearance but the reality."<ref name="macleod227" />

;Communication of attributes
The communion of attributes (''[[Communicatio idiomatum]]'') of Christ's divine and human natures is understood according to Chalcedonian theology to mean that they exist together with neither overriding the other. That is, both are preserved and coexist in one person. Christ had '''all''' the properties of God and humanity. God did not stop being God and become man. Christ was not half-God and half-human. The two natures did not mix into a new third kind of nature. Although independent, they acted in complete accord; when one nature acted, so did the other. The natures did not commingle, merge, infuse each other, or replace each other. One was not converted into the other. They remained distinct (yet acted with one accord).

;Virgin Birth
{{Main|Virgin Birth of Jesus}}

[[File:Holy Doors.jpg|thumb|upright|Holy Doors from [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]], Mount Sinai, depicting the [[Annunciation]], {{Circa|12th century}}]]
The Gospel according to Matthew and Gospel according to Luke suggest a virgin birth of Jesus Christ. Some now disregard or even argue against this "doctrine" to which most [[Christian denomination|denominations]] of Christianity ascribe. This section looks at the Christological issues surrounding belief or disbelief in the virgin birth.

A non-virgin birth would seem to require some form of [[adoptionism]]. This is because a human conception and birth would seem to yield a fully human Jesus, with some other mechanism required to make Jesus divine as well.

A non-virgin birth would seem to support the full humanity of Jesus. William Barclay: states, "The supreme problem of the virgin birth is that it does quite undeniably differentiate Jesus from all men; it does leave us with an incomplete incarnation."<ref>Barclay 1967, p. 81</ref>

Barth speaks of the virgin birth as the divine sign "which accompanies and indicates the mystery of the incarnation of the Son."<ref>Barth 1956, p. 207</ref>

Donald MacLeod<ref>MacLeod 1998, pp. 37–41</ref> gives several Christological implications of a virgin birth:
* Highlights salvation as a [[supernatural]] act of God rather than an act of human initiative.
* Avoids [[adoptionism]] (which is virtually required if a normal birth).
* Reinforces the sinlessness of Christ, especially as it relates to Christ being outside the sin of Adam ([[original sin]]).

;Relationship of Persons
The discussion of whether the three distinct persons in the Godhead of the Trinity were of greater, equal, or lesser by comparison was also, like many other areas of early Christology, a subject of debate. In [[Athenagoras of Athens]] ({{circa|133}}–190) writings we find a very developed trinitarian doctrine.<ref name=Kesich2007>{{Cite book| last = Kesich | first = Veselin| year = 2007| title = Formation and struggles : the church, A.D. 33–450| page = 159| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vc0wBCU70NwC&q=Justin+Martyr+christology&pg=RA1-PA154| isbn = 978-0-88141-319-9| publisher = St. Vladimir's Seminary Press| location = Crestwood, N.Y.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/athenagoras-plea.html |title=Athenagoras of Athens: A Plea for the Christians |publisher=Earlychristianwritings.com |date=2 February 2006 |access-date=2010-08-08}}</ref> On the one end of the spectrum was [[modalism]], a doctrine stating that the three persons of the Trinity were equal to the point of erasing their differences and distinctions. On the other end of the spectrum were [[tritheism]] as well as some radically [[subordinationist]] views, the latter of which emphasized the primacy of the Father of Creation to the deity of Christ and Jesus's authority over the Holy Spirit. During the Council of Nicea, the modalist bishops of Rome and Alexandria aligned politically with Athanasius; whereas the bishops of Constantinople (Nicomedia), Antioch, and Jerusalem sided with the subordinationists as middle ground between Arius and Athanasius.

====Approaches to Christology====
Theologians like [[Jurgen Moltmann]] and Walter Kasper have characterized Christologies as anthropological or cosmological. These are also termed 'Christology from below' and 'Christology from above' respectively. An anthropological Christology starts with the human person of Jesus and works from his life and ministry toward what it means for him to be divine; whereas, a cosmological Christology works in the opposite direction. Starting from the eternal Logos, a cosmological Christology works toward his humanity. Theologians typically begin on one side or the other and their choice inevitably colors their resultant Christology. As a starting point, these options represent "diverse yet complementary" approaches; each poses its own difficulties. Both Christologies 'from above' and 'from below' must come to terms with the two natures of Christ: human and divine. Just as light can be perceived as a wave or as a particle, so Jesus must be thought in terms of both his divinity and humanity. You cannot talk about "either or" but must talk about "both and".<ref name="Greene">{{Cite book |first = Colin J. D. |last = Greene |title = Christology in Cultural Perspective: Marking Out the Horizons |publisher = Paternoster Press |year = 2003 |location = London |pages =30 |isbn = 978-1842270158 }}</ref>

;Cosmological approaches
Christologies from above start with the Logos, the second Person of the Trinity, establish his eternality, his agency in creation, and his economic Sonship. Jesus's unity with God is established by the Incarnation as the divine Logos assumes a human nature. This approach was common in the early church—e.g., St. Paul and St. John in the Gospels. The attribution of full humanity to Jesus is resolved by stating that the two natures mutually share their properties (a concept termed ''[[communicatio idiomatum]]'').<ref>[[#CITEREFGreene2003|Greene]], pp. 31–43, 324</ref>

;Anthropological approaches
Christologies from below start with the human being Jesus as the representative of the new humanity, not with the pre-existent Logos. Jesus lives an exemplary life, one to which we aspire in religious experience. This form of Christology lends itself to mysticism, and some of its roots go back to emergence of Christ mysticism in the 6th century East, but in the West it flourished between the 11th and 14th centuries. A recent theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg contends that the resurrected Jesus is the "eschatological fulfillment of human destiny to live in nearness to God."<ref>[[#CITEREFGreene2003|Greene]], pp. 43–51</ref>

;Political approaches
The Christian faith is inherently political because allegiance to Jesus as risen Lord relativises all earthly rule and authority. Jesus is called "Lord" over 230 times in Paul's epistles alone, and is thus the principal confession of faith in the Pauline epistles. Further, N.T. Wright argues that this Pauline confession is the core of the gospel of salvation. The Achilles' heel of this approach is the loss of eschatological tension between this present age and the future divine rule that is yet to come. This can happen when the state co-opts Christ's authority as was often the case in imperial Christology. Modern political Christologies seek to overcome imperialist ideologies.<ref>[[#CITEREFGreene2003|Greene]], pp. 51–71, 325</ref>

====Works of Christ====
;Resurrection of Jesus
{{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus}}
[[File:TheResurrectionOfChrist.jpg|thumb|upright|The Resurrection of Christ by [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]], 1875.]]
The resurrection is perhaps the most controversial aspect of the life of Jesus Christ. Christianity hinges on this point of Christology, both as a response to a particular history and as a confessional response.<ref>[[Reginald H. Fuller#The Foundations of New Testament Christology|Fuller 1965, p. 15]]</ref> Some Christians claim that because he was resurrected, the future of the world was forever altered. Most Christians believe that Jesus's resurrection brings reconciliation with God (II Corinthians 5:18), the destruction of death (I Corinthians 15:26), and forgiveness of sins for followers of Jesus Christ.

After Jesus had died, and was buried, the [[New Testament]] states that he appeared to others in bodily form. Some skeptics say his appearances were only perceived by his followers in mind or spirit. The gospels state that the disciples believed they witnessed Jesus's resurrected body and that led to the beginning of the faith. They had previously hid in fear of persecution after Jesus's death. After seeing Jesus they boldly proclaimed the message of Jesus Christ despite tremendous risk. They obeyed Jesus's mandate to be reconciled to God through repentance (Luke 24:47), baptism, and obedience (Matthew 28:19–20).

;Offices as Prophet, Priest, and King
Jesus Christ, the Mediator of humankind, fulfills the [[Threefold Office|three offices of Prophet, Priest, and King]]. [[Eusebius]] of the early church worked out this threefold classification, which during the Reformation played a substantial role in [[scholastic Lutheran Christology]] and in [[John Calvin]]'s<ref>John Calvin, Calvins Calvinism BOOK II Chapter 15 Centers for Reformed Theology and Apologetics [resource online] (1996–2002, accessed 3 June 2006);available from http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612235524/http://reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book2/bk2ch15.html#one.htm |date=12 June 2010 }}</ref> and [[John Wesley]]'s Christology.<ref>H. Orton Wiley, Christian Theology Chapter 22 [resource online] (Nampa, Idaho: 1993–2005, accessed 3 June 2006); available from http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness_tradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090518055901/http://wesley.nnu.edu/holiness%5Ftradition/wiley/wiley-2-22.htm |date=18 May 2009 }}</ref>

===Pneumatology: Holy Spirit===
{{Main|Pneumatology (Christianity)|Holy Spirit}}
Pneumatology is the study of the [[Holy Spirit]]. ''Pneuma'' ([[wikt:πνεῦμα|πνεῦμα]]) is [[Greek language|Greek]] for "[[breath]]", which metaphorically describes a non-material being or influence. In Christian theology pneumatology refers to the study of the [[Holy Spirit]]. In [[Christianity]], the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost) is the Spirit of [[God in Christianity|God]]. Within mainstream (Trinitarian) Christian beliefs he is the third person of the [[Trinity]]. As part of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]], the Holy Spirit is equal with [[God the Father]] and with [[God the Son]]. The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully developed.

Within mainstream (Trinitarian) Christianity the Holy Spirit is one of the three ''persons'' of the [[Trinity]] who make up the single [[Ousia|substance]] of God. As such the Holy Spirit is personal, and as part of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]], he is fully God, co-equal and co-eternal with [[God the Father]] and [[Son of God]].<ref name=Erickson103>{{Cite book| author = Millard J. Erickson| year = 1992| title = Introducing Christian Doctrine.| publisher = Baker Book House| page = 103| isbn = 0-8010-3215-6}}</ref><ref name=Hammond>{{Cite book| author = T C Hammond |editor=David F Wright | year = 1968| title = In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine.| edition= sixth| publisher = [[Inter-Varsity Press]]| pages = 54–56, 128–131}}</ref><ref name=cathhs>{{Cite web|title=Catholic Encyclopedia:Holy Spirit|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07409a.htm}}</ref> He is different from the Father and the Son in that he ''proceeds'' from the Father (or [[Filioque|from the Father and the Son]]) as described in the [[Nicene Creed]].<ref name=Hammond/> His [[sacred]]ness is reflected in the [[New Testament#The Gospels|New Testament gospels]]<ref>{{bibleverse||Mark|3:28–30}}, {{bibleverse||Matthew|12:30–32}}, {{bibleverse||Luke|12:8–10}}</ref> which proclaim [[blasphemy]] against the Holy Spirit as [[unforgivable sin|unforgivable]].

The English word comes from two Greek words: πνευμα (''pneuma'', spirit) and λογος (''logos'', teaching about). Pneumatology would normally include study of the person of the Holy Spirit, and the works of the Holy Spirit. This latter category would normally include Christian teachings on [[Regeneration (theology)|new birth]], [[spiritual gift]]s (charismata), [[Baptism with the Holy Spirit|Spirit-baptism]], [[sanctification]], the [[Biblical inspiration|inspiration]] of [[prophet]]s, and the indwelling of the Holy Trinity (which in itself covers many different aspects). Different [[Christian denomination]]s have different theological approaches.

Christians believe that the Holy Spirit leads people to faith in Jesus and gives them the ability to live a [[Christianity#Worship and practices|Christian lifestyle]]. The Holy Spirit dwells inside every Christian, each one's body being his temple.<ref>{{bibleverse|1Cor|3:16||1 Cor 3:16}}</ref> Jesus described the Holy Spirit<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn|14:26}}</ref> as ''[[Paraclete|paracletus]]'' in [[Latin]], derived from [[Greek language|Greek]]. The word is variously translated as ''Comforter, Counselor, Teacher, Advocate,''<ref>Spurgeon, Charles H. "The Comforter", 1855. Online: http://www.spurgeon.org/sermons/0005.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100627022922/http://www.spurgeon.org/sermons/0005.htm |date=27 June 2010 }} Accessed 29 April 2009</ref> guiding people in the way of the truth. The Holy Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the [[Fruit of the Holy Spirit]]. The Holy Spirit enables Christians, who still experience the effects of sin, to do things they never could do on their own. These spiritual gifts are not innate abilities "unlocked" by the Holy Spirit, but entirely new abilities, such as the ability to cast out [[demon]]s or simply bold speech. Through the influence of the Holy Spirit, a person sees more clearly the world around him or her and can use his or her mind and body in ways that exceed his or her previous capacity. A list of gifts that may be bestowed include the [[charism]]atic gifts of [[prophecy]], [[glossolalia|tongues]], healing, and knowledge. Christians holding a view known as [[cessationism]] believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times. Christians almost universally agree that certain "[[spiritual gift]]s" are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy.<ref>{{bibleverse|Rom|12:6–8|}}</ref> The experience of the Holy Spirit is sometimes referred to as being [[anointing|anointed]].

After his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], Christ told his disciples that they would be "[[baptism|baptized]] with the Holy Spirit" and would receive power from this event,<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|1:4–8}}</ref> a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Acts. On the first [[Pentecost]], Jesus's disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads. A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native [[language]].

The Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. These include:
*'''Conviction of [[sin]]'''. The Holy Spirit acts to convince the unredeemed person both of the sinfulness of their actions, and of their moral standing as sinners before God.<ref>''The Holy Spirit and His Gifts''. [[J. Oswald Sanders]]. Inter-Varsity Press. chapter 5.</ref>
*'''Bringing to conversion'''. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith.<ref name=Erickson265>{{Cite book| author = Millard J. Erickson| year = 1992| title = Introducing Christian Doctrine.| publisher = Baker Book House| pages = 265–270| isbn = 0-8010-3215-6}}</ref> The new believer is "born again of the Spirit".<ref>Though the term "[[Born again (Christianity)|born again]]" is most frequently used by evangelical Christians, most denominations do consider that the new Christian is a "new creation" and "born again". See for example the Catholic Encyclopedia [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228172517/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm|date=28 February 2009}}</ref>
*'''Enabling the Christian life'''. The Holy Spirit is believed to dwell in the individual believers and enable them to live a righteous and faithful life.<ref name=Erickson265/>
* As a '''comforter''' or ''[[Paraclete]]'', one who intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of trial.
*'''Inspiration and interpretation of scripture.''' The Holy Spirit both ''inspires'' the writing of the scriptures and ''interprets'' them to the Christian and church.<ref>{{Cite book| author = T C Hammond |editor=David F Wright | year = 1968| title = In Understanding be Men:A Handbook of Christian Doctrine.| edition= sixth| publisher = [[Inter-Varsity Press]]| page = 134}}</ref>

The Holy Spirit is also believed to be active especially in the life of [[Jesus Christ]], enabling him to fulfill his work on earth. Particular actions of the Holy Spirit include:
*'''Cause of his birth'''. According to the gospel accounts of the birth of Jesus, the "beginning of His incarnate existence", was due to the Holy Spirit.<ref name=Erickson268>{{Cite book| author = Millard J. Erickson| year = 1992| title = Introducing Christian Doctrine.| publisher = Baker Book House| pages = 267–268| isbn = 0-8010-3215-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| author = Karl Barth| year = 1949| title = Dogmatics in Outline| publisher = New York Philosophical Library| page = 95| isbn = 0-334-02838-8| author-link = Karl Barth}}</ref>
*'''Anointing him at his baptism'''.<ref name=Erickson265/>
*'''Empowerment of his ministry'''. The ministry of Jesus following his baptism (in which the Holy Spirit is described in the gospels as "descending on Him like a dove") is conducted in the power and at the direction of the Holy Spirit.<ref name=Erickson265/>

;Fruit of the Spirit
{{Main|Fruit of the Holy Spirit}}
Christians believe the "[[Fruit of the holy spirit|Fruit of the Spirit]]" consists of virtuous characteristics engendered in the Christian by the action of the Holy Spirit. They are those listed in {{bibleverse|Galatians|5:22–23|NIV}}: "But the fruit of the Spirit is [[Agape|love]], [[Eudaimonia|joy]], [[peace]], [[patience]], [[kindness]], [[Summum bonum|goodness]], [[Loyalty|faithfulness]], [[gentleness]], and [[self-control]]."<ref>{{Cite book| author = Stephen F. Winward | year = 1981 | title = Fruit of the Spirit | publisher = [[Inter-Varsity Press]]| isbn = 0-85110-430-4}}</ref> The [[Roman Catholic Church]] adds to this list [[generosity]], [[modesty]], and [[chastity]].<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', Section 1832.</ref>

;Gifts of the Spirit
{{Main|Spiritual gift}}
Christians believe that the Holy Spirit gives 'gifts' to Christians. These gifts consist of specific abilities granted to the individual Christian.<ref name=Erickson265/> They are frequently known by the Greek word for gift, ''Charisma'', from which the term [[charismatic]] derives. The New Testament provides three different lists of such gifts which range from the supernatural (healing, prophecy, [[glossolalia|tongues]]) through those associated with specific callings (teaching) to those expected of all Christians in some degree (faith). Most consider these lists not to be exhaustive, and other have compiled their own lists. Saint [[Ambrose]] wrote of the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit poured out on a believer at baptism: 1. Spirit of Wisdom; 2. Spirit of Understanding; 3. Spirit of Counsel; 4. Spirit of Strength; 5. Spirit of Knowledge; 6. Spirit of Godliness; 7. Spirit of [[Fear of God (religion)|Holy Fear]].<ref>De Sacramentis 3.8.</ref>

It is over the nature and occurrence of these gifts, particularly the supernatural gifts (sometimes called charismatic gifts), that the greatest disagreement between Christians with regard to the Holy Spirit exists.

One view is that the supernatural gifts were a special dispensation for the apostolic ages, bestowed because of the unique conditions of the church at that time, and are extremely rarely bestowed in the present time.<ref name=EricksonWorks>{{Cite book| author = Millard J. Erickson | year = 1992 | title = Introducing Christian Doctrine. | publisher = Baker Book House | pages = 265–275| isbn = 0-8010-3215-6}}</ref> This is the view of some in the Catholic Church<ref name=cathhs/> and many other mainstream Christian groups. The alternate view, espoused mainly by Pentecostal denominations and the charismatic movement, is that the absence of the supernatural gifts was due to the neglect of the Holy Spirit and his work by the church. Although some small groups, such as the ''[[Montanists]]'', practiced the supernatural gifts they were rare until the growth of the [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] movement in the late 19th century.<ref name=EricksonWorks/>

Believers in the relevance of the supernatural gifts sometimes speak of a ''Baptism of the Holy Spirit'' or ''Filling of the Holy Spirit'' which the Christian needs to experience in order to receive those gifts. Many churches hold that the ''Baptism of the Holy Spirit'' is identical with conversion, and that all Christians are by definition baptized in the Holy Spirit.<ref name=EricksonWorks/>